The Nyaya Darshana

Translation and commentary by John Wells

Copyright 2012

Introduction
This translation reveals an interpretation of the Nyaya Darshana that is
substantially different from those done by Gagntha Jh (1939) and S.C.
Vidybhaa (1913), both of whom follow the interpretation of the traditional
commentaries, especially that of Vtsyyana (unknown date, but earlier than 5th
century C.E.) Opinions as to the exact identity of the author Gautama, and as to the
dates of composition of both the original and the early commentaries are widely
divergent. I have used Vidybhaa as one of my sources for the original text in
Devanagar script, indicated by "Vb", the other source being that available from
Maharishi University of Management, indicated by "MUM", from their wonderful
and carefully prepared collection available online.
In the translation I have focused on a disciplined and faithful rendering of the
sentences exactly as they appear in the original, without paraphrasing, and adding
as few extra words as possible, although with the sparse and highly contextdependent "sutra" style of writing, it is necessary to supply some extra words. One
example is reflexive pronounshis, its, that, such, etc.before nouns, the sense
of which would have been an integral part of an ancient reader's understanding of
the style. Verbs are almost nonexistent in this style and I, like all other translators,
take the liberty of reading some nouns-only sentences in a compatible subject-verb
format for clarity. I often supply extra words in parentheses to clarify the meaning,
and by this practice I have been able to avoid excessive explanatory commentary.
The resulting simplicity of presentation has been one of my primary goals.
I have thoroughly read and understood the intent of the other translations, but I
find them full of religious and school-oriented bias and technically deeply flawed.
In many sutras there is no attempt at a faithful translation at all, but instead an
imposition of the translators' own original work (unacknowledged as such), as if to
say, "Whatever the actual text, this is what he really means." Moreover, although
some passages in the Nyaya are clearly presented as a dialectic, Vtsyyana etc.
mistakenly read nearly every phrase beginning with "na" (no), no matter how
short, as a counterargument, often with extremely shabby "reasons", reading every
ablative inflection as "because", while ignoring the many other possible uses of
that case. Besides missing the incisive and richly interesting observations of the
author that appear with a more thoughtful and disciplined translation, their
interpretation boggles the reader's mind with phony reasoning and petty irrelevant
squabbles, supposedly between various schools of thought, lined up against each
other like football teams. As a result, they have managed to completely obscure
what I consider to be one of the original expositions of the great Yoga philosophy.

Now some say that understanding this philosophy is not just a matter of reading
translations disciplined by a study of grammars and dictionaries, and that is true,
but neither does it help to ignore scholarship, hoping to absorb knowledge through
faith by sitting at the feet of a revered and supposedly "enlightened" master.
Obviously, one cannot do a translation by simply looking up the words in the
dictionary, one by one, and patching them together into a translation. Translation
from Sanskrit requires a thorough knowledge of how the language works, in all its
complex and fascinating aspects, and it must be accompanied by a knowledge of
syntax, roots, noun formations, secondary affixes, and inflections, including
special uses of, e.g., the genitive to abbreviate, the ablatives of separation and
comparison, the locative absolute, etc. Still, the necessary accompaniment to all
that is a devoted private self-examination, not devotion to a master.
Our Victorian-era teachersWilson, Boehtlingk & Roth, Monier-Williams
(MW), etc.produced their grammars on the basis of the great Adhyy by
Pini (ante 500 BCE), and their dictionaries with the aid and guidance of
contemporary Indian scholars, each in his own particular area of expertise. The
enlightenment of these modern masters was that of scholarship and organizational
skill, not of mystical or religious devotion. It is therefore entirely sufficient to learn
the language from them, and to verify our intuitive knowledge of the philosophical
principles in the Darshanas by knowledge of the language.
There are, however, some terms in the Monier-Williams dictionary that are
apparently unique to the Darshanas and to the philosophical compendium Sarvadaranasagraha based on the early faulty interpretations. These are the only
sources he cites for such words, and in these, he had no choice but to defer to his
Indian Darshana experts, who in turn depended on the dubious traditional reading.
Vtsyyana himself surely lived and breathed Sanskrit, but he did not grasp the
meaning of this work, the style and substance of which were probably centuries
out of date even in his day. He took undue liberties in creating many "technical"
meanings which bore no relation to the proper root-based meanings, all in order to
support his false vision of a "Nyaya" school of reasoning. This has never been
challenged by an independent translation, perhaps in part because of the stifling
effect of an entrenched culture where it is forbidden to challenge authority, and
where a reverence approaching worship toward spiritual leaders is encouraged.
Not being subject to this culture, I feel free to read the text according to its
obvious literal meaning. For example, arthpatti means "arriving at a meaning" or
"interpretation", and jti means birth-rank. Pravtti can mean a report or account,
prasaga "occupation with", and yugapat "simultaneous" with awareness, i.e.,

immediate or present, etc. Vara and suvara in this work refer to caste, not color
or gold. Bhva is used variously by the author as "being" (existence), or a human
"being", but also a way of being or thinking (see MW), i.e., a theory of being or
ontology. (For simplicity, I have used "view".) "Abhva" is sometimes used as the
first element in bahuvrhi compounds, meaning devoid of being or "empty".
As for the structure of the work, it is evident to me that the numbering of sutras
and so-called "books" in the Nyaya, as in the other Darshanas, was not part of the
author's original text, but rather added later as an editorial device. Many of these
incorrect numbered divisions actually break up proper sentences and tend to
disrupt a sensible reading of the original. Like the other Darshanas, I read this
work as constructed of an orderly series of full statements (which I have
numbered), rather than a string of tiny "aphorisms". Most of these statements
consist of three connected ideas in the form of phrases or short sentences, arranged
eighteen to a "chapter", with nine chapters in all. This all becomes evident by the
distinctness of the statements and chapters, each with a clear beginning and end,
by their natural thematic progression, by the physical length of each statement,
which is remarkably consistent throughout the work; and by other clues, like the
many statements containing clustered repetitions of a word, and many where
"apratiedha" is the last word (the subject, whose predicate is stated in 1.2.14 to be
the opening premise (1.1.1), and implied in every instance thereafter.)
Hopefully, by the foregoing, one may understand my main motivations for
producing this translation (and the others) from a fresh perspective, unfettered by
any obligation to conform with a flawed tradition. I fully understand that the
fraction of the population that would be interested in this subject matter in the first
place is already very small, and of those, the number that would find their way to
this work would be even less. Still, anyone who has read my translations of the
Darshanas will understand the irony that the thesis of this author, which is
fundamentally the same as that of the authors of the other Darshanas, is inherently
inconsistent with its being popular. So perhaps our isolation in this reading, both
from tradition and from the general population, is as it should be, and we may now
proceed from justifications to the happy task of enlightening ourselves in this
philosophy.
John Wells

The Nyaya Darshana

1.) Introduction and prama-prameya

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(1.1.1) prama-prameya- the act of proving or validating vs. that which is to
be validated -saaya-prayojana- uncertainty vs. motivation -dntasiddhnta- standard vs. doctrtine -avayava-tarka-niraya-vda- analysis
discussion, examination (for the sake of) settlement dialectic -jalpa- prattle,
gossip -hetu-bhsa- grounds for knowing fallacious -vita-chala- cavil,
baseless argument for the sole purpose of winning fraud, trickery, false
persuasion (e.g. equivocation) -jti-nigraha-sthnnm class, birth-rank
subjugation, domination taking a stance (The compound is gen. pl. We are
expected to recognize the obvious dvandvas. The author seems to have chosen his
words for that purpose.) tattva-jnt (abl. by) essence true comprehension
nireyasa-adhigama "without superior", highest attaining, finding (1.1.2)
dukha-janman pravtti-doa mithy-jnnm (gen. pl. belonging to, held
or claimed by those) suffering born account(s) false mistakenly
comprehending uttara-uttara-apye (loc. once there is) higher and higher
advancement withdrawal tat-anantara-apyt (abl. by) that uninterupted,
continuous going away, withdrawal apavarga completion, fulfilment
1.1-2) Finding the highest (dharma) is by truly comprehending the essence:
1.) of our validation (of truth), vs. that (truth) which is to be validated, 2.) of
our uncertainty vs. our motivation, 3.) of our standard vs. our doctrine, and
4.) of the dialectic for settlement by discussion using the formal subdivision,
vs. prattle: fallacious grounds, false persuasion for the purpose of hitting
back, and taking a stance by dominating (the discussion) by virtue of (high)
birth-rank; (whereas) the fulfilment of that (dharma), once there is (initial)
withdrawal from the (dharma of) higher and higher advancement claimed by
those mistakenly comprehending the false account of being born in suffering,
is by (a state of) uninterrupted withdrawal from that.

The Nyaya Darshana

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(1.1.3) pratyaka anumna-apamna-abd (pratyaka is ibc (beginning
the compound), functioning like an indeclinable, and qualifying the other three
words in the compound.) "right before the eye(s)", directly perceived, based on
perception inference comparison testimony pramni validations (of truth)
(1.1.4) indriya-artha-sanikara-utpannam sense object "together-indrawing" invested with jnam knowledge // avyapadeyam not to be
designated, named, represented, etc. avyabhicri-vyavasya-tmakam not
deviating from determination, resolve characterized by pratyakam perception
1.3) Our ways of validating (truth) are: perception, inference, comparison,
and testimony, where "perception" is a true comprehension, as one invested
(only) with the drawing in together of his senses and their objects, not to be
represented (by name or explanation), characterized by one's (uninterrupted
1.1.2) determination not to deviate from that (by naming and explaining).
This is equivalent to YD 1.8, "Discipline is the resolve for staying in that state
(of yoga) with earnest attention to long-term continuance." I have freely
supplied the pronouns "our" and "their" in the translation throughout the work, to
indicate the author's unique and controversial Yogic thesis, vs. the more customary
view of the would-be objector. Every translator does this in his own way. The two
opposing views are seldom explicitly delineated by the authors of the Darshanas
(in the sparse "sutra" style), but they are unmistakably implied.

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(1.1.5) atha-tat_prvakam following on that as the basis trividham threefold
anumnam inference prvavat (vatup ind.) having (the nature of) the previous
eavat (vatup ind.) having (the nature of) remaining after smnyata_dam
commonly known, universally agreed to ca and (1.1.6) prasiddha-sdharmyt
(abl. of comparison w/upamnam; apart from) well-known conformity sdhyasdhanam to be established (the premise) establishing upamnam comparison
(1.1.7) pta-upadea trusted authority teaching abda testimony

The Nyaya Darshana

1.4) With that (perception) as the basis for it, there is our threefold
inference, 1.) having the nature of that previous thing (immediate personal
perception), (but also) 2.) having the nature of remaining after it and 3.) being
universally agreed to. Our "comparison" establishes our premise (that the
highest dharma is by true comprehension) as apart from conforming with a
dharma that is well known, "testimony" being the teaching of a trusted
authority.

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(1.1.8) sa that dvividha two ways da-ada-artha-tvt (abl. according to)
commonly known not commonly known meaning being (1.1.9) tma-arra
indriya-artha buddhi-mana individual self body sense(s) object(s)
conceptual understanding pravtti-doa pretya-bhva-phala-dukha
apavarg (pl. ?) (Singular makes more sense.) account faulty, false "state of
having passed on", afterlife "fruit", consequence suffering having done with
(Pravtti here takes its secondary meaning, not the progress of life itself, but of the
"news" or accounting of it. It is always associated with 'telling' words, like abda
here, vk in 1.1.17, and yathokta in 4.1.1)) tu but prameyam (meant) to be
validated
1.5) That (testimony) can (also) be seen two ways according to its meaning
being either commonly known or not commonly known; but what we mean to
validate is (not the testimony but) the conceptual understanding of the self
(tman) with its body, and the senses with their objects, having done with the
false account (testimony) of its (the tman's) existence after having passed on,
of consequence (karma), and of suffering.
The author's prameya is literally what is "to be validated" by this examination.
and his definition of it here is actually a concise statement of the thesis of this
work. In the following pages he argues forcefully against the doctrines of karma
and reincarnation on the part of many souls, and in favor of profound
comprehension (jna) of the creation of the body, senses, and objects, through the
agency of the pervasive consciousness of the one individual self or soul. This
treatise is a comparison between a system based on faith and interpretation of
scripture against a personal examination based on immediate experience.

The Nyaya Darshana

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(1.1.10) iccha-dvea-prayatna sukha-dukha-jnni desire aversion
endeavor happiness suffering conceptions tmana (gen. of) individual self
ligam indicator (1.1.11) cea-indriya-artha-raya physical behavior senses
object(s) seat arram body (1.1.12) ghraa-rasana-cakus-tvac-rotri
smelling tasting seeing skin hearing indriyi senses bhutebhya (abl.
known by) gross elements (1.1.13) pthiv earth pa water teja fire vyu air
kam ether iti called, known as bhtni gross elements (1.1.14) gandha-rasarpa-spara-abd smell taste form feel sound
1.6-7) The indicator of our 'self' is (in) its endeavors associated with desire
vs. aversion, and (in) conceptions regarding happiness vs. suffering, and its
"body" is the seat of the objects of both physical behavior and the senses. The
senses, known by their gross elements, are the (mental) acts of smelling,
tasting, seeing, feeling, and hearing, which are the (actual) smell, taste, form,
feel, and sound (of things), their gross elements being those known as "earth,
water, fire, air, and the ether" (respectively).
Here he begins to expand on the points made in sutra 1.1.9, treating the
individual, the body, and the senses. Of course, the fleshy physical organs are not
the subject of philosophy. The words used in 1.1.12 indicate rather the mental
"act" of smelling, tasting, etc. Finding the word "tvac", meaning literally "skin",
among the action nouns is a strong indication that, like modern teachers, the author
and his audience must have known it as the sense of touch in the whole body.
Because this type of sensation is obviously not limited to the fingertips, or even
the skin, I find the word "feel" to be a more suitable English translation than the
phonetically similar "touch" for tvac.

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The Nyaya Darshana

(1.1.14 cont.) pthiv-di-gu earth etc. essential constituents tatarth those meanings (1.1.15) buddhi knowing upalabdhi observation
jnam true comprehension iti these words, quotes // an-artha-antaram without
meaning alternate (1.1.16) yugapat-jna-anutpatti simultaneous (with
awareness), without passage of time, present, immediate true comprehension
lacking the coming into existence manasa (gen. of) mind ligam indicator
(1.1.17) pravtti life activity; or news of, account of (see "gospel" etymology)
vk declaration buddhi arra-rambha knowing body origination
1.8) The meanings of those (gandha, etc.) is that they are the essential
constituents of earth and the others (water, fire, air, ether). This (principle) is
our "knowing", "observation", and "true comprehension", (whereas) the
indicator of our mind without that alternate (or "inner") meaning is that the
immediate true comprehension does not come to exist. The declaration that
the origination of this 'body' is in the knowing of it, is our account of life.
In Indian philosophy, the word "manas" for mind is defined by its ten
subdivisions: the five jna indriyas and the five karma indriyas. Unlike the
common western use of the word, this mind has nothing to do with understanding.

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(1.1.18) pravartan-lakan (pravt, in "" fem. the causative sense,
imperative, inciting to action, cleverly used in contrast with pravtti in 1.1.17 from
the same root) commandment f. ind. ifc ("in fine compositi", ending the
compound) having the mark of do faulty or false ones (1.1.19) punar_utpatti
remanifestation, reincarnation pretya-bhva after having passed on state
(1.1.20) pravtti-doa-janita accounts false produced or induced by artha
meaning, or object, goal // phalam fruit, result, consequence (1.1.21) bdhanlakanam affliction (n. ind.) having the mark of dukham suffering (1.1.22)
tat-atyanta-vimoka such ultimate final liberation apavarga leaving off
1.9) The false ones (accounts) have the mark of commandments. The
meaning that is induced by the false accounts is that there is reincarnation,
that there is an existence after having died, that marked by affliction, one's
suffering is a consequence (of something). Our 'having done with that'
(however) is the ultimate liberation from such (suffering).

The Nyaya Darshana

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(1.1.23) samna-aneka-dharma-upapatte (gen. of) same many duty,
destiny evidence vipratipatte (abl. by) differing in understanding upalabdhianupalabdhi avyavasthta (tasil by) observing not observing not
persevering (avasth (or avasthna) means stability or settledness in one's life
circumstance, abiding in a certain condition and maintaining a certain worldview, while vyavasth here means fixity or perseverance in that. Both are nearly
synonymous with dharma.) ca and viea-apeka differences consideration
vimara examination, investigation saaya doubt, uncertainty (1.1.24) yam
(acc. on) which artham (acc. toward) goal adhiktya (ind.part.) having made it
the priority pravartate "he (one) proceeds" tat that prayojanam motivation
(1.1.25) laukika-parkakm (gen. of) (This genitive compound has the same
referent, "vipratipatti", as the genitive compound at the beginning of 1.1.23.)
living an ordinary life examining yasmin_arthe (loc. abs. = yatra) in such a way
that the goal is buddhi-smyam conceiving equal in value sa it, such dnta
the "visualized goal", a standard, paragon or ideal; a vision or example of what is
desired. (In these early statements we find a predominance of terms in the
nominative case, whereas later there is heavy use of the ablative.)
1.10-11) Our 'uncertainty' is an investigation, a consideration of the
particular things (senses and objects 1.10-14) by differing in our
understanding of the evidence of the dharmas of the many all the same, and
by not persevering there, whether observing or not observing (our dharma).
Our "motivation" is the thing on which we proceed toward that goal, having
made it the priority. That (differing in understanding of the dharmas) of
those just living life and those seeking to examine it, in such a way that the
goal is to conceive of them as equal in value, is our "standard"
He continues to define the terms of the opening sutra. Again, the reason I have
supplied the word "our" in every case is that he is setting up the meaning of these
terms only for the purpose of his thesis, rather than creating a glossary of
universally accepted meanings.

The Nyaya Darshana

Finding the investigation difficult, one may give up in frustration, but that is
not what the author means by "uncertainty" here. Conversely, giving up one's
perseverance in a rigid and exclusive belief system may lead to uncertainty, but a
contemplative investigation of that very uncertainty may lead to "liberation" (see
1.1.22 and 2.1.6). One's motivation then shifts from perseverance in ritual
practices and objective thinking to a determined (1.1.4) investigation of the
subjective reality.

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(1.1.26) tantra-adhikaraa-abhyupagama-sasthiti framework, system,
model, theory creating a priority accepting combined stance siddhnta
doctrine (1.1.27) sa this catur-vidha four ways sarva-tantra-prati-tantra adhikaraa-abhyupagama - sasthiti-artha-antara-bhvt (abl. according to)
everyone system, framework (lit. "warp threads"), theory opposing theory
putting at the head, creating a priority going along with, accepting coexistence
meanings separate being, way or theory of "being" (MW), view
1.12) Our "doctrine" is the combined stance that we create that priority (as
opposed to equal value 1.1.25) as our theory and that we accept it. This can be
seen four ways according to a view of separate meanings in the coexistence of
a theory for everyone as an opposing theory, vs. creating the priority and
accepting it.

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(1.1.28) sarva-tantra-aviruddha everyone theory no prohibition tantre
(loc. in) theory adhi-kta made the priority artha meaning sarva-tantrasiddhnta everyone theory doctrine (1.1.29) samna-tantra-siddha
equivalent principal established para-tantra-siddha others theory
established prati-tantra-siddhnta opposing theory doctrine
1.13) We do not prohibit a theory for everyone, (so) our doctrine of a
theory for everyone is that in that theory, our meaning ("artha" 1.1.14 and

The Nyaya Darshana

1.1.15 as opposed to 1.1.20) is made the priority, while our doctrine of an

opposing theory is established as an equivalent (see Chapter Nine) to that
theory, that is established as a theory for others.

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(1.1.30) yat_siddhau (loc. upon) the establishment of which anyaprakaraa-siddhi other subject establishment sa the thing adhikaraasiddhnta creating a priority doctrine (1.1.31) aparkita-abhyupagamt (abl.
apart from; aparkita vs. parkaam) who has not carefully examined
acceptance. tat-viea-parkaam that particular(s) carefully examining
abhyupagama-siddhnta agreeing, acceptance doctrine
1.14) (Likewise,) our doctrine of creating a priority is the thing upon the
establishment of which there is (then) the establishment of the subject (of
dharma) for others, while our doctrine regarding acceptance is to carefully
examine the particulars of that (theory), as apart from the mere acceptance
on the part of one who has not carefully examined it.

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(1.1.32) pratij-hetu-udharaa-upanaya-nigamanni assertion grounds
general rule application conclusion avayav subdivisions or parts of the
syllogism (1.1.33) sdhya-nirdea "to be established", premise dictating
(before proving it) pratij assertion (1.1.34) udharaa-sdharmyt (abl. by)
general rule conformity sdhya-sdhanam premise establishing hetu
grounds (1.1.35) tath similarly vaidharmyt (abl. by) nonconformity
1.15) The (formal) subdivisions (of that examination) are: the assertion, the
grounds for it, the general rule (that applies to the assertion and the grounds),
the application (of the rule), and the conclusion. Our assertion (1.1.1) (simply)
dictates our premise (that the highest dharma is by true comprehension), and
our grounds establishes that premise by conformity with our general rule, and
similarly, by nonconformity (of the opposite).

The Nyaya Darshana

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(1.1.36) sdhya-sdharmyt (abl. by) premise conformity tat-dharmabhv his duty destined to dnta standard udharaam general rule, the
conditional statement "if then" (1.1.37) tat-viparyayt (abl. by) it opposition
v or vipartam reverse (1.1.38) udharaa-(inst.)-apeka general rule
consideration tath so iti saying upasahra conviction, conclusion na_tath
not so iti saying v or sdhyasya (gen. for) premise upanaya application
1.16) Our general rule is our standard (1.1.25), that one is destined to his
dharma either by conformity with our premise, or the reverse, by opposition
to it; and the application (of the rule) for our premise, is our conviction,
considered by means of that rule, saying either, "It is so", or "It is not so."

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(1.1.39) hetu-apadet (abl. according to) reason pointing out (as opposed to
nirdea in the assertion) pratijy (gen. of) assertion punar-vacanam reaffirmation nigamanam conclusion (1.1.40) avijta-tattve_arthe (loc. absolute;
"given that") not understood essence _ object kraa-upapattita (tasil
resulting from) cause becoming evident tattva-jna-artham essence
comprehending (ifc) for the purpose of ha deliberation (see SD 12.7) tarka
discussion
1.17) The conclusion is the reaffirmation of our assertion (but this time) by
pointing out our grounds. The discussion of that (grounds), given that its
object is that essence which is not yet understood, is a deliberation for the
purpose of the true comprehension of that essence that results from our
'cause' (vara 4.1.19) becoming evident.

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10

The Nyaya Darshana

(1.1.41) vimya (indeclinable participle) after having investigated pakaprati-pakbhym (inst. dual; by means of) side opposing side arthaavadhraam object confirmation niraya settlement (1.2.1) pramatarka-sdhana-uplambha (The inflection is singular, not the dual: "supporting
and condemning".) means of validation discussing establishment criticizing
siddhnta-aviruddha doctrine without prohibition paca-avayavaupapanna five members invested paka-prati-paka-parigraha side
opposing side claiming as one's own vda dialectic
1.18) Settlement means confirmation of that object, after having
investigated by means of (comparing) the one side and the opposing side; and
the dialectic (presented in this treatise), claiming both the one side and the
opposing side as our own, criticizes the establishment (of our claim) by
discussing our means of validation as one invested with those five subdivisions
of analysis, but without prohibiting our doctrine.
The author is not inventing the formal five-part syllogism here. These
definitions of the five are only as they apply to his thesis of dharma. In fact, this
work is not a treatise on logic in general, just because it contains a description of
the five steps (the "syllogism") and mentions a few examples of obstacles to sound
reasoning. He makes it abundantly clear throughout the work that his thesis, like
that of the Vaisheshika, is about dharma. There is no mistaking it.
1.) The assertion is his premise that if one is to find the highest dharma, then
there must be true comprehension of the essence of the principles given in the
opening sutra, considered against their complements, also given. (This is a
conditional "if A then B", not a simple subject/predicate assertion.) 2.) The reason
or grounds for knowing this is that one does comprehend this essence, because its
"cause" has become evident (see 1.1.40). The author explicitly declares in 4.1.19
that his cause (kraa) is vara, meaning not "God" as a religious concept, but
rather the supreme human spirit that can be identified in meditation and in activity
as one's own consciousness (See YD 2.1-6). Direct experience of this provides the
grounds, not dogma. The opposing side's cause ("nimitta") is karma. 3.) The
general rule is dual: that if either version of dharma is to be known, then it's cause
must be known (either vara for the highest dharma, or karma for common
dharma). This rule is 4.) applied to our premise with a thorough examination, and
then the assertion is 5.) reaffirmed. Those are the five subdivisions.

