OCEANOGRAPHY

Add : D-108, Sec-2, Noida (U.P.), Pin - 201 301

Email id : [email protected]
Call : 09582948810, 09953007628, 0120-2440265

OCEANOGRAPHY

CHRONICLE
IAS ACADEMY

A CIVIL SERVICES CHRONICLE INITIATIVE

BOTTOM TOPOGRAPHY OF THE OCEANS

b)

Continental Slope

It is an area of steep slope extending just

after the continental shelf up to a considerable
depth from where a gentle sea plain takes its
form. The extent of the slope area is usually
between 200-2000 m. But sometimes it may
extend to 3660 metres from the mean sea level.
The continental slope along many coasts of the
world is followed by deep canyon like trenches
terminating as fan shaped deposits at the base.
Continental slope covers 8.5 percent of the total
ocean area.

C
IA H
S RO
A N
C IC
A
D LE
EM
Y

Ocean basins have a great deal of features

that match those on the surface (i.e. continents)
such as, volcanoes, deep canyons, rift valleys,
and large submarine plateaus.
The study of sea floor by echo method of
sound waves reveals that the sea floor is not a
flat area. It consists of mountains, plateaus,
plains and trenches etc. Some major submarine
features are described below.
a)

Continental Shelf

The portion of the land which is submerged

under sea water constitutes continental shelf.
The continental shelf is shallow and its depth
is not more than 200 metres. Its slope from
land to the sea is about 2 metres per km. The
average width is 70-75 km, though it varies
from a few metres to hundreds of kms. In all
about 7.5 percent of total area of the oceans is
covered by the continental shelves. The
continental shelves may be of different types
e.g. Glaciated shelves (sea near New England);
Broad river shelves (yellow sea and the gulf of
Siam) and coral shelves (those of Eastern
Australia).
The shelves are of great use to man because:

1. Marine food comes almost entirely from

them.

2. About 20 percent of oil and gas of the

world is extracted from them.

3. They are large stores of sand and gravel.

4. They are the sites of productive fishing
grounds.

There are five types of slopes:

(i) Fairly steep with the surface dissected by

canyons

(ii) Gentle slopes with elongated hills and

basins

(iii) Faulted slopes

(iv) Slopes with terraces

(v) Slopes with sea mounts

c)

The gently sloping surface at the base of

the continental slope is called continental rise.
It may extend to hundreds of km into the deepocean basin. It consists of a thick accumulation
of sediment that move downslope from the
continental shelf to the deep-ocean floor.
Turbidity currents deliver these sediments to
the base of the continental slope, and when
these muddy currents emerge from the mouth
of a canyon onto the flat ocean floor, they drop
their load in a form of deep-sea fan.

Continental Shelf

(i)

It joins shore line with continental slope.

(ii) Its slope is very gentle i.e. about 2 metres

per km.
(iii) It is a shallow water area. Its depth is less
than 200 metres.

Chronicle IAS Academy

Continental Rise

Continental Slope:

(i) It joins continental shelf with abyssal

plain.
(ii) Its slope is very steep. The average
gradient is about 4.
(iii) Its depth varies from 200 to 2000
metres.

[1]

(iv) There are few canyons or deeps in the

continental shelf.
(v) They have large stores of sand and gravel.
(vi) They are of great use to man particularly
for fishing.
d) Deep Ocean Basins

are more extensive in the Atlantic Ocean than

in the Pacific. That is because the Atlantic Ocean
has fewer trenches to trap sediments carried
down the continental slope.

C
IA H
S RO
A N
C IC
A
D LE
EM
Y

It is the portion of sea floor that lies between

the continental margin and the oceanic ridge
system.

(iv) Deep canyons are found on the

continental slope.
(v) Very few land deposits are found on it.
(vi) They are not of much use to man.

It contains deep-ocean trenches, abyssal

plains, and broad volcanic peaks called
seamounts.
I.

Deep-Ocean Trenches:

These are long, narrow features that form

the deepest parts of the ocean. Most trenches are
located in the Pacific Ocean. They may reach
10,000 m deep (Mariana trench is 11,000 m
below sea level).
They are the sites where lithospheric plates
plunge back into the mantle, and are usually
associated with volcanic activity.
II.

Abyssal Plains:

These are the most level places on Earth. The

abyssal plains may have less than 3 m of relief
over a distance that may exceed 1300 km.
Scientists determined that abyssal plains low
relief is due to the fact that thick accumulations
of sediment, transported by turbidity currents,
have buried rugged ocean floor. Abyssal plains
Submarine Trench

(i) It is a long, narrow and steep

sided depression on the ocean bottom.
(ii) Their depth varies from 7000 to 9000
metres.
(iii) They are almost empty of sediments.

(iv) They are attributed to the endogenetic

forces which have produced mountains.

f)

Bank, Shoal and Reef

A bank is more or less flat topped elevation

located in the continental margins. The depth
of water over a bank is relatively small but is
adequate for navigation. The Dogger Banks in
the North Sea and the Grand Banks in the north
western Atlantic off New Foundland and the

[2]

III. Seamounts:

It is an isolated volcanic peak that rises at

least 1000 m (3300 ft) above the deep-ocean floor.
They are more extensive in the Pacific, where
subduction zones are common. These undersea
volcanoes form near oceanic ridges (regions of
seafloor spreading). Some of these volcanoes may
emerge as an island. Erosion by running water
and wave action may erode these features to sea
level. Over a long time, the islands gradually sink.
e)

Submarine Canyons

These are depressions with walls of steep

slopes and have a V shape. They exist on the
continental slopes and the shelves. They are
found to have a length of 16 km at the maximum
and have a dendritic pattern. The canyons are
found to be close to river mouths such as those
of the Congo, the Sindh, the Hudson, the
Delaware, the Columbia, etc. The depth varies
from 1,800 m. to 2,800 m. Coarse deposits are
found in the canyons.
Submarine Canyon

(i)

It is a deep gorge on the continental

slope.
(ii) Their depth varies from 1800 to 2800
metres.
(iii) Coarse deposits are found in the
canyons.
(iv) They are found near river mouths and
may have been the result of erosion.

George's Bank off the eastern coast of U.S.A.

are famous examples.

A Shoal is a detached elevation with such

shallow depth that it is a danger to surface
navigation. The shoal is neither composed of a
rock nor coral. Sometimes it is associated with
a bank. In the Dogger Banks, there are shoals

Chronicle IAS Academy

C
IA H
S RO
A N
C IC
A
D LE
EM
Y
which are 18 m. above their surroundings and
only 20 m. below the water surface.

