508389

508389
2013

SMO0010.1177/2050312113508389SAGE Open MedicineSchenberg

SAGE Open Medicine

Original Article

Ayahuasca and cancer treatment

SAGE Open Medicine

1:2050312113508389
The Author(s) 2013
Reprints and permissions:
sagepub.co.uk/journalsPermissions.nav
DOI: 10.1177/2050312113508389
smo.sagepub.com

Eduardo E Schenberg1,2

Abstract
Objectives: Comprehensively review the evidence regarding the use of ayahuasca, an Amerindian medicine traditionally used
to treat many different illnesses and diseases, to treat some types of cancer.
Methods: An in-depth review of the literature was conducted using PubMed, books, institutional magazines, conferences and
online texts in nonprofessional sources regarding the biomedical knowledge about ayahuasca in general with a specific focus
in its possible relations to the treatment of cancer.
Results: At least nine case reports regarding the use of ayahuasca in the treatment of prostate, brain, ovarian, uterine,
stomach, breast, and colon cancers were found. Several of these were considered improvements, one case was considered
worse, and one case was rated as difficult to evaluate. A theoretical model is presented which explains these effects at the
cellular, molecular, and psychosocial levels. Particular attention is given to ayahuascas pharmacological effects through the
activity of N,N-dimethyltryptamine at intracellular sigma-1 receptors. The effects of other components of ayahuasca, such as
harmine, tetrahydroharmine, and harmaline, are also considered.
Conclusion: The proposed model, based on the molecular and cellular biology of ayahuascas known active components
and the available clinical reports, suggests that these accounts may have consistent biological underpinnings. Further study of
ayahuascas possible antitumor effects is important because cancer patients continue to seek out this traditional medicine.
Consequently, based on the social and anthropological observations of the use of this brew, suggestions are provided for
further research into the safety and efficacy of ayahuasca as a possible medicinal aid in the treatment of cancer.
Keywords
Ayahuasca, N,N-dimethyltryptamine, harmine, cancer, sigma-1 receptor

Introduction
Used for centuries in the Amazon basin by healers and shamans for many different purposes, including the healing and
curing of illnesses,1 ayahuasca is a plant decoction that may
be useful in the treatment of some types of cancer. The
decoction is most commonly made of two plants in two possible combinations: Banisteriopsis caapi with Psychotria
viridis or B. caapi with Diplopterys cabrerana.2 Each of the
plants is known by different vernacular names, with the most
common shown in Table 1. Photographs of the plants are
shown in Figure 1.
There are at least nine reports of cancer patients who consumed ayahuasca during their treatment.310 Four were
reported in a peer-reviewed article,3 one in an institutional
magazine,4,5 one in Internet sources,6,7 two in a scientific
conference8 (later mentioned in a peer-reviewed article9),
and one in a book.10 The origins of these cancers were the
prostate, colon, ovaries, breast, uterus, stomach, and brain.3
10 Three of these cases showed improvements, as measured
by the prostate-specific antigen (PSA) or the carcinoembryonic antigen (CEA) level.4,5,8,9 According to some of these
reports, the patients survived longer than initially predicted

by their doctors and felt well and healthy. Therefore, it is

important to look at these cases in greater detail and investigate the pharmacological and psychological effects of ayahuasca to better understand its potential in the treatment of
cancer and to evaluate possible risks of this practice.

Case descriptions
Oral reports of ayahuasca helping people with cancer are common among communities using ayahuasca, but unfortunately,
written reports with details and clinical data are scarce. A thorough review of the literature, including peer-reviewed scientific
journals indexed at PubMed, as well as lectures and books on the
1Departamento

de Psiquiatria, Universidade Federal de So Paulo, So

Paulo, Brazil
2Instituto Plantando Consciencia, So Paulo, Brazil
Corresponding author:
Eduardo E Schenberg, Rua Iraci 340, Jardim Paulistano, CEP 01457-000
So Paulo, SP, Brazil.
Email: [email protected]

SAGE Open Medicine 0(0)

Table 1. Common names for the two most frequent forms of ayahuasca concoction, and the source plants in each, with their scientific
and vernacular names, as well as main active principles.2
Concoction common name

Plants most commonly used

Known active principles

Ayahuasca

B. caapi (ayahuasca, caapi, mariri, jagube)

+ P. viridis (chacruna, chacrona, rainha)
B. caapi (ayahuasca, caapi, mariri, jagube)
+ D. cabrerana (chagropanga, chiripanga)

Tetrahydroharmine, harmine, and harmaline

+ N,N-dimethyltryptamine (DMT)
Tetrahydroharmine, harmine, and harmaline
+ N,N-dimethyltryptamine (DMT)

Yag or Yaja
aPlease

note that the Quechua term Ayahuasca (aya = spirit, ancestor; and waska = vine) is largely employed, sometimes referring to B. caapi alone,
sometimes referring to all forms of the preparation, including some that use only B. caapi.

Figure 1.(a) B. caapi growing in front of a tree, (b) B. caapi flowers, (c) P. viridis shrub, (d) P. viridis leaves with fruits, (e) preparation of
ayahuasca brew at a community in Alter do Cho, Par, Brazil, in February 2010, (f) detail of B. caapi leaves, and (g) detail of P. viridis leaves.

topic of ayahuasca resulted in nine published reports of cancer

patients who consumed ayahuasca as part of their treatment.
The first and best published report is the detailed case of
Donald Topping,4,5 a former professor at the University of
Hawaii and the president of the Drug Policy Forum of Hawaii.

Topping was diagnosed with colon cancer around 1988 at the

age of 58 and was given a grim outlook for survival. When
given a recommendation for immediate surgery, he requested
a natural healing approach. A 4-month trial of a natural healing approach was performed. This regimen included various