The Nyaya Darshana

11

2.) Prattle
$l ' % L

(1.2.2) yath-ukta upapanna so it has been declared (by scripture, not
"earlier in this text") invested chala jti-nigraha-sthna sdhanauplambha false persuasion birth-rank dominating standing firm, taking a
firm stance establishing censure, reproach, prohibition (The word "jti" means
birth-rank, especially of the high-born, and "sthna" is their stance. These are key
terms here and they serve as the basis for the following material. The translation
of jti as a futility or futile argument is unfounded and utterly wrong.) jalpa idle
talk, prattle, gossip (1.2.3) sa it, this pratipaka-sthpan opposing side
causing to stand, propping up hna inadequate vita hitting back
2.1) Prattle, as one who is invested with the (traditional) 'so it has been
declared (by scripture)', is the way in which there is attaining that
(settlement) through establishing it by false persuasion and by taking a stance
by dominating (the discussion) by virtue of high (scholarly, priestly) birthrank, which is merely hitting back, propping up an opposition that is
(otherwise) inadequate.

L % h %
K 'L %
2
(1.2.4) savyabhicra-viruddha- having deviation from something (Adhering
to the context, the referent is sthna 1.2.2.) prohibited -prakaraa-samasubject equivalent, substitute -sdhya-sama- premise equivalent -kla-att
to be done equivalent time past hetu-bhs reason or motive, grounds for
knowing pretenses (1.2.5) anaikntika not exclusively one way
savyabhicra deviation (1.2.6) siddha-antam (acc.) doctrine abhyupetya (ind.
part.) having agreed to (w/acc.) tat-virodh it in direct opposition to viruddha
prohibition
2.2) Their pretenses as to grounds are: that any deviation from that
(stance) is prohibited, that that (stance) is equivalent (see Chapter Nine) to our

12

The Nyaya Darshana

subject (dharma), that it is equivalent to our premise (that the highest

dharma is by true comprehension), and that there is a time gone by (past life).
Our deviation is not just the one way, (and) having agreed to our doctrine (of
coexistence 1.1.26), such a prohibition (against deviation from their way)
would be in direct contradiction to it.

d % % % % % L%
(1.2.7) yasmt (abl. ind.) whatever such prakaraa-cint subject anxious
thought sa that (functions as "tasmt") niraya-artham settlement (ifc) with the
object of apadia offered as a pretext prakaraa-sama subject equivalent
(1.2.8) sdhya-aviia premise undistinguished sdhyatvt (abl. because) yet
to be demonstrated sdhya-sama premise equivalent (1.2.9) kla-atyayaapadita time lapsing offered as a pretext kla-atta time lapsed
2.3) Whatever such anxious thought there may be about the subject
(dharma), that (anxiety over prohibition, reproach 2.1.65) is then offered as
an equivalent to the subject, as a pretext with the object of settlement (by
intimidation). That is an undistinguished premise because it has yet to be
demonstrated, (but is offered as) an equivalent of our premise (that the
highest dharma is by true comprehension). Their 'time gone by' is a pretext
about the lapsing of time.
Their worry arises from the smti (gua-abda 2.1.65) and its promises of bliss
vs. threats of punishment.

lA (q' 2

) e 2 A
(1.2.10) vacana-vighta statement, thesis a blow or attack against arthavikalpa-upapatty (inst. by) meaning diversity making evident, effecting
chalam false persuasion (1.2.11) (tat trividham vk-chalam smnya-chalam
upacra-chalam ca; It is of three kinds: false persuasion by speech, false
persuasion by generalization, and false persuasion by figure.) (1.2.12) avieaabhihite (loc. while) no distinction it is held arthe (loc. in) meaning vaktu

The Nyaya Darshana

13

(gen. of) speaker, author abhipryt (abl. w/antara; apart from) intended arthaantara-kalpan meaning alternate making up vk-chalam speech false
persuasion
2.4) "False persuasion" is an attack against our thesis by effecting this
diversity of meanings. False persuasion by speech (equivocation) is making up
an alternate meaning, apart from the author's intended one, while it is held
that there is no distinction in the meaning.

C A 'e ' A
(1.2.13) sambhavata (tasil; because) possible arthasya (gen. of) meaning
ati-smnya-yogt (abl. by) absolutely universally agreed to joining
asambhta-artha kalpan (a karmadhraya compound; ind. "where") notarisen-meaning making up smnya-chalam generality false persuasion
(1.2.14) dharma-vikalpa-nirdee (loc. in) duties, roles in life diversity
dictating artha-sat-bhva-pratiedha meaning truly existent, true denying
upacra-chalam metaphor, figure false persuasion
2.5) Where such making up of the meaning has not arisen, there is false
persuasion by universality, because it is possible by just joining along with a
meaning that absolutely universally agreed to. False persuasion by figure, in
dictating a diversity of dharmas, denies the true meaning (of dharma).

A A ' %
(1.2.15) vk-chalam speech false persuasion eva just as, the same upacrachalam metaphor, figure (Many of the definitions of "figure" contribute well to the
meaning of upacra here.) false persuasion tat-aviet (abl. since) that no
distinction (1.2.16) na not the case tat-artha-antara-bhvt (abl. because) (to)
that meaning alternate view (1.2.17) aviee (loc. when) no distinction v or
kicit some, a little // sdharmyt (abl. because of) conformity eka-chalaprasaga a certain false persuasion adhering to, occupied with

14

The Nyaya Darshana

2.6) (One may say) that we falsely persuade by figure, just as there is false
persuasion by speech, because no distinction is held in that (meaning 1.2.12);
but there is no such (false persuasion) arising from our view of the alternate
meaning from that, or, there is a little when we don't make the distinction (as
to dharma). Because of our conformity (with dharma see 2.1.1-3), we are
occupied with a certain false persuasion (of our own).

'h' % .. A K A
(1.2.18) sdharmya-vaidharmybhym (inst. dual; established by)
conformity conformity pratyavasthnam opposition of one's life-standing (In
this work, the author uses terms like "avasth" and "dharma" and their
compounds in the higher sense of "life purpose", not in an overly general sense to
describe techniques of argument.) jti class-ranking by birth, caste (1.2.19)
vipratipatti difference of understanding apratipatti lack of understanding ca
indeed nigraha-sthnam (by) dominating taking a stance (1.2.20) tat-vikalpt
(abl. from) that diversity jti-nigraha-sthna-bahu-tvam (high) birth-rank
domination standing, taking a stance many notion of
2.7) Ranking by birth (caste) is the mutual opposition of life standing as
established by conformity vs. conformity (with duty or personal quality
determined by birth), and taking a stance by dominating (the other classes) is
a difference of understanding, that is indeed a lack of understanding. From
the (notion of) diversity of that (dharma), there arises the notion of the many
taking a stance that results from domination by the high-born.
As in the Vaisheshika, sdharmya and vaidharmya here as "similarity vs.
dissimilarity" does not refer to the attributes of objects, but to inclusion and
exclusion of people by castes according to the qualities of sattva, rajas, and tamas.
We all know a bird by its attributes, as opposed to a dog, and all the other classes
and sub-classes, and their names too, but children's lessons of observing,
classifying, and naming objects in the world, are unworthy of higher philosophy.
In traditional religious thinking, conformity vs. conformity with one's natural
born dharma or duty in past lives is the main cause of one's status in the present
life, for better or worse. Standing firm through domination by class is the
obstruction of independent thinking through the claim of intellectual superiority by

The Nyaya Darshana

15

virtue of such birth-rank, or by training, title, reputation, veneration, or divine

inspiration.
It even extends to the fraudulent pretense to the possession of supernatural
abilities or to infallibility by virtue of "enlightenment" or sainthood, either by
direct claims on the part of spiritual leaders, or by their failure to deny any such
naive assumptions held by their followers. Too often a title earned by training
serves only as a formal sign that one has demonstrated a commitment not to think
independently but rather to follow and possibly attempt to build on a certain preestablished line of thought. This works well enough for science, but not for
ontology or epistemology.

' ' K .c .%( %)

(2.1.1) samna-aneka-dharma-adhyavasyt (abl. because) same many
dharma firm resolve anyatara-dharma-adhyavasyt (abl. about) the other of
the two dharma firm resolve (See "absence of dispute, like it is with dharma"
SD 7.4.) v or na no saaya uncertainty (This section recalls 1.1.23) (2.1.2) vipratipatti avyavasth adhyavasyt (abl. due to) considering a contrary
opinion without perseverance a state of resolve ca and (2.1.3) vipratipattau
(loc. even when) difference of opinion or understanding ca and sampratipatte
(abl. due to) agreement (The v clause followed by a ca clause indicates a one-toone relation between their respective terms, as it does in SD 8.13.) [(2.1.4)
avyavasth tmani / vyavasthitatvt ca avyavasthy; The failure to persevere
is within one's soul, and it results from being fixed in that situation, which
results (in turn) from one's (previous) failure to persevere.]
2.8) There is no uncertainty there, either because of the firm resolve that
there is a dharma for the many all the same, or (in our case) because of the
(contrary) firm resolve as to that other (inner) dharma (cf. 1.1.23); and this is
(in the first case) due to that firm resolve being without any perseverance in
considering the contrary opinion, and (in our case) due to agreement (with
that first) even when one does have a contrary opinion.
Again there is the lesson that one must abide by law and duty, even if one
comes to understand the truth of solipsism and subjective idealism, but to resolve
against those concepts without constant examination of them is unacceptable.

16

The Nyaya Darshana

.% K (D Dh.
2 .%)
(2.1.5) tath in that way, that is how atyanta-saaya ultimate uncertainty
tat-dharma tat (refers to anyatara in 2.1.1) tatya-upapatte (abl. known from)
(ya bhvrtha form of tata) being spread evidence (2.1.6) yath-ukta
adhyavasyt (abl. from) declared so far resolve eva indeed tat-viea-apekt
(abl. arising from) them difference considering saayena (inst. by means of)
uncertainty asaaya freedom from uncertainty na not atyanta-saaya
ultimate uncertainty v instead [(2.1.7) yatra saaya tatra evam uttarauttara-prasaga; Wherever there is doubt (of dharma), there it surely becomes
more and more advanced.)(Reinforcing his statement in 2.1.4, the commenter says
again that we should accept our dharma as prescribed by verbal authority,
without examination. That is the very antithesis of this work.)]
2.9) That is how there arises the ultimate uncertainty that the dharma of
that (other way "anyatara" 2.1.1) is known from the evidence of its being
spread (among the many "aneka" 2.1.1). Indeed, from one's resolve
(motivation) upon what has been declared (here), it is rather by means of the
uncertainty that arises from considering the difference between them that
there is instead freedom from uncertainty, and not that ultimate uncertainty.
At this point, it should be clear to anyone that the Nyaya Darshana is not an
investigation of the science of reasoning or logic. It is an attempt to form a
reasoned reconciliation between two undeniable but seemingly mutually exclusive
ways of understanding the experience of life itself.
He ends this half of the chapter by mentioning uncertainty. Interestingly, he
appears to be saying that this uncertainty should never be resolved, and the
motivation to resolve it should never cease. Apparently it is the constant adventure
of the inner investigation itself, with the principles of the Darshanas in mind, that
is the important thing, as opposed to formulating a pat answer that can be
expressed by a few aphorisms and then forgotten, or as opposed to persisting in
religious rituals. The way of Yoga is the regular practice of investigation into one's
own consciousness, along with some awareness of these principles in daily life,
but not so that we might one day snap into a permanent state of "enlightenment"
and bliss. According to the Darshanas, Yoga (4.2.42) is both the way and the goal.

The Nyaya Darshana

17

Prama and Prameya and Pratyaka

Prama (validation of knowledge)

L Dh % Cz c 9 .%
(2.1.8) pratyakdnm (gen. pl. of) perception etc. aprmyam lack of
credibility traiklya-asiddhe (abl. because) threefold time no affirmation
(2.1.9) prvam before, past hi for prama-siddhau (loc. when) validation
affirmation na no indriya artha sanikart (abl. through) sense object
together-in-drawing pratyaka-utpatti perception manifestation
2.10) There is a certain lack of credibility of perception and the others,
because we cannot affirm threefold time: for when we (try to) affirm our
validation for past (incarnations) there is no (present) manifestation (of
reality) by perception, through the drawing in together of sense and object.

c % % 2 c -.
2 L A
(2.1.10) pact (abl. ind.) hereafter, future siddhau (loc. when) affirming na no
pramebhya (abl. by) means of validation prameya-siddhi to be validated
affirmation (2.1.11) yugapat (ind.) simultaneous (with awareness), immediate,
present siddhau (loc. when) establishing pratyartha-niyatatvt (abl. ind.) in
every case, each one being fixed, defined krama-vttitva-abhva stages
modes of existence no such thing buddhnm (gen. of) intellects, minds
2.11) When we try to affirm that (validation) for future (incarnations),
there is no affirmation of our prameya ("to be validated") (including the
denial of future incarnation. See def. of prameya 1.1.9.) by those means of
validation. When (however) we affirm that (validation) as immediate
(present), there is no such thing as modes of life by stages (incarnations), on
the part of intellects (plural), each one being so defined (by his stage).

18

The Nyaya Darshana

Dh % ' .%
' ' .%

2
2
'%
(2.1.12) traikalya-asiddhe (abl. because) threefold time not affirming
pratiedha-anupapatti denial no evidence (2.1.13) sarva-pramapratiedht (abl. since) whole process of validation denial ca and pratiedhaanupapatti denial no evidence (2.1.14) tat-prmye (loc. if) that (ref. is
yugapat 2.1.11) credibility v on the other hand na no sarva-pramavipratiedha whole process of validation comprehensive denial
2.12) There is no evidence for denying (our premise, the true meaning of
dharma 1.2.14), because there can be no affirmation of threefold time, and
there is no evidence for that denial because it would be a denial of our whole
means of validation. On the other hand, (it may be also be argued that) if
there is credibility in that (immediate present), one cannot deny our whole
means of validation (of dharma).

Dh ' %
2 A %
% %
(2.1.15) traiklya-apratiedha the threefold time not denying ca and
(paired with the following ca) abdt (abl. by) sound todya-siddhi-prasaga
"to be struck", a drum or other musical instrument, a means of producing sound
establishing a possibility or contingency becoming true or evident (2.1.16)
pramey (f. to match tul) (the need) to be validated ca it is also true that tulprmyavat (vatup as ind.) a balance scale the having validity (2.1.17)
pramata (tasil resulting from) validation siddhe (abl. by) affirmation
pramnm (gen. of) various (pl.) means of validation prama-antarasiddhi-prasaga means of validation inner affirmation occupation with life
2.13) Not denying the threefold time, the affirmation of a musical
instrument (for example) becomes evident by its sound (in the present), but it
is also true that a measuring scale needs to be validated (calibrated) to have
validity. (So) the occupation with life that is affirmed by our inner means of
validation is (also affirmed) by the affirmation of the (three) means of
validation, which results from validation (of them).

The Nyaya Darshana

19

Prameya ("to be validated")

K-. % L .%$-. -. %
(2.1.18) tat-vinivtte (abl. by) that turning away v on the other hand
prama-siddhivat (vati just like) validation affirmation prameya-siddhi to
be validated affirmation (2.1.19) na not pradpa-praka-siddhivat (vati like)
lamp light affirmation tat-siddhe (abl. through) those affirmation (2.1.20)
kvacit in one nivtti-darant (abl. ind.) cessation seeing anivtti-darant
(abl. ind.) non-cessation seeing ca and kvacit in another aneknta not just one
2.14) On the other hand, by turning (one's attention) away from those
(means), there is, just like the affirmation by our means of validation, the
(immediate) affirmation of what is to be validated, like the affirmation of a
lamp by its light, which is not through affirmation by those means of
validation. Seeing cessation (of a past condition) in the one case, and seeing no
cessation in the other case, there cannot be just the one way.
If the light from a lamp is concealed by a pot, the normal view is that it still
exists, but according to the subjectivist philosophy, it does not. He assumes that we
are familiar with this example, which is similar to the well-known philosophical
question (the one that isn't satisfied by the obvious, yet so very obtuse, scientific
answer): "If a tree falls in a forest, without anyone to hear, does it make a sound?"
Pratyaka (Perception)

.
A % .%
2
%
(2.1.21) pratyaka-lakaa-anupapatti perception qualities no evidence
asamagra-vacant (abl. ind) lack of a whole asserting (2.1.22) na not tmamanaso (gen. dual; of the two) individual self mind sanikara-abhve (loc.)
drawing-in-together in/loc. in the absence of, without pratyaka-utpatti (see
also 2.1.9) perception coming into existence (2.1.23) dik-dea kla keu
(loc. with) direction and location time space api even evam exactly as it is
prasaga occupation with life

20

The Nyaya Darshana

2.15) There can be no evidence of the qualities of a perception by asserting

the lack of (perception as) a whole. Without the drawing in together of the
individual self and the mind, perception would not even come to exist. That
(self) is our occupation with life, just as it is, even with (the qualities of)
direction and location, time, and space.

'% c % . 9 % A
(2.1.24) jna-liga-tvt (abl. since) true comprehension indicator(s)
existing as tmana (gen. of) individual self na not anavarodha without
separating out (see nirodha in YD) (The meaning here is very dependent on the
context.) (2.1.25) tat-ayaugapadya-liga-tvt (abl. because) it without
immediacy indicator the fact that ca_na but not manasa (gen. of) mind (has
the same referent as tmana) (2.1.26) pratyaka-nimitta-tvt (abl. because)
perception instrumental cause would be ca and // indriya-arthayo (gen. dual;
of) sense object sanikarasya (gen. of) drawing in together svaabdena (inst.
by way of) one's own testimony vacanam assertion
2.16) That (self) is not (known) without separating that (evidence) out,
since that (evidence) exists only as an indicator in the true comprehension of
oneself; but not of one's mind, because of the fact that without the immediacy
(of true comprehension) that (mind) is also just an indicator of it, and because
it would be the instrumental cause of perception. By way of our self-testimony,
that (statement about mind) is an assertion of the drawing in together (only)
of sense and object (not self).

2 9 % . A h A
%2
(2.1.27) supta-vysakta-manasm (gen. pl. of; ref. is the same as that of
sanikarasya) asleep stuck minds ca also indriya-arthayo (gen. dual; of)
sense object sanikara-nimitta-tvt (abl. arising from) perception
instrumental cause the notion (2.1.28) tai (inst. with) those ca and apadea
pointing out jna-viem (gen. pl. of) comprehension particulars (2.1.29)
vyhatatvt (abl. because) being in conflict ahetu without grounds

The Nyaya Darshana

21

2.17) There is also that (assertion) of minds that are asleep and attached,
arising from the notion of that (the object) being the instrumental cause in the
drawing in together of sense and object, and it is with those (minds) that we
would find their pointing out the particulars of their comprehension, which is
without (our) grounds for knowledge because of its being in conflict with that.
The word "supta" refers to his assertion or assumption of all the supposed other
minds that would have had no inkling of the higher philosophy of self-realization,
and "vysakta" refers to their attachment to worldly life and their devotion to
routine religious practices. The statement that the teaching among "them" is the
ordinary knowledge of the particulars regarding laws and religious customs and
practices, is very familiar. We find it in the Upanishad, Brahma Sutra, Yoga Sutra,
etc.

A 2 Z% . -2
A
(2.1.30) na not artha-viea-(gen.)-prbalyt (abl. following from) object
particular predominance, pre-existence (2.1.31) pratyakam perception //
anumnam inference ekadea-grahat (abl. by) single individual grasp,
personal understanding or apprehension (Ekadea means a part of a whole. Here it
is a "single individual" as part of the whole of humanity. Grahaa is not sensory
perception like pratyaka.) upalabdhe (gen. of ref.=prbalya) observation
(2.1.32) na no pratyakea (inst. by) perception yvat_tvat just as much as, just
as true as api either upalambht (abl. for) a matter of personal recognition
2.18) (But) perception does not follow from the predominance of particular
objects. That (predominance) of observation by personal apprehension on the
part of each single individual is (only) inference. That (inference) is not just as
true as it would be by (direct) perception either, for that is a matter of
(personal) recognition.
One's own personal "grasp" of ideas is known by direct experience, but that of
others is inferred, which is obvious but of little importance outside the theories of
subjective idealism and solipsism. That there is sensory perception and mental
processing on the part of others is a solid inference within the (Darwinian) theory
of human beings (including oneself) as soulless purposeless particle-based life
machines, representing a single, accidentally self-propagating species.

22

The Nyaya Darshana

Moreover, the idea that others have a grasp of abstract ideas, or of a soul, or
indeed that they are souls or selves, as true as that may be, must be modeled after
one's own grasp. Anything beyond the idea of robotic data processing and sharing
through the interface of language begins to require a belief in "some kind of"
abstract higher being. But lets face it, this means God, a human-like being with
qualities like will, the capacity to discriminate or judge, to love, to be pleased,
displeased, appeased, etc. We imagine God as like us, but not limited in knowledge
or power, not mortal, and of course not visible, and not limited to being physically
present in any particular location. That's the best we can do, but these attributes of
greatness are nothing but naive negations of our own perceived limitations.
Outside of the remembered, school-taught, explanation of humanity as soulless
life "forms", all one knows for sure, in the presentwhere all knowledge is found
is one's own inner knowledge of what it feels like to be alive and aware and
human. It is an immediate, unmistakable, and yet unexplained, sphere of
perception beginning with ethereal sound, breath, and feel. It is by that model that
we infer a similar inner humanity in others. This so-called "inference", as vital and
true as it must be, belongs neither to reason, science, or the philosophies of
solipsism, subjective idealism, or any other philosophy, but to religion.
Thoughtful religious people the world over find themselves compelled to
accept science, but the reverse is not the case. Even modern masters in philosophy
distance themselves from the issue of self or soul, as they would certainly distance
themselves from religion. It is, however, within the religious perspective that one
finds some acknowledgement of the inescapable duality of the two humanities, and
that is why I consider theism to be superior to atheism, but solely in the abstract,
for I have no affection for the antagonistic tribalism of institutional religion.
The teaching of the Darshanas, on the other hand, transcends that of science,
philosophy, and religion, even though it may be difficult to grasp. The problem
with understanding it is that the principles being revealed, as close as they are to
the intuitive intelligence of the sensitive reader, are necessarily foreign or even
hostile to his schooled or tribal mind. Therefore, the task at hand, for anyone who
is receptive and motivated to come to an understanding, is to earnestly and
persistently engage in an effort to reconcile the two opposing views in order to
bring them to union. This journey is called Yoga. It is not any kind of self-help. In
fact, all the authors agree that it is not a matter of seeking the ultimate happiness
but of seeking the ultimate dharma, which is the understanding itself.

The Nyaya Darshana

23

3.) Inference, Comparison, and Testimony

Inference

% % ' . A A
(2.1.33) sdhyatvt (abl. because) having to be demonstrated avayavini (loc.
about) having parts, a subdivided whole sadeha doubt (2.1.34) sarvaagrahaam everyone (all things?) no personal apprehension avayavi-asiddhe
(abl. because) possessor of parts no affirmation (2.1.35) dhra - karaaupapatte (abl. since) holding in mind, remembering drawing in evidence ca
and (2.1.36) sen-vanavat (vati like) army in battle array forest grahaam
personal apprehension iti_cet to the objection: (This objection and reply format is
meant to be read, where appropriate, until 2.2.6, being refreshed in 2.2.9.)
3.1) To the objection that there is doubt about a subdivided whole (self),
because that would have to be demonstrated; that because there is no
affirmation of that subdivided whole, there can be no personal apprehension
of one being 'everyone' (implied in 2.1.30-32); and that because our evidence is
(only) a 'drawing in' of something we hold in mind, our personal
apprehension (of a whole) must be like a (figurative) forest of an army,
Here the doubter in us leans toward the theory that the parts of a whole are the
prior reality, underlying the concepts of whole things. We consider, for example,
that we only know of a whole entity like an "army" from directly seeing the
soldiers as its parts, and that the concept of an army is learned and remembered,
not perceived. This is a sound argument, and it holds absolutely true in the
common view of things, but in the higher philosophy of self-realization being
taught here, the order is reversed.