A reef is a rocky or coral elevation having

a generally elongated shape. There are many
Shoal

well known types of reefs such as fringing

reef, barrier reef, coral reef and atoll. The
longest barrier reef known as the Great Barrier
Reef extends off the Queensland coast of
Australia.
Bank

(i) It is a bank of coastal sediment that

rises almost to the surface of the sea.

(i) It is more or less flat topped elevation

located in the continental margins.

(ii) They may be only 20 metres below sea

(ii) The depth of water over a bank though
level and hence dangerous for navigation.
small but adequate for navigation.
(iii) They are not of much economic value
to man.

(iii) Dogger Banks in the North Sea and

Grand Banks in the north west Atlantic
ocean are famous fishing grounds.

TEMPERATURE OF THE OCEAN WATER

The temperature of the

world's ocean is highly
variable over the surface of
the oceans, ranging from
less than 0C (32F) near
the poles to more than
29C (84F) in the tropics.
It is heated from the
surface downward by
sunlight, but at depth most
of the ocean is very cold.
Seventy five percent of the
water in the ocean falls within the temperature
range of 1 to +6C (30 to 43F) and the salinity
range of 34% to 35%.

The top part of the ocean water is called

the surface layer. Then there is a boundary layer
called the thermocline layer. The thermocline

Chronicle IAS Academy

layer separates the surface layers and the deep

water of the ocean.
The sun hits the surface layer of the ocean,
heating the water up. Wind and waves mix
this layer up from top to bottom, so the heat
gets mixed downward too. The temperature of

[3]

2.

Unequal distribution of land and water

The temperature of ocean water varies in

the northern and southern hemisphere because
of dominance of land in the former and water
in the latter. The oceans in the northern
hemisphere receive more heat due to their
contact with larger extent of land, thus
temperature is comparatively high.
3.

The Effect of Ocean Currents

C
IA H
S RO
A N
C IC
A
D LE
EM
Y

the surface waters varies mainly with latitude.

The polar seas (high latitude) can be as cold as
-2 Celsius (28.4 F) while the Persian Gulf (low
latitude) can be as warm as 36 Celsius (96.8
F). The average temperature of the ocean
surface waters is about 17 Celsius (62.6
Fahrenheit). 90 % of the total volume of ocean
water is found below the thermocline layer in
the deep ocean. Water in the deep ocean is not
well mixed. The deep ocean is made up of
horizontal layers of equal density. The
temperature of much of this deep ocean water
is between 0C and 3C (32F - 37.5 F). The
average annual temperature of ocean water at
different latitudes is:
At equator

26C

20 Latitude

23C

40 Latitude

14C

60 Latitude

1C

Variations in total salinity and in

temperature cause variations in the density of
sea water. Cold sea water is denser than warm
sea water. There are several areas at the ocean
surface where surface water becomes very cold.
In these locations, surface sea water becomes
denser than the surrounding water and sinks
to begin the formation of slow thermohaline
currents, which move deep ocean water.
At depth, pressure from the overlying ocean
water becomes very high (pressure at 4,000
meters is about 400 atmospheres), but water is
only slightly compressible, so that there is only
a minor pressure effect on density. At a depth
of 4,000 meters, water decreases in volume only
by 1.8 percent.
The horizontal distribution of the temperature
of ocean water depends upon the following
factors:
1.

Latitudinal Distance

Temperature of the ocean water decreases

from equator towards the poles. The average
temperature of ocean water is 26C in open
seas at equator but the temperature decreases
to 23C at 20 North and South latitudes.
Temperature further decreases to 14C at 40
latitudes and to 1C at 60 latitudes.

[4]

The temperature of warm current is higher

than that of the surrounding areas. The warm
currents keep the coastal lands warmer. For
example, the Gulf Stream does not allow the
Norway Coast to freeze even in winter and
thus helps the development of trade and
commerce in that country. The temperature
between Davis Strait and New Foundland drops
down because of cold Labrador Current
washing the coasts.
4.

Prevailing Winds

The prevailing winds deflect the warm and

cold currents and causes change in temperature
of ocean water. For example, the currents on
the east coast in the Trade Wind Belt shift away
from the coast. Hence, the warm currents
flowing along the coast moves away from it
which leads to the upwelling of cold water from
below near the coast. Hence the temperature
remains low in spite of the passage of warm
currents. This is why the temperature remains
lower on the eastern than on western parts of
the oceans.
5.

Iceberg

Icebergs are found near polar areas and can

be seen to be floating up to 50 latitudes. One
part of iceberg is above sea and eight parts
remain submerged under sea water. Many
icebergs have a height of hundreds of metres
above sea level. Thousands of icebergs can be
seen moving away from North Atlantic. The
Falkland and Benguela currents carry them to
far off places. It lowers the temperature of the
water to a great depth.
6.

Local Weather

Local weather comprises different types of

storms, cloudiness, precipitation and other
weather conditions. In the equatorial regions,

Chronicle IAS Academy

despite the vertical rays of the sun, large

amount of cloudiness obstructs the solar
radiation from reaching the earth surface.
It is due to the clear sky that near the Tropic
of Cancer and the Tropic of Capricorn the
amount of solar radiation incident on the earth
exceeds that reaching the equatorial regions.

7.

Minor factors

Other minor factors which also control the

sea surface temperatures are: Location of the
seas and their shapes, submarine ridges, the
rates of evaporation and condensation, etc.

C
IA H
S RO
A N
C IC
A
D LE
EM
Y

Thus, in the subtropical high pressure belt

the surface water temperature in the oceans is
a little higher. Besides, the incidence of daily
afternoon rains in the equatorial regions does

not allow the temperatures to rise further,

whereas the extremely dry weather and
cloudless skies prove helpful in raising the
temperatures in the subtropical regions. In the
same way in regions of stormy weather the
ocean water temperatures are relatively lower.

SALINITY OF THE OCEAN WATER

The salinity of water is usually expressed

in parts per thousand by weight (%) and is
due to the presence of compounds of sodium,
potassium, magnesium, calcium and other
elements including a high proportion of
sodium chloride (common salt). Rivers derive
minerals from rocks and carry them to the
sea. The salinity varies with the amounts of
salts contributed, addition of fresh water by
rainfall, rivers, and melting ice, and also with
the rate of evaporation: rapid evaporation can
cause relatively high surface salinity in open
oceans.
Controlling factors of salinity
I.

Rate of evaporation:

The process of evaporation is certainly the

most important factor that controls the
distribution of the surface salinity. Evaporation
causes concentration of salt. Highest salinity is
found near the tropics, because of active
evaporation owing to clear sky, high
temperature and steady trade winds. Salinity
decreases towards the equator because of heavy
convectional rainfall.
Salinity is higher in the middle-latitude
regions than in the polar regions mainly because
of warmer ocean temperatures and greater
evaporation there (mid - latitudes). Due to the
extremely low evaporation rates, on the
contrary, the lowest salinity is found in polar
areas. Besides, during the summer season, the
polar area ice melts and fresh water is added
to the seawater. Thus, the salinity decreases in
the polar region.