Schenberg
substances, vegetarian diet, visualization, exercise and rest,4
which resulted in an unexpected negative biopsy, followed by
a positive biopsy 2 weeks later, which was performed given
the doctors surprise with the first result. Topping then had
the surgery and was determined to be cured 5 years later.
However, in September 1996, new examinations revealed
cancer of the liver. In this case, the chances of survival were
rated 20%25% by one surgeon and 15% by another, which
included the risks of the surgery. Additionally, after the surgery, he would require a year of intensive chemotherapy.
Topping had half of his liver removed but refused to start
chemotherapy, claiming that the drugs used during and after
the surgery were excessive for him. He tried ayahuasca
instead of the traditional chemotherapy. He then participated
in two sessions of ayahuasca at a Santo Daime church in
Hawaii and two shamanic healing sessions in Peru. After
these sessions, he returned to an oncologist to discover that
his CEA count was unexpectedly below normal. One year
after the original report, he published in a new article that the
metastatic cancer was still in full remission and responded to
some of the many questions raised by his first report.5 He died
in August 2003 at the age of 73.11
A second report, from medical anthropologist Aprile
Blake, was published online a decade after Toppings pioneering report; unfortunately, no data from clinical examinations were available in the report.6 After many ayahuasca
sessions with Shipibo healers in Peru, Blake claimed to have
been cured of a brain tumor, caused by a chronic degenerative condition, called acromegaly which had dogged me for
20 years6 at the age of 37. A detailed account of the striking
physical and subjective psychological effects of this treatment was given. Afterward, at the 2011 Ecology,
Consciousness and Cosmos meeting at the October Gallery
in London,7 Blake described the inability to cope with the
biomedical treatment currently proposed for acromegaly,
which consists mainly of irradiating the brain tumor, because
the pituitary gland would be damaged and the glands hormones would be replaced with pharmaceuticals. Fond of
holistic and alternative medicine, Blake tried alternative
paths that included traditional Chinese medicine, guidance
from a Brazilian medium (Joo de DeusJohn of God), and
several ayahuasca ceremonies. Blake tried ayahuasca for the
first time in Brazil at the age of 34, followed by more sessions in Europe. In October 2008, when her condition was
determined to be terminal because the tumor was dangerously close to the optic nerves and the brain stem, which
would eventually cause blindness or death, Blake decided to
embrace ayahuasca healing in South America (personal
communication). She started her search in Ecuador, but the
treatment was to be achieved mainly in Peru with Shipibo
healers.6 Although the currently recommended biomedical
treatment was not used, Blake is feeling much healthier than
before her Shipibo experience. Blake declares that she
learned a great deal about herself from the ayahuasca sessions, about her condition, how to cope with stress, and what
foods and environments are beneficial or harmful to

3
improving her health. However, afterward, Blake underwent
a complete medical examination, which did not reveal a significant improvement in her condition (personal communication). At the Ecology, Consciousness and Cosmos meeting,
another patient with acromegaly reported positive experiences with ayahuasca before it was outlawed in Britain,7 but
no additional data about this case were found.
In 2010, four additional cases of ayahuasca use in cancer
treatment were reported by Robert Forte.8,9 The first two
cases, which were only anecdotal, were of melanoma and
breast cancer. Inspired by these ayahuasca healing stories,
Forte accompanied two patients on their travels and to the
sessions and clinical examinations. One patient was a
66-year-old psychiatrist with prostate cancer who underwent
surgery many years before trying ayahuasca. The surgery
brought the PSA level to 0, but it began to rise again 10 years
later. The second patient was a 50-year-old schoolteacher
with advanced ovarian cancer with metastasis. Both patients
had clinical examinations before and after drinking the
Amazonian brew for healing purposes with Maestro Juan
Flores, an Ashaninka curandero in Peru, who also uses other
medicinal plants. The clinical examinations revealed significant improvements in PSA for the first patient and a CEA125 drop from 4000 to 600 for the second patient.8 Robert
Forte intends to continue bringing interested patients to ayahuasca healers and documenting their stories, which can be a
valuable resource for years to come.
In 2010, a peer-reviewed study was published investigating
people who tried ayahuasca as a treatment for different illnesses, including cancer.3 Four cancer patients were identified:
a 59-year-old man with prostate cancer, a 40-year-old woman
with uterine cancer, a 36-year-old woman with benign uterine
myoma, and a 43-year-old woman with stomach cancer. The
study does not include many details about each patient, but the
inclusion criteria included a professionally diagnosed disorder by a medical expert.3 The prostate cancer case was rated
as no effect, the uterine cancer case was labeled a complete
recovery, the uterine myoma case was determined to be
worse, and the stomach cancer case was unratable because
the patient reported feeling the remission of her cancer but
refused to undergo medical examinations. The uterine myoma
was accompanied by borreliosis, and the authors determined
that this could also be considered a normal course for her illness.3 Importantly, independent of any medical examinations
or conclusions of being cured or not, all of the patients declared
that ayahuasca had a positive impact and none criticized the
rituals as negative or worthless. The effects of ayahuasca were
frequently described as profound, life-changing and contributing to an individuals general well-being.
The final case reported here is from a musician, Margareth
De Wys,10 who described her journey to heal from breast cancer with a Shuar healer from the upper Amazon in a book.
Although she went to the Amazon with a diagnosis with breast
cancer, she did not tell anyone there about her disease.
However, the Shuar healer was able to see through her body
and diagnosed the cancer as a Black Smoke in her breast.

4
This resulted in 11 healing trips to South America, mostly in
Ecuador, between 2000 and 2003.10 The healing was centered
on the spiritual and healing powers of this Shuar master, ayahuasca, other plants, and diet, which involved avoiding salt
and oil and consuming only foods boiled in water. After the
trips to heal with the Shuar, De Wys underwent medical examination and no trace of the cancer was found.

Main effects of active principles regarding cancer

The ayahuasca brew is one of the most sophisticated ethnomedicines known, and more than 20 plants have been identified as part of the preparation.1 However, it is usually made
from only two plants, B. caapi and P. viridis (or D. cabrerana,
mainly in preparations from Colombia, as shown in Table 1).
P. viridis and D. cabrerana contain N,N-dimethyltryptamine
(DMT) in the leaves, and B. caapi contains -carbolines such
as harmine, harmaline, and tetrahydroharmine in the stem.1
These harmala alkaloids receive their name from the Peganum
harmala plant (Syrian Rue), where they were first identified,
which is used to treat cancer since ancient times.12
Given the increasing number of people drinking ayahuasca in the last decade, especially in urban environments,
biomedical studies were conducted in humans, repeatedly
demonstrating the safety of consuming this brew in a variety
of settings.1319
DMT is a simple molecule found throughout the plant and
animal kingdoms. It is found in human blood and cerebrospinal fluid, and its formation has been proposed to occur in
adrenal and lung, where high levels of the enzyme responsible for its synthesisindole-N-methyltransferase (INMT)
have been reported.20 DMT is the only mammalian
N,N-dimethylated trace amine known2025 and the physiological functions of endogenous DMT remain unclear. However,
it is well established that DMT has agonist properties at
5-hydroxytryptamine (5-HT) receptors, mainly 5-HT2A and
5-HT2C.26 Furthermore, it was recently revealed that DMT
binds to the sigma-1 receptor,27 which provides new opportunities for understanding how ayahuasca may produce its
marked effects on the body and mind and what might be the
role of endogenous DMT and how ayahuasca may have
effects on cancer.
The human sigma-1 receptor has been cloned and shows
no homology with other mammalian proteins.28 Singlephoton emission tomography (SPET) analysis in humans
revealed that these receptors are present in organs such as the
lung and liver and most concentrated in the brain.29 Sigma-1
receptor activity has been implicated in a variety of diseases,
including cancer, depression, and anxiety.30 Sigma-1 receptors are found in high densities in many human cancer cell
lines, including lung, prostate, colon, ovaries, breast, and
brain; thus, sigma ligands are regarded as potential novel
antineoplastic tools.31 Remarkably, there is much overlap
between the tissues identified with high sigma-1 receptor
densities and the case reports presented here.