L C A ' 2 A hD A
(2.1.36 cont.) na not the case ati-indriyatvt (abl. because) being beyond the
senses anm (gen. of) minute things (2.1.37) rodha-upaghta-sdyebhya
(abl. by) blocked struck likenesses vyabhicrt (abl. for) deviation

24

The Nyaya Darshana

anumnam inference apramam not means of validation (2.1.38) na not (just)

ekadea-trsa-sdyebhya (abl. by) single individual fear likenesses arthaantara-bhvt (abl. according to) meaning alternate view
3.2) (the reply is:) That is not the case, because of the (most) minute things'
being beyond one's powers of sense. The inference of them is not our means of
validation (see 2.1.30-31), for our deviation would be by likenesses (of
soldiers) being blocked and struck, and not just by likenesses of the single
individuals' (soldiers') fear (of being blocked and struck), (this) according to
the view of our alternate meaning.
The mention of fear, blocking, striking, and falling, are obviously meant to flesh
out the analogy of an army in battle. The word "anm" (2.1.36) does not mean
"of atoms", or sub-atomic particles as we know them today. (We do infer them
now from empirical evidence.) It refers to the smaller and smaller parts that make
up any whole in general. The ancients must have guessed, as well as anyone
would, that what was visible to the naked eye was not the limit of minuteness.
While in a way it is true that one perceives the individual soldiers and not the
"army" as a whole, that doesn't really work, because it doesn't stop there. We could
just as easily say that the concept of the "whole" soldier is only secondary to
perceiving his limbs, which are in turn secondary to their parts, and so on down to
where the most minute parts of all must be imperceptible. That is the author's point
in his first remark.
The definition of inference for the purposes of this treatise is found early on, in
sutra 1.1.5b. Based on immediate perception, it is the affirmation that the thing
being perceived is something that remains after the perceiving is done and that the
perception of it may be commonly shared by others, which goes a step deeper than
the more general definition of inference in traditional logic. The fact that the object
remains and the fact that others may share the experience are not known from the
direct experience itself but are a secondary knowledge. Those two criteria,
however, are not the case for all kinds of experience, but serve as a way of
confirming that the experience is real only in a physical objective sense. Things
like fantasy, pain, and fear, on the other hand, do not remain after one stops
thinking of them, nor are they available for others to perceive.
Interestingly, whereas "fear" here is a certain anticipation of possible future
events, "being blocked or struck" is expressed in the past passive participle, and
"falling" is expressed with the present participle.

The Nyaya Darshana

25

% % .% A
(2.1.39) vartamn-bhva existing in the present patata (gen. (of patat) of)
falling (ref.=trsa 2.1.38) patita-patitavya-kla-upapatte (abl. because) fallen
yet to have fallen (fut. pass. part.) time evidence (2.1.40) tayo (gen. of)
those two api indeed abhva no existence, absence vartamn-bhve (loc.
when) in the present being tat-apekatvt (abl. because) them consideration
3.3) That (fear) of falling (dying in battle) would exist in the present,
because there is evidence of time (only) in his having already fallen or in his
having yet to fall. There is indeed a complete absence of those two things (past
and future) when being in the present moment, because that (evidence) is only
a (mental) consideration of them.

L % .%
- 2
.C A
(2.1.41) na no atta-angatayo (gen dual; of) past future itaretara-apeksiddhi one against the other (by) considering proof (2.1.42) vartamnbhve (loc. as) (in) the present existing sarva-agrahaam everyone lack of
personal apprehension pratyaka-anupapatte (abl. coming from) perception
missing the evidence (2.1.43) ktat-kartavyat-upapatte (abl. because) the
having done the having yet to be done evidence tu but, however ubhayath
both ways grahaam personal apprehension
3.4) There is no proving past and future (incarnations) by considering one
(person) against another. The lack of personal apprehension of being
'everyone' comes from missing the evidence regarding perception as it exists
in the present. Our personal apprehension, however, is both ways, because
there is (also) the evidence of there being something done and something yet
to be done.
It is easy to think of time as a line that one can trace backward or forward in
opposite directions, and in that simplistic sense, the past might seem to be the
"opposite" of the future ("that which is not the future" cf. Vidybhaa), but no
one thinks of past and future in that way. One thinks of the past as what one did

26

The Nyaya Darshana

and what happened in the world as it might affect one's own health, wealth, status,
enjoyment, etc. One thinks of the future as what one intends to do or what will
probably happen as it might affect those things. In any case, memory, as well as
planning and anticipation, occupy the presentnot the point on a timeline
designated as the present, but the only-time present of immediate awareness. For
the yogin in his solipsist mode, there does not exist a past, present, or future out
there in the universe, independent of his own contemplation of them, because there
does not even exist a universe "out there" independent of that contemplation.
The phrase "what has been done and what has to be done" (ktat-kartavyat) in
2.1.43 recalls "establishing the conclusion that is to be established" (sdhyasdhanam) in the definition of comparison in 1.1.6, and that sets up the next topic
in the series, comparison.
Comparison

h ' % ' % -2
.% %
(2.1.44) atyanta-prya-ekadea-sdharmyt (abl. because) utterly
prominent single individual conformity to dharma upamna-asiddhi
comparison no proof (2.1.45) prasiddha-sdharmyt (abl. coming from) wellknown by all conformity with dharma upamna-siddhe (abl. because)
comparison proof // yath-ukta-doa-anupapatti previous assertion false
failure (2.1.46) pratyakea (inst. by) direct perception apratyaka-siddhe
(gen. of) without direct perception proof
3.5) (To the objection:) that there is no (valid) proof by our comparison
(defined in 1.1.6), because it is (rather) the conformity to dharma on the part
of single individuals that is utterly prominent (in society); that since the proof
by comparison must come from our conformity with the dharma that is wellknown by all, there is no evidence of fault in that which has been declared
(smti, law), for the proof of the unperceived (dharma) must be by perception
of those (single individuals).

2 % %
2 Z

A
2
2

The Nyaya Darshana

27

(2.1.47) na no apratyake_gavaye (loc. abs. in the case of) unperceived ox

"prama-artham validation meaning upamnasya (gen. of) comparison
payma (1st.pl.present) we see (actual verbs are rare in the Darshanas. This is
meant to stand out.) (2.1.48) tath that way" iti saying // upasahrt (abl. by)
conclusion upamna-siddhe (abl. because) comparison affirmation na not
aviea no difference, the same thing (2.1.49) abda testimony anumnam
inference arthasya (gen.) an object's anupalabdhe (abl. resulting from) lack of
observation anumeyatvt (abl. because) its having to be inferred
3.6) (The reply is:) There is no saying (testimony)in the case of some
unperceived ox (for example)that "the meaning of the validation of
comparison is that we (all) see it that way". It is not the same thing, because
the (true) affirmation by comparison is by that conclusion (of 1.1.6). That
testimony (about the ox) is an inference, because a thing's having to be
inferred results from the lack of actual observation of it.
This statement makes the transition from the discussion on inference and
comparison to the discussion on testimony. The idea that "we all" would see an ox
in the same way is a solid inference, but only within the paradigm of robotic
human beings, each with an identical sensory apparatus. On the other hand, for one
who considers his awareness to exist independently of the robot paradigm, the
assumption that another person has the identical experience or memory of an ox,
for example, indicated by his use of the words "brown ox", is not so solid.
For him it is a matter of the experience itself, in the present, as opposed to the
subsequent labeling, explanation, and prediction of experience. He could just as
easily imagine that, purely experientially, his "brown" is another person's "red".
Now, one may say that it is a matter of wavelengths of electro-magnetic radiation,
receptors in the retina, neural pathways, brain regions, etc., and it certainly is,
neurologically speaking; but there is a disconnect between the neurology and the
experience, just as there is a disconnect between the verbal explanation and the
experience. One might object that there is no disconnect when, for example, a
surgeon probes a brain a certain way and the patient reports a burning smell. Well,
the patient may report the sensation, but to anyone else it is only a report, really
just a memory of a story, and it falls completely within the scope of reasoned
explanation, not experience. This is also true of those who report supernatural
experiences, not just from the point of view of their audience, but for them as well.

28

The Nyaya Darshana

Testimony (the 'word')

ZK-. A % % Z%
Vb) C Z
% 2
2
'%
(2.1.50) upalabdhe (abl. according to) observation a-dvi-pravtti-tvt (abl.
known from) not two accounts their having (2.1.51) sambandht (abl. due
to) kinship ca and (2.1.52 ?) pta-upadea-smarthyt (abl. known from)
authorities teaching their having a common interest / abdt (abl. taken from)
testimony artha-sampratyaya meaning community of belief (2.1.53)
pramata (tasil based on) means of validation anupalabdhe (abl. because)
lack of observation (2.1.54) praa-pradha-pana-anupalabdhe (abl. just
because) satisfying splitting burning sambandha-abhva kinship not
existing (2.1.55) abda-artha-vyavasthnt (abl. just by) testimony meaning
persevering apratiedha no denying (refers to our premise, see 1.2.14, 2.12-14)
3.7-8) From their not having the two accounts (of life) according to our
observation, and from their having a common interest in the teaching of
authorities, due to their own kinship with them, we know this community of
belief in the meaning taken from the word (the Veda). Because of (their) lack
of observation based on our means of validation, (and) because of (our) lack
of observation of their satisfying (the gods), splitting (the wood), and burning
(the sacrifice), there exists no kinship (between us). There is no denying (our
premise) just by persevering in that (ritual) meaning of the 'word'.
The lesson on comparison is about doing what ought to be done toward the
finding the highest dharma, rather than following the mass belief in scripture.

A -
%
2
(2.1.56) na not smayikatvt (abl. deriving from) being according to formal
custom, ordination by tradition / abda-artha-sampratyayasya (gen. on the part
of) word meaning community of belief (2.1.57) jti-viee (loc. regarding)
birth-rank distinguished ca indeed aniyamt (abl. because) no rule (2.1.58) tat-

The Nyaya Darshana

29

aprmyam their lack of authority anta-vyghta-punarukta-doebhya

(abl. because of) untruth absurdity redundancy faults
3.9) That (class kinship) does not derive from any ordination by (Vedic)
tradition on the part of that community of belief in that (ritual) meaning of
the 'word', indeed because there is (actually) no such rule (in the Veda)
regarding their distinguished birth-rank. Their lack of authority is due to the
faults of that untruth, of absurdity, and of tautology.
The tautology is their proof of the validity of the karmic caste system merely by
pointing out the existence of people of various castes.

***
- 'h
A 2 . 2 A
2
A
(2.1.59) na not karma-kart-sdhana-vaiguyt (abl. known by) rite
performer way unvirtuous (2.1.60) abhyupetya having agreed on // klabhede (loc. regarding) time division doa-vacant (abl. known by) false
statement (2.1.61) anuvda-upapatte (abl. known by) explanation evidence ca
and (2.1.62) vkya-vibhgasya (gen. of) spoken words distribution ca indeed
artha-grahat (abl. by) meaning personal apprehension
3.10) Those (faults) are not known by anything unvirtuous in their way of
'performer and rite' (both sides) having agreed on that. They are known by
the (earlier 2.1.12-15a) false statement regarding the division of time (see also
SD 2.5-9 on time), known by the evidence of our explanation of that (2.1.15b19), and by personal apprehension of the meaning of distributing that
('word') into recited words.

2 A '' % 2 -% 2 % '
2 %
2
(2.1.63) vidhi- arthavda- anuvda-vacana -viniyogt (abl. by) injunction
analysis of meaning, explanation statement by reiteration application (2.1.64)
vidhi injunction vidhyaka containing injunction (2.1.65) stuti praise nind

30

The Nyaya Darshana

reproach parakti action of another, example pur-kalpa "(in) the olden time",
legend iti these arthavda explanation of the meaning (2.1.66) vidhi-vihitasya
(gen. of) injunction ordered anuvacanam rephrasing anuvda reiteration
3.11) By their application of the (Vedic) "vidhi", "arthavda"
(explanation), and "anuvda"; the vidhi contains the injunction; the
arthavda is praise and reproach (of the smti), example, and legend; and the
anuvda is a rephrasing of what has been ordered by the injunction.
This obliquely recalls the three main elements of the syllogism in terms of three
different kinds of Vedic texts. Injunction represents the initial assertion or theory,
analysis represents the reason, and rephrasing represents the conclusion.

2
% .% L $ %
2
( 2 e A Vb)
(2.1.67) na no anuvda-punaruktayo (loc. between) explanation
redundancy viea difference abda-abhysa-upapatte (abl. based on) words
repetition evidence (2.1.68) ghratara-gamana-upadeavat (vatup ind. having)
faster going teaching abhyst (abl. because) repetition na not aviea no
difference, the same (2.1.69) mantra-ayurveda-prmyavat (vati like) verses
exposition on medical science authority ca and tat-prmyam whose
authority pta-prmyt (abl. deriving from) experts authority
3.12) Based on the evidence of the (mere) repetition of the words, there
would be no difference between their explanation and redundancy, but there
is some difference because their repetition has the (smti's) teaching of going
more quickly (see 3.2.29) and it is like the authority of the mantras of the
Ayurveda, whose authority derives from the authority of experts.

2 h . A
A 2 . '%
(2.2.1) na not the case catuvam there being four aitihya arthpattisambhava abhva-prmyt (abl. by) tradition "arriving at a meaning",
interpretation (ifc) derived from devoid of authority (a bahuvrhi compound)
(2.2.2) abde (loc. in) testimony aitihya -an-artha-antara-bhvt (abl. just

The Nyaya Darshana

31

because) oral tradition lack of meaning alternate view / anumne (loc.

with regard to) inference arthpatti-sambhava abhva-an-artha-antarabhvt (abl. just because) interpretation (ifc) derived from devoid (=abhvaprmya 2.2.1 and 2.2.7) lack of meaning alternate view ca and
apratiedha no denying (With "arthpatti", as unfortunately with so many other
terms unique to the Darshanas, lexicographers like MW had no choice but to defer
to the incorrect medieval readings and commentaries, and to the
Sarvadaranasagraha, which is based on them.)
3.13) There being four (expositions), by (the inclusion of) that one which is
devoid of that (Vedic) authority (the smti), derived from their interpretation
of the oral tradition (of the three 2.l.63), is not the case. There is no denying
(our premise) just because there is no (mention of our) view with an alternate
meaning in the word (itself), and just because there is no (mention of our)
view with an alternate meaning in the one that is devoid (of authority, the
smti), derived from their interpretation (of the word).
He sees the inner meaning of the Veda and rejects any altered meaning that
would codify a system of oppressive class divisions and stifling civil and religious
law.

. h A . A '
h A A
(2.2.3) arthpatti interpretation apramam without authority
anaikntikatvt (abl. for) not being only one way (2.2.4) anarthpattau (loc.
against) misinterpretation arthpatti-abhimnt (abl. on the basis of)
interpretation ego involvement (2.2.5) pratiedha-aprmyam denial no
authority ca moreover anaikntikatvt (abl. since) not being only one way (2.2.6)
tat-prmye (loc. if) such authority v on the other hand na not arthpattiaprmyam interpretation lacking authority
3.14) That is an interpretation without any authority, for there is not just
that one way. Moreover, since there is not just the one way, there should be no
authority to deny on the basis of an ego involvement in one's interpretation
against some 'misinterpretation'. If, on the other hand, one had the authority
for such (a denial), one's interpretation would not lack authority.

32

The Nyaya Darshana

Prameya

% %
e A
(2.2.7) na no abhva-prmyam devoid of authority (The referent of abhva
is anaikntikatva in 2.2.5.) prameya-(gen.)-asiddhe (abl. just because) to be
validated not an affirmation (2.2.8) lakiteu (loc. pl. when) things indicated
(Theses plural terms usually refer to people.) alakaa-lakitatvt (abl. because)
without indication the way of being indicated alakitnm (gen. "of") (ref. is
siddhi) things not indicated // tat such prameya-siddhi to be validated proof
(2.2.9) asati_arthe (loc. abs. given that when) not actually so meaning na it does
not mean abhva doesn't exist iti_cet to the objection (Again he demonstrates
repetition, this time with lak words.)
3.15) To the objection that it is not 'devoid of authority' just because there
is no affirmation of our prameya; that that (affirmation) of all those (souls)
that are not (perceptually) indicated happens when they are indicated,
because that is the way of being indicated for something having no (sensory)
indication; that that is the affirmation of prameya, given that when something
is not actually so (indicated), that doesn't mean it doesn't exist, ...

.%%2 % .2
.
(2.2.9 cont.) na no such thing anya-lakaa-upapatte (abl. known by)
different indication evidence (2.2.10) tat it is thus siddhe (abl. because) proof
alakiteu (loc. with) not indicated ahetu grounds (2.2.11) na not lakaaavasthita-apek-siddhe (abl. known by) indicator stationed or abiding in
considering proof (2.2.12) prc-utpatte (gen. of) prior coming into
existence, birth abhva-upapatte (abl. because) not existing, empty evidence
ca and
3.16) (The reply is:) No such (non-indicated) thing is known by evidence
that indicates a different thing. With things that are not (immediately)
indicated, (saying) 'it is thus because that (indication) is the proof', is no
grounds. That (soul) cannot be known by some (tautological) proof by

The Nyaya Darshana

33

considering how it is stationed in its indicator (body), and by some empty

evidence of a prior-to-birth state. (as opposed to constancy)

h9 - $
(2.2.13) dimattvt (abl. w/upacra; compared to) "the having a beginning",
origination aindriyakatvt (abl. from) a state consisting of the powers of sense
ktakavat (vatup ind.) having artificiality upacrt (abl. ind.) taken figuratively
ca and (2.2.14) na not ghaa-abhva -smnya-nityatvt (abl. from) pot, vessel
in the absence of universal constant state // nityeu_api (loc. pl. w/api) even
though they remain constant (The referent must be plural. Indriyas fits well.)
anityavat (vatup ind.) having inconstancy upacrt (abl. ind.) figuratively ca and
3.17) That (indicator) has an artificial nature and is taken as a figure,
compared to our origination (also "birth") which arises out of a state consisting
(only) of the powers of sense, not out of any (supposed) constant state of that
(soul) which is universally agreed to, in the absence of that 'vessel' (body).
Even while those (powers of sense) remain constant, that (physical birth) has
an inconstant nature and is taken as a figure.
He is not saying that one is right and the other wrong, but that there are two
complementary definitions of "origination" or "birth" in this teaching. Neither of
these, however, include the doctrines of karma, reincarnation, or caste.

%
2 A
A
' A
(2.2.15) tattva-bhktayo (loc. dual; when considering) essence "fed",
subservient, secondary nntvasya (gen. of) manifoldness vibhgt (abl. because)
disjunction avyabhicra not deviating (2.2.16) satna-anumna-vieat
(abl. since) continuous inference the act of distinguishing (2.2.17) kraadravyasya (gen. of) cause physical pradea-abdena (inst. by way of)
"pointing-out", expository speech abhidhnt (abl. for) telling, utterance
3.18) Because there is a disjunction of that manifoldness (of vessels) when
considering the essential vs. the secondary, we are not really deviating (from

34

The Nyaya Darshana

the scholarly stance cf. 1.2.2-4), since we are just distinguishing between that
continuous thing (the essence) and that inference (the secondary) (cf YD), for
(after all) this very (audible) utterance (like the Veda) comes by way of an
expository speech whose cause is physical. (cf. 2.1.6-7 and BU 3.23.)

4.) Hearing the Continuous Sound

Z
Z

.%
2 Z
2
2
2
2

Z
A
2
2
(2.2.18) prk-(prc)-uccrat (abl. developing from) first, just prior
audible pronunciation, sounding audibly anupalabdhe (abl. stemming from)
failure to observe varaa-di-anupalabdhe (abl. from) concealing at the
beginning no observation ca and (2.2.19) tat-anupalabdhe (abl. arising from)
that (The referent is satna 2.2.16) failure to observe anupalambht (abl.
coming from) lack of recognition varaa-upapatti concealing evidence
(2.2.20a) anupalambht (abl. because) lack of recognition api indeed
anupalabdhi-sat-bhva-vat (vati like, as if) failure to observe primary reality
4.1 There is evidence of a concealing effect of that (speech), which comes
from a certain lack of recognition that arises from failure to observe that
(continuous essence), stemming from the failure to observe that develops from
its first emergence into audible pronunciation, and from the failure to observe
the concealing effect itself, at the beginning (of language). Indeed because of
that lack of recognition, it's as if that (state of) failure to observe (the
continuous) were the primary reality.

A
Z
%2 A
2
2
2
2
A
2.2.20b) na not varaa-anupapatti concealing lack of evidence
anupalambht (abl. just because) failing to recognize (2.2.21) anupalambhatmakatvt (abl. for) non-recognition (ifc) being the very nature of
anupalabdhe (abl. due to) failure to observe ahetu lack of grounds for
knowledge (2.2.22) asparatvt (abl. from) being without a feel for it (2.2.23) na
not karma-anityatvt (abl. from) proper religious and civil acts inconstancy

The Nyaya Darshana

35

4.2 It's not that there is no evidence of the concealing effect, just because
one may fail to recognize it. The lack of grounds for knowledge is due to the
failure to observe (the continuous), for that (failure) is the very nature of the
failure to recognize. It results from not having the feel of it, not from
inconstancy in one's karmas.

2 A A Z
%2 '% %
2
'%
(2.2.24) na nor au-(gen.)-nityatvt (abl. coming from) minutiae constancy
(2.2.25) sampradnt (abl. for) handing down by tradition (2.2.26) tat-antarlaanupalabdhe (gen. of (ref.=nityatva) that inner domain failure to observe
ahetu not grounds for knowledge (2.2.27) adhypant (abl. by) lecturing,
teaching apratiedha no denying (2.2.28) ubhayo_pakayo (loc. abs. given
that) both wings anyatarasya (gen. of) one or the other adhypant (abl. by)
teaching apratiedha no denying
4.3 Nor does that (grounds for knowledge) come from constancy of the
minutiae (of karmas and recitations), for that is just handed down by
tradition. That (constancy) of not observing the inner domain of that (feel),
lacks our grounds for knowledge. There is no denying (our premise) just by
that teaching. Given that there are both wings (in our premise), there is no
denying it by the teaching of one or the other.

( )A A d % %
[(2.2.29) abhyst] (2.2.30) na neither anyatve_api (loc. even though) its
being the other (side) abhysasya (gen. of) repetition (ref=apratiedha)
upacrt (abl. because) a metaphor or figure (2.2.31) "anyat (that) other
anyasmt (abl. of comparison w/anyatva; than) the other ananyatvt (abl.
because) there being nothing other than (w/abl.) ananyat" not something other iti
to say (w/quotes) anyat-abhva otherness missing the existence (2.2.32) tatabhve (loc.) that (in. loc.) without the existence na_asti (w/loc.) there could be
no ananyat non-otherness tayo (loc. dual; between) the two itaretara-apeksiddhe (abl. for) one against the other considering proof

36

The Nyaya Darshana

4.4 Neither can there be that (denial) of repetition (of words), even
considering its being the other (side), because that (repetition) is a figure (of
the continuous). To say "that 'other' (of which you speak) is not something
other, because of there being nothing other than that (Vedic) other," misses
the existence of otherness (altogether) and without the existence of that, there
could be no 'non-otherness' (sameness) between the two (sides), for the proof
of that (sameness) is (also) by considering one side vs. the other. (cf 2.1.41).
In order to argue that there is no other point of view, one has to have another in
mind to be able to reject that one so his own "other" would remain. With these two
world-views, a reciprocating consideration of both (sayama, as described in the
Yoga) constitutes the completeness of the knowledge, not just consideration of one
side or the other exclusively.
* The commenter offers a wry observation on the first part of this convoluted
statement by saying: "(Because of his own repetition, " I agree. The author
first mentions abhysa in 2.1.68, but he demonstrates the idea of repetition of
words by expanding it to almost comic proportions, for example: prama/
prameya and siddhi in 2.1.16-20, arthpatti in 2.2-6, lakana/ita in 2.2.7-11,
anupalabdh/lambh in 2.2.18-21, and anyat here.