Chronicle IAS Academy

II. Supply of clean and fresh water through

precipitation:
In humid regions where rainfall is heavier,
fresh water tends to dilute the sea-water and
reduce its salinity. On the other hand, in arid
and semi-arid areas where evaporation exceeds
precipitation, there is greater concentration of
salts so that the salinity is high.
In the equatorial region despite uniformly
high temperature throughout the year, heavy
precipitation dilutes the surface water so that
the salinity is relatively lower. In the polar and
sub polar regions thick layers of snow and ice
are deposited on the surface of the earth due
to heavy snowfall.
Melting of sea-ice and ice-bergs in the
middle-latitude regions adds fresh water to the
sea, and thus by diluting it reduces its salinity.
III. Supply of fresh water by rivers:

The influx of fresh water by river is another

important factor which brings down the degree
of salinity in ocean water. Rivers such as, the
Congo, Niger, St. Lawrence, Ob and Amazon
etc. carry a large supply of fresh water to the
oceans in which they fall. Due to the addition
of fresh water, salinity near the mouths of rivers
decreases.
It is estimated that the rivers pour down
about 27000 km3 of the rain water every year
from over the continental surface into the
oceans. Thus, keeping in view the total area of
the surface of ocean waters, rivers supply about
7.6cm of fresh water per year to the oceans.

However, the effect of fresh water carried

by the rivers to the oceans is limited to the

[5]

coastal areas only. Salinity in the coastal areas

of the North Sea from Holland to East Anglia is
34.2%, while offshore in the open sea it is 35%.

Ocean currents alone is an important factor

in bringing about the uniformity of salinity in
the surface layer of the oceans. Currents, warm
as well as cold, play a major role in the
distribution of salinity.

C
IA H
S RO
A N
C IC
A
D LE
EM
Y

In the Black Sea over the greater part the

surface salinity vanes from 18 to 18.5% due to
the influx of fresh water carried by the rivers.
Similarly, in the Baltic Sea lying in the colder
region evaporation is comparatively low and a
large amount of fresh water is poured down by
numerous rivers of Sweden and northern Russia.

as compared to open seas. The salinity of the

Red Sea is 40% and that of the Dead Sea is
2.28%. This is because of high rate of
evaporation, lack of supply of fresh water in
enclosed seas.

Thus, in the Gulf of Bothnia, in the northern

part of the Baltic Sea the salinity is often less
than 2%, and in spring the water is almost
fresh.
IV. Prevailing winds:

Warm ocean currents carry warm and more

saline waters towards the Polar Regions,
whereas the cold currents drive the cold and
less saline waters from the higher to lower
latitudes.

Winds blowing over the sea surface play

an important role in the distribution of surface
salinity. For example, the trade winds in both
the hemispheres transport warm and saline
water from the eastern part of the oceans
towards the western part raising the degree of
salinity there.

Trade winds as well as the westerlies bring

about salinity differences on the eastern and
western parts of the oceans. However, in the
Indian Ocean, the monsoon system of winds
causes the seasonal variation in the distribution
of salinity.

To compensate for the loss of the top layers

of the ocean water there, the cooler and less
saline water from the deeper parts of the ocean
comes up. This phenomenon is called upwelling.

Composition of Sea Water

The trade winds go a long way in producing

salinity differences along the eastern and
western shores of the oceans. Similarly, the
intrusion of warm and saline water of the Gulf
Stream is the most important causative factor
in raising the salinity in the northeast Atlantic
Ocean.
Besides, blowing of winds on the sea surface
exerts stress, and each moving layer of water
exerts a stress on the next underlying layer.
Since it causes mixing of the different layers of
water, it is enough to appreciate the dominant
role of prevailing winds as a controlling factor
in the distribution and amount of salinity.

V. Mixing through the movement of the ocean

water:
The currents, stirred by wind, sweep away
saline water from the eastern coast of the high
latitudes to the western coasts, whereas cold
water penetrates into the low latitudes. Thus
there is a tendency for salinity to increase from
east to west. Salinity is higher in enclosed seas

[6]

Sodium Chlorate

77.5%

Magnesium Chloride

10.9%

Magnesium Sulphate

4.7%

Calcium Sulphate

3.6%

Potassium Sulphate

2.5%

Calcium Carbonate

0.3%

Magnesium Bromide

0.2%

Distribution of salinity

Horizontal Distribution of Salinity refers

to latitudinal distribution of salinity in water
which is represented by ischalines. Ischalines
are imaginary lines drawn on the map to
represent the area of uniform salinity of the
ocean water.
Pacific Oceans

There is a wide range of salinity difference

in the Pacific Ocean because of its shape and
larger arial extent salinity remains 34.85gm/kg
between 15 to 20 degree latitudes in the
northern hemisphere but it becomes still higher
36/kg in the latitudes. Salinity again decreases
further northward in the western part the
pacific ocean where it became 31gm/kg in the

Chronicle IAS Academy

Okhotsk sea and 34gm/kg near Manchuria

(Northeast Asia) because of influx of melt water
salinity also decreases along the California,
middle America and Peruvian coast due to
transfer of water and upwelling of cold water
from below.
Atlantic Ocean

C
IA H
S RO
A N
C IC
A
D LE
EM
Y

The average salinity of Atlantic Ocean is

35gm/kg the highest Salinity is not observe at
the equator rather is recorded between 15-20
latitudes .The central zone of north Atlantic
Ocean located between 20 North-30 North
and 20 West-60 West latitudes record
maximum salinity 37gm.kg and it gradually
decreases northward but with varying tender
maximum salinity 37gm/kg in the southern
Atlantic is from in a region marked by 12S20S latitudes and 40W-15W longitudes,
salinity, therefore gradually decreases
southward. The pattern of special distribution
of salinity in spite difference in partially
enclosed sea of the Atlantic Ocean the north
sea in spite of its location in high latitudes record
34gm/kg salinity due to more saline water
brought by north Atlantic Drift further
northward salinity continues to become as lower
to 2gm/kg in the gulf of Bostonian (Finland
west & Sweden East) due to influx of fresh
water, the Mediterranean sea record high
salinity due to evaporation and mixture of
Atlantic water.

Indian Ocean is more variable and complex

than the Pacific and Atlantic Oceans and
average Salinity of 35gm/kg is between 0'010N
but it gradually decreases northwards in the
Bay of Bengal 33gm/kg because of influx of
volume of fresh water brought by Ganga River.
The western coast of Australia records high
salinity due to dry weather the partially
enclosed sea has high salinity for e.g., Persian
gulf 40gm/kg the Red sea 36gm-41gm/kg
because of low precipitation and very high
evaporation.