SAGE Open Medicine 0(0)

The sigma-1 receptor is a molecular chaperone situated at
the mitochondria-associated endoplasmic reticulum (ER)
membrane (MAM).30 The spatial and temporal interaction
between the ER and mitochondria is crucial for controlling
the fate of the cell through the regulation of calcium dynamics, the control of mitochondrial membrane permeabilization, and the initiation and/or propagation of apoptosis by the
activation of the Bcl-2 protein family32 or by caspaseindependent factors, such as apoptosis-inducing factors and
endonuclease G.33 After activation, sigma-1 receptors at the
MAM disassociate from the binding immunoglobulin protein (BiP), allowing it to act as a molecular chaperone to inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate (IP3) receptors, stabilizing them
and protecting from degradation by proteasomes.34 This
effect enhances calcium flow from the ER to the mitochondria, activating the tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle and
increasing the production of adenosine triphosphate (ATP).34
Importantly, sigma-1 receptors mediate calcium influx to the
mitochondria specifically from the ER through 1,4,5triphosphate receptor type III (IP3R3) but not from the cytosol, which is mediated by 1,4,5-triphosphate receptor type I
(IP3R1),35 indicating a specific mechanism of action for calcium dynamics. When stimulated by higher concentrations
of its ligands, sigma-1 receptors may translocate from the
MAM to the plasma membrane region. After translocation, it
can exert inhibitory effects on many ion channels, including
N-methyl-d-aspartate (NMDA) receptor modulation through
small conductance K+ (SK) channels,36 the Kv1.4 channel,37
the NaV1.5 channel,26 the voltage-gated N-, L-, and P/Q-type
Ca2+ channels,38 the acid-sensing ion channel,39 and the volume-regulated Cl channel.40 The interaction between the
sigma-1 receptor and the volume-regulated Cl channel may
have important implications for cancer because these Cl
channels modulate the cell cycle and influence cell volume
regulation.40 Also important for cancer treatment may be the
NaV1.5 channel, which is expressed in many cancers, including breast and prostate, and is also associated with metastatic
processes.41,42 It is important to note that many of these
effects were studied in different cells and tissues; therefore,
the sigma-1 receptor roles are most likely tissue dependent.
Consequently, cell- and tissue-specific effects are important
factors that must be considered in oncology studies related to
sigma-1 receptors.
DMT binds sigma-1 receptors with moderate affinity (KD =
14.75 M, approximately half the affinity for 5-HT1A and
5-HT2A receptors) and, at high concentrations, is also capable
of inhibiting voltage-gated sodium channels.27 Thus, DMT
may exert two types of effects through sigma-1 receptors: at
low concentrations, it regulates calcium flow from the ER to
the mitochondria, whereas at higher concentrations, it exerts
diverse effects at the plasma membrane region.30 The effect on
calcium influx into the mitochondria may be extremely important for cancer treatment given that an energetic imbalance
between excessive cytosolic aerobic glycolysis and reduced
mitochondrial oxidative phosphorylation (the Warburg effect)

Schenberg
was recently suggested as the seventh hallmark of cancer.43
This metabolic profile of cancer cells is accompanied by a
hyperpolarization of the mitochondrial membrane potential44
that may be reduced by the calcium influx triggered by DMT
binding to the sigma-1 receptor at the MAM. This effect may
facilitate the electrochemical processes at the electron transport chain inside the mitochondria, thus increasing the production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and leading these cells
to apoptotic pathways.43 When high DMT concentrations
induce sigma-1 receptor translocation to the plasma membrane, many cellular effects would occur due to the receptors
interaction with different ion channels. At high concentrations
of DMT, a calcium influx and mitochondrial membrane depolarization might be enough to also activate the permeability
transition pore (PTP), inducing mitochondria swelling, rupture, and apoptosis.45
For all these effects to help explain the available case
reports of ayahuasca on cancer treatment, DMTs physiological degradation by enteric monoamine oxidase (primarily
MAO-A) after oral consumption should be inhibited, thus
allowing the DMT to pass into circulation. The pharmacological activity of -carbolines (primarily harmine) in ayahuasca inhibits MAO, with a high affinity for MAO-A.46
Therefore, the specific effects of ayahuasca on the different
types of cancer could also vary depending on the predominant MAO subtype, given that the ratio of MAO-A to
MAO-B varies, for example, from 1:3 in the brain to 4:1 in
the intestine,47 and the placenta has only MAO-A and blood
platelets have only MAO-B.48 Another consequence of
inhibiting MAO in different tissues is interference with
apoptotic pathways,48 thus strengthening the synergistic
action of -carbolines and DMT.
In addition to allowing DMT to exert its effects on cancer
tissues and cells, -carbolines may have other important
roles. It was recently demonstrated that harmine activates
pathways of apoptosis in B16F-10 melanoma cells;49 it
inhibits tumor-specific neo-vessel formation, both in vitro
and in vivo in mice, through a series of mechanisms involving decreased serum levels of pro-angiogenic factors and an
increase in antitumor factors50 and displays an inhibitory
effect on cell proliferation against human carcinoma cells.51
Harmine and harmaline were also shown to reduce cell proliferation in the human leukemia cell line HL60.52 Harmine
was also shown to induce apoptosis in the human hepatocellular carcinoma cell line HepG2.53 Harmine may also be beneficial in cancer treatment due to its inhibitory effect on the
DYRK1A kinase.54 This kinase is implicated in the resistance of many cancerous tissues to pro-apoptotic stimuli and
the enhancement of proliferation, migration, and reduced
cell death.55 Another pharmacological effect of harmine that
may be important in brain cancer is its role on the EAAT2
glial glutamate reuptake transporter.56 Harmine was identified as one the most efficient molecules to upregulate this
transporter in glial cells among a library of 1040 Food and
Drug Administration (FDA)-approved substances.56 This

fact may be of importance because most brain tumors are of

glial origin and involve excessive glutamate release, causing
neurotoxicity.57 Also important for gliomas may be the binding of harmine to imidazoline I2 receptors.58 These receptors
are highly expressed in gliomas,59 and their density increases
with malignancy in human cells.60 However, their physiological role in these tissues remains unclear.
Nonetheless, care should be taken because there are also
some contradictory reports regarding possible genotoxic or
mutagenic effects of -carbolines in different experiments
with cell cultures. Although some of these reports focus specifically on harman and horhaman,61 which are not found in
ayahuasca preparations, others included research into
harmine and harmaline. For example, it has been reported
that harmine and harman are genotoxic in V79 Chinese hamster fibroblasts62 and may induce DNA lesions in
Saccharomyces cerevisiae cell lines.63 On the contrary, it
was found that harman and harmine do not induce chromosomal alterations in Salmonela typhimurium and Escherichia
coli cell lines64 and that harmine and harmaline may even
have antimutagenic and antigenotoxic activities related to
their antioxidant properties.65 It was also shown that harmine
may inhibit tumors as assessed by Lewis Lung Cancer and
S180 cell lines, although with some toxic effects.66