Z%
Z%
%
2
2
Z
%
2
(2.2.33) vina-kraa-anupalabdhe (abl. ind.) completely doing away with
cause, reason without observing (2.2.34) aravaa-kraa-anupalabdhe
(abl. ind.) not hearing the Veda (ravaa=ruti here) cause, reason not
observing satata-ravaa-prasaga the continuous hearing occupation with
(2.2.35) upalabhya-mne (loc. considering) comprehensible considering ca and
again anupalabdhe (abl. just because) not observing asat-tvt (abl. ind. that) its
not being real anapadea no pointing out
4.5 (So) without observing any cause for not hearing the Veda, without
observing any cause for doing away with it, we are occupied with hearing the
continuous, and again (see also 2.2.20b), considering that it can be
comprehended, there is no pointing out that it isn't real just because one
doesn't observe it.

The Nyaya Darshana

37

. Z%
Z
$2
2
% '%
(2.2.36) pi-nimitta-pralet (abl. w/nimitta caused by) hands cause
clasping, clapping abda-abhve (loc. even in) sound absence na not
anupalabdhi without observation (2.2.37) vina-kraa-anupalabdhe (abl.
since) doing away with cause, reason not observing ca (w/neg.) either
avasthne (loc. even within) life circumstance tat-nityatva-prasaga that
(=satata-ravaa 2.2.34) constancy occupation with (2.2.38) asparatvt (abl.
just because) not having the feel of apratiedha no denying
4.6 Even in the absence of any sound caused by (e.g.) clapping the hands,
we are still not without observation of that (continuous sound). Since
(however) we do not observe any cause for doing away with that (caused
sound) either, the occupation with the constancy of that (continuous sound)
must be within one's circumstance. There is no denying (our premise) just
because one does not have the feel (of the continuous).
The word for life-circumstance also means fixity or steadiness in living life the
way one is supposed to. In this lesson the author also points out two conflicting
notions of constancy (nityatva). He rejects the constancy of the minute atoms and
of the minutiae of Vedic karmas (au-nityatva 2.2.23 and karma-nityatva 2.2.24) in
favor of hearing or feeling (very closely related in consciousness) the constancy of
the prime sound (satata-ravaa-nityatva (2.2.34 and 2.2.37).
Conflicting definitions of "transformation"

. % --c -%
C ' Z %2
(2.2.39) vibhakti-antara-upapatte (abl. because) coming apart inner
becoming evident ca moreover samse (loc. in) coming together (2.2.40) vikrt
(abl. about) transformation ea-upadet (abl. from) this (stands out) teaching
saaya uncertainty (2.2.41) prakti-vivddhau (loc. as) prime originator
expansion vikra-vivddhe (abl. for) transformation expansion (2.2.42)
nyna-sama-adhika-upalabdhe (abl. known by) deficient balanced
excessive observing vikrm (gen. of) transformations ahetu not grounds

38

The Nyaya Darshana

4.7 Moreover, because in the coming together of that (circumstance) an

inner coming apart becomes evident, uncertainty arises from this our
teaching, for (in this teaching) there is the expansion of the transformation (of
the continuous) as the expansion of the prime originator (prakti). Our
grounds for knowledge is not that of the transformations (incarnations) that
are known by observing the deficient vs. the balanced vs. the excessive
(representing the three guas: tamas, sattva, and rajas).
The continuous sound is linked with the ether, which is always associated with
mahat. Mahat's expansion and transformation is through his prakti aspect. (see
SD)

K' ' %
2 -L A hK %
(2.2.43) dvividhasya (gen. on the part of) twofold api clearly heto (gen. of)
grounds for knowledge abhvt (abl. for) no existence asdhanam not the way
dnta paragon, standard (2.2.44) na not so atulya-praktnm (gen. pl. on
the part of) unequal prime originators (The use of the plural for the most
definitely singular concept of prakti is clearly antithetical.) vikra-vikalpt (abl.
because) transformations diversity (2.2.45) dravya-vikra-vaiamyavat (vati
like, just as) physical diversity inequality vara- (varne Vb) -vikra-vikalpa
caste transformations diversity
4.8 (To the objection) that our (twofold) standard is not the way, for on the
part of something that is clearly twofold, there can be no existence of our
(clearly singular) grounds for knowledge; that it is not (the way), because
there would be a diversity of our 'transformation' (by expansion of the prime
originator, prakti) on the part of (many) prime originators who are unequal;
that there is (instead) a diversity of transformations of people of various
castes, just as there is inequality in the diversity of physical things.

' .%

2 .%
2 L
2 .%2 (
2
MUM) K
A
2
(2.2.46) na no vikra-dharma-anupapatte (because) transformation
dharma unfitting, doesn't work (2.2.47) vikra-prptnm (gen. belonging to,

The Nyaya Darshana

39

held by) transformation authorities apunarpatte (-vtte in Vb) (abl.

because) without recurrence (2.2.48) suvara-dnm (gen. on the part of) fine
(skin) color, fine appearance, good caste (not "gold" here) and the like punarpatte (abl. known by) happening again, recurrence ahetu not grounds for
knowledge (2.2.49) tat-vikrm (gen. of) those transformations (This recalls
the same term from 2.2.42, and tat recalls its qualifier compound.) suvarabhva-avyatirekt (abl. for) good caste view lacks exclusion
4.9 (The reply is:) No, because our dharma doesn't work as that (kind of)
transformation, because it is without that recurrence (reincarnation) held by
the authorities on transformation. That is not our grounds, just because the
(theory of) recurrence belongs to people of good caste and their like, for it
(our grounds) lacks the exclusion of those (lower) transformations, which is
the view of the good caste.
This lesson compares two conflicting definitions of vikra (transformation).
The opponent's is the well-known reincarnation and exclusion of lower classes,
while the author's refers to the creation of one's body and environment through the
abstract personal identity, mind, and senses, as described in the Sankhya.

( K '% ' Vb)

A L9 . K '%
(2.2.50) [varatva-avyatirekt vara-vikrm apratiedha (copied from
2.2.51) smnyavata dharma-yoga / na smnyasya; (Regarding this
passage,) the yoga of dharma results from its universality, but there is no such
(yoga) of the universal itself.] nityatve (loc. in the case of, with) constancy
avikrt ("vikrt" in Vb) (abl. since) no transformation / anityatve (loc.)
without constancy ca and anavasthnt (abl. since) no steadiness (2.2.51)
nitynm (gen.pl. of) those who are constant (Finding this word in the plural
confirms that it it is not the usual "eternal"., but "constant in" or "devoted to".)
ati-indriyatvt (abl. due to) being beyond their powers of sense tat-dharmavikalpt (abl. since) their duty diversity ca (connecting a positive term to the
previous two negative terms) and yet / varatva-avyatirekt (abl. just because)
caste system exclusion vara-vikrm (gen. of) caste transformations
apratiedha no denying

40

The Nyaya Darshana

4.10 1.) Since there is no such (recurring) transformation with our

constancy (of the continuous sound 2.2.37), and 2.) since there is no steadiness
without that constancy, and yet 3.) since, on the part of those who remain
constant (in their duty 2.2.24) due to that (continuous sound) being beyond
their power of sense, there is a diversity of roles; (we say) there is no denying
(our premise) just because there is exclusion of those transformations of
(lower) caste on the part of the caste system.

;Z.K .% ' . '%

(2.2.52) anavasthyitve (loc. while) not being steady in life circumstance ca as
well vara-upalabdhivat (vati like) caste observing // tat thus, in that way
vikra-upapatti transformation evidence (2.2.53) vikra-dharmitve (loc. in)
transformation observing dharma nityatva-abhvt (abl. by) constancy empty
kla-antare (loc. across) time interval vikra-upapatte (abl. by)
transformation evidence ca and apratiedha no denying
4.11 It is like observing (the reality of) caste, while not also having to be
steady in that life circumstance. Such is our evidence for transformation.
There is no denying (our premise) by their empty constancy in observing a
dharma of (karmic) transformation, and by their evidence of transformation
across a period of time.
The Rule of Prakti

- K
$ % '
A
'%
(2.2.54) prakti-aniyamt (abl. just because) prime originator no rule
vara-vikrm (gen. pl. of) caste transformations (2.2.55) aniyame (loc.
where) no rule niyamt (abl. since) rule na it is not the case aniyama no rule
(2.2.56) niyama-aniyama-virodht (abl. by) rule no rule logical contradiction
aniyame (loc. where) no rule niyamt (abl. by) rule ca w/neg. nor apratiedha
no denying

The Nyaya Darshana

41

4.12 Just because there is no rule (definition) of a prime originator of

transformations by caste, since that is a rule (made up) where there is no rule,
it is not the case that there is no rule (of prakti) at all. There is no denying
(our premise) by a (seeming) logical contradiction between their rule and
what is not that rule, nor by (dictating) a rule where there is no rule.
Prakti (the three guas) remains the underlying subject right through to 3.1.27.
In this short comparison the author demonstrates once again the idea of repetition
of words, this time by repeating the word "rule" eight times. I can't honestly say
that I understand what he hoped to accomplish with this awkward technique.

- 2 . % %
2
2

(e
) - ' 2 %
A
(2.2.57) gua-antara-patti -(abl.)- upamarda-hrsa vddhi -(gen.)- lea (inst.)- leebhya (abl. pl. known through) guas (clearly plural in the context of
prakti) other kind happening, becoming, changing into crushing decrease
increase a mere trace amount double meanings, alternate meanings tu instead
(enclitic, referring to the whole clause) vikra-upapatte (abl. by)
transformations evidence vara-vikra caste transformation (2.2.58) te (pl.)
these (guas) (remember the context!) vibhakti-ant partitions ends (Reading
this compound as "grammatical terminations", because of its proximity to
"padam" is tempting but incorrect. The larger context must be adhered to, with
"padam" recognized as part of the interpolation with tadarthe. cf. interpolation of
pada-artha in 2.2.66.) // padam tat-arthe; where the meaning is that (vibhaktiant), that (gua) is the word for it. Vb) vyakti-kti-jti-sanidhau (loc. as)
individual physical form birth or birth-rank (ifc) in the context of upacrt
(abl. ind.) meant figuratively saaya uncertainty
4.13 Transformation by caste (personal quality), according to our evidence
of transformation (of prakti see 2.2.41), is known instead through the
alternate meanings that have only a trace of the crushing decrease (tamas)
and the increase (rajas) that are known by the 'becoming' that happens on the
part of that other kind of guas (the threefold). (See "abounding in sattva"
SD 12.10.) There is the uncertainty that these (guas) are the boundaries of
the (three) partitions (by caste cf SD 12.10), vs. the term (gua) taken
figuratively as in the context of our birth of the physical form of the
individual.

42

The Nyaya Darshana

According to the author's thesis, the transformation or "becoming" of one's

personal quality from the prime originator (prakti) aspect happens when the
(purely theoretical) balance of the three guas is "disturbed". The ideal state of this
disturbance is one where sattva predominates and where rajas and tamas are
diminished to a trace amount (elimination being impossible). The opponent's three,
on the other hand, delineate three dharmic social strata representing the personal
qualities of dullness, passion, and purity. Both of those definitions are accepted by
the author, as long as they have nothing to do with the doctrine of reincarnation.

C -

2 %
2
2
A
(2.2.60) y (fem.) whoever (referring to the fem. vyakti) abda-samha
tyga parigraha sakhy-vddhi upacaya-vara-samsa
anubandhnm (gen. plural; of the various) Vedic testimony community
abandoning or giving away possessing wealth or receiving gifts reckoning
increase growing caste aggregation representatives vyaktau (loc. w/y)
whoever the individual // upacrt (ind. figuratively, as a figure) vyakti
(manifestation of) an individual (2.2.61) na not tat-anavasthnt (abl. ind. as
complementing upacrt) his without circumstance
4.14 (But) whoever the individual isof the various representatives of the
aggregation of castes, growing (in their dharma) whether their increase is
reckoned in the collective of the (Vedic) 'word' (priests), in giving things away
(rulers), or in receiving them (renunciants)that individual manifestation is
considered as a figure (of the continuous; see 2.2.30), (but) not considered as
one who exists apart from that life circumstance (between incarnations).
Out of the various castes and stages of human life, he mentions only the "good"
onespriest, ruler, and renunciantreferring to them by descriptions of their acts,
which was a very common technique for the ancient authors. The following
material reinforces these three examples, even explicitly naming two of the
particular life-circumstances. Interestingly, the words tyga and parigraha can both
have double meanings here. Tyga means either abandoning like a renunciant, or
giving away like a wealthy donor. Similarly, parigraha can mean either the
possession of wealth, family, and power, or "taking", as in receiving donations.

The Nyaya Darshana

43

-. ' L ' ' 2 $

2
2
(2.2.62) saha-caraa-sthna-tdarthya vttamna-dhraa-smpya
yoga-sdhan-dhipatyebhya (abl. pl. known from) (Each three-word
subcompound ends with a ya bhvrtha termination. Long compounds in close
proximity often have a respective correspondence of their internal subcompounds.)
collective-endeavor (cf samha 2.2.60) taking a stance having the purpose of
life (See vartamna MW. He has already used that variation to mean "the
present". cf 2.1.39-42) holding, having being near or imminent union way
of accomplishing supremacy, sovereignty, power brhmaa-maca-kaa
rja-saktu-candana gag-aka anna-purueu (loc. considering)
brahmin fire stand, altar (cf. macaka MW) twisted straw or grass for weaving
things like straw mats, used as kindling king, ruler grain, meal lit.
sandalwood, but (ifc) finest Ganges strip of cloth, loincloth foods people
4.15 They are known from the (priests') having the purpose of taking their
stance in their collective endeavor, the (rulers') being near (through their
increase, see 2.2.60) to having that (priestly) life, and the (renunciants')
supremacy in the way of Yoga; considering the 'foods' of these people as
(respectively) the twist of straw on the altar of the priest (food for Agni), the
finest grains for the ruler, (but only) the loincloth and the holy Ganges
(symbolically, no food for the renunciant).

%- % -
2 L - %
atat-bhve_api (loc. w/api even though) not that existence tat that (vs. atat)
upacra figure (2.2.63) kti form tat-apekatvt (abl. because) that its
being considered sattva-vyavasthna-siddhe (abl. because) purity persevering
affirmation (2.2.64) vyakti-kti-yukte_api (loc. w/api; even though) individual
manifestation of linking aprasagt (abl. ind.) without occupation (w/gen.)
prokadnm (gen.) consecration by sprinkling water etc. md-gavake (loc.
as it would be for) clay cow figurine jti birth rank

44

The Nyaya Darshana

4.16 Even though one's existence is not that, one's figure is that. It is one's
(outer) form, because that is what one considers it to be, because the
affirmation of that (existence) is known by perseverance in (the constant)
sattva (vs. the decrease and increase of tamas and rajas. cf. 2.2.57). And even
though one is linked with his manifestation as an individual (body), it is his
'birth rank' only as that would be so for a clay cow figurine (BU 1.4.10 "like
an animal"), being unoccupied with any rites of consecration etc. (for that).

- % - 2 %
2
C% -
(2.2.65) na not so kti-vyakti-apekatvt (abl. because) manifestation
individual being considered // jti-abhivyakte (abl. since) birth rank
appearance (2.2.66) vyakti-kti-jtaya individuals manifestation birth ranks
tu but, rather pada-artha word, term meaning, referring to (2.2.67) vyakti
individual gua-viea-raya qualities distinct, unequal seat mrti the
physical body (f.) (2.2.68) kti manifestation jti-liga-khy birth rank
indicator called
4.17 (To the objection) that it is not so, because of that manifestation being
considered as a single individual, and the meaning of the term (guas) here
referring rather to the (three) birth-ranks of the manifestation of single
individuals, since they do appear through birth-rank, and that the single
individual that is that body, the manifestation that is called the indicator of
his birth-rank is the seat of those distinct (unequal) guas (levels of caste).
Though the word mrti can mean any physical form, they are talking
specifically about the form of a person and the sight of one's own body and those
of others sorted into three layers of human worth, vs. the purity, passion, or
crushing that are felt internally by a person, but not shared.

% A A
'%
(2.2.69) samna-prasava-tmik equal, balanced forces consisting of
jti birth or birth rank (3.1.1) darana-sparanbhym (abl. by) sight feel
eka-artha-grahat (abl. through) same meaning personal apprehension

The Nyaya Darshana

45

(3.1.2) na not viaya-vyavasthnt (abl. through) physical sphere perseverance

(3.1.3) tat-vyavasthnt (abl. known by) that perseverance eva alone tma-satbhvt (abl. apart from) (ibc) oneself true existence apratiedha no denying
4.18 (The reply is:) One's true birth consists of the (three) equal (balanced)
forces (of prakti, the three guas), through a personal apprehension that has
the same meaning, but through sight and feel, not through perseverance in
the physical sphere. There is no denying (our premise) just by the primary
reality of the self being known by perseverance in that (physical sphere)
alone.

5.) Body and Soul

L A % $ A -'
A
A
(3.1.4) arra-dhe (loc. when) body burning ptaka-abhvt (abl. since)
causing to fall away or die no real existence, no substance (3.1.5) tat-abhva
that no substance // stmaka-pradhe_api (loc. w/api even though) having a
soul or self (see stman MW) burning away tat-nityatvt (abl. because) its
being constant or eternal (3.1.6) na it does not krya-raya-kart-vadht (abl.
caused by) made, done, performed seat maker, creator killing or destruction
of a person (3.1.7) savya-dasya (gen. of) on the left (ibc) what is seen itarea
(instr. by) the other pratyabhijnt (abl. for) recognition
5.1 Since there is no substance in (the notion of) its (the self) falling away
when the physical body is burned, there is (also) no substance in that
(perseverance). Because of its being eternal, even though the thing that
(supposedly) 'has' a soul burns away, such (a burning) is not caused by the
creator's act of destroying the seat (the body) of the performed (karma), for
the recognition of what is seen by the left (eye, the self) must be the same by
means of the other (eye, the creator).
He has mentioned both the individual self or "soul", and the creator. By left and
right he is referring to the eyes as symbols of the two complementary "views" of
reality. The creator is supposedly responsible for the physical world and the soul
for its awareness of it. He says again that both roles belong to one and the same
being, as both eyes belong to the same face.

46

The Nyaya Darshana

hd$ K A KL $hA Z
%2 ' '%
2
(3.1.8) na not ekasmin (instr. by The referent is "itarena" 3.1.7.) the one nsaasthi-vyavahite (loc. when) nose bone (bridge) separated dvitv-abhimnt
(abl. proved) that there are two personal conviction (3.1.9) eka-vine (loc.
when) the one, the first destruction dvitya-avint (abl. just because) the
second no destruction na neither ekatvam oneness, the being one alone (3.1.10)
avayava-ne_api (loc. w/api even when) parts destruction avayaviupalabdhe (abl. just because) having parts (whole) observing ahetu not (our)
grounds knowledge (3.1.11) dnta-virodht (abl. by) doctrine logical
contradiction apratiedha no denying
5.2 (What is seen) by that one (eye, the self) is not proved by a personal
conviction that when separated by the bridge of the nose there are two, (but)
neither is there a oneness, since that non-destruction of the second is when
there is destruction of an (actual) first. That (oneness) is not our grounds for
knowledge, just because we observe the whole even when the parts are
destroyed; (so) there is no denying (our premise) just by the (seeming) logical
contradiction of our (twofold) doctrine.

9
'%
2
A d-% d A
( d- Vb)
(3.1.12) indriya-antara-vikrt (abl. since) sense(s) inner transformation
(3.1.13) na not smte (abl. from) the law texts (smti) smartavya-viayatvt
(abl. known from) having to be memorized existence of the sphere, world
(3.1.14) tat that tma-gua-sadbhvt (abl. by) individual(s) qualities real
truth apratiedha no denying (aparisakhynt (abl. because) not reckoning
ca and smti-viayasya (gen. belonging to) law texts, or 'memory' sphere Vb)
5.3 Since ours is a transformation (of prakti) through the inner senses (the
mind), it is not the one known from the existence of the sphere that has to be
memorized from the law texts. There is no denying (our premise) just by its
(smti's) 'actual truth' about the qualities of individual souls, and just because
we do not reckon everything around as belonging to the sphere of that law.

The Nyaya Darshana

47

.C A
2 ' .% DA 2 %
(3.1.15) na not the case tma-pratipatti-hetnm (gen. pl. of) individual
soul(s) knowing reasons manasi (loc. in) the mind sambhavt (abl. because)
origin (3.1.16) jtu (gen. for) one who truly comprehends jna-sdhanupapatte (abl. arising from) true comprehension establishment evidence
saj awareness // bheda-mtram partition, kind, sort, species (caste) (In the
darshanas this word always refers to the partition of one's perceived world into
individuals and classes.) only (3.1.17) niyama rule ca and, while
niranumna without inference, leaving out inference
5.4 That ('actual truth') is not the case, because the origin of all those
reasons (given in the smti) for knowing about individual souls is in one's
mind, and the awareness of this arises from the evidence of the establishment
of true comprehension, for one who truly comprehends, while the rule (of
prakti) as merely the partition (of castes) leaves out (that it is an) inference.

C d-
.% 2 'L 2
.K %
(3.1.18) prva-abhyasta-smti anubandht (abl. known by) previously
learned remembering outward sign, "facial expression" (in this context)
jtasya (gen. of) born hara-bhaya-oka-sampratipatte (abl. since) excitement
fear grief mutual understanding (3.1.19) padma-diu (loc. pl. in, of) lotus
and so on prabodha-sammlana-vikravat (vati like) opening, awakening
closing (eyes or petals) obscuring tat-vikra that transformation
5.5 Since any (supposed) mutual understanding of the (e.g.) excitement,
fear, or grief of the born form would be known (merely) by the (facial, bodily)
expression, based on remembering what has been learned previously, the
transformation of that (prakti) is like the transformation by the opening and
closing of lotus petals and the like (an analogy for mind, see 1.1.12).

48

The Nyaya Darshana

L . A - A
(3.1.20) na not so ua-ta-var-kla-nimitta-tvt (abl. because) hot cold
rainy at the time instrumental cause would be paca-tmaka-vikrm
(gen. pl. of) fivefold transformations (3.1.21) pretya hra-abhysa-ktt
(abl. apart from; because of the contrast of meaning) having died taking food
repetition, habit being done stanya-abhilt (abl. because) milk craving
5.6 (To the objection) that it is not so, because its being hot, cold, or rainy at
the time (metaphors for rajas, tamas, and sattva?) would be the real cause of
those (opening and closing) transformations of the fivefold (lotus), (or)
because it is (rather like) one's craving for milk, as opposed to one's being
done with the habit of taking food, having died,
The metaphor illustrates the blossoming of awareness from within vs. the outer
visual indication. During the uncertainty phase, the same analogy would mean that
awareness is caused by physical forces acting on or within a living physical body.

.A D - A L A
...%
2
(3.1.22) ayasa (gen.) lit. "iron's", but "iron" is more sensible ayaskntaabhigamanavat (vati like) lodestone, magnet going close, approaching tatupasarpaam that (The referent is still jna from 3.1.16, the same as that of the
previous "tat" in 3.1.19.) approaching (3.1.23) na not anyatra the other way
pravtti-abhvt (abl. for) account without substance, empty (3.1.24) vtarga-janm (n.sg. of janman) gone away passion birth darant (abl. known
by) seeing (3.1.25) sagua-dravya-utpattivat (vati as) comprised of essential
constituents physical manifestation tat-utpatti that manifestation
5.7 (The reply is:) The act of approaching that (prakti, as sattva), like iron
pulling close to a magnet, is rather the birth of one who is freed from passion.
It is not the other way, for that account is without substance. The
manifestation of that (prakti) exists as the manifestation of the physical
sphere comprised of it's essential constituents (guas).