Indian Ocean

The special distribution of salinity in the

Chronicle IAS Academy

Vertical Distribution of Salinity refers to

the distribution of salinity with respect to depth
of ocean, salinity generally increases towards
the bottom of the ocean but there is no definite
rule for decrease in the salinity, factors like
temperature to latitudes ocean currents,
upwelling and down willing influence the
salinity of the ocean.
The Main features are:-

1. Upper surface has lower salinity than bottom

surface.
2. In equatorial region heavy rainfall reduces the
surface salinity which gradually increases with
depth until it starts decreasing again due to
pressure of cold water.

3. In middle latitude salinity decreases up to 35m

and then starts increasing

4. In the high latitude or polar area surface

salinity is low due to melting of icebergs and
glaciers while salinity increases with the depth.

[7]

THERMOHALINE CIRCULATION
Thermohaline circulation simply refers to
global density-driven circulation of the oceans.
Heat (thermo), and haline (density) are the two
main factors determining the density of
seawater.

C
IA H
S RO
A N
C IC
A
D LE
EM
Y

Temperature and density share an inverse

relationship so when the surface currents (i.e.
the Gulf Stream) flow towards the poles from

the equatorial Atlantic Ocean, they are cooled

and flow downhill into deep water basins
forming the North Atlantic Deep Water. These
currents resurface in the northeast Pacific Ocean
1,200 years later. Ocean water from all of the
ocean basins mixes thoroughly, carrying heat
energy and matter in the form of solids and
gases, making Earth's ocean a global system.

Formation of the deep water masses

The cold, dense water masses that sink into

deep basins are formed in the North Atlantic
and the Southern Ocean. Seawater is cooled
by the wind and the salinity of the water
increases due to the salt fraction of the water
being left behind when the ice forms. Extremely
dense brine is formed in ice pockets similar to
a honeycomb. The brine drips down slowly
through the honeycomb matrix and sinks to
the sea bottom, flowing downhill through the
bottom topography like a stream in the ocean
to fill up the polar sea basins.
The cooling effect of the wind is a major
factor in the Norwegian Sea and the North
Atlantic Deep Water (NADW), where cold
dense water fills the basin and spills southwards
through crevasses that connect Greenland,
Iceland and Britain.
In contrast, in the Weddell Sea located
north of Antarctica near the edge of the ice

[8]

pack, the effect of wind cooling becomes more

intense with the exclusion of the brine. The
result is the sinking and northward flow of the
Antarctic Bottom Water (AABW)-seawater so
dense that it actually flows underneath the
North Atlantic Deep Water.
Movement of deep water masses

The North Atlantic Deep Water, is the result

of density variation in the North Atlantic and
is not a static mass of water like once thought,
but instead a slowly southward flowing current.
The route of the deep water flow is through
the Atlantic Basin around South Africa and
into the Indian Ocean and on past Australia
into the Pacific Ocean Basin. Flow into the
Pacific is blocked for both the AABW and the
NADW, so the NADW flows very slowly into
the deep abyssal plains of the Atlantic always
in a southerly direction and the AABW also
flows away from the road block. In the case of
the AABW, the blockage is the Drake Passage,

Chronicle IAS Academy

located between the Antarctic Peninsula and

the southernmost tip of South America.
Upwelling

Impacts on global climate

Thermohaline circulation is responsible for
much of the distribution of heat energy from
the equatorial oceans to the polar regions of
the ocean. It is also the return flow of the sea
water from the surface North Atlantic Drift
and Gulf Stream currents.

C
IA H
S RO
A N
C IC
A
D LE
EM
Y

With all the dense water masses sinking in

the ocean basins, the original water is moved
upwards to keep a balance. Although
thermohaline upwelling is a major factor
causing ocean currents, it is also a very slow
process, even when compared to the movement
of bottom water masses. With all of the winddriven processes going on simultaneously, it can
be very complicated to determine where
upwelling occurs just by using current speeds.
So instead, we have to look at the breakdown
of particulate matter that falls into the basins

over their long journey, a sort of chemical

signature. By analyzing the chemical and
isotopic ratio signatures, the flow rate and age
of the deep water masses can be determined.
This signature tells us that the surface waters
of the North Pacific is where most upwelling
occurs.

OCEAN CURRENTS

Ocean currents are the vertical or horizontal

movement of both surface and deep water
throughout the world's oceans. Currents
normally move in a specific direction and aid
significantly in the circulation of the Earth's
moisture, the resultant weather, and water
pollution.

Finally, gravity plays a role in the movement of

surface currents because the top of the ocean is
uneven. Mounds in the water form in areas
where the water meets land, where water is
warmer, or where two currents converge.
Gravity then pushes this water down slope on
the mounds and creates currents.

Oceanic currents are found all over the

globe and vary in size, importance, and
strength. Some of the more prominent currents
include the California and Humboldt Currents
in the Pacific, the Gulf Stream and Labrador
Current in the Atlantic, and the Indian
Monsoon Current in the Indian Ocean.

Deep water currents, also called

thermohaline circulation, are found below 400
meters and make up about 90% of the ocean.
Like surface currents, gravity plays a role in
the creation of deep water currents but these
are mainly caused by density differences in the
water.

Surface currents are those found in the

upper 400 meters (1,300 feet) of the ocean and
make up about 10% of all the water in the
ocean. Surface currents are mostly caused by
the wind because it creates friction as it moves
over the water. This friction then forces the
water to move in a spiral pattern, creating gyres.
In the northern hemisphere, gyres move
clockwise and in the southern they spin
counterclockwise. The speed of surface currents
is greatest closer to the ocean's surface and
decreases at about 100 meters (328 ft) below
the surface.

Causes of Ocean Currents

As surface currents travel over long

distances, the Coriolis force also plays a role in
their movement and deflects them, further
aiding in the creation of their circular pattern.

Chronicle IAS Academy

There are several causes for ocean currents,

including:
a) Solar Activity

This is the single most important cause. The

Sun provides the bulk of the energy which
drives the circulation of water in the oceans,
either directly or indirectly (through winds).
The uneven distribution of solar energy across
the globe (highest at the equator, decreasing
towards the poles) produces an uneven heating
of water in the ocean. Like air, hot water
expands. The differential heating is so
pronounced that sea level at the equator is about
8 cm (3.15 inches) higher than at temperate
latitudes.