Physiological effects of human consumption of

ayahuasca
To explain ayahuascas effects on cancer, plant constituent
concentrations, concentrations in different ayahuasca preparations, plasma levels and issues of bioavailability, clearance, and volume of distribution must be considered. The
present results do not offer enough data to make any definite
conclusions, but some important considerations can be made.
Variability in the concentration of the major molecules in the
brew was reported.67 The plasma concentrations of harmine
were highly variable ranging from approximately 5.0 ng/
mL68 to 114.8 61.7 ng/mL (mean standard deviation
(SD)),69 with one study failing to detect harmine in the
plasma after consumption of freeze-dried, encapsulated ayahuasca.70 The doses used in these studies were mainly determined by the DMT content in the original tea, but the
available data showed that the harmine content was approximately 1.5 mg/kg. This value is lower than the 10 mg/kg
dose used in the studies of harmine on cancer in rodents50 but
caution must be exercised when comparing studies conducted in rodents with humans. Additionally, ayahuasca consumption by humans usually involves more than one dose
per session, and in some therapeutic cases, many doses and
sessions are conducted over time, with plasma levels potentially reaching much higher values than observed in the laboratory. The plasma concentrations of DMT were measured in
a series of published reports. The Cmax values (mean SD)
ranged from 15.8 4.4 ng/mL69 to 17.44 10.49 ng/mL,68,70
with a peak at 32.57 20.96 ng/mL17 in the first study using

6
two repeated doses of ayahuasca in a laboratory environment. This range on the order of nanogram per milliliter
seems low compared with the concentrations in the original
brew used in these studies: 0.24 mg/mL69 and 0.53 mg/
mL.17,68,70 In addition, in comparison to a Ki of 14 M in the
in vitro experiment showing DMTs action on sigma-1
receptors,27 the detected plasma concentrations may be low.
To estimate the bioavailability of DMT after ayahuasca consumption, the data from blood collected after ayahuasca
ingestion and the data from intravenous DMT were combined and a tentative value of 10%15% was determined.71
Furthermore, the important differences between the data
from oral ayahuasca consumption and intravenous DMT
originated from different experiments with a limited number
of subjects; this suggests that only a small amount of DMT
in the brew reaches systemic circulation, posing challenges
regarding DMT metabolism that remain unresolved. With
the inhibition of MAO, DMT can be metabolized to DMT-Noxide both in vitro and in vivo; this metabolite was recently
found in urine72 and blood73 after freeze-dried ayahuasca
administration to human volunteers. The metabolization of
DMT to DMT-N-oxide still leaves considerable amounts of
DMT available in the blood;73 however, the amount is low
compared with the Ki of DMT at sigma-1 receptors and the
administered doses of DMT. One possible solution for this
dilemma comes from a recent in vitro discovery that DMT
exhibits substrate behavior at the serotonin uptake transporter (SERT), with a Ki value of 4.00 0.70 M (mean
SD), and also at the vesicle monoamine transporter
(VMAT2), with a Ki value of 193 6.8 M.74 This mechanism of sequestering DMT to the intracellular space may be
responsible for the discrepancy in plasma concentrations
between ayahuasca ingestion and in vitro studies. Recently,
other authors suggested this same mechanism to explain how
DMT concentrations may reach higher values inside the cells
than in the blood, through a three-step mechanism75
involving active transport of DMT through the bloodbrain
barrier, transport across cells membrane via SERT, and
finally a sequestration into synaptic vesicles mediated by
VMAT2.75 These same authors also highlight possible antitumor effects of DMT through regulations of the immune
system, such as increased numbers of circulating NK-cells
and production of interferons and argue that the downregulation of the INMT gene (Inmt) in malignant prostate and lung
cancers might also point to an important role of DMT, the
Inmt final product, in suppressing tumors in these tissues.75
Corroborating these suggestions of positive interactions of
DMT with the immune system in cancer, a recent study has
shown that DMT inhibits the indoleamine 2,3 dioxygenase
enzyme. This enzyme, when upregulated, is associated with
malignant cells escaping immune surveillance, and thus
DMT may help increase immune functions against malignant cells.76
Importantly, as the in vitro results were obtained from
specific cell lineages, differences between various human

SAGE Open Medicine 0(0)

tissues in DMT kinetics should be expected. A specific
mechanism for how DMT enters cells is also important in
regard to its possible effects on sigma-1 receptors, given that
these are intracellular proteins. Recently, a study of radiolabeled DMT injected intravenously in rabbits revealed that
DMT reaches the brain rapidly (10 s) and is also detected
primarily in the heart and liver.77 Although DMT was not
detected in the urine after 24 h, it was still present in the
brain after 48 h and was found in small amounts (0.1 %) 7
days after the injection; this corroborates the idea that DMT
is rapidly absorbed in some tissues and cleared from the
blood. The rapid clearance, metabolism, and transport of
DMT through the cell membrane makes it difficult to obtain
clinical data about DMT in humans; however, it is a reminder
of the physiological safety of the use of this naturally occurring substance, whose metabolism is finely regulated in the
human body.
In summary, it is hypothesized that the combined
actions of -carbolines and DMT present in ayahuasca
may diminish tumor blood supply, activate apoptotic pathways, diminish cell proliferation, and change the energetic
metabolic imbalance of cancer cells, which is known as the
Warburg effect (Figure 2). Therefore, ayahuasca may act
on cancer hallmarks such as angiogenesis, apoptosis, and
cell metabolism. This hypothesis gives some scientific
credibility to the cases reported and supports the realization of more scientific studies of ayahuasca and cancer.
However, to improve the safety and efficacy of those who
eventually search the use of ayahuasca for the treatment of
cancer, more studies should be performed considering the
remarkable psychological effects of the ritual use of ayahuasca and its possible influences on cancer patients.

Psychological effects of the ritual use of ayahuasca

Ayahuasca has very powerful psychological effects, generally
described as psychedelic effects. These experiences, in general and with ayahuasca, evoke powerful subjective perceptions and feelings, which are usually termed hallucinogenic
in the medical and scientific literature but held in high regard
by ancient cultures that consider these experiences as sacred.
Apart from cultural discrepancies reflected in the meaning
and terminology for these experiential states, these experiences include the perception of colored and vivid images with
eyes closed, the exacerbation of emotions, feelings of numinousness, peacefulness, insights, or distressing reactions, and
the triggering of deep, transformative spiritual experiences.78
The complete outcome of the experience is highly dependent
on the context and meaning attributed to it. These characteristics, known as set and setting, are important in understanding the complete healing effects of ayahuasca. The set is a
complex and dynamic composition of the personal motives,
purposes, intentions, and beliefs of the person, as well as the
physical characteristic, genetics, and the emotional and cognitive state at the time of the experience. The setting includes

Schenberg

Figure 2. An explanatory model of ayahuascas effects in cancer treatment.