The Nyaya Darshana

49

. L A
2 Z% 2 -

A
2
(3.1.26) na not sakalpa-nimittatvt (abl. known from) mental conception
being the cause rga-dnm (gen. of) passion and the others (3.1.27)
parthivam consisting of pthiv, organic substance, "earth" gua-antaraupalabdhe (abl. for) quality inner observation (A block of text had been
mistakenly transposed here and numbered 3.1.28-30.) (3.1.31) ruti-prmyt
(abl. ind.) veda accepting the authority ca as well as (3.1.32) kna-sre_sati
(loc. in) the reality of the eyeball upalambht (abl. by) comprehending
5.8 That (the body) which consists of organic substance (earth) is not
known from its cause being a conception of passion and the others (the three
guas as planes of existence), for it is the observation of the (eight) inner
guas (of Vaisheshika), as well as accepting the authority of ruti by
comprehending it in the reality of the eyeball.

( h 2 Z%% Z 2 A C % cA MUM)
(3.1.28) prthiva-pya-taijasam the consisting of earth, water, and fire tatgua-upalabdhe (abl. known by) their essntial constituents observing
(3.1.29) ni-vsa ut-vsa (ucchvasa) upalabdhe (abl. known by) inhaling
exhaling observing ctur-bhautikam the consisting of four elements (3.1.30)
gandha-kleda-pka-vyha-avaka-dnebhya (abl. known by) smell
moisture cooking arranging space offerings of food pca-bhautikam the
consisting of five elements
5.9 The consisting of (the three elements that are seen by the eyeball:) earth,
water, and fire, is known by observing their (inner) guas. (This is the world of
objects). The consisting of four elements is known by observing (air as well,
by) inhaling and exhaling. (This world includes the human). The consisting of
five elements is known by offerings of food, with the smell of it (earth), the
moisture of it (water), the cooking of it (fire), the arranging of it (touch, air),
and the space (provided) for it. (This world includes the gods.)

50

The Nyaya Darshana

%2
.A
A
Z
%2
2
(3.1.32 cont.) vyatiricya (ind. part.) having excluded ca also upalambht (abl.
because) recognition saaya doubt, uncertainty (3.1.33) mahat-au-grahat
(abl. since) great minute personal apprehension (3.1.34) rami arthasanikara-viet (abl. just by) ray of light, straight line like a taut string
object drawing in together (of object and sense; 1.1.4) (ifc) particular tatagrahaam that (jna 3.1.16) no personal apprehension (3.1.35) tatanupalabdhe (abl. ind.) that failing to observe ahetu not grounds for
knowledge
5.10) (So,) there is uncertainty, because there is also a certain recognition
having excluded that, (but) since it is a matter of personal apprehension as
both the great and the minute, there is no such personal apprehension just
through the particular (visual) drawing-in of an object by line of sight.
Failure to observe that (great and minute together) is not our grounds for
knowledge.

L
Z
%2 '
Z%
2
2
2
C
(3.1.36) na not the case anumyamnasya (gen. of the pres. part. of the
passive; of) "being inferred" (MW) pratyakata (tasil resulting from) direct
perception anupalabdhi lack of observation abhva-hetu empty grounds for
knowing (3.1.37) dravya-gua-dharma-bhedt (abl. inferred from) physical
qualities duty division ca both/and upalabdhi-niyama observation rule
(3.1.38) aneka-dravya-samavyt (abl. known from) multiplicity physical
inherence rpa-viet (abl. inferred from) form particular ca both/and
5.11 (To the objections:) that it is not the case that the lack of observation
that would result from direct perception of a thing that is being inferred,
constitutes 'empty' grounds for knowing it; (and) that the rule of observation
is satisfied both by the division of dharmas according to physical qualities
that are known from the inherence of multiplicity (of forms) in the physical
(sphere), and by one's own particular form,

The Nyaya Darshana

51

Z% 9 %
2 %( c2

'%Vb) Z.
Z%
2
2
(3.1.38 cont.) rpa-upalabdhi forms observation (3.1.39) karma-krita
caused to be made or done ca and indriym (gen. of) senses vyuha
arrangement, ordering purua-artha-tantra human purpose principle
(avyabhicrt (abl. known by) not deviating ca and pratighta dismissed
bhautika-dharma gross elements duty; and the dharma of that (body) which
consists of gross elements, known by not deviating, is dismissed. Vb) (3.1.40)
madhyadina-ulk-praka-anupalabdhivat (vati like) midday shooting stars
light not observing tat-anupalabdhi them not observing
5.12 (The reply is:) The observation of (human) forms and the karmas they
are made to do, as a principle of 'human purpose', is just an ordering of one's
senses. If one doesn't observe them, it is only like not observing the light of
shooting stars at midday.
He says that in the bright daylight of immediate self-awareness, the little
comings and goings of temporary lives are not that noticeable.

D Z%

2
2 K Z% Z%
2
c A
(3.1.41) na not the case rtrau (loc. at) night api surely anupalabdhe (abl.
since) no observation (3.1.42) vhya-praka-anugraht (abl. through) borne
light aid viaya-upalabdhe (abl. since) sphere observation //
anabhivyaktita (tasil due to) no manifestation anupalabdhi lack of
observation (3.1.43) abhivyaktau (loc. when) manifestation ca indeed
abhibhavt (abl. because) predominance
5.13 (To the objection) that it is not so, because one does observe them at
night, since the observation of that sphere is through the aid of the lights that
belong to those (souls) being borne (across the sky); that any lack of
observation of them is due to there being no (bodily) manifestation of them,
indeed because when there is manifestation, that is the predominant thing.

52

The Nyaya Darshana

Z%2 Z'%
2
(3.1.44) naktacara-nayana-rami-darant (abl. by) nocturnal prowlers
leading straight lines or "rays" of light seeing ca also (3.1.45) aprpyagrahaam imperceptible personal apprehension // kca-abhra-paalasphaika-antarita-upalabdhe (abl. for) glass cloud veil crystal hidden
observing (3.1.46) kuya-antarita-anupalabdhe (abl. just because) barrier
obscured no observing apratiedha no denying
5.14 (The reply is:) There is also a personal apprehension of that which is
imperceptible (by day) by seeing by line of sight the light leading from (the
eyes of) nocturnal creatures. There is no denying (our premise) just because
one cannot observe something obscured by a barrier, for one can observe
what is screened by (e.g.) glass, (thin) cloud cover, a veil, or a crystal.
A tiger camouflaged in the jungle may be unseen by day, but seen at night by
the light from its eyes, which is known to be reflected, not produced like starlight.

;.% % A ' A
(3.1.47) apratightt (abl. for) no dismissing sanikara-upapatti drawing
together evidence (3.1.48) ditya-rame (gen. of) a name of Srya, the sun god
line of sight sphaika-antare_api (loc. w/api even if) crystal in between
dhye (loc. to) "to be burned", flammable avightt (abl. since) no obstruction
(3.1.49) na neither is there itaretara-dharma-prasagt (abl. by) respective
duty adhering, being devoted
5.15 (To the objection) that such (a line of sight) is the evidence of drawingin-together, for there is no dismissing it; that since there is no obstruction of
(the god) Srya's line of sight to the flammable (sacrifice to him), even if there
is a crystal (a human soul) in between, neither is there any (obstacle) by being
devoted to one's respective dharma (of sacrificing).

The Nyaya Darshana

53

; % C Z.Z%
2 ' .%
2
(3.1.50) dara-udakayo (loc. in) mirror water prasda-svbhvyt (abl.
through) clarity, serenity state of self-existence rpa-upalabdhivat (vati like)
form observation tat-upalabdhi him observation (3.1.51) daanumitnm (gen. pl. of things) learned inferred niyoga-pratiedhaanupapatti necessity denial unfitting, doesn't work
5.16 (The reply is:) The observation of him (Srya) is like the observation of
one's form (reflected like 3.1.44) in a mirror or water, through the state of
self-existence in its clarity, (so indeed) it doesn't work to deny the necessity of
things that are learned and inferred (from scripture, e.g., BU 1.4.10 "The rishi
Vamadeva affirmed 'I am the original man, and I became the god Srya'.")

% A (9 Z%
Vb)
2
(3.1.52) sthna-anyatve (loc. in) stance the other nntvt (abl. arising
from) multiplicity (see sthna bahutva 1.2.20) avayavi-nn-sthnatvt (abl.
because) having parts (gen.) multiplicity the stance ca and also saaya
uncertainty (3.1.53) tvac-avyatirekt (abl. known by) feel not excluding na not
indriya-antara-artha-anupalabdhe (abl. known by) senses inner objects
failure to observe
5.17 There is uncertainty, because there is a multiplicity (of parts) in the
other stance, and because there is also the stance that the multiplicity belongs
to the one who has the parts, which is known by not excluding (the sphere of)
feel, not by failure to observe objects as the inner sense.

2 Z%
('C Z.Z% %2
2
Vb)

'

(3.1.54) na neither yugapat_artha-anupalabdhe (abl. by) immediate

object failing to observe tvac-avayava-vieaa-dhma-upalabdhivat (vati

54

The Nyaya Darshana

like) feel part, subdivision the act of distinguishing smoke observing tatupalabdhi such observation vyhatatvt (abl. because) absurdity ahetu no
grounds (3.1.55) vipratiedht (abl. because) general denial ca and
5.18 (On the other hand,) neither is it by failing to observe that there is an
immediate (physical) object. Such an observation would be like observing
(physical) smoke by distinguishing it as a subdivision of feel. That is not our
grounds for knowledge, because of its absurdity and because it would be
generally denied.

6.)
9 A A
L A
'%
na and not tvac-ek feel (f.) as only one (f.) (3.1.56) indriya-arthapacatvt (abl. since) those (senses) objects being five in number (3.1.57) na
not tat-artha-bahu-tvt (abl. known by) their objects multiplicity (3.1.58)
gandha-tva-di-avyatirekt (abl. just because) smell abstract essence of and
the others not excluding gandha-dnm (gen. pl. belonging to) smell and the
others apratiedha no denying
6.1) It is not a matter of feel as only one (sense), because of the objects of
sense being five, (but) those (senses) are not known just by the multiplicity of
their objects. That (multiplicity) is no denying (our premise) just because we
do not exclude the abstract essence of smell and the others that belongs to
(physical) smell and the others.

A
' - % (C2
2
Z A MUM) ( %

- % C CA z C .% MUM)
(3.1.59) viaya-tva-avyatirekt (abl. known by) sphere of objects the
abstract essence of not excluding ekatvam wholeness (3.1.60) na not buddhilakaa adhihna gati-kti-jti paca-tvebhya (abl. pl. known by)
possessed of wisdom ruler transmigration, incarnation physical form birth

The Nyaya Darshana

55

rank five the existence (3.1.61-3) bhta-gua-viea-upalabdhe (gen. of)

gross elements essential constituents particular observation tdtmyam
affinity in the character (gandha-rasa-rpa-spara-abdnm spara-paryant /
pthivy ap-tejo-vynm // prvam prvam apas hi kasya uttara; That
(affinity) of smell, taste, form, feel, and sound (?), is that they are encompassed
by feel. That (affinity) of water, fire, and air, is by earth. Because water is
(syntactically) previous to the first, the higher place would belong to ether.) The
commenter tries to explain the strange idea of not reaching beyond feel, by
referring to Vaisheshika 2.1-5, which describes the encompassing role of feel (but
he is wrong about sound, and of course feel doesn't encompass itself). Otherwise,
this enumeration of senses and elements is out of place here in the broader context
of the opposing dharmas of subjectivism vs. class divisions.
6.2 The wholeness that is known by not excluding the essence of that
sphere is not known by the existence of those five in the birth-rank of some
physical form as (for example) an incarnation of one possessed of wisdom (a
priest), or of a ruler. It is rather an affinity in the character of observation of
their particular gross elements and that of their essential constituents (guas).

h . .
. . Z%
(2 Z%
2
2
2

A Vb)
2
(3.1.64) na not the case sarva gua-anupalabdhe (abl. since) all together
levels of merit (the opponent's definition) no observation (3.1.65) ekaikayena
(ind.) severally, one by one uttara-uttara gua-sadbhvt (abl. since) "higher
and higher", progression, hierarchy (both apply here) merit reality uttarauttarm (gen. of) more and more advanced things tat-anupalabdhi that, such
no observation (sasargt (abl. coming from) combination ca and, whereas
aneka-gua-grahaam several qualities personal apprehension Vb)
6.3 (To the objection) that that (wholeness) is not the case, because one
cannot observe guas as a totality; that there is no observation of that
(totality) of more and more advanced beings, since the reality of the guas as
more and more advanced must be one at a time, whereas our personal
apprehension as the several guas (prakti) would come from a combination
of them.

56

The Nyaya Darshana

% A CC
2 ..' A 2 C A
2 A
(3.1.66) viam (n.) that which encompasses (cf. ve/vea (n.) MW, not a
past participle) hi because a-param-parea (ind.) without one following
another (3.1.67) na there is no prthiva-pyayo (gen. dual of) consisting of
earth consisting of water pratyakatvt (abl. since) perception (The abstract
form is for emphasis.) (3.1.68) prva-prva gua-utkart (abl. due to) one
thing over the previous thing merit (He cleverly uses a third meaning of gua.)
superiority tat-tat-pradhnam one over another principal (3.1.69) tatvyavasthnam that (the referent is pratyakatva) perseverance tu rather
bhyastvt (abl. w/tu apart from, opposed to) the becoming more advanced (This
is the sense of superiority or importance rather than size or abundance.) (3.1.70)
sa-gunm (gen. pl. on the part of) possessed of quality, merit, virtue
6.4 (The reply is:) Because it (prakti) is that which encompasses
(everything), without the one (incarnation) following the other, because of its
being a perception of those (bodies) consisting of earth and water, it's not that
one is chief over the other due to the superiority in merit of one (incarnation)
over the previous. It is rather a matter of perseverance in that ('being' a
perception), as opposed to the becoming more advanced on the part of those
possessed of merit.

(9 A h
2 Z%) Z 2
h' A ' % A %2
indriya-bhvt (3.1.71) tena eva tasya (The author would have used "tat" in
compound) agrahat ca (3.1.72) na abda-gua-upalabdhe; That (abstract
perception) would not result from observation of the essential constituent of
sound (the ether), because there exists a sense organ for that (the ear), and
surely there is no personal apprehension by that means. (The practical-minded
commenter doesn't get the abstraction of sound into ether, mentioned here by the
author. (3.1.73) tat-upalabdhi it observation itara-itara-dravya-guavaidharmyt (abl.) (As the opposite (sa vs. vi) of the following term in the
ablative without "ca", this ablative sense is "apart from", or "as opposed to".)
respective tangible, physical thing merit inconsistency (3.2.1) karma-ka-

The Nyaya Darshana

57

sdharmyt (abl. according to) the performance of proper actions ether (This
refers obliquely to satata, the continuous sound 2.2.34.) consistency with dharma
saaya uncertainty (3.2.2) viaya-pratyabhijnt (abl. by) sphere of objects
recognition (3.2.3) sdhya-samatvt (abl. from) premise substitution ahetu
no true grounds or basis for knowledge
6.5 The uncertainty is the observation of it according to our (thesis of)
consistency of both the karmas and the ether, as opposed to the inconsistency
of the (three dharmic) guas as the respective physical forms. No true grounds
for knowledge can come from any 'equivalent' of our premise (that the
highest dharma is by true comprehension), by recognizing only that sphere (of
physical forms).
The karmas are the repetitions of daily rituals, and the ether is the element
associated with hearing the continuous sound. The author clearly states in 2.2.3038 that these two realities are to be taken together.

2 A % -. 2 A A
(3.2.4) na not the case yugapat_agrahat (abl. because) immediate no
personal apprehension (3.2.5) apratyabhijne (loc. if) no recognition at all (The
referent is viaya 3.2.2) ca and vina-prasaga passing out of existence
occupation with life (3.2.6) krama-vttitvt (abl. because) stages modes of
existence ayugapat not simultaneous grahaam personal apprehension (3.2.7)
apratyabhijnam failure to recognize ca moreover viaya-antara-vysagt
(abl. due to) sphere inner ardent devotion to
6.6 (To the objection) that it is not the case, because there is no such
immediate personal apprehension, and if there were no recognition of those
(physical forms) at all, then we are occupied with passing out of existence;
that the personal apprehension is not immediate, because there are modes of
existence by stages (incarnations), and that the failure to recognize it is due to
our own ardent devotion to our inner sphere, ...

A . % ( Vb)
A .% L %2

58

The Nyaya Darshana

(3.2.8) na not so gati-abhvt (abl. because) transmigration without

existence or substance, empty (3.2.9) sphaika-anyatva-abhimnavat (vati just
like) crystal being something other self-conception tat-anyatva-abhimna
that (referent = viaya-antara 3.2.7) the being something other self-conception
(na hetu-abhvt Vb) (3.2.10) sphaake_api (lo. concessive w/api even though)
crystal apara-apara-utpatte (abl. by) one following the other birth,
incarnation kikatvt (abl. through) momentariness, ephemerality (not a
reference to Buddhism) vyaktnm (gen. of) individuals ahetu no grounds
6.7 (The reply is:) No, because that (notion of) transmigration
(reincarnation) is without substance. Any self-conception of being something
other than just that (inner sphere) is just like the self-conception of being
something other than the crystal. Even though one is the crystal (figuratively),
there can be no true grounds for knowledge through (the notion of) the
ephemerality of individuals by one birth following another.

( 2 ) . Z% L Z
.
.% $ Z%
2
2
2
((3.2.11) niyama-hetu-abhvt yath daranam abhyanuj; Because he
gives no reason for this rule, it is a matter of seeing whatever he permits.)
(3.2.12) na not utpatti-vina-karaa-upalabdhe (abl. according to) birth,
coming into existence annihilation (intrans.), passing out of existence cause(s)
observation (3.2.13) kra-vine (loc. when) milk passing out of existence
kraa-anupalabdhavat (vatup having) cause not observed / dadhi-utpattivat
(vati like) curds coming into existence ca and tat-upapatti those (The referent
is vyaktnm in 3.2.10) evidence (3.2.14) ligata (tasil: resulting from)
indicator (This usually refers to the body.) grahat (abl. because) personal
apprehension na not anupalabdhi without observation
6.8 (To the objection) that it is not so, according to the observation of causes
of coming into existence and passing out of existence; that when milk passes
out of existence (by curdling), this has a cause, which is (however) not
observed, and that the evidence of those (individuals) is like the coming into
existence of the curds, because personal apprehension results from (seeing)
one's (physical) indicator, which does not go without observation.

The Nyaya Darshana

59

We remind ourselves that the actual cosmic workings of karma and reincarnation remain unseen, but that those principles are proved by what is seen,
i.e., the various life circumstances according to caste, health, wealth, etc.

( %
2 )A C . C-.2 A K Z%
Z %
2
((3.2.15) na payasa parima-gua-antara-prdurbhvt; (He says) no,
because it is a matter of manifestation on the part of the inner guas in the
transformation of the milk. This seems to be interpolation, probably meant to
explain the terms vyha-antara and dravya-antara. The commenter uses
terminology from YD 6.15: "abhibhava-prdurbhvau nirodha-kaa-cittaanvaya nirodha-parima" He uses the YD word for transformation, rather
than this author's, and he even uses a different word for milk.) (3.2.16) vyhaantart (abl. according to) arrangement inner dravya-antara-utpattidaranam the physical (reality) inner coming into existence seeing // prvadravya-nivtte (gen. of) existing previously physical (reality) cessation
anumnam inference (3.2.17) (see the similar 2.1.19-20) kvacit in one case
vina-kraa-anupalabdhe (abl. since) passing out of existence cause nonobservance kvacit in the other case ca and upalabdhe (abl. since) observation
aneknta not just the one way exclusively
6.9 (The reply is:) According to the inner arrangement, one sees the coming
into existence of what is inner to its (milk's) physical reality, (but) of the
cessation of a physical reality previous (to its curdling) there is only inference
(see eavat 1.1.5), since in that case there is no observation of a cause of (the
previous thing) passing out of existence. Moreover, since in the other case (the
coming into existence) there is observation, it cannot be just the one way.

9 K A 2 Z
% -2
2

2 A
(3.2.18) na not indriya-arthayo (gen. dual; of) sense object tat-vine (loc.
where; The usual "even though" w/api doesn't work here.) that passing out of
existence even considering api (emphatic) surely must jna-avasthnt (abl.
known by) true comprehension life condition (3.2.19) yugapat in the immediate
presen jeya-anupalabdhe (abl. knon by) to be comprehended failure to

60

The Nyaya Darshana

observe ca_na and not manasa (gen. on the part of, by) the mind's (3.2.20) tattma-guatve (loc. where) that essence gua-state even considering api
surely must tulyam (ind.) equally, w/cana, not any more than
6.10 That (inner arrangement) is not known (exclusively) by a life of
comprehension of (only) the sense and its physical objectwhere that (object)
surely must pass out of existenceany more than it is known (exclusively) in
the immediate present by non-observation of that (physical object) which
would be comprehended by the mindwhere it surely must be (only) the
gua-state, as the essence of that (object).

9h% ..%
. A 2
2
Z
(3.2.21) indriyai (inst. with) senses manasa (gen. of) mind sanikaraabhvt (abl. ind.) drawing in together in the absence of tat-anutpatti that
no coming into existence (3.2.22) na cannot be utpatti-kraa-anapadet (abl.
ind. w/na + privative alpha (=abl.+te)) coming into existence cause without
assigning (3.2.23) vina-kraa-anupalabdhe (abl. ind.) passing out of
existence cause without observing ca moreover avasthne (loc. in) life
circumstance, situation
6.11 There is no coming into existence of that (object) in the absence of the
drawing-in-together of mind with the senses (not just object and senses 3.2.18),
which (mind) cannot be without assigning a cause of its coming into existence,
and this is without observing a cause of its passing out of existence in real life.

2
$%
K % A 2
%
tat thus nityatva-prasaga as a constancy occupation with life // (3.2.24)
anityatva-graht (abl. by) inconstancy grasping an idea buddhe (abl. w/antara
"other"; than) power of discerning buddhi-antart (abl. known by) power of
discerning inner, other vina passing out of existence abdavat (vati like)
sound (3.2.25) jna-samaveta tma-pradea sanikart (abl. known by)
one who has come to true comprehension self-realm drawing-in-together
manasa (gen. for) mind

The Nyaya Darshana

61

6.12 Thus, it (ours) is an occupation with life as a constancy. Our passing

out of existence is known through an understanding that is other than (inner
to) any understanding that comes about by (merely) grasping the idea of
inconstancy (of objects). This is the case for a mind that is known by the
drawing-in-together within the realm of the individual self (the cause of mind,
see SD Ch. three) of one who has come to true comprehension.

d-.
2 .% %L-. % %2 d%
2
L' .'%
(3.2.25 cont.) smti-utpatte (abl. according to) law coming into existence
na not the case yugapat immediate utpatti coming into existence (3.2.26) na not
the case anta-arra vttitvt (abl. known by) inner body mode of
existence manasa (gen. for) mind (3.2.27) sdhyatvt (abl. from) (meant) to be
demonstrated (cf. 2.1.33) the existence of ahetu not basis of knowledge
(3.2.28) smarata (tasil; resulting from) fondness, physical intimacy (This is a
euphemism for sex and a play on other sm words nearby.) arra-dhraaupapatte (abl. by) body holding, maintaining evidence apratiedha no
denying
6.13 According to the smti's (teaching of) coming into existence, our
immediate coming into existence is not the case. It is not the case for a mind
known (only) by its mode of existence as the inner aspect of a (preexisting)
body, (but) that is without our grounds for knowledge, because it would have
to be demonstrated. There is no denying (our premise) just by their evidence
of that (mind) being contained by a body that results from 'physical intimacy'.