[9]

b) Gravity
The equatorial bulge of the oceans, caused
by the expansion of water under equatorial
heat creates a slope, and water tends to run
downhill under the force of gravity. This is one
of the major reasons for surface water flow
from the equator towards higher latitudes.
c) Winds

The duration of the wind is very significant.

Since water is much heavier than air, it also
has much more inertia. Short duration winds
only produce turbulence at the water's surface.
It takes winds blowing over a longer duration
to produce a sustained movement of water in
the wind's direction.

C
IA H
S RO
A N
C IC
A
D LE
EM
Y

Winds produce a flow of water at the ocean

surface due to frictional coupling between the
wind and the surface of the oceans. Since the
oceans are largely flat unobstructed by
topography, winds can blow for long distances,
for prolonged periods of time. Friction between
the air and the surface of the water is
sufficiently high, that a wind blowing for about
10 hours can produce a surface current in the
water at about 2% of the wind velocity. So a
steady wind blowing in a certain direction at
20 miles per hour for about 10 hours will
produce a surface water current at about 0.4
miles per hour. The direction of the water
current is not the same as that of the wind
flow. The direction of the water current is
affected by a phenomenon known as Eckman
Transport. Briefly, a column of water can be
thought of as consisting of many layers. Wind
friction affects the topmost layer, pulling the
water in the direction of wind flow. This top
layer of water tends to pull layers of water
beneath, but because of the Coriolis force the

water actually moves at an angle to the side.

In progressively deeper layers, the sideways
movement is enhanced, so the entire water
column can been thought of as moving in a
spiral. The net flow of water is almost at right
angles to the direction of the wind.

Gyres are usually bounded by the shallow

waters of continental shelves. There are five
major gyres in the world's oceans, which are
delimited by the continents around them.

[10]

d) Coriolis force and Ocean Gyres

This is a pseudo force resulting from the

Earth's rotation from west to east about its axis.
Because of the Earth's rotation, any movement
away from the equator (in both the northern
and southern hemispheres) is deflected
eastwards, while movements towards the
equator are deflected westwards. This effect is
very pronounced in movements that happen
within a fluid medium (atmosphere and
oceans), and over long distances. Because of
the Coriolis Effect, currents tend to flow in
curves rather than in straight lines. When the
space for movement is restricted (such as by
land bounding the oceans), these curves can
close in on themselves, and cause a circular
flow of water around a center. Such circular
flows are called oceanic gyres.

These gyres are responsible for much of the

world's surface currents. As you can see in the
map above, much of the eastern coast of Africa
has a current going from north to south, part

Chronicle IAS Academy

eastward across the South Atlantic in a broad

belt around 50 S. is the West Wind Drift.

C
IA H
S RO
A N
C IC
A
D LE
EM
Y

of the Indian Ocean Gyre. This current was a

great problem to early European navigators,
trying to go around the Cape of Good Hope
(the southern tip of Africa) to find a trade route
to India. Early sailing ships tended to hug the
coast, where the currents are strongest, and
they didn't have a lot of motive power in the
days of sail. Even today, ships use these currents
to save fuel, since making way against the
current is costly. Debris floating in the ocean
also tends to converge in certain zones because
of these currents. The North Atlantic Garbage
Patch and the Great Pacific Garbage Patch are
places where a lot of trash dumped into the
oceans has aggregated.
Ocean currents in Atlantic Ocean

Circulation of surface water is generally

clockwise in the North Atlantic and
counterclockwise in the South Atlantic. There
are, however, many exceptions to the general
circulation, particularly along the coasts.

In the North Atlantic, the strongest current

is the warm Gulf Stream, which forms in the
Gulf of Mexico. It flows north-eastward off the
United States coast, encounters the cold
Labrador Current from the north, and
continues across the Atlantic as the North
Atlantic Current, or Drift. It continues
northward as the Irminger and Norwegian
currents.

West of Spain, part of the North Atlantic

Current turns southward, flows along the
"bulge" of Africa as the Canaries Current, then
turns westward as the North Equatorial Current.
This current crosses the ocean; part of its water
reaches the Gulf of Mexico. South of the North
Equatorial Current, running in the opposite
direction, is the Equatorial Counter-current. In
the western North Atlantic, around Bermuda, is
the Sargasso Sea, a calm area named for its
masses of floating sargassum weed.
In the South Atlantic, the cold Benguela
Current flows northward up to the coast of
Africa, turns west near the Equator, and flows
westward as the warm South Equatorial
Current. Near the South American coast, part
of the current swings southward to become the
Brazil Current, which runs down the coast of
South America to about 40 South latitude. Here,
it meets the cold Falkland Current. Flowing

Chronicle IAS Academy

Ocean Currents in Pacific Ocean

General circulation of the currents is

clockwise in the North Pacific, counterclockwise
in the South Pacific. It is somewhat like the
rotations of two giant disks turning in opposite
directions. As a result, warm equatorial water
is constantly being carried poleward along the
Asian and Australian coasts, while cold water
is flowing toward the equator along the coasts
of North and South America. Thus, the currents
have distinct climatic effects on nearby lands.
In some areas, such as the coast of Chile and
Peru, currents have cooling effects; in others,
such as southern Japan, they are warm. In
regions where warm and cold currents meet,
notably northern Japan to southern Alaska,
dense fogs frequently occur.

The chief currents of the North Pacific,

beginning at the equator, are the North
Equatorial Current, Kuroshio (Japan Current),
North Pacific Current, or Drift, and California
Current. Entering this circulation from the
Arctic is the cold Oyashio (Okhotsk, or
Kamchatka, Current). The Alaska Current
starts off the coast of Oregon and flows
northward along the coast of North America
as far as Kodiak Island, bringing warmth to

[11]

There are also deep, underwater currents, but

little is known of them. They tend to form separate
layers flowing in different directions, each layer
being denser than the layer above. For example,
Antarctic water is known to subside suddenly
beneath warmer water at a line called the
Antarctic Convergence. From here it flows
northward far below the surface of the ocean.

C
IA H
S RO
A N
C IC
A
D LE
EM
Y

the coastal areas in winter. In the South Pacific

are the South Equatorial Current, East
Australian Current, West Wind Drift, and Peru
(Humboldt) Current. Separating the two
systems in the vicinity of the equator is the
Equatorial Counter-current, which flows
eastward from Indonesia and the Philippines
to the South American coast.

Ocean currents in Indian Ocean

The Asiatic Monsoon influences the currents

of the North Indian Ocean, while the currents
of the South Indian Ocean are influenced by
the atmosphere's anticyclonic circulation.