ATP: adenosine triphosphate; DMT: N,N-dimethyltryptamine; ER: endoplasmic reticulum; MAO: monoamine oxidase; MIT: mitochondria; PTP: permeability
transition pore; SERT: serotonin uptake transporter; TCA: tricarboxylic acid cycle;VMAT2: vesicle monoamine transporter.

things such as the physical environment where the experience

is to occur, the person(s) who will be guiding the experience,
and the person(s) who will be accompanying the experience.
Both set and setting can occur in short and long time frames
and include the preparations before and the activities after the
experience itself.79 Thus, set and setting may also be described
as the who, what, where, when, how, and why of the experience. A careful approach considering these factors is crucial if
any psychedelic experience or therapy is to succeed, as clearly
demonstrated by the classic experiments using lysergic acid
diethylamide (LSD) to treat alcoholism during the 1950s79
and as highlighted recently.80

The idea of considering other variables in cancer treatment, such as set and setting, emotions, patient beliefs, cultural values, and spiritual experiences, is not a new and
radical suggestion; it is part of some alternative cancer treatment approaches for many years. These include the method
pioneered by Simonton etal.,81 which employs visual
imagery, later popularized by other authors,82 the model
known as the Bonny Method of Guided Imagery,83,84 and
also other approaches that employ imagery85,86 (for a critical
review of guided imagery as an adjuvant cancer therapy, see
Roffe etal.87). These imagery techniques may be especially
important regarding ayahuasca in the treatment of cancer,

8
given that visual imagery is a common phenomenon during
ayahuasca sessions, where visualizations are strongly potentiated due to the powerful effects of ayahuasca on visual
imagery, with brain activations, as measured by functional
magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), reaching the occipital
pole, including primary cortical visual areas.88 Other alternative cancer treatment techniques employ music therapy,84,89
and this may be also important to consider, given that music
has a central role in ayahuasca ceremonies.90
The original model proposed by Simonton etal., as well
as some of the others mentioned, focuses on specific psychological interventions to evaluate beliefs and attitudes and
minimize distress, emotional pain, depression and anxiety,
thus aiming to improve the quality of life.81 Issues such as
hope, purpose, and spiritual beliefs are considered,81 resembling the set and setting approach of responsible and
informed psychedelic science and of some carefully performed ayahuasca healing ceremonies. This holistic approach
to treat cancer is also in agreement with the proposition that
therapeutics with ayahuasca work in three domains: psychological, spiritual, and organic.91 According to these authors,91
ayahuasca is a disinhibitor of energy blockages perceived
as thoughts at a mental level, as feelings at an emotional
level, and as symptoms at the physical body.91 Even the
spiritual experience, a more controversial topic from a
Western scientific point of view, has recently been shown to
be regularly, safely, and reproducibly induced by another
psychedelic tryptamine, 4-phosphoryloxy-DMT, or psilocybin, which is structurally similar to DMT.92 In fact, DMT
was shown to trigger powerful spiritual experiences when
injected in normal volunteers,93 and psilocybin was recently
shown to be effective in treating anxiety in advanced-stage
cancer patients.94 Therefore, a holistic approach to cancer
treatment that includes the ritualistic or religious use of ayahuasca may help not only to treat the organic aspects of the
cancer but also to treat anxiety, depression, and associated
psychological conditions and to improve the patients quality
of life, survival time, and, ultimately, their quality of death
and dying.
In this regard, ayahuasca, which translates to vine of
the soul (see Table 1), may have important effects, given
the observed benefits of psychedelic experiences in alleviating fear of death and dying.9599 This alleviated fear is
important not only to patients but also to families and doctors, given the repressive culture western medicine has
developed toward death.99 This repression becomes a very
important aspect of cancer treatment, once that many of
these patients will, inevitably, face the final transition,
which in the current culture is dealt with very anxious
behaviors marked by professionals shying away from dealing with the subject in order to help the patient to accept the
inevitable. This anxious situation can be soothed by guided
psychedelic experiences9599 and probably through wellguided ayahuasca rituals, as reported by some of the cancer
patients whose cases were reviewed here.46

SAGE Open Medicine 0(0)

To further test the hypothesis presented here that ayahuasca
may have important effects in helping to treat cancer, data
should be gathered from many different fields. The systematic
collection of more case reports, with detailed clinical data,
would help elucidate which types of tumors ayahuasca may
provide beneficial effects. Furthermore, it is important to consider when ayahuasca was used in the time course of the disease. Systematically gathering more cases may also uncover
negative results that were unreported, due to patients who may
have been discouraged to discuss a treatment that did not help
them. This factor could also reveal the possible risks of physically ill patients, some having undergone surgery, consuming
ayahuasca. It should be noted that apart from the chemical differences between ayahuasca and other psychedelic substances,
such as LSD and N,N-dipropyltryptamine (DPT), they were
used with cancer patients to treat anxiety and depression and
were well tolerated. The adverse effects observed in these
patients were reported as manageable and similar to the effects
observed in physically healthy individuals.98,99 Experiments
with ayahuascas active principles both individually and in
combination with cell and tissue cultures are important.
Further studies need to be conducted to confirm which cell
lineages and tissues are more susceptible to ayahuasca and to
evaluate the possible role of ayahuasca in cancer treatment.
These efforts would be important to validate safety and efficacy for patients seeking this alternative treatment.
To advance the ideas put forward in this article, scientists
must overcome common misconceptions about shamanism100 and should engage with healers in a clear dialogue to
foster communication and develop common research projects.101 This approach might help to improve the treatment
available for and the quality of life of cancer patients and to
avoid the possible underreported dangers of ayahuasca use
by cancer patients, such as the dangers of the so-called drug
tourism102 and issues created by outlawing ayahuasca, such
as preventing safe contexts for use and fostering the dangerous practices of drug tourism. A holistic framework, such as
the one presented here, may indeed spark even more interest
in ayahuasca use, especially by cancer patients, and thus, to
increase safety and efficacy, a responsible approach is necessary.103,104 Ayahuasca use for healing purposes is not allowed
in most countries. Legislation tends to interfere with set and
setting issues; in a prohibitionist culture, both set and setting
are negatively affected because of anxieties, prejudices, and
fears related exclusively to the penalties of infringing the law
or using an unconventional healing path. If ayahuasca is scientifically proven to have the healing potentials long
recorded by anthropologists, explorers, and ethnobotanists,105 outlawing ayahuasca or its medical use and denying
people adequate access to its curative effects could be perceived as an infringement on human rights, a serious issue
that demands careful and thorough discussion. In view of the
current expansion of ayahuasca use, careful international
regulation may also help to reduce the harm and maximize
the benefit of ayahuasca use.103

Schenberg
In conclusion, the data available so far is not sufficient to
claim whether ayahuasca indeed helps in cancer treatment or
not. However, there is enough available evidence that ayahuascas active principles, especially DMT and harmine,
have positive effects in some cell cultures used to study cancer, and in biochemical processes important in cancer treatment, both in vitro and in vivo. Therefore, the few available
reports of people benefiting from ayahuasca in their cancer
treatment experiences should be taken seriously, and the
hypothesis presented here, fully testable by rigorous scientific experimentation, helps to understand the available cases
and pave the way for new experiments.
Acknowledgements
The author would like to thank Fabrcio Pamplona and Sidarta
Ribeiro for their valuable comments on earlier versions of the manuscript; Brian Anderson for his help with English language revisions;
Denizar Missawa Camura, Marcelo Simo Mercante, Maria Betnia
Barbosa Albuquerque, and Clara Novaes for the photographs
included in Figure 1; Dartiu Xavier da Silveira for his help with ayahuasca studies in general and with publishing costs in particular, and
Aprile Blake for her generous personal communication and efforts to
assist with further investigations.