% d A
2
%
(3.2.29) na not the case tat-u-gati-tvt (abl. known by) quickly moving
tendency of manasa (gen. for) mind (3.2.30) na cannot be smaraa-klaaniyamt (abl. ind. w/na + privative alpha) remembering (the smti MW) time
without fixing (3.2.31) tma-preraa -yadcch -jatbhi (f. inst. pl. with)
individual self deliberate action spontaneous nature (jat) "wise and
learned" MW ca_na nor sayoga-viea conjunction special

62

The Nyaya Darshana

6.14 It is not the case for a mind that is known by its tendency of quick
movement in that (recitation of smti, literally, "remembering")which itself
cannot be without fixing the actual time of remembering (the present). Nor is
its special conjunction with that individual's deliberate (proper) action, his
spontaneous (pure) nature, and his being wise and learned, the case.
The self, the whole, the possessor of parts, is known in the immediate present,
and it doesn't need to be explained. The explanation of all the partsmarks,
qualities, indicators, etc.seems to move into and out of the mind, into and out of
memory, over time, but the time of that act of remembering is the present. To say
someone is quick and knowledgeable is only to say he is capable of recalling and
reciting points of knowledge one at a time, in the present. Even that potential is in
the end nothing but the vague belief in the potential, in the present.

% A ' 2 A
(3.2.32) vysakta-manasa (gen. for) preoccupied mind pda-vyathanena
(inst. with) feet hurting sayoga-vieea (inst. with) conjunction special
samnam same (3.2.33) praidhna-liga-di-jnnm (gen. pl. for) attention
indicator beginning with (not "etc." here) those whose comprehension
ayugapat not immediate bhvt (abl. according to) view
6.15 For a mind thus preoccupied (3.2.31), it is the same with foot pain (for
example) as it is with that special conjunction. For those whose
comprehension begins with the indicator of that attention (the foot), according
to that view, that (conjunction) is not immediate.

2 A K. - % K %
'%
(3.2.33 cont.) ayugapat not immediate smaraam the act of remembering
(3.2.34) jasya (gen.) the comprehender's icch-dvea-nimittatvt (abl. caused
by) desire aversion its being instrumental cause rambha-nivttyo (gen. of)
beginning cessation (3.2.35) tat-ligatvt (abl. by) his the being an indication
icch-dveayo (gen. dual on the part of) desire aversion parthiva-dyeu (loc.
pl. within) consisting of organic substance etc. apratiedha no denying

The Nyaya Darshana

63

6.16 The memory of the comprehender's origination and cessation, being

caused by his (previous) desire and aversion, cannot be immediate either.
There is no denying (our premise) by (asserting) the desire and aversion being
his indicator, (residing) within that which consists of organic substance and
the others (his body).

-. A (2 Z
%2 Vb) c 2
2
K-c
2 A
(3.2.36) parau-diu (loc. in) axes and the like rambha-nivtti-darant
(abl. known from) origination cessation seeing / kumbha-diu (loc. in)
pitchers and the like anupalabdhe (abl. since) no observation ahetu no grounds
for knowledge (3.2.37) niyama-aniyamau rule lack of rule tu however tatvieakau on that (point) petty distinctions (a kan kamrtha taddhita form;
"only resembling a valid distinction") (3.2.38) yath-ukta-hetu-tvt (abl. for) has
been declared motivation (a different use for hetu) being a matter of
6.17 From seeing origination (impulse) and cessation (letting go) in
(wielding) axes and such (like pestles and arrows, see VD on karma), we know
that (body as indicator) is no grounds for knowledge, since there is no
observation of it in pitchers and the like. That rule (of karma) and the lack of
it, however, are petty distinctions on the point, that being a matter of the
motivation (toward proper behavior) supplied by that (law) which has been
declared.

- % C. d
A
pratantryt (abl. according to) (See paratantra 1.1.29.) being a theory for
others akta-abhygamt (abl. known by) (recalls "aparkita-abhyupagamt"
1.1.31) who has not done accepting ca_na nor is it the case manasa (gen. for)
mind (3.2.39) pariet (abl. ind.) left over yath-ukta-hetu-upapatte (abl.
from) has been declared motive evidence ca even (3.2.40) smaraam the act
of remembering tu but tmana (gen. belonging to) individual self jasvbhvyt (abl. emerging from) comprehender state of self-existence

64

The Nyaya Darshana

6.18 Nor is it the case for a mind known by that which we accept without
having done (the examination), according to our 'theory for others' (see
1.1.29); but even our act of remembering that (before-state), left over from
our evidence of the motive supplied by that (law, smti) which has been
declared, belongs to our individual self emerging from the state of selfexistence of the comprehender.

(' h ' ' %

K ' '.%
2

2
A
A )A
((3.2.41) praidhna -nibandha -abhysa -liga -lakaa -sdya
-parigraha -araya -arita -sambandha -nantarya -viyoga -ekakrya -virodha atiaya -prpti -vyavadhna -sukha -dukha -icch -dvea -bhya -arthitva
-kriy -rga -dharma -adharma -nimittebhya (3.2.42) karma-anavasthyigrahat (3.2.43) avyakta-grahaam / an-avasthyitvt vidyut-sampte rpaavyakta-grahaavat; The causes (of karmic 'memories') are: (as stated in
3.2.41). The idea of being unmanifest arises from the personal apprehension of
being without any karmic circumstance, like the personal apprehension of the
unmanifest (leftover) visual image after lightning strikes, without the condition
of having the actual circumstance (of lightning).
This interpolation, between chapters, and identifiable by the long compound,
seems to be inspired by the mention of memory (smaraa) and soul (tman). The
commenter attempts to explain how residual karma exists as 'memories' while the
soul is unmanifest between incarnations. But he misunderstands the author's thesis,
as religious commentators to the Darshanas are apt to do, so instead of any sign of
comprehension, we see just another list of words to be memorized and recited by
the students of his school. The lightning example is nice though.

The Nyaya Darshana

65

7.)
C '
2 L %.
2
A

2 Z% %
(3.2.44) hetu-updnt (abl. since) grounds accepting unto oneself
pratiedha-vybhyanuj denial comprehensive admittance (3.2.45) pradpaarci illumination, exposition light satati-abhivyakta-grahaavat (vati like)
continuity become manifest self-perception tat-grahaam in it personal
apprehension (3.2.46) dravye (loc. when it comes to) physical substance svaguaparagua -(gen.)- upalabdhe (gen. of, about) one's own essential constituents
another's essential constituents -(gen. of)- observation saaya uncertainty
7.1 (Therefore,) since one must accept any grounds for knowledge unto
oneself, there should be comprehensive admittance of the denials (as well).
(So) there is the light of our exposition, in which personal apprehension is like
perceiving oneself as the continuity (of sound) become manifest, (but) there is
(also) the uncertainty about the observation of one's own essential
constituents vs. those of another, when it comes to the physical (world).
The term "accepting unto oneself" (updna cf. SD) means that, for a person
who comprehends that truth, any idea he entertains or understands must be owned,
even if rejected. He is certainly not advising that we hold to the truth of some
assertion and to the truth of its logical opposite in the same universe of discourse.

L C L A
2 .% KK% '%
(3.2.47) yvat to whatever extent arra-bhvitvt (abl. stemming from) body
inevitability rpdnm (gen. of ref.=upalabdhi 3.2.46) form and the others
(3.2.48) na not the case pkaja-gua-antara-utpatte (gen. of; ref.=upalabdhi
3.2.46) born of development essential constituents inner coming into
existence (3.2.49) pratidvadvi-siddhe (abl. by) opposition affirmation
pkajnm (gen. of) born of development apratiedha no denying
7.2 To whatever extent that (observation) of visual form and the other
(essential constituents) stems from the inevitability of a (pre-existing) body,

66

The Nyaya Darshana

that (observation) of the coming into existence through inner essential

constituents on the part of one born out of their development, is not the case,
(but) there is no denying (our premise) just by our opposition's affirmation of
being born out of (karmic) development.

(L A Z%
L ) 2
% Lh
2 ' A L h' A 9 C L '%
[(3.2.50) arra-vypitvt (3.2.51) na kea-nakhdiu anupalabdhe (3.2.52)
tvac-paryantatvt arrasya; This (following material) is according to his theory
of pervasion of those (guas) in the body, but they are not known from the
body's being encompassed by feel, because there would be no observation (of
guas) in hair and nails and so on. "Hair and nails" stands out, so he comments
on it.] kea-nakhdiu (loc. in) hair nails etc. aprasaga no occupation with
(life) (3.2.53) arra-gua-vaidharmyt (abl. because) body essential
constituents inconsistency (3.2.54) na not rpdnm (gen. of) visual form and
the others itaretara-vaidharmyt (abl. because) one vs. another inconsistency
(3.2.55) aindriyakatvt (abl. by) being related to the senses rpdnm (gen. of)
visual form etc. apratiedha no denying
7.3 There is no occupation (with life) in the hair and nails and so on,
because of the inconsistency of that with our (thesis of) essential constituents
of the body. It is not (however) because of a lack of consistency with the visual
form etc. of one (person's body) vs. another's, (so) there is no denying (our
premise) just by that form and the others' being related to the physical senses.
Obviously, the body is not made of air, fire, water, and earth, in the sense that
one could examine it under magnification and find tiny bits of those things held
together somehow. Notwithstanding the reality of the body that we all know as
made of molecules, the authors of the Darshanas describe another equally true
reality where the body is not just an object that is experienced and then explained,
but the very experience itself. The experience is the thing that can be realized as
the essential constituents, first of feel, and developing out of that, visual form,
taste, and smell, corresponding respectively to the four elements mentioned. Those
four essential constituents are pervaded by a constant ethereal spatial substance
(ka), which manifests as the subtlest comprehension of sound. This notion of

The Nyaya Darshana

67

the priority of experience over physical reality is the basic idea behind subjective
idealism. Interestingly, the author's choice of hair and nails to illustrate this point
has the additional charm that those are most noticeable parts of the body in which
there is no sensation of feel.

c % 2 Z% .Z -2
A
2 2
(3.2.56) jna-ayaugapadyt (abl. for) true comprehension not having
immediacy (The author's yugapat in compound doesn't require the determinative
complement to be "simultaneous with something".) ekam alone solitary, on its own
mana mind (3.2.57) na not yugapat immediate / aneka-kriya-upalabdhe (abl.
for) many activities observation (3.2..58) alta-cakra-daranavat (vati like)
firebrand ("unsconced" torch?) circle seeing tat-upalabdhi it observation //
u-sacrt (abl. ind.) quickly moving (3.2.59) yath-ukta-hetutvt (abl.
ind.) that which has been declared (not "as stated above") with the motivation of
ca and au finely divided
7.4 (In fact,) not having the immediacy of true comprehension, that 'mind'
(the "aindriyaka") on its own (without comprehension) is not immediate, for
one does observe its manifold activity. Observation of it is like seeing a
(whole) circle made by (swinging) a burning stick. Moving quickly and with
the motivation of that (law, smti) which has been declared, that (karma
which is the object of this metaphor) is finely divided.
He gives an example of the relationship of a sense impression as one of a series
progressing through time and the impression as it exists in the present. With the
swinging firebrand, what is seen as a whole orange circle in the dark is considered
to be an innumerable series of positions of the burning tip, in time and space, as
parts of the whole. (Of course, the physiological explanation of this phenomenon,
as interesting as it may be, is not really the point here.)

C-
..% C C2 . A A
2
.. D %
(3.2.60) prva-kta phala-anubandht (abl. known by) previous action
consequence incidental attachment tat-utpatti those coming into existence

68

The Nyaya Darshana

(3.2.61) bhtebhya (abl. from) gross elements mrti-updnavat (vati like)

physical form accepting unto oneself tat-updnam it accepting unto oneself
(3.2.62) na not sdhya-samatvt (abl. by) premise its being an equivalent
(3.2.63) na not utpatti-nimittatvt coming into existence being the instrumental
cause mt-pitro (loc. having to do with) mother father
7.5 The coming into existence of that (mind) is known by its incidental
attachment as the maturation of the previously created (individual self,
"tman" 3.2.40). Accepting that unto oneself is like accepting one's own
physical form, (made) from the gross elements, unto oneself; (but) not by its
being an equivalent for our premise (that the highest dharma is by true
comprehension), (that is,) not because of that (prva-kta) being the
instrumental cause of the coming into existence (bodily incarnation) that has
to do with a mother and father.
This could just as easily be read as a declaration of karma and re-incarnation. I
think, however, that the author meant to use these same words to express his own
quite different thesis, perhaps even with the dual meaning in mind. The language is
clear and precise for the task: Phala "fruit" from phal meaning to "burst open", as
a ripened pod, is the perfect description of the development of the subtle senses
"rpdi" (=tanmtrni) through the mind, out of the individual self "tman"
(=ahakra SD, =ahanman BU), which is made (not "done") previously
"prva-kta" in the series, out of the constant self (ja-svbhvya in 3.2.40,
=Brahman in BS, =Mahat in VD, SD). All of this is consistent with the series as
outlined in both the Vaisheshika and Sankhya Darshanas.
As in 4.1.14-17, the close proximity of na+abl phrases need not be read as an
exchange of pointless laconic rejoinders, like a schoolyard squabble. The author is
using the technique of clarifying what is within the scope of his thesis by explicitly
rejecting what is outside the scope. After all we have learned about the author's
true thesis, surely he is not suddenly teaching us the religious doctrine of karma! It
has been his style throughout to give a fresh and profound experience-based
interpretation to some of the tired dogmas of the traditional faith-based "for it is
written" system that was as prevalent in his time as it is now. That's why this
treatise, like the other Darshanas, is considered to be a work of philosophy, as
distinct from the many ancient texts on religion, science, law, legend, etc.

The Nyaya Darshana

69

c L
.. (
.. A
A

% %)

e ( 2
2
A Vb)
(3.2.64) tath the same way hrasya (gen. of) livelihood (not "food" here)
(3.2.65) prptau (loc. with) acquisition ca in addition to that aniyamt (abl. ind.)
without the rule (3.2.66) arra-utpatti-nimittavat (vati like it is with) body
coming into existence instrumental cause // (sayoga-utpatti-nimittam karma
(3.2.67) etena aniyama pratyukta; One's karma is the instrumental cause of
the manifestation of one's connection (with body and livelihood). Thereby his
lawless (doctrine) is refuted. (a typical "proof" by assertion of religious dogma.))
(3.2.68) tat-ada-kritam those unseen caused iti_cet to the objection that:
punar again, repeatedly tat-prasaga him occupation with life apavarge (loc.
until) final release (an opponent's definition) / na no karaa-akaraa-yogarambha-darant (abl. because) making not making union origination
seeing
7.6 In addition to that (body), it is the same way with the acquisition of
one's livelihood (life-circumstance)without our rule (of "coming into
existence")as it is with the (rule of the) instrumental cause of the coming
into existence of one's body (from 3.1.63; i.e., not the case). To the objection
that those (body and livelihood) are caused by an unseen force, and our
occupation (with life) is repeated until final release; the reply is: no, for we see
(or "according to the darshana on" cf. BU?) its origination as a union of creator
and non-creator.

%. %
.%
2 ( 2
2

)
A - A -. %
(3.2.69) manas-karma-nimitta-tvt (abl. because) mind activity
instrumental cause the fact that ca moreover sayoga-anuccheda conjunction
(cf. sayoga 3.2.31-32) not cut off (3.2.70) nityatva-prasaga constancy
occupation ca and so pryaa-anupapatte (abl. since) going away no
evidence ((3.2.71) au ymat-nityatvavat etat syt; Perhaps that (constancy) is
atomic, like the constancy of the blackness (of space.) (3.2.72) na not akta-

70

The Nyaya Darshana

abhygama-prasagt (abl. known from) by one who has not done (the
examination) accepted occupation (4.1.1) pravtti true account yath-ukt
already stated (cf. pravtti vk 1.1.17) (4.1.2) tath likewise do faulty or false
ones (the counterpart of pravtti, cf. 1.1.17-18)
7.7 Moreover, because of the fact that the (body and livelihoods')
instrumental cause is the activity of one's mind, its (the mind's) conjunction
(with objects see sayoga 3.2.31-32) is never cut off and so we know that
occupation as a constancy, since there is no evidence that it ever goes away.
This (constancy) is not known from the kind of occupation that is accepted by
one who hasn't done (the examination). This (3.2.69) is the (true) account we
have already declared (in 1.1.17), and likewise (shall we speak of) the false
ones, as follows:
The overall cause (kraa) is the "supreme being" level of consciousness
(4.1.19), whereas the subordinate "instrumental cause" (nimitta) is the mind. This
is consistent with the outline presented in chapter three of the Sankhya.
Here the author says that one's experience of some kind of body and some kind
of life never goes away. The truth that there can be times with no mental
experience, like deep sleep or deep meditation, obviously cannot be an
experienced truth or even a remembered one. It can only be (falsely) inferred.
Even the inevitability of one's own eventual loss of consciousness through death,
as true as it may be, is an inferred knowledge, and like an experience or a memory,
the inference happens in the immediate present.

qh K A hL A %2
% L $ C .%
(4.1.3) tat (ind.) as follows (The translation of this is appended to the previous
sentence. See also 5.1.2.) trairyam a group of three rga-dvea-moha-arthaantara-bhvt (abl. known by) passion aversion (=vairagya) mindlessness
meanings alternate view (4.1.4) na it doesn't mean eka-pratyanka-bhvt
(abl. from) singular, pre-eminent, excellent (MW) adversaries view (4.1.5)
vyabhicrt (abl. just because) deviation ahetu lack of grounds for knowledge
(4.1.6) tem (gen. of) those moha mindlessness ppyt (abl. for) worst // na
not amhasya (gen. of) non-mindless itara-utpatte (abl. known by) as a
counterpart creation of, creating a

The Nyaya Darshana

71

7.8 There is a (certain) group of three things known by a view of alternate

meanings of passion, aversion (to passion), and mindlessness (representing
rajas, sattva, and tamas). Just because this is a deviation from the view of our
most excellent adversaries (the 'sattvic' priest/scholar class), that doesn't mean
we lack grounds for knowledge. Of those (three), that (lack of grounds) is
rather the mindlessness itself, for it is the worst, (but) this (mindlessness) is
not known by creating a non-mindless (class) as a counterpart to it.

.h. % ' .h. .

2 L '%
(4.1.7) nimitta-naimittika-bhvt (abl. coming from) instrumental cause and
effect relation artha-antara -(gen.)- bhva meaning alternate view (The
connection with bhva is always gen. but translated as "with".) doebhya (abl.
w/antara apart from) false ones (4.1.8) na not doa-lakaa-avarodht (abl. just
because) the false (accounts) those characterized by separating from mohasya
(gen. of) mindlessness (ref.=bhva 4.1.7) (4.1.9) nimitta-naimittika-upapatte
(abl. just by) instrumental cause effect evidence ca and again tulya-jtynm
(gen. belonging to, held by) equals, peers those of some class (The referent of
this gen. term is amhasya in 4.1.6, the learned class (=prptnm in 2.2.47,
=pta in 2.1.52, =abda-artha-vyavasthna/sampratyaya in 2.1.55, =abdasamha in 2.2.60 ) apratiedha no denying
7.9 From our instrumental cause and effect relation (of 3.2.69) comes our
view of those alternate meanings, apart from the false (accounts). Ours is not
one (a view) of mindlessness, just because we separate ourselves from those
(scholars) who are characterized by the false (accounts), and so there is no
denying (our premise) just by the evidence of the instrumental cause and
effect (karma) held by those who are of that class of our (highborn) peers.

% A .%
.'%
(4.1.10) tma-nityatve (loc. as) individual soul constancy, perpetuity
pretyabhva-siddhi state of existence having passed on affirmation (4.1.11)
vyaktt (abl. from) manifestation vyaktnm (gen. of) manifestations pratyakaprmyt (abl. because) perception validity (4.1.12) na not the case ghat

72

The Nyaya Darshana

(abl. following from) pot, vessel (metaphor for body) ghaa anipatte (abl. for)
vessel (caus. sense) no fashioning (4.1.13) vyaktt (abl. by) manifestation
ghaa-nipatte (gen. of) vessel fashioning apratiedha no denying
7.10 There is their affirmation that there is a 'state of existence having
passed on' (1.1.9, 19) as a (kind of) perpetuity of the soul, because from its
manifestation they validate their perception of (past) manifestions; but this is
not the case, for there is no such fashioning of a (soul's) vessel following from
a (previous) vessel. There is no denying (our premise) just by their
manifestation by fashioning a vessel.

. 2 ( A %) L % A .% e '%
(4.1.14) abhvt (abl. arising out of) state of non-presence bhva-utpatti
view arising / na not such that anupamdya (fut. pass. part.) never to be
crushed, depressed (destroyed) (prdur-bhvt (see interpolation 3.2.15) (4.1.15)
vyghtt aprayoga; That (anupamdya) does not apply, being absurd because
it is a manifestation (and therefore destructible). (4.1.16) na not attaangatayo (loc. dual; in the sense of) past future kraka-abda -prayogt
(abl. understood by) action words applying (4.1.17) na not vinaebhya (abl.
pl. out of) things destroyed anipatte (abl. because) no fashioning (4.1.18)
krama-nirdet (abl. by) series dictating apratiedha no denying
7.11 Our view (4.1.7) does arise out of a state where it is not present, but
not such that it could never again be depressed (by tamas)which is not to be
understood by applying those action words (utpatti and upamdya) in the sense
of past and future. This is not because there is no fashioning something anew
out of (the atoms of) things that have previously been destroyed. There is no
denying (our premise) just by their dictating a series (of incarnations).
The cycle of appearance and disappearance of realization of the subjectivist
"theory of being" or view (bhva), seemingly temporal but ever in the present and
independent of time, is easy to experience but very difficult to describe. The
languages of the world have evolved to describe a physical universe of time,
space, and matter, and to virtually embody in our minds all the objective realities
of human life. Sanskrit is no exception, so it is not surprising that this author's
attempts to guide the reader to an understanding of the present-moment self-

The Nyaya Darshana

73

creative reality are as awkward and easily misread as those of every other author
who has tried it, ancient and modern. Here, he goes back and forth across the line
between the inner layered reality without time, and the outer cycle of physical
creation and destruction through time, diligently trying to cover both sides of the
duality, so that both can be embraced as a union, a yoga. He has done this to some
extent from the very beginning of the work.

%

.% 2
2
A
%2 . .%
(4.1.19) vara supreme governor, (not "God") kraam cause puruakarma-aphalya-(gen.)-darant (abl. according to) personal karma (fut.p.p.
>caus.phal) not to be brought to fruition understanding (or "according to the
Darshana" ? cf. VD 1.9, YD 2.1) (4.1.20) na not purua-karma - abhve (loc.)
personal karma without phala-anipatte (gen. of ref.=darana 4.1.19) fruit
no fashioning (4.1.21) tat-kritatvt (abl. for) by that would be caused ahetu
without grounds for knowledge (4.1.22) animittata (ind.) without instrumental
cause (referring to the most recent mention in 4.1.9) bhva-utpatti a being
coming into existence
7.12 The supreme being (vara) is our cause. This is according to our
understanding of 'not brought to fruition by personal karma', not that
(understanding) of 'no fashioning of fruit without personal karma'. That is
without our grounds for knowledge, for then one would be caused by that
(karma, and not vara). The coming into existence of a (human) being
happens without that instrumental cause (karma 4.1.9).
The author's vara is not the "God" we know from religious beliefs. It is rather
the "inner" vara we know from the other Darshanas.

h A ..
A .% . . '%
(4.1.22 cont.) kaaka-taikya-di-darant (abl. according to) thorns
sharpness etc. understanding (4.1.23) animitta-nimitta-tvt (abl. just because)
without cause cause being na not animittata (ind.) no instrumental cause
(4.1.24) nimitta-animittayo (gen. dual; of) cause no cause artha-antara-

74

The Nyaya Darshana

bhvt (abl. by) meaning other view apratiedha no denying (Again we see
the confounded repetition, this time of the word "nimitta".)
7.13 According to our understanding of the sharpness of thorns and the
like, it is not a matter of no instrumental cause (of the pain), just because of
the instrumental cause (of pain, the thorn) being without that instrumental
cause (karma). There is no denying (our premise) just by the view of that
other meaning of both instrumental cause (karma) and then no such
instrumental cause (liberation).