During the northwest monsoon (February

and March) the wind blows from the continent
and aids in the development of the North
Equatorial Current. The current flows from east
to west; and upon reaching the east coast of
Africa, a good portion turns southward, crosses
the equator, and becomes the Mozambique
Current. A strong counter-current exists south
of the North Equatorial Current at this same
time of year. In August and September, during
the southwest monsoon, the North Equatorial

[12]

Current reverses and flows west to east as the

Monsoon Current. At the same time, the
countercurrent seems to disappear.
The Mozambique Current flows south along
the east coast of Africa from the vicinity of the
equator to about 35S, where it is known as
the Alguhas Stream.

The Alguhas Stream flows westward along

the southern coast of Madagascar and joins
the Mozambique Current along the east African
coast. From there, it flows south to the southern
tip of Africa (the Cape of Good Hope), where
a good portion joins up with the West Wind
Drift Current.
The West Wind Drift Current flows across
the Indian Ocean to the waters southwest of

Chronicle IAS Academy

branch brings relatively cool waters to the western

Australian coast and contributes to the formation
of fog and low stratus clouds over the region.

C
IA H
S RO
A N
C IC
A
D LE
EM
Y

Australia. Here it splits; one branch continues

east along the southern coast, while the other
flows northward along the western coast. This

The Importance of Ocean Currents

Because ocean currents circulate water

worldwide, they have a significant impact on
the movement of energy and moisture between
the oceans and the atmosphere. As a result,
they are important to the world's weather. The
Gulf Stream, for example, is a warm current
that originates in the Gulf of Mexico and moves
north toward Europe. Since it is full of warm
water, the sea surface temperatures are warm,
which keeps places like Europe warmer than
other areas at similar latitudes.

The Humboldt Current is another example

of a current that affects weather. When this cold
current is normally present off the coast of Chile
and Peru, it creates extremely productive waters
and keeps the coast cool and northern Chile
arid. However, when it becomes disrupted,
Chile's climate is altered and it is believed that
El Nio plays a role in its disturbance.

Like the movement of energy and moisture,

debris can also get trapped and moved around
the world via currents. This can be man-made
which is significant to the formation of trash
islands or natural such as icebergs. The Labrador
Current, which flows south out of the Arctic
Ocean along the coasts of Newfoundland and
Nova Scotia, is famous for moving icebergs into
shipping lanes in the North Atlantic.
Currents play an important role in
navigation as well. In addition to being able to
avoid trash and icebergs, knowledge of currents
is essential to the reduction of shipping costs
and fuel consumption. Today, shipping
companies and even sailing races often use
currents to reduce time spent at sea.

Finally, ocean currents are important to the

distribution of the world's sea life. Many species
rely on currents to move them from one location
to another whether it is for breeding or just
simple movement over large areas.

TIDES

The tide is the periodic rise and fall of the sea

levels caused by the combined effects of the
gravitational forces exerted by the Moon and Sun
and rotation of the earth. Most places in the ocean

Chronicle IAS Academy

usually experience two high tides and two low

tides each day (semidiurnal tide), but some
locations experience only one high and one low
tide each day (diurnal tide). The times and

[13]

amplitude of the tides at the coast are influenced

by the alignment of the Sun and Moon, by the
depth of the ocean, and by the shape of the
coastline and near-shore bathymetry.

Spring Tides - once a forthnight, due to the

revolution of the moon and its declination.

Neap tides - Once a forthnight due to the

revolution and declination of moon.

The moon, which is approximately 240,000

miles (386,240 km) from the earth, exerts a greater
influence on the tides than does the sun, which
is 93 million miles (150 million km) from the earth.
The strength of the sun's gravity is 179 times that
of the moon's but the moon is responsible for
56% of the earth's tidal energy while the sun
claims responsibility for a mere 44%.

Monthly tides - Due to the revolution of the

moon and its position at perigee and apogee.

SPRING TIDES

C
IA H
S RO
A N
C IC
A
D LE
EM
Y

Spring tides are especially strong tides or

high tides. They occur when the Earth, the Sun,

When the moon exerts gravitational force

on the earth the tidal bulge moves out and
causes high tide. Simultaneously on the side
opposite to that place on the earth i.e. just at
180 to it, also experiences the tidal bulge due
to reactionary force (centrifugal) of the
gravitational (centripetal) force. Thus two tides
are experienced twice at every place on the
earth's water surface within 24 hours.
Due to the cyclic rotation of the earth and moon,
the tidal cycle is 24 hours and 52 minutes long.
Causes of Tides

Gravitational attraction between moon and

the earth.
Gravitational attraction between sun and the
earth.
Attraction force of the earth towards earth
centre.
Moon is mainly responsible for the tides.

Types of Tides

Semi diurnal tides - Recur at the intervals of

12 hours.

Diurnal Tides - Recur at the intervals of 24

hours.

and the Moon are in a line. The gravitational

forces of the Moon and the Sun both contribute
to the tides. Spring tides occur during the full
moon and the new moon.
NEAP TIDES

Neap tides are especially weak tides. They

occur when the gravitational forces of the Moon
and the Sun are perpendicular to one another
(with respect to the Earth). Neap tides occur
during quarter moons.

The Bay of Fundy between Nova Scotia and

New Brunswick in Canada experiences the world's
greatest tidal range of 50 feet (15.25 meters)

OCEAN DEPOSITS

The sediments deposited in the oceans are

derived from following major sources:
1. Terrigenous materials:

These are the deep-sea sediment transported

to the oceans by rivers and wind from land
sources.

Terrigeneous sediments that reach the

continental shelf are often stored in submarine
canyons on the continental slope. Turbidity

[14]

currents carry these sediments down into the

deep sea. These currents create sedimentary
deposits called turbidites, which are layers up
to several metres thick composed of sediment
particles that grade upward from coarser to
finer sizes. The turbidites build sedimentary
deep-sea fans adjacent to the base of the
continental slope. Turbidites are also found
below the major river deltas of the world where
they build features called abyssal cones. The
largest of these is the Ganges Fan (also called

Chronicle IAS Academy

the Ganges Cone or Bengal Cone) in the Bay of

Bengal east of the Indian subcontinent. It
measures 3,000 km (about 1,900 miles) long
(north-south) by 1,000 km (about 600 miles)
wide (east-west) and is up to 12 km (about 7
miles) thick. The Bengal Cone continues to form
from rock material eroded from the Himalayas
and transported by the Ganges and
Brahmaputra rivers.