9.

10.

11.

12.

13.

14.

15.

16.

Declaration of conflicting interests

The author declares that there is no conflict of interest.

17.

Funding
This work was financed by Fundao de Amparo Pesquisa do
Estado de So PauloFAPESP.

18.

References

19.

1. Luna LE. Vegetalismo shamanism among the mestizo population of the Peruvian Amazon. PhD Thesis, Acta Universitatis StockhomiensisStockholm Studies in Comparative
Religion, Stockholm, 1986.
2. Luna LE. Indigenous and mestizo use of ayahuasca. An
overview. In: Guimares dos Santos R (ed.) The etnopharmacology of ayahuasca. 1st ed. Trivandrum, India: Transworld Research Network, 2011, pp. 121.
3. Schmid JT, Jungaberle H and Verres R. Subjective theories
about (self-) treatment with ayahuasca. Anthropol Conscious
2010; 21(2): 188204.
4. Topping DM. Ayahuasca and cancer: one mans experience.
Bull Multidiscip Assoc Psychedelic Stud 1998; 8: 2226.
5. Topping DM. Ayahuasca and cancer: a postscript. Bull Multidiscip Assoc Psychedelic Stud 1999; 9: 2225.
6. Blake A. How Shipibo healers cured my brain tumor. Reality
sandwich, http://www.realitysandwich.com/how_shipibo_
healers_treated_my_brain_tumor (2009, accessed 1 March
2013).
7. Blake A. Ayahuasca and degenerative illness: a personal and
anthropological exploration of how one woman found her
cure. In: The ecology, cosmos and consciousness lectures
series, October Gallery, London, 26 July 2011.
8. Forte R. Ayahuasca, indigenous medicine and cancer: preliminary findings. In: Psychedelic science in the 21st cen-

20.

21.

22.

23.
24.

25.

26.

tury, San Jos, CA, 1518 April 2010. http://www.maps.org/

videos/source3/video14.html (accessed 1 March 2013).
Labate BC and Cavnar C. The expansion of the field of
research on ayahuasca: some reflections about the ayahuasca
track at the 2010 MAPS Psychedelic Science in the 21st
Century conference. Int J Drug Policy 2011; 22: 174178.
De Wys M. Black smoke: a womans journey of healing,
wild love and transformation in the Amazon. 1st ed. New
York: Sterling, 2009.
The Drug Policy Forum of Hawaii. In Memoriam: Donald
M Topping, PhD, 2003, Volume XII (I): 13. http://www.
maps.org/ayahuasca/dpfh_newsletter_august03.pdf
Lamchouri F, Settaf A, Cherrah Y, etal. Antitumour principles from Peganum harmala seeds. Thrapie 1999; 54(6):
753758.
Da Silveira DX, Grob CS, de Rios MD, etal. Ayahuasca
in adolescence: a preliminary psychiatric assessment. J Psychoactive Drugs 2005; 37: 129133.
De Rios MD, Grob CS, Lopez E, etal. Ayahuasca in adolescence: qualitative results. J Psychoactive Drugs 2005; 37:
135139.
Doering-Silveira E, Lopez E, Grob CS, etal. Ayahuasca in
adolescence: a neuropsychological assessment. J Psychoactive Drugs 2005; 37: 123128.
Doering-Silveira E, Grob CS, de Rios MD, etal. Report on
psychoactive drug use among adolescents using ayahuasca
within a religious context. J Psychoactive Drugs 2005; 37:
141144.
Dos Santos RG, Grasa E, Valle M, etal. Pharmacology of
ayahuasca administered in two repeated doses. Psychopharmacology 2012; 219: 10391053.
Fbregas JM, Gonzlez D, Fondevila S, etal. Assessment
of addiction severity among ritual users of ayahuasca. Drug
Alcohol Depend 2010; 111: 257261.
Grob CS, McKenna DJ, Callaway JC, etal. Human psychopharmacology of hoasca, a plant hallucinogen used in ritual
context in Brazil. J Nerv Ment Dis 1996; 184: 8694.
Barker SA, McIlhenny EH and Strassman R. A critical
review of reports of endogenous psychedelic N,N-dimethyltryptamines in humans: 1955-2010. Drug Test Anal 2012;
4(78): 617635.
Barker SA, Monti JA and Christian ST. N,N-dimethyltryptamine: an endogenous hallucinogen. Int Rev Neurobiol
1981; 22: 83110.
Franzen F and Gross H. Tryptamine, N,N-dimethyltryptamine,
N,N-dimethyl-5-hydroxytryptamine and 5-methoxytryptamine in human blood and urine. Nature 1965; 206: 1052.
Mandell AJ and Morgan M. Indole(ethyl)amine N-methyltransferase in human brain. Nat New Biol 1971; 230: 8587.
Saavedra JM and Axelrod J. Psychotomimetic N-methylated
tryptamines: formation in brain in vivo and in vitro. Science
1972; 175: 13651366.
Thompson MA, Moon E, Kim UJ, etal. Human indolethylamine N-methyltransferase: cDNA cloning and expression,
gene cloning, and chromosomal localization. Genomics
1999; 61: 285297.
Smith RL, Canton H, Barrett RJ, etal. Agonist properties of N,N-dimethyltryptamine at serotonin 5-HT2A and
5-HT2C receptors. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 1998;
61(3): 323330.