2 . ' A A A

2 A A
(4.1.25) sarvam everyone anityam inconstant utpatti-vina-dharmakatvt
(abl. because) coming into existence passing out of existence, extinction its
being the nature (4.1.26) na not the case anityat-nityatvt (abl. because)
inconstancy constancy (4.1.27) tat-anityatvam his inconstancy agne (gen.
of) fire "Agni's" dhyam "burning-ness", tendency to burn / vinyaanuvinavat (vati like) to be extinguished after extinction (as little flames on a
bed of burning coals will intermittently go out and re-ignite.) (4.1.28) nityasya
(gen. of) (in the gen.) the constant one apratykhynam no refutation
7.14 That the 'everyone' is inconstant, because of its being their nature to
come into existence and then to pass out of existence, is not the case either,
because of the very constancy of their inconstancy. Like that which remains to
be extinguished (embers) even after extinguishing him, Agni's (constant)
tendency to burn is (ironically) his inconstancy (as he consumes his own fuel),
but this is no refutation of the constant one (vara).

Z A z C A . Z%
' '% ( . Z%)
(4.1.28 cont.) yath whatever (ref.=pratykhyna) upalabdhi-vyavasthnt
(abl. inferred or admitted by) observation persevering (4.1.29) sarvam all
nityam constant paca-bhta-nityatvt (abl. because, "the reason is that") five
gross elements constancy (4.1.30) na not valid utpatti-vina-kraaupalabdhe (abl. for) coming into existence passing out of existence cause

The Nyaya Darshana

75

(recalls vara kraam in 4.1.19) observing (4.1.31) tat-lakaa-avarodht

(abl. by) their personal qualities disallowing apratiedha no denying (4.1.32)
(na utpatti-tat-kraa-upalabdhe) (This is a repetition of 4.1.30. Tat would
represent vina, but its position in the compound is odd.)
7.15 Whatever (refutation) there might be that by our perseverance in that
observation that the 'everyone' is constant, we admit to constancy of the five
gross elements; that (refutation) is not valid, for we observe our cause (vara
4.1.19) of their coming into existence and passing out of existence, (so) it is not
a denial (of our own premise) by disallowing personal qualities on their part.
The idea is that the constancy of one's own awareness, as the awareness of the
supreme governor, pervades all notions of creation and destruction, including birth
and death. He allows that physical objects, said to consist of gross elements, come
and go, but the awareness that gives rise to them through the sensory powers is
constant. According to this observation, it is not the actual physical flame, but
one's awareness of "burning" that is the real nature of fire and thus its cause.
Again it may be emphasized that this is philosophy and not science. Everyone
knows the scientific explanation of combustion, but a devoted reader of material
like this must surely be one who wishes to delve into a deeper examination of the
essential truth of what it really means to say there is such a thing as knowledge or
a knower of it. Indeed, any paradigm like that of pure scientific reasoning that
dismisses the value of such an examination out of hand wouldn't even count as
philosophical knowledge. Nor should it be expected to, for this examination is
outside the scope of scientific investigation.

.%z - - A h .% '%
(4.1.33) na not vyavasthna-upapatte (abl. known by) perseverance
evidence (4.1.34) sarvam everyone pthak-bhva-lakaa-pthaktvt (abl.
known from) distinct individual view qualities individuality (4.1.35) na not
aneka-lakaai (inst. pl. assessed by means of) several qualities eka-bhvanipatte (abl. for) one view fashioning (4.1.36) lakaa-vyavasthnt (abl.
by) qualities persevering eva only apratiedha no denying

76

The Nyaya Darshana

7.16 The 'everyone' known from the individuality of human qualities

(found) in the view of (many) distinct individuals is not known by the
evidence of our perseverance. That (individuality) is not assessed by means of
its several qualities, for it is a matter of the 'fashioning' (4.1.13) found in our
view of the one (being). There is no denying (our premise) just by persevering
only in the (division of human) qualities.

% A A
2 A
(4.1.37) sarvam the everyone (Some of these terms read best as labels for the
concepts being discussed, so I have used single quotes to emphasize that sense,
without indicating an actual "iti" quotation.) abhva not existent (Any
translation like "all are non-entities" is absurd.) bhveu (loc. in the sense of)
beings / itaretara -abhva-siddhe (abl. for) one with respect to the other
empty affirmation (4.1.38) na not svabhva-siddhe (abl. by) self-existence
affirming bhvnm (gen. belonging to) beings (4.1.39) na nor svabhvasiddhe (abl. inferring from) self-existence affirmation pekikatvt (abl. by)
tendency of "looking around", considering (others) (4.1.40) vyhatatvt (abl.
because) an idea "struck aside" as nonsense, absurdity ayuktam incompatible
7.17 Our 'everyone' does not exist in the sense of 'beings' (plural), for that
is just the empty affirmation of the 'one (soul) with respect to another' (view).
It is not by any affirmation that one's own self-existence belongs (also) to
those beings, nor by a tendency to see that (self-existence) all around,
inferring it from the affirmation of one's own self-existence. Because of its
absurdity, this is incompatible with that (concept of "self-existence").

h %
2 . A A 2
%2
(4.1.41) sakhy-eknta-asiddhi reckoning numbers exclusive no
affirmation kraa-anupapatti-upapattibhym (abl. known by) cause not
evident evident (4.1.42) na not kraa-avayava-bhvt (abl. known by) cause
subdivisions view (4.1.43) niravayavatvt (abl. known from) state of being
without subdivisions ahetu lacking grounds

The Nyaya Darshana

77

7.18 There can be no affirmation of their reckoning of numbers (of souls)

as the only way. That (self-existence) is known by our cause (vara 4.1.19, 30
being evident vs. not being evident, not by the view of subdivisions of that
cause. We know from the state of being without any subdivisions, that such (a
view) lacks our grounds for knowledge.
The view of the self-existence of others fades to nothing, deep into the
examination of one's own self-existence, but only there. That place is a profound
and very real dimension of existence, but it is ultimately private and has no
practical application in ordinary life. This must have been just as clear to the
authors of the Darshanas as it is to us. One doesn't proceed through daily life
thinking about the souls of others. Both self-examination and the examination of
scientific explanations for things require special deliberate attention in their own
time, apart from the daily routine of life.

8.)
% .% % % A .e2 A .% (-. )A
(4.1.44) sadya right away, at the very moment kla-antare (ind.) after a
period of time ca and phala-nipatte (abl. because) fruit fashioning saaya
uncertainty (4.1.45) na not sadya in the moment kla-antara-upabhogyatvt
(abl. because) time period to be enjoyed (4.1.46) kla-antarea (inst. ind.)
after a period of time anipatti no fashioning hetu-vint (abl. because)
grounds for knowledge nullification (4.1.47) prc-nipatte (abl. by) ahead of
time fashioning (vka-phalavat tat syt; vati+tat+syt like the interp. 3.2.71)
8.1 There is uncertainty because any fashioning (incarnation) as the fruit
of that (cause) must be in the moment, and after a period of time. That
(incarnation) cannot be in the moment, because (the expectation of) what is to
be enjoyed would be after a period of time, (yet) one does not fashion it after a
period of time, because one's whole grounds for knowledge would be nullified
by (the corollary) fashioning ahead of time (in the cycle).

78

The Nyaya Darshana

$ $ ' A A 2 2 A A - .%2 L '%

(4.1.48) na not asat non-enduring na not sat enduring na neither sat-asat both
enduring and non-enduring sat-asato (loc. dual between) enduring nonenduring vaidharmyt (abl. because) inconsistency (4.1.49) utpda-vyayadarant (abl. from) coming forth passing away seeing (4.1.50) buddhisiddham understanding affirmation tu however tat after all asat not enduring
(4.1.51) raya-vyatirekt (abl. because) seat exclusion, separation vkaphala-utpattivat (vati like) tree fruit coming into existence iti to say that
ahetu without grounds for knowledge (4.1.52) prte (abl. by) satisfaction, joy
tma-rayatvt (abl. due to) soul its being the seat apratiedha no denying
8.2 'That (incarnation) is not non-enduring, yet it is not enduring, (but)
neither can it be both enduring and non-enduring, because of the
inconsistency between enduring and not enduring.' By seeing both its coming
forth and its passing away, however, one would affirm his understanding that
it is, after all, not enduring, (but) because that would mean separation of the
seat (the bodily incarnation, from the soul), the saying that it is "like the
coming into existence of the fruit of a tree", is not our grounds for knowledge.
There is no denying (our premise) just by the notion that its (the
incarnation's) joy is due to its being the seat of one's (advanced) soul.

D
L
$ e A . 2 2
2
2
% ' ' %
.%
(4.1.53) na not the case putra-pau-str-paricchada-hiraya-anna-diphala-nirdet (abl. just because) sons cattle wives household money
food etc. fruits dictating (4.1.54) tat it is so sambandht (abl. according to)
their kinship / phala-nipatte (abl. by) fruit fashioning teu (loc. if) those
phalavat (vati like) upacra figuratively (4.1.55) vividha-bdhan-(gen.)yogt (abl. because) various frustrations association dukham suffering eva
indeed, actually janma-utpatti birth coming into existence
8.3 That (notion of joy as 'fruit') is not the case, just because they dictate
that sons, cattle, wives, household, money, food, etc. are fruits (of karma). It is

The Nyaya Darshana

79

so, according to the (religious) kinship, (but) if those things are by some
'fashioning' of fruit, it means only like fruit, figuratively. Indeed, because of
the association of various frustrations, the coming into existence by birth is
actually suffering.

( MUM) .% ' -.e% e 2
'% %
2
(4.1.56) na not sukhasya (gen. of; ref.=yogt) happiness api even ntarlanipatte (gen. for) possessed of the inner realm (the a vikrrthaka taddhita
termination) fashioning (4.1.57) bdhan-nirvtte (abl. since) frustration
cessation (=nivtte) vedayata (vid (transitive) caus.pres.3rd.dual) those two
cause one to find them, i.e., "show themselves" (=darayata in BS 9.18) //
paryeaa-dot (abl. by) striving after fault, mistake apratiedha no denying
(4.1.58) dukha-vikalpe (loc. in the midst of) suffering diversity sukhaabhimnt (abl. by) happiness mistaken conception ca and
8.4 There is not even any (association) of the fashioning of happiness for
one who is possessed of his inner realm, (but) since that is just the cessation of
his frustration, both show themselves. There is no denying (our premise) by
the false (account of) striving after it, and by the false conception of happiness
in the midst of all the diversity of suffering.

-
(
%) ' .

2 2
2
2
A
.% (' ' A Vb) '%
( D .
MUM) ( % MUM)
2
(4.1.59) a-klea-pravtti-anubandht (abl. since) the three obligations
struggle account incidental attachment (apavarga-abhva) (4.1.60)
pradhna-abda-anupapatte principal, prime word, sound not evident
gua-abdena (inst. by way of) secondary, subordinate word, teaching (like
guakarman MW) anuvda explanation nind-praas-upapatte (abl.)
reproach praise evident by (adhikrt ca vidhnam vidy-antaravat) (4.1.61)
samropat (abl. by) (fr. caus. of ru to grow) causing to ascend, having an
advancing effect tmani (loc. on) individual self, soul apratiedha no denying
(4.1.62) ptra-caya anta-anupapatte (abl. by) masters assemblage (This

80

The Nyaya Darshana

pun also reads, "a bunch of (soul) vessels".) boundaries (See vibhakti-ant in
2.2.58.) without evidence ca and (phala-abhva)
8.5 Since that (frustration) is just an incidental attachment to the account
of struggle though the (three) obligations (outlined in the smti), that
('struggle') explanation, evident by the reproach vs. praise (method) known
by way of the subordinate 'word' (the smti), is due the prime word (o) not
being evident. There is no denying (our premise) by (the view of) that
(obligation) having an advancing effect on one's soul, and by the 'boundaries'
(of souls, see 2.2.58) held by the assemblage of masters, without any evidence.

2
% -.% ' L 2
% A .
A
2
(4.1.63) suuptasya (gen. for) one who is asleep (a pun on svapna) svapnaadarane (loc. where) dreaming no experience of klea-abhvavat (vati as if)
struggle absence apavarga state after final release (4.1.64) na not pravtti
account of life pratisadhnya (dat. for the purpose of) "back-together-putting",
rebuilding hna-kleasya (gen. on the part of) inadequacy one who struggles
(4.1.65) na nor klea-satate (gen. one of) struggle continuous
svbhvikatvt (abl. ind) as being the nature of one's existence (4.1.66) prcutpatte (gen. of) before-birth state (see 2.2.12) abhva-anityatvavat (vati like,
as if) absence impermanence svbhvike_api (loc. w/api even though) nature of
existence anityatvam impermanence
8.6 For one who is asleep (to the truth), there is (the notion of) a state after
final release, as if there were a (permanent) absence of struggle, where one
doesn't even experience dreaming, (but) our account of life is not for the
purpose of a 'rebuilding' on the part of one who struggles through his
inadequacy, nor of the continuous struggle (itself) as being the very nature of
one's existence. (Conversely,) there would be impermanence of one's beforebirth state (see 2.2.12), as if that absence (of struggle) were not permanent,
even though that (absence) should then be the very nature of one's existence.

The Nyaya Darshana

81

(2 K ) . L A . -.% . % - % $. %
[(4.1.67) au ymat-nityatvavat v; The alternative is that like the
constancy of the blackness (of space,) so is the atomic (constant). (see
interpolation 3.2.71] (4.1.68) na not sakalpa-nimittatvt (abl. due to)
deliberate acts instrumental cause ca also rgdnm (gen. of) passion etc.
(4.2.1) doa-nimittnm (gen. of) faults instrumental causes tattva-jnt (abl.
by) essence true comprehension ahakra-nivtti personal identity, ego
turning away from (4.2.2) doa-nimittam fault instrumental cause rpdaya
forms etc. viay spheres of experience sakalpa-kt things deliberately
done (4.2.3) tat-nimittam_tu those instrumental cause but really, "the true"
avayavi-abhimna having parts, subdivided but whole mistaken conception
8.7 That (nature of one's existence) is not also due to that (struggle) being
the instrumental cause of one's deliberate acts of passion etc. It is by true
comprehension of the essence of the instrumental causes of such faults that
one turns away from that (passion etc.) of his personal identity (ego). This
instrumental cause of his inadequacy would be the forms etc. (he has taken),
the spheres (of life) he has experienced, and the acts he has deliberately done;
but the true instrumental cause of it is rather his mistaken conception of a
subdivided whole (of humanity)

Kh %
% C2 A -.

2
A
% -h -. %
(4.2.4) vidy-avidy-dvaividhyt (abl. due to) profound knowledge lacking
profound knowledge twofold nature saaya uncertainty (4.2.5) tat then
asaaya no uncertainty prva-hetu-prasiddhatvt (abl. ind. as) as before,
again basis of knowledge being (becoming) well-established (4.2.6) vttianupapatte pursuit of life lacking evidence api surely tarhi when it is / na no
saaya uncertainty (4.2.7) ktsna-ekadea-avttitvt entirety single
individual there being no such life avayavnm (gen. on the part of)
subdivisions avayavi-abhva subdivided whole no such thing

82

The Nyaya Darshana

8.8 Due to the twofold nature of having the profound knowledge and then
not having the profound knowledge, there is uncertainty about it, and then no
uncertainty, as our grounds for knowledge becomes thoroughly established
again. When it is (established), since that (grounds of knowledge) is surely
lacking any evidence of such a (faulty) life, one has no uncertainty that there
is no such thing as a subdivided whole, because of that (grounds) being
without any such (faulty) life on the part of (human) subdivisions as single
individuals within the entirety (of humanity).

2 -. % - A -.% % d .%
2
(4.2.8) teu (instr. along with) them ca and avtte (abl. since) without such
life avayavi-abhva subdivided whole no such thing (4.2.9) pthak (ind. as)
an individual ca and avayavebhya (abl. apart from) subdivisions avtte (abl.
because) no way of life (4.2.10) na_ca indeed not avayavi-avayav subdivided
whole subdivisions (4.2.11) ekasmin (inst. along with) the one bheda-abhvt
(abl. since) partition not existing bheda-abda-prayoga-anupapatte (abl. for)
partition scripture applying not evidence aprana in the absence of inquiry
8.9 Since one is without any such (faulty) life along with those
(subdivisions), and since one is without any such (faulty) life even as an
individual apart from any subdivisions, it is indeed not a matter of
subdivisions of a subdivided whole. Since the partition does not exist along
with the one (being), that (theory of subdivisions) appears in the absence of
our (private) inquiry, for that (inquiry) is not considered to be (proper)
evidence when applying the scripture on partition (the smti).

-.%2 C h Z.Z% 9 2 K
(4.2.12) avayava-antara-abhve_api (loc. w/api even still) subdivision
inner without considering the view avtte (abl. because) without the life
ahetu no grounds for knowledge (4.2.13) kea-samhe (loc. in) (dark) hairs
bunch (assuming the author and his audience had dark hair) taimirikaupalabdhivat (vati like) dark-colored (one of the miscellaneous hak terminations,

The Nyaya Darshana

83

"colored") observing tat-upalabdhi such observation (4.2.14) svaviayaanatikramea (instr. ind.) self-sphere without stepping beyond (=vyatireka)
indriyasya (gen. belonging to) sense pau-manda-bhvt (abl. ind.) sharp dull
view viaya-grahaasya (gen. belonging to) object sphere personal
apprehension
8.10 Even without considering the view of our inner subdivision (of
essential constituents, etc.) that (scripture) is still no grounds for knowledge,
because one is without any such (faulty) life. The observation of such (a life
among others) would be like observing, in a bunch of (dark-colored) hair, a
dark-colored one. Without stepping beyond the self-sphere, that (observation)
belongs to one's sense (of sight), but according to the view of the sharp vs. the
dull (non-mindless vs. mindless 4.1.6), it belongs only to one's (limited)
personal apprehension in the object sphere.

-.% h A
2 A

( D2 %) ..%
2
(4.2.14 cont.) tath according to that abhva without substance / na neither
aviaye (loc. ind.) without the object sphere pravtti account of life (4.2.15)
avayava-avayavi-prasaga subdivisions whole happens ca moreover evam
exactly, just so -pralayt (abl. ind.) up to the point of dissolution (4.2.16) na
not prayala dissolution au-sat-bhvt (abl. according to) atoms primary
reality ((4.2.17) param_v true; the alternative being that it is of the atom. see
interpolations 3.2.71, 4.1.67) (4.2.18) ka-(gen.)-vyati-bhedt (abl. because)
ether going beyond partition tat-anupapatti that failure of evidence
8.11 According to that (object sphere), that (self sphere) has no substance
and neither does our account of life without the object sphere. Moreover, our
occupation with that (life) as a whole with its subdivisions, just as it is, only
happens up to the point of its dissolution, and that dissolution can not happen
according to the view of the (primary) reality of atoms. That (view) fails
because, going beyond that, there would then be partition of the ether.

e %
A

84

The Nyaya Darshana

(4.2.19) ka -(gen.)- asarvagatatvam for the ether no universality, not

"going" (applying) for everyone (Sarva maintains the sense of "everyone" here.)
v alternatively (4.2.20) anta inner bahi outer ca and krya-dravyasya (gen.
for) effect physical reality // kraa-antara-vacant (abl. according to) cause
inner teaching (Anta-kraa SD 3.9 is less ambiguous.) akrye (loc. ind.) with
nothing to be caused tat-abhva that (Tat has the same referent as it did in
4.2.18, "au-sat-bhva".) no such thing (4.2.21) abda-sayoga-vibhavt (abl.
according to) scripture joining together preeminence (abda refers to bhedaabda of 4.2.11.) ca and sarva-gatam going for everyone
8.12 The (third see 4.2.35-38) alternative is that the 'everyone' does not
apply for the ether, (but rather) for the physical reality as its effect, both inner
and outer, (i.e.) both according to the teaching that that (ether) is the inner
cause, yet with nothing to be caused, which is without that (atomic) view, and
according to the preeminent authority joining together in that scripture (the
smti), that that (view of the primacy of atoms) applies for everyone;

C
2 ' % C . %

( .) .
'%
2
(4.2.22) avyha-aviambha-vibhutvni without structure, without support,
the being causative of what is manifest (see vibh caus. MW, also vibhvana) ca
both/and ka-(gen.)-dharm ether essential qualities (4.2.23) mrtimatm
(gen. of) incarnations (ref.=dharm in 4.2.22) ca both/and sasthnaupapatte (abl. known by) physical forms evidence avayava-sat-bhva
subdivisions primary reality view [(4.2.24) sayoga-upapatte ca] (4.2.25)
anavasth-kritvt (abl. by) transience the notion of an agent anavasthanupapatte (abl. by) transience failed evidence ca and apratiedha no
denying
8.13 (i.e.) both that those essential qualities of the ether are its being
without an ordered structure, without external support, and causative of
whatever is manifest, and that those (essential qualities) of incarnations are
known by the evidence of their physical forms, which is the view of the
primary reality of subdivisions. There is no denying (our premise) by (the
notion of) being the agent of one's own transience, and by the failed evidence
that there even is transience.

The Nyaya Darshana

85

Z.
2 . 2
2
2
2
Z% %2
(4.2.26) buddhy (inst. by means of) intellect vivecant (abl. coming from)
distinguishing tu however bhvnm (gen of) beings ythtmya-anupalabdi
the real nature or essence lacking observation (This serves as an insight into
exactly what the author means by the ubiquitous term "upalabdhi", in that
buddhy vivacana is a kind of upalabdhi.) // tantu-apakarae (loc. when) warp
threads (in this context of paa and apakaraa taken literally, it is not "web
fibers") pulling out paa-sat-bhva-anupalabdhivat (vati like) woven material
primary reality failure to observe tat-anupalabdhi that failure to observe
(4.2.27) vyhatatvt (abl. because) absurdity ahetu without grounds
8.14 But it (the notion of transience) lacks the kind of observation of the
true nature of those beings that comes from distinguishing it by means of
one's own intellectual power. The failure to observe that (primacy of intellect)
is like the failure to observe the primary reality in cloth (on the loom) when
pulling out the warp threads (the foundation). Because of it's absurdity, that
(notion of transience) is not our grounds for knowledge.

-A .%
2 . A
2
(4.2.28) tat-rayatvt (abl. arising from) that being the seat apthak (ind.)
without separation (I do not read this as compounded with grahana: "no separate
understanding".) grahaam personal apprehension (4.2.29) pramata (tasil
according to) validation ca and artha-pratipatte (abl. arising from) meaning
understanding (4.2.30) prama-anupapatti-upapattibhym (abl dual by)
validation missing the evidence having evidence (Perhaps there is some text
missing here.)
8.15 There is the personal apprehension 1.) arising from being the seat
(body) of that (intellect) without separation from it, and 2.) arising from
understanding the meaning according to our validation, (i.e.,) by either
missing the evidence or having the evidence of our validation (respectively).

86

The Nyaya Darshana

% -- K % d- %
(4.2.31) svapna-viaya-abhimnavat (vati like) dream sphere, world selfconception ayam (w/vati) this too (ayam stands out here. It has the sense of "this"
reality right here before our eyes.) prama-prameya-abhimna validation to
be validated self-conception (4.2.32) my -gandharva-nagara- mgatikvat (vati like) (ibc) illusory image of: heavenly singers city a
"seeking" (water) thirst, a mirage v on the other hand (4.2.33) hetu-abhvt (abl.
due to) grounds for knowledge absence asiddhi no affirmation (4.2.34) smtisakalpavat (vati like) memory imagination ca and then svapna-viayaabhimna dream sphere, world self-conception
8.16 Like a self-conception in a dream world, this (world) too is a selfconception that arises according to our (definition of) 'validation and what is
to be validated'. On the other hand, 'like the illusory image of the city of the
Gandharvas, or a mirage', there may be no affirmation (of our validation)
due to the absence of our grounds for knowledge, and then it (actually) is just
a self-conception in a dream world, just like memory or imagination is.