C
IA H
S RO
A N
C IC
A
D LE
EM
Y

Abyssal plains are formed by the

accumulation of turbidites beyond the limits of
deep-sea fans and abyssal cones in locations
where there is a very large sediment supply. In
contrast to fans and cones, abyssal plains are
flat and featureless. They are prominent near
both margins of the Atlantic and in the
northeast Pacific.

sea also. Max Weber states that blue mud

occurs in the deep basins of the eastern
Malay sea. Red mud may be classed as
a variety of blue mud, from which it
differs on account of the larger
proportion of ochreous sub stance. This
variety surrounds the tropical parts of
the conti nental shelves of South
America, South Africa and eastern
China. Green mud differs to a greater
extent from the blue mud, and owes its
characteristic nature and colour to the
presence of glauconite, the spines of
echini and the spicules of sponges. It
occurs in such abundance in certain
geological formations as to give rise to
the name of green-sand. Green mud
abounds off Cape Hatteras, the north
of Cuba, and off the coast of California.

Some types are:

a) Gravels: The diameter of gravels Range

from 2mm to 256mm. These are
deposited near the coast on the
continental shelves. These are further
divided as boulders (256mm); cobbles
(64mm); pebbles (4mm), granules
(2mm), etc.

b) Sands: The sediments vary in size from

1mm to 1/16mm. The disintegration of
continental rocks fragments into fine
sediments produces sands which are
deposited in the oceans by rivers, surface
wash and winds.

c) Clay and Mud: These range from

1/32mm to 1/8192mm. clay and mud
are deposited in calm seawater. Muds
are further classified as: Blue mud,
according to Murray and Renard, is
usually of a blue or slatey or grey-green
colour when fresh, the upper surface
having, however, a reddish tint. The
proportion of calcium carbonate varies
greatly according to the amount of
foraminifera and other calcareous
organisms it contains. Blue mud prevails
in large areas of the Pacific ocean, the
Indian ocean, and the Atlantic. As a
glacial-marine mud it occurs round the
whole of the Antarctic shelf, down to
depths of 4,500 metres. A blue and
brown mud is the chief deposit of the
North Polar basin and of the Norwegian

Chronicle IAS Academy

2. Volcanic materials

The volcanic materials are derived from

volcanic eruptions either in the sea or on the
land. Finer volcanic materials nearer to the
coastal areas are blown by winds and carried
to the oceans while volcanic materials of distinct
places are brought by the rivers. These materials
resemble blue mud and are grey to black in
colour.
3. Organic materials

The source of marine organic deposit

includes: skeletons of marine organisms and
plant remains divided as neretic matter
(skeletons of marine organisms and plant
remains) and pelagic matter also known as
oozes (remains of different kinds of algae).

Biogenic oozes accumulate very slowly in the

deep ocean. This is because the surface waters
of the central oceans are very poor in the
nutrients (mostly land-derived), such as
nitrogen and phosporus, that are required by
the surface sea creatures. Therefore these
waters are inhabited by only small populations
which contribute very slowly to the
development of the deep ocean sediment
accumulation.

There are two major types of Oozes - siliceous

and calcareous.
a) Siliceous - i.e. SiO2 oozes are made up

[15]

of the tests of floating (planktonic)

organisms that extract silica from
seawater to make their hard parts. The
most abundant of these are the diatoms
(plants)
and
the
radiolarians
(animals).

4. Red Clay
Red clay, also known as either "brown clay"
or "pelagic clay," accumulates in the deepest
and most remote areas of the ocean. It covers
38% of the ocean floor and accumulates more
slowly than any other sediment type, at only
0.1-0.5 cm / 1000 yr. Containing less than 30%
biogenic material, it consists of sediment that
remains after the dissolution of both calcareous
and siliceous biogenic particles while they settled
through the water column. These sediments
consist of eolian quartz, clay minerals, volcanic
ash, subordinate residue of siliceous
microfossils, and authigenic minerals. The bulk
of red clay consists of eolian dust. These pelagic
sediments also contain authegenic minerals that
include zeolites, limonite and manganese
oxides. Accessory constituents found in red clay
include meteorite dust, fish bones and teeth,
whale ear bones, and manganese micronodules.

C
IA H
S RO
A N
C IC
A
D LE
EM
Y

Nowhere, in the oceans does silica

precipitate spontaneously without the
intervention of an organism. Therefore,
the tendency for silica is to dissolve
everywhere it occurs in the oceans. So,
the only regions in which siliceous oozes
are abundant are in regions where the
nutrient supply is so large that diatom
and radiolarian tests accumulate faster
than the seawater can redissolve them
after death.

will be found only at depths less than

4-5 kilometers. Where the bottom of the
ocean is deeper than 4-5 kilometers
calcareous tests will not accumulate.
Calcareous oozes, therefore, are found
mostly on the oceanic ridges and
plateaus.

These regions are along the Equator in

the central Pacific and in high latitudes
near Antarctica. The high dilution by
terrigenous sediment input and
extensive ice cover in northern latitudes
inhibiting high biological productivity
limit siliceous ooze accumulation in
northern latitudes. It dominates about
14% of Deep Ocean.

b) Calcareous oozes - CaCO3 made up of

the tests of floating (planktonic)
organisms that extract CaCO 3 from
seawater to make their hard parts.
CaCO 3 precipitates spontaneously in
some oceanic regions without the
intervention of an organism (WHITING).
In warm tropical surface waters CaCO3
does not readily dissolve. However, in
colder deeper waters the presence of
increased amounts of CO2 in the water
enhances the dissolution of CaCO 3
causing the breakdown of calcareous
tests.

These pelagic sediments are typically

bright red to chocolate brown in colour. The
colour results from coatings of iron and
manganese oxide on the sediment particles.
In the absence of organic carbon, iron and
manganese remain in their oxidized states
and these clays remain brown after burial.

The carbon dioxide and water combine

to form carbonic acid which dissolves
the CaCO3. At lower latitudes, CaCO3
dissolves at depths in the ocean where
it encounters these CO 2 -rich water
masses. The depth below which
calcareous skeletons dissolve as fast as
they accumulate is called as calcium
carbonate compensation depth (ccd).
In warm latitudes the CCD occurs at 45 kilometers. Therefore, calcareous oozes

[16]

Chronicle IAS Academy

When more deeply buried, brown clay may

change into red clay due to the conversion of
iron-hydroxides to hematite.
These sediments accumulate on the ocean
floor within areas characterized by little
planktonic production. The clays which
comprise them were transported into the deep
ocean in suspension, either in the air over the
oceans or in surface waters. Both wind and

ocean currents transported these sediments in

suspension thousands of kilometers from their
terrestrial source. As they were transported, the
finer clays may have stayed in suspension for
a hundred years or more within the water
column before they settled to the ocean bottom.
The settling of this clay-size sediment occurred
primarily by the formation of clay aggregates
by flocculation and by their incorporation into
fecal pellets by pelagic organisms.