10
27. Fontanilla D, Johannessen M, Hajipour AR, etal. The hallucinogen N,N-dimethyltryptamine (DMT) is an endogenous
sigma-1 receptor regulator. Science 2009; 323: 934937.
28. Prasad PD, Li HW, Fei YJ, etal. Exon-intron structure, analysis of promoter region, and chromosomal localization of the
human type 1 sigma receptor gene. J Neurochem 1998; 70:
443451.
29. Stone JM, Arstad E, Erlandsson K, etal. [123I]TPCNEa novel
SPET tracer for the sigma-1 receptor: first human studies and
in vivo haloperidol challenge. Synapse 2006; 60: 109117.
30. Su T-P, Hayashi T, Maurice T, etal. The sigma-1 receptor
chaperone as an inter-organelle signaling modulator. Trends
Pharmacol Sci 2010; 31: 557566.
31. Collier TL. Waterhouse RN and Kassiou M. Imaging sigma
receptors: applications in drug development. Curr Pharm
Des 2007; 13: 5172.
32. Meunier J and Hayashi T. Sigma-1 receptors regulate Bcl-2
expression by reactive oxygen species-dependent transcriptional regulation of nuclear factor kappaB. J Pharmacol Exp
Ther 2010; 332(2): 388397.
33. Wang C and Youle RJ. The role of mitochondria in apoptosis. Annu Rev Genet 2009; 43: 95118.
34. Hayashi T and Su T-P. Sigma-1 receptor chaperones at the
ER-mitochondrion interface regulate Ca(2+) signaling and
cell survival. Cell 2007; 131(3): 596610.
35. Hayashi T, Rizzuto R, Hajnczky G, etal. MAM: more than
just a housekeeper. Trends Cell Biol 2009; 19(2): 8188.
36. Martina M, Turcotte MEB, Halman S, etal. The sigma-1
receptor modulates NMDA receptor synaptic transmission
and plasticity via SK channels in rat hippocampus. J Physiol
2006; 578(1): 143157.
37. Aydar E, Palmer CP, Klyachko VA, etal. The sigma receptor as a ligand-regulated auxiliary potassium channel subunit. Neuron 2002; 34(3): 399410.
38. Zhang H and Cuevas J. Sigma receptors inhibit high-voltageactivated calcium channels in rat sympathetic and parasympathetic neurons. J Neurophysiol 2002; 87(6): 28672879.
39. Herrera Y, Katnik C, Rodriguez JD, etal. Sigma-1 receptor modulation of acid-sensing ion channel a (ASIC1a) and
ASIC1a-induced Ca2+ influx in rat cortical neurons. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 2008; 327(2): 491502.
40. Renaudo A, LHoste S, Guizouarn H, etal. Cancer cell cycle
modulated by a functional coupling between sigma-1 receptors and Clchannels. J Biol Chem 2007; 282(4): 22592267.
41. Yang M, Kozminski DJ, Wold LA, etal. Therapeutic potential for phenytoin: targeting Na(v)1.5 sodium channels to
reduce migration and invasion in metastatic breast cancer.
Breast Cancer Res Treat 2012; 134(2): 603615.
42. Yildirim S, Altun S, Gumushan H, etal. Voltage-gated
sodium channel activity promotes prostate cancer metastasis
in vivo. Cancer Lett 2012; 323(1): 5861.
43. Jose C, Bellance N and Rossignol R. Choosing between glycolysis and oxidative phosphorylation: a tumors dilemma?
Biochim Biophys Acta 2011; 1807(6): 552561.
44. Solaini G, Sgarbi G and Baracca A. Oxidative phosphorylation in cancer cells. Biochim Biophys Acta 2011; 1807:
534542.
45. Walter L and Hajnczky G. Mitochondria and endoplasmic
reticulum: the lethal interorganelle cross-talk. J Bioenerg
Biomembr 2005; 37: 191206.

SAGE Open Medicine 0(0)

46. Samoylenko V, Rahman MM and Muhammad I. Banisteriopsis caapi, a unique combination of MAO inhibitory and
antioxidative constituents for the activities relevant to neurodegenerative disorders and Parkinsons disease. J Ethnopharmacol 2009; 127(2): 357367.
47. Stahl SM and Felker A. Monoamine oxidase inhibitors: a
modern guide to an unrequited class of antidepressants. CNS
Spectr 2008; 13: 855870.
48. Toninello A, Pietrangeli P, De Marchi U, etal. Amine oxidases in apoptosis and cancer. Biochim Biophys Acta 2006;
1765: 113.
49. Hamsa TP and Kuttan G. Harmine activates intrinsic and
extrinsic pathways of apoptosis in B16F-10 melanoma. Chin
Med 2011; 6: 11.
50. Hamsa TP and Kuttan G. Harmine inhibits tumor specific
neo-vessel formation by regulating VEGF, MMP, TIMP and
pro-inflammatory mediators both in vivo and in vitro. Eur J
Pharmacol 2010; 649: 6473.
51. Jimnez J, Rivern-Negrete L, Abdullaev F, etal. Cytotoxicity of the beta-carboline alkaloids harmine and harmaline
in human cell assays in vitro. Exp Toxicol Pathol 2008; 60:
381389.
52. Zaker F, Oody A and Arjmand A. A study on the antitumoral
and differentiation effects of peganum harmala derivatives
in combination with ATRA on leukaemic cells. Arch Pharm
Res 2007; 30: 844849.
53. Cao M-R, Li Q, Liu Z-L, etal. Harmine induces apoptosis in
HepG2 cells via mitochondrial signaling pathway. Hepatobiliary Pancreat Dis Int 2011; 10(6): 599604.
54. Gckler N, Jofre G, Papadopoulos C, etal. Harmine specifically inhibits protein kinase DYRK1A and interferes with
neurite formation. FEBS J 2009; 276(21): 63246337.
55. Ionescu A, Dufrasne F, Gelbcke M, etal. DYRK1A kinase
inhibitors with emphasis on cancer. Mini Rev Med Chem
2012; 12(13): 13151329.
56. Li Y, Sattler R, Yang EJ, etal. Harmine, a natural betacarboline alkaloid, upregulates astroglial glutamate transporter expression. Neuropharmacology 2011; 60(78):
11681175.
57. Sontheimer H. A role for glutamate in growth and invasion of
primary brain tumors. J Neurochem 2008; 105(2):287295.
58. Husbands SM, Glennon RA, Gorgerat S, etal. betacarboline binding to imidazoline receptors. Drug Alcohol
Depend 2001; 64(2): 203208.
59. Callado LF, Garibi JM and Meana JJ. Los receptores para
imidazolinas I2 como posible marcador de malignidad en
tumores gliales humanos. Revista De Neurologia 2006;
43(8): 476480.
60. Callado LF, Martin-Gomez JI, Ruiz J, etal. Imidazoline
I(2) receptor density increases with the malignancy of
human gliomas. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 2004;
75(5): 785787.
61. de Meester C. Genotoxic potential of -carbolines: a review.
Mutat Res 1995; 339(3): 139153.
62. Boeira JM, da Silva J, Erdtmann B, etal. Genotoxic effects
of the alkaloids harman and harmine assessed by comet
assay and chromosome aberration test in mammalian cells in
vitro. Pharmacol Toxicol 2001; 89(6): 287294.
63. Boeira JM, Viana AF, Picada JN, etal. Genotoxic and recombinogenic activities of the two beta-carboline alkaloids har-

Schenberg

64.

65.

66.

67.
68.

69.

70.

71.

72.

73.

74.

75.

76.

77.