Z

' 2 h A
A
. A ' 2 K .%
(4.2.35) mithy wrongly upalabdhe (gen. of, with) observing vina
destruction of (w/gen.), doing away with tattva-jnt (abl. by) essence true
comprehension / svapna-viaya-abhimna-praavat (vati like) dream world
self-conception disappearance pratibodhe (loc. upon) waking (4.2.36)
buddhe (abl. by) understanding ca and evam the way it actually is nimitta-satbhva-upalambht (abl. by) instrumental cause primary reality observation
(4.2.37) tattva-pradhna bhedt (abl. w/ mithy; compared to) essence (ifc)
having as its head partition ca moreover mithy wrongly buddhe (abl. since)
understanding dvaividhya-upapatti dual nature evidence
8.17 One does away with observing wrongly (like that) 1.) by true
comprehension of the essence, and, 2.) like the disappearance of one's dreamworld self-conception upon waking, by understanding the way things actually

The Nyaya Darshana

87

are by the observation that that primary ('waking') reality is the instrumental
cause. Moreover, 3.) since that (alone) is understanding wrongly, compared to
that partition having our essence as its head, the evidence is of a dual nature.
These three clearly correspond to the threefold "syama" of YD 6.7, 6.9, and
6.8 respectively

' A A 2 % C- -2
..% 2
2 %
2
(4.2.38) samdhi-viea-abhyst (abl. accomplished by) contemplation
particular kind of repeating (4.2.39) na not artha-viea-prbalyt (abl. by)
particular object predominance (4.2.40) kud-dibhi (inst. including) hunger
etc. pravartant (abl. by) proceeding with life ca and also (4.2.41) prva-ktaphala-anubandht (abl. known by) previously created development
incidental attachment tat-utpatti that evidence (4.2.42) araya-guhpulindiu (loc. in) forests caves river banks yoga-abhysa-upadea union
discipline teaching
8.18 By the discipline of repeating this particular (threefold) contemplation
but not by predominance of the particular objectand also by proceeding
with life as usual, by (attending to) hunger, etc., the evidence of that (life)
becomes known by its incidental attachment as an outward development of
the previously created (individual self). This is the discipline of Yoga they
teach in the forest, in the caves, and on the banks of the river (Ganges). (See
gag and yoga sdhan 2.2.62.)

9.) Equivalents
e % $ A e z 2 h%
(4.2.43) apavarge_api (loc. with api; hypothetical, "even though it would
be") done with evam exactly as it is prasaga occupation (4.2.44) na not the
case nipanna-avayam fashioned not according to will (Avayam as an
indeclinable adverb means "necessarily", which is derived from its literal
meaning, "not by will", something predetermined as opposed to being by free will.)

88

The Nyaya Darshana

bhvitvt (abl. just because) inevitability (4.2.45) tat-abhva it not existing ca

also apavarge (loc. when) done with (4.2.46) tat-artham to that end yamaniyambhym (abl. according to) prohibitions rules, vows tma-saskra
soul (constructing) the perfect / yogt (abl. according to) the yoga teaching ca
even adhytma-vidhi-upyai (inst. by means of) supreme spirit (vidh seems
more likely than vidh with adhytma.) worshipping methods
9.1 Even though one would be done with it, there is the occupation with life
exactly as it is, (but) it is not the case that, just because of it's inevitability,
that (life) which is thus fashioned is not according to one's will. There is also
(the notion) that it would not exist when one is done with it. To that end, one
would construct the perfect (karmic) soul according to prohibitions and vows,
and even, according to the yoga (cf. vara, obstacles YD), by methods of
worshipping a supreme human spirit.

% Kh %
2
C2 2 A L
(4.2.47) jna-grahaa-abhysa true comprehension personal
apprehension discipline tat thus vidyai (inst. within) paths of higher
knowledge, philosophies ca in addition to saha-savda in community
conversation with (among) (4.2.48) tam (acc. the object of abhyupeya) such iyaguru-sabrahmacri viia-reyas-arthibhi (instr. with, in the company of)
students "heavies" masters fellow brahmacarins distinguished the better
(life) those who desire anasyubhi not disdainful abhyupeyt to be
approached or taken up (4.2.49) pratipaka-hnam (ind.) in the absence of an
adversary api even v or
9.2 That discipline of personal apprehension through true comprehension
is thus in addition to a discussion within the community of these philosophies,
for such (a discussion) is to be taken up in the company of students, masters,
or fellow brahmacarins, whether distinguished or just desiring something
better; with any who are not disdainful (of us); or even in the absence of an
adversary.

The Nyaya Darshana

89

z L z A ( - A MUM)
(4.2.49 cont.) prayojana-artham motivation for the purpose of arthitve (loc.
when) state of desire (4.2.50) tattva-adhyavasya-sarakaa-artham essence
firm resolve safeguarding, preservation, protection for the purpose of jalpavitae (loc. when) prattle pointlessly argumentative vja-prarohasarakana-artham (=bja) seed sprouting, sprout safeguarding purpose
kaaka-kh-varaavat thorn branch concealing (4.2.50) tbhym (inst.
dual) those two vighya (ind. part.) having disengaged kathanam telling, relating
upasahre (loc. when) conclusion, end
9.3 When there is the state of desire (for something better), that
(discussion) is for the purpose of motivation. When there is just
argumentative prattle (by the disdainful adversary) it is for the purpose of the
protection of one's firm resolve toward the essence (of knowledge), like a
screen of thorny branches for the purpose of protecting the sprouting seed (of
knowledge). When that (discussion) is at a conclusion, with those two
(factions) having disengaged, there is the telling (of the argument), as follows:
Again, he obliquely recalls the threefold process: the declaration without proof,
the proof by examination, and the conclusion on the basis of the examination.

( 'h'; .
2
2 Z
% 'h2
' )A
[(5.1.1) sdharmya-vaidharmya-utkara-apakara-varya-avarya-vikalpasdhya-prpti-aprpti-prasaga-pratidnta-anutpatti-saaya-prakaraahetu-arthpatti-aviea-upapatti-upalabdhi-anupalabdhi-nitya-anitya-kryasam (5.1.2) sdharmya-vaidharmybhym (This is just another list, the last
two sama's of which are made up by the commenter! The commenter to the Yoga
does the same thing in its opening sutras.)

90

The Nyaya Darshana

.% 'h'c .% '
A
(5.1.2 cont.) tat thus, as follows (The translation of this is appended to the
previous sentence.) dharma-viparyaya-upapatte (gen. of) their roles, duties
alternate evidence sdharmya-vaidharmya-samau conformity conformity
equivalents (5.1.3) gotvt (abl. by) its being a cow go-siddhivat (vati like) cow
affirmation tat-siddhi it (each) affirmation (5.1.4) sdhya-dntayo (loc.)
premise a standard dharma-vikalpt (abl. apart from) (The comparative, with
"equivalent of" or "substitute for", similar but "rather than". The context makes
this use of the ablative obvious.) duty diversity ubhaya-sdhyatvt (abl. apart
from) both being the premise ca and
9.4 Of our evidence of an opposing version of dharma, there are the
(adversaries') equivalents as conformity and conformity with (their) dharma,
the affirmation of each like the (tautological see 2.1.58) affirmation of a cow
just by its being a cowas apart from our diversity of dharmas in terms of
both our premise (that the highest dharma is by true comprehension) and our
standard (equal value of the diversity of dharmas 1.1.25), and apart from (our
idea of) both being the premise.

% ' ' '% .%

(5.1.4 cont.) utkara-apakara -varya-avarya -vikalpa -sdhya-sam
superior inferior of a certain vara caste not of that caste diversity
premise equivalents (5.1.5) kicid_sdharmyt (abl. since) a little
conformity upasahra-siddhe (abl. because) conclusion affirming
vaidharmyt (abl. from) not conforming apratiedha no denying (5.1.6)
sdhya-atidet (abl. apart from) premise placing beyond reach ca and
dnta-upapatte (abl. by) standard evidence
9.5 There are their equivalents of that premise (that the highest dharma is
by true comprehension), as the diversity of the superior, the inferior, those of
their (and our) caste, and those not of that caste. Since there is a little
conformity (of our own see 1.2.17), we would not deny (our own premise) by

The Nyaya Darshana

91

refusing to conform with our dharma just because that would affirm our
conclusion, or by overruling our premise (that the highest dharma is by true
comprehension), by the evidence of our standard (equal value of our daily life
and our examination of its meaning).

% ' c . L '%
(5.1.7) prpya (ind. part. pra-p) having attained, reached, or arived (after
some time) sdhyam (acc.) premise aprpya (ind. part.) not having attained v
or / heto (gen. of) grounds prpty (inst. by) gaining, achieving viiatvt (abl.
since) becoming distinguished aprpty (inst. by) failure to earn asdhakatvt
(abl. since) not becoming accomplished ca and prpti-aprpti-samau attaining
not attaining equivalents (5.1.8) ghaa-di-nipatti-darant (abl. since) vessels
to begin with fashioning seeing pane (loc. regarding) molding ca and
avyabhicrt (abl. apart from) not deviating apratiedha no denying
9.6 Of our grounds for knowledgehaving either attained (arrived at) our
premise (that the highest dharma is by true comprehension), or having not yet
attained itthere are the (adversaries') equivalents as attaining and not
attaining (knowledge), being distinguished by attaining it, and being
unaccomplished by failure to attain it. There is no denying (our premise) by
seeing 'fashioning' as of a (soul) vessel to begin with, and by (simply) not
deviating from that (adversaries' learned knowledge) regarding the molding
(of the vessel).

c L -..K-.%
(5.1.9) dntasya (gen. of) standard kraa-anapadet cause failure to
indicate (see utpatti-kraa-anapadet 3.2.23) pratyavasthnt (abl. because)
opposition of life standing ca and prati-dntena (inst. by way of, as)
counterpart standard / prasaga-prati-dnta-samau life occurrence
counterpart standard equivalent pradpa-updna-prasaga-vinivttivat
(vati like) lamp, illumination of a thesis, a treatise accepting unto oneself
occurrence of life turning away tat-vinivtti that turning away

92

The Nyaya Darshana

9.7 Of our standarddue to their failure to indicate the (proper) cause

(vara 4.1.19) and due to their opposition of life-standing as a counterpart to
our standardthere are the (adversaries') equivalents as that life-occupation
(of opposition) and as that counterpart to our standard. Turning away from
that (cause) is like turning away from a life-occupation in the self-acceptance
(taught) by our treatise.

.%
2 2 % .%
2
2
$ . '%
(5.1.10) prati-dnta-hetu-tve (loc. even with) counterpart standard
grounds there being ca_na not (never) even a-hetu-dnta without grounds
standard (5.1.11) prc-utpatte (gen. of) before birth state kraa-abhvt
(abl. according to) cause empty anutpatti-sama non-birth equivalent (5.1.12)
tath similarly bhvt (abl. according to) theory of being, view // utpannasya
(gen. of) born, having come into existence kraa-upapatte (abl. because) cause
evidence na no kraa-pratiedha cause denial
9.9 Even with there being (two) counterparts within the grounds for our
standard, we are never without that (dual) standard (including the existence
of life) in our grounds. Of our pre-existent (unmanifest see avyakta 3.2.43)
state, there is the (adversaries') equivalent of (a liberation of) not coming into
existence at all, according to their empty cause (karma). Similarly, according
to our view, there can be no denying of our cause (vara), because of our
evidence that it is the cause of whatever has come into existence.

h9 ' %
'
A

( h' )
2
'%
(5.1.13) smnya-dntayo (gen. dual of) common truth standard
aindriyakatve (loc. in that) existing in that which consists of the powers of sense
samne (loc. considering) same nitya-anitya-sdharmyt (abl. due to) constant
inconstant saaya-sama uncertainty equivalent (5.1.14) sdharmyt (abl.
just because) conformity saaye (loc. in) uncertainty [na saaya // vaidharm-

The Nyaya Darshana

93

yt ubhayath v saaye atyanta-saaya-prasaga; One must not doubt. In

his nonconformity or in his 'both ways', whenever he doubts, it becomes his
'ultimate doubt'.] nityatva-anabhyupagamt (abl. just because) constancy
disagreement ca and smnyasya (gen. of) the common apratiedha no denying
9.10 Of (the uncertainty as to) the universally agreed (dharma) vs. our
standard (equal value of the diverse dharmas of those just living life and those
seeking to examine it)considering that they are (both) the same in that they
exist only in the mind ("that which consists of the powers of sense")there is
the (adversaries') equivalent, as the uncertainty that arises from constant vs.
inconstant conformity. There is no denying (of our premise) just because there
is conformity in that uncertainty, and just because there is disagreement with
our constancy on the part of the common (man).
The adversary's uncertainty would cause him to lapse in his adherence to
proper civil and religious behaviors, which in their belief system would result in a
certain bad karma that would in turn cause further doubt and further lapsing in
future incarnations. This is the interpretation of the commenter in 2.1.7 and 5.1.14.

' % % % ' .%
2
.% Dh .e

2 %
2
(5.1.15) ubhaya-sdharmyt (abl. ind.) both ways conformity prakriysiddhe (gen. of) positive action to some end, a formal procedure, or its officiant
prakaraa-sama the subject (ultimate knowledge) equivalent (5.1.16)
pratipakt (abl. ind.) against an adversary prakaraa-siddhe (abl. by) subject
proving // pratiedha-anupapatti denial lacking evidence pratipakaupapatte (abl. because) adversary evidence (5.1.17) traiklya-anupapatte
(abl. ind.) threefold time paradigm without evidence heto (gen. of) grounds for
knowledge ahetu-sama without grounds equivalent
9.11 Of our affirmation by our formal practice (of contemplation 4.2.3842), with our conformity being both ways, there is the (adversaries')
equivalent to the subject (of dharma), by (the practice of) proving that subject
against an adversary (4.2.47-50). We lack the evidence to deny that (existence
of an adversary) because that (denial) would be the very evidence of an
adversary. (see the "other other other" passage in 2.1.30-32) Of our
grounds for knowledge, without any evidence of a threefold time paradigm,

94

The Nyaya Darshana

there is the (adversaries') equivalent that is without our grounds (i.e., with a
karmic past and future).

2 % h % ' .
'% .2
% .%
(5.1.18) na not (referring to the nom. "asiddhi") hetuta (tasil resulting from)
grounds sdhya-siddhe (abl. because) premise affirmation traiklya-asiddhi
threefold time paradigm without affirmation (5.1.19) pratiedha-anupapatte
(abl. since) denial lacking evidence ca w/na either pratieddhavyaapratiedha to be denied no denying (5.1.20) arthpattita (tasil according
to) interpretation pratipaka-siddhe (gen. of) adversaries affirmation
arthpatti-sama interpretation equivalent
9.12 We are not without any affirmation of the threefold time paradigm
(cf. 2.1.12-14), because the affirmation of our premise (that the highest
dharma is by true comprehension) results (only) from our grounds for
knowledge (our 'cause'). They cannot deny anything which (they say) is to be
denied either, since they lack the evidence to deny it. Of the affirmation of
adversaries according to our interpretation (of traditional texts), there is the
(adversaries') equivalent interpretation.

.% .
h .% ';.2
2
.%
(5.1.21) anuktasya (gen. of) not declared arthpatte (abl. coming about
through) interpretation paka-hne (gen. of) side rejection upapatti evidence
/ anuktatvt (because) not being declared anaikntikatvt (abl. because) not
being exclusive ca and arthpatte (gen. of; same referent as anuktasya)
interpretation (5.1.22) eka-dharma-upapatte (abl. known by) singular (as
opposed to "aneka-dharma" in 1.1.23 and 2.1.1) duty evidence aviee (loc.
where) absence of distinction sarva-aviea-prasagt (abl. known by) everyone
without distinguishing occupation with life sat-bhva-upapatte (gen. of)
primary reality evidence aviea-sama not distinguishing (This approaches the
meaning of "aviveka" in SD and YD) equivalent

The Nyaya Darshana

95

9.13 Their evidence is by rejection of some side that comes about through
an interpretation of anything not declared (in the smti). Such (a rejection) of
our interpretation is because of its not being declared (in the smti), and
because of its not being their exclusive way. Of our evidence of a primary
reality known by occupation with life without distinguishing an 'everyone',
that absence of distinction being known by the evidence of the singular
dharma (as opposed to "for the many" 1.1.23, 2.1.1), there is the (adversaries')
equivalent of not distinguishing.
The "singular dharma" here is the dharma "without superior" given in the first
sutra as the subject of the entire treatise. Here it is stated anew as the subject and
subsequently recalled with or without pronouns in every sutra up to the conclusion
of the work.

.;.% .%
' % ..% 2
.
2 '%
(5.1.23) kvacit in the one case tat-dharma-upapatte (gen. of) that (=eka
5.1.22) duty evidence kvacit in the other case ca and anupapatte (gen. of)
failed evidence pratiedha-abhva denial lack of existence or substance,
empty (= the bahuvrhi "abhva- pratiedha") (5.1.24) ubhaya-kraaupapatte (gen. of) in both cause evidence upapatti-sama evidence
equivalent (5.1.25) upapatti-kraa-abhyanujnt (abl. by) evidence cause
permitting apratiedha no denying
9.14 Their empty denial is, in the one (our) case, of the evidence of that
(singular) dharma, and in the other (their) case, of their (own) failed evidence.
That (tautological) evidence is their equivalent of our evidence that there is
'cause' in both (dharmas), (but) they cannot deny (our premise) just because
we permit a 'cause' in our evidence (cf. 3.2.7).

Z% ;.'% 2
Z

A
2
2
(5.1.26) nirdia-kraa-abhve_api (loc. w/api; even though) dictated
cause empty upalambht (abl. arising out of) recognition upalabdhi-sama

96

The Nyaya Darshana

observation equivalent (5.1.27) kraa-antart (abl. by) cause different api

so very tat-dharma-upapatte (abl. of comparison w/antara; from) that (=eka
5.1.22) duty evidence apratiedha no denying (5.1.28) tat-anupalabdhe
(abl. for) that lack of observation anupalambht (abl. arising out of) lack of
recognition
9.15 Even though there is no substance to their dictated cause (karma), out
of their recognition of that (karma) there arises their equivalent observation
(of dharma), (but) they cannot deny (our premise) by (asserting) that 'cause'
(karma) that is so very different from our evidence of that (singular 5.1.22)
dharma, for out of their non-recognition (of our cause), arises their lack of
observation of that (singular dharma).

c KL .Z%

Z
%2
2
2
2
A
abhva-siddhau (loc. regarding) without substance affirmation tat-vipartaupapatte (arising out of) that (This has the same referent as the tats in 5.1.23
and 5.1.27, and 5.1.28, i.e., "eka-(dharma)" 5.1.22.) reverse, opposition
evidence anupalabdhi-sama lack of observation equivalent (5.1.29)(identical
to 2.2.21) anupalambha-(gen.)-tmakatvt (abl. for) lack of recognition the
very nature of anupalabdhe (abl. due to) lack of observation ahetu lack of
grounds (5.1.30) jna-vikalpnm (gen. of) true comprehension diversities,
different kinds ca and // bhva-abhva-savedant (abl. coming from) presence
absence internal feel adhytmam (ind.) concerning one's individual self
9.16 Out of the evidence in opposition to that (unique dharma) in their
empty affirmation, there arises their equivalent lack of observation. Their
lack of grounds for knowledge is due to the lack of observation (of the unique
dharma), for that is the very nature of their lack of recognition and of their
'comprehension' of (three) kinds (castes of individuals), (but) when it comes to
the individual self, that (comprehension) must come from the presence vs.
absence of the internal feel of it.
He is speaking here about the two different views of dharma that have been
thoroughly discussed earlier. The adversary (within us) denies, without distinction,
both the immediate evidence of his "unique" dharma and the weakness of his own
tautological evidence for the scheme of caste, karma, reincarnation, etc. It seems to

The Nyaya Darshana

97

me that the author uses the term "aviea" in the same sense that "aviveka" is used
by the Sankhya and Yoga, to mean "non-distinguishing"as causing bondage.

' .';.%
% ' % ' 2
% A
(5.1.31) sdharmyt (abl. known by) conformity tulya-dharma-upapatte
(gen. of) equals, peers duty evidence sarva-anityatva-prasagt (abl. due to)
everyone inconstancy occupation anitya-sama inconstant equivalent
(5.1.32) sdharmyt (abl. apart from, other than) conformity with dharma
asiddhe (abl. since) no affirmation pratiedha-asiddhi denial no affirmation
pratiedhya-smarthyt (abl. because) to be denied having common interest
9.17 Of our evidence of the dharma of the peers, which we know by our
own conformity with it, since that is our occupation with the inconstancy of
the 'everyone'; there is the (adversaries') equivalent of what is 'inconstant'
(our deviation). Since there is no affirmation of that, apart from their own
conformity (with dharma), there can be no affirmation of their denial (of our
deviation) just because they have common interest in what should be denied.

' '
2 . $%
(5.1.33) dante (loc. when it comes to) standard ca moreover sdhyasdhana-bhvena (inst. known by means of) premise established view //
praj true knowledge, wisdom tasya (gen. of) that dharmasya (gen. of) duty,
right hetutvt (abl. resulting from) motivation tasya (gen. of) that ca indeed /
ubhayath both ways bhvt (abl. for) view na no viea difference
9.18 Moreover, when it comes to our standard, that is known by means of
the view established by our premise. True knowledge of that (view) is that
(true knowledge) of dharma, and (true knowledge) of that (dharma) is the
result of one's motivation. There is no difference (between motivation towards
true knowledge and dharma), for our view is both ways.
End of the Nyaya Darshana
It is clear to me that the Nyaya Darshana ends here and that the remaining
material is something else, even though the style looks similar:

98

The Nyaya Darshana

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The Nyaya Darshana

99

D

. 2 2
A
A
. % 2
2 % 2
2 2 % A

% %
2
(5.1.34) nityam anitya-bhvt anitye nityatva-upapatte nitya-sama
(5.1.35) pratiedhye nityam anitya-bhvt anitye anityatva-upapatte
pratiedha-abhva (5.1.36) prayatna-krya-anekatvt krya-sama (5.1.37)
krya-anyatve prayatna-ahetutvam anupalabdhi-kraa-upapatte (5.1.38)
pratiedhe_api samna doa (5.1.39) sarvatra evam (5.1.40) pratiedhavipratiedhe pratiedha-doavat doa (5.1.41) pratiedham sadoam
abhyupetya pratiedha-vipratiedhe samna doa-prasaga mata-anuj
svapaka-lakaa-apeka-upapatti-upasahre hetu-nirdee parapaka-doaabhyupagamt samna doa (5.2.1) pratij-hni pratij-antaram
pratij-virodha
pratij-sanysa
hetu-antaram
arthntaram
nirarthakam avijta-artham aprthakam aprpta-klam nynam adhikam
punar-uktam ananubhaam ajnam apratibh vikepa mata-anuj
paryanuyojya-upekaa niranuyojya-anuyoga apasiddhnta hetu-bhs
ca nigraha-sthnni (5.2.2) pratidnta-dharma-abhyanuj svadnte
pratij-ahni (5.2.3) pratijta-artha-pratiedhe dharma-vikalpt tatartha-nirdea pratij-antaram (5.2.4) pratij-ahetvo virodha pratijavirodha (5.2.5) paka-pratiedhe pratijta-artha-apanayanam pratijsanysa (5.2.6) aviea-ukte hetau pratiiddhe vieam icchata hetuantaram (5.2.7) praktt artht apratisambaddha-artham artha-antaram
(5.2.8) vara-krama-nirdeavat nirarthakam (5.2.9) pari-at-prativdibhym
tris-abhihitam api avijtam avijta-artham (5.2.10) paurvparya-ayogt
apratisambaddha-artham aprthakam (5.2.11) avayava-viparysa-vacanam
aprpta-klam (5.2.12) hnam anya-tamena api avayavena nynam (5.2.13)
hetu-udharaa-adhikam adhikam (5.2.14) abda-arthayo punar vacanam
punar-uktam anyatra anuvdt (5.2.15) artht pannasya svaabdena punarvacanam punaruktam (5.2.16) vijtasya pariad tris-abhihitasya api
apratyuccraam ananubhaam (5.2.17) avijtam ca ajnam (5.2.18)

100

The Nyaya Darshana

uttarasya-apratipatti apratibh (5.2.19) krya-vysagt kath viccheda

vikepa (5.2.20) svapake doa-abhyupagamt parapake doa-prasaga
mata-anuj (5.2.21) nigrahasthna-prptasya anigraha paryanuyojyaupekaam (5.2.22) anigrahasthne nigrahasthna-abhiyoga niranuyojyaanuyoga (5.2.23) siddhntam abhyupetya aniyamt kath prasaga
apasiddhnta (5.2.24) hetu-bhs ca yath-ukt