C
IA H
S RO
A N
C IC
A
D LE
EM
Y

CORAL REEFS
Coral Reefs referred to as the "rainforests of
the oceans" are underwater structures made from
secreted by corals. The reef is made up of
thousands of corals. When coral dies, it leaves its
skeleton of calcium carbonate behind. Young
corals attach themselves to the old skeleton and
the cycle starts again. Each new generation is
built upon the remains of the previous generation.

The sun is the source of energy for the coral

reef ecosystem. Plant plankton, called
phytoplankton, algae and other plants convert
light energy into chemical energy through
photosynthesis. As animals eat the plants and
other animals, energy is passed through the
food chain. Reef building corals work together
with microscopic algae, called zooxanthellae
that live in their tissue. The zooxanthellae
provide oxygen and food to the coral through
photosynthesis. The coral polyp gives the algae
a home, and the carbon dioxide it needs
through respiration.
Coral bleaching occurs when corals lose
their zooxanthellae, exposing the white calcium
carbonate skeletons of the coral colony. There
are a number of stresses or environmental
changes that may cause bleaching including
disease, excess shade, increased levels of
ultraviolet radiation, sedimentation, pollution,
salinity changes, and increased temperatures.

Reefs usually develop in areas that have a

lot of wave action because the waves bring in
food, nutrients and oxygen to the reef. Waves
also prevent sediment from falling on the reef.
Reefs need calcium from the water to grow,
which is more often available in shallow warm
waters.
Corals can live only in saline water, and
for their proper growth the average salinity
should be between 27 to 40%.
Types of Coral Reefs:

Reefs are generally classified in three types:

Fringing reefs are reefs that form along a

coastline. They grow on the continental shelf
in shallow water.

Barrier reefs grow parallel to shorelines, but

farther out, usually separated from the land
by a deep lagoon. They are called barrier reefs
because they form a barrier between the lagoon
and the seas, impeding navigation.

Coral Atolls are rings of coral that grow on

top of old, sunken volcanoes in the ocean. They
begin as fringe reefs surrounding a volcanic
island; then, as the volcano sinks, the reef
continues to grow, and eventually only the
reef remains.

Suitable conditions for the growth of Coral

Reef:

Coral reefs develop in shallow, warm water,

usually near land, and mostly in the tropics;
coral prefer temperatures between 70 and 85
F (21 - 30 C). Coral reefs are generally found
in clear, tropical oceans. Coral reefs form in
waters from the surface to about 150 feet (45
meters) deep because they need sunlight to
survive.

Chronicle IAS Academy

FRINGING
REEF

BARRIER
REEF

ATOLL

[17]

The Great Barrier Reef is the largest coral

reef comprising over 2,900 individual reefs and
900 islands stretching for over 2,600 kilometers
off Queensland, Australia
The Mesoamerican Barrier Reef System is
the second largest, stretching 1,000 kilometers
(620 mi) from Isla Contoy at the tip of the
Yucatn Peninsula down to the Bay Islands of
Honduras.

Coral reefs are dying around the world. In

particular, coral mining, agricultural and urban
runoff, pollution (organic and inorganic),
overfishing, blast fishing, disease, and the
digging of canals and access into islands and
bays are localized threats to coral ecosystems.
Broader threats are sea temperature rise, sea
level rise and pH changes from ocean
acidification, all associated with greenhouse gas
emissions.

C
IA H
S RO
A N
C IC
A
D LE
EM
Y

The New Caledonia Barrier Reef is the

second longest double barrier reef, covering
1,500 kilometers.

sea urchins; other cnidarians such as jellyfish

and sea anemones; various types of fungi; sea
turtles; and many species of fish.

The Andros, Bahamas Barrier Reef is the

third largest, along the east coast of Andros
Island, Bahamas.

Coral reefs provide habitats for a large

variety of organisms. These organisms rely on
corals as a source of food and shelter. Besides
the corals themselves and their symbiotic algae,
other creatures that call coral reefs home
include various sponges; molluscs such as sea
slugs, nudibranchs, oysters, and clams;
crustaceans like crabs and shrimp; many kinds
of sea worms; echinoderms like star fish and

Major threats to the world's coral reefs

include:

Pollution

Disease

Over-fishing

Dynamite and cyanide fishing

Sedimentation

Bleaching caused by rising ocean

temperatures

MARITIME ZONES

The United Nations Convention on the Law

of the Sea (UNCLOS), also called the Law of
the Sea Convention or the Law of the Sea treaty,
has divided the maritime area as internal
waters, the territorial sea, the contiguous zone,
the exclusive economic zone, the continental
shelf, the high seas and the Area in 1982.

bays and rivers) on the landward side of the

baseline. Each coastal State has full sovereignty
over its internal waters as if they were part of
its land territory. The right of innocent passage
does not apply in internal waters. The coastal
state is free to set laws, regulate use, and use
any resource.

Maritime zones delineate the sovereignty or

sovereign rights a coastal state has over the
offshore environment.

Territorial waters:

The maritime areas are divided as:

Baseline:

A baseline is the line from which the seaward

limits of a State's territorial sea and certain other
maritime zones of jurisdiction are measured.
Normally, a sea baseline follows the low-water
line of a coastal State. When the coastline is deeply
indented, has fringing islands or is highly unstable,
straight baselines may be used.
Internal Waters:
Internal waters are the waters (for example,

[18]

Territorial Water is a belt of coastal waters

extending at most 12 nautical miles (22 km; 14
mi) from the baseline of a coastal state. The
territorial sea is regarded as the sovereign
territory of the state, although foreign ships
(both military and civilian) are allowed innocent
passage through it; this sovereignty also extends
to the airspace over and seabed below.

"Innocent passage" is defined by the

convention as passing through waters in an
expeditious and continuous manner, which is
not "prejudicial to the peace, good order or the
security" of the coastal state. Fishing, polluting,
weapons practice, and spying are not
"innocent", and submarines and other

Chronicle IAS Academy

underwater vehicles are required to navigate

on the surface and to show their flag. Nations
can also temporarily suspend innocent passage
in specific areas of their territorial seas, if doing
so, is essential for the protection of its security.
Contiguous Zone:

C
IA H
S RO
A N
C IC
A
D LE
EM
Y

The contiguous zone is a band of water

extending from the outer edge of the territorial
sea to up to 24 nautical miles (44 km; 28 mi)
from the baseline. In its contiguous zone, a
coastal State may exercise the control necessary
to prevent the infringement of its customs,
fiscal, immigration or sanitary laws and
regulations within its territory or territorial sea,
and punish infringement of those laws and
regulations committed within its territory or
territorial sea. Additionally, in order to control
traffic in archaeological and historical objects
found at sea, a coastal State may presume that
their removal from the seabed of the contiguous
zone without its consent is unlawful.

energy from tides, winds and currents; exclusive

rights and jurisdiction for the construction,