78.

man and harmine in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Mutat Res

2002; 500(12): 3948.
Picada JN, da Silva KV, Erdtmann B, etal. Genotoxic effects
of structurally related -carboline alkaloids. Mutat Res 1997;
379(2): 135149.
Moura DJ, Richter MF, Boeira JM, etal. Antioxidant properties of beta-carboline alkaloids are related to their antimutagenic and antigenotoxic activities. Mutagenesis 2007; 22(4):
293302.
Chen Q, Chao R, Chen H, etal. Antitumor and neurotoxic
effects of novel harmine derivatives and structure-activity
relationship analysis. Int J Cancer 2005; 114(5): 675682.
Callaway JC. Various alkaloid profiles in decoctions of Banisteriopsis caapi. J Psychoactive Drugs 2005; 37: 151155.
Yritia M, Riba J, Ortuo J, etal. Determination of N,Ndimethyltryptamine and beta-carboline alkaloids in human
plasma following oral administration of ayahuasca. J Chromatogr B Analyt Technol Biomed Life Sci 2002; 779: 271
281.
Callaway JC, McKenna DJ, Grob CS, etal. Pharmacokinetics of Hoasca alkaloids in healthy humans. J Ethnopharmacol 1999; 65(3): 243256.
Riba J, Valle M, Urbano G, etal. Human pharmacology of
ayahuasca: subjective and cardiovascular effects, monoamine metabolite excretion, and pharmacokinetics. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 2003; 306: 7383.
Riba J and Barbanoj MJ. Bringing ayahuasca to the clinical
research laboratory. J Psychoactive Drugs 2005; 37: 219
230.
McIlhenny EH, Riba J, Barbanoj MJ, etal. Methodology for
and the determination of the major constituents and metabolites of the Amazonian botanical medicine ayahuasca in
human urine. Biomed Chromatogr 2011; 25: 970984.
McIlhenny EH, Riba J, Barbanoj MJ, etal. Methodology
for determining major constituents of ayahuasca and their
metabolites in blood. Biomed Chromatogr 2012; 26: 301
313.
Cozzi NV, Gopalakrishnan A, Anderson LL, etal. Dimethyltryptamine and other hallucinogenic tryptamines exhibit
substrate behavior at the serotonin uptake transporter and the
vesicle monoamine transporter. J Neural Transm 2009; 116:
15911599.
Frecska E, Szabo A, Winkelman MJ, etal. A possibly
sigma-1 receptor mediated role of dimethyltryptamine in
tissue protection, regeneration, and immunity. J Neural
Transm 2013; 120(9): 12951303.
Tourino MC, de Oliveira EM, Bell LP, etal. Tryptamine
and dimethyltryptamine inhibit indoleamine 2,3 dioxygenase and increase the tumor-reactive effect of peripheral
blood mononuclear cells. Cell Biochem Funct 2013; 31(5):
361364.
Vitale AA, Pomilio AB, Caellas CO, etal. In vivo longterm kinetics of radiolabeled N,N-dimethyltryptamine and
tryptamine. J Nucl Med 2011; 52: 970977.
Tupper KW. Entheogenic healing: the spiritual effects and
therapeutic potential of ceremonial ayahuasca use. In: Ellens
JH (ed.) The healing power of spirituality: how faith helps
humans thrive, vol. 3. Westport, CT: Praeger, 2009, pp.
269282.

11
79. Grof S. LSD psychotherapy. Ben Lomond, CA: Multidisciplinary Association for Psychedelic Studies (MAPS), 2001.
80. Johnson M, Richards W and Griffiths RR. Human hallucinogen research: guidelines for safety. J Psychopharmacol
2008; 22(6), 603620.
81. Simonton OC, Matthews-Simonton S and Sparks TF. Psychological intervention in the treatment of cancer. Psychosomatics 1980; 21: 226227, 231233.
82. Thomas V. Using mental imagery and visualisation with
cancer patients. Eur J Cancer Care 2009; 18(2): 109.
83. Burns DS. The effect of the bonny method of guided imagery
and music on the mood and life quality of cancer patients. J
Music Ther 2001; 38(1): 5165.
84. Beebe LH and Wyatt TH. Guided imagery and music: using
the Bonny method to evoke emotion and access the unconscious. J Psychosoc Nurs Ment Health Serv 2009; 47(1):
2933.
85. Syrjala KL, Donaldson GW, Davis MW, etal. Relaxation
and imagery and cognitive-behavioral training reduce pain
during cancer treatment: a controlled clinical trial. Pain
1995; 63(2): 189198.
86. Serra D, Parris CR, Carper E, etal. Outcomes of guided
imagery in patients receiving radiation therapy for breast
cancer. Clin J Oncol Nurs 2012; 16(6): 617623.
87. Roffe L, Schmidt K and Ernst E. A systematic review of
guided imagery as an adjuvant cancer therapy. Psychooncology 2005; 14(8): 607617.
88. De Araujo DB, Ribeiro S, Cecchi GA, etal. Seeing with
the eyes shut: neural basis of enhanced imagery following
ayahuasca ingestion. Hum Brain Mapp 2012; 33(11): 2550
2560.
89. Vickers AJ and Cassileth BR. Unconventional therapies for
cancer and cancer-related symptoms. Lancet Oncol 2001;
2(4): 226232.
90. De Rios MD. The role of music in healing with hallucinogens: tribal and western studies. Music Ther Today 2003; 4: 3.
91. Mabit J, Giove R and Vega J. Takiwasi: the use of Amazonian Shamanism to rehabilitate drug addicts. In: Yearbook of
cross-cultural medicine and psychotherapy, Zeitschirift fur
Ethnomedizin. Berlin: VWB-Verlag fur Wissenschaft und
Bildung, 1996, pp. 257285.
92. Griffiths RR, Johnson MW, Richards WA, etal. Psilocybin occasioned mystical-type experiences: immediate and
persisting dose-related effects. Psychopharmacology 2011;
218(4): 649665.
93. Strassman RJ. DMT: the spirit molecule: a doctors revolutionary research into the biology of near-death and mystical
experiences. Rochester, NY: Park Street Press, 2001.
94. Grob CS, Danforth AL, Chopra GS, etal. Pilot study of
psilocybin treatment for anxiety in patients with advancedstage cancer. Arch Gen Psychiatry 2011; 68: 7178.
95. Pahnke WN. The psychedelic mystical experience in the
human encounter with death. Harv Theol Rev 1969; 62(1):
121.
96. Crownfield DR. The human encounter with death by Stanislav Grof and Joan Halifax. J Am Acad Relig 1978; 46(1):
106107.
97. Pahnke WN. The psychedelic mystical experience in the
human encounter with death. Psychedelic Rev 1971; 11: 413.

12
98. Richards W, Grof S, Goodman L, etal. LSD-assisted psychotherapy and the human encounter with death. J Transpersonal Psy 1972; 4(2): 121150.
99. Dutta V. Repression of death consciousness and the psychedelic trip. J Cancer Res Ther 2012; 8(3): 336342.
100. Krippner SC. Conflicting perspectives on shamans and shamanism: points and counterpoints. Am Psychol 2002; 57:
962977.
101. Levin J. Scientists and healers: toward collaborative research
partnerships. Explore 2008; 4: 302310.

SAGE Open Medicine 0(0)

102. De Rios MD. Mea culpa: drug tourism and the anthropologists responsibility. Anthropol News 2006; 47: 20.
103. Tupper KW. The globalization of ayahuasca: harm reduction or benefit maximization? Int J Drug Policy 2008; 19:
297303.
104. Winkelman M. Drug tourism or spiritual healing? Aya
huasca seekers in Amazonia. J Psychoactive Drugs 2005;
37: 209218.
105. Schultes RE. Hallucinogens of plant origin. Science 1969;
163: 245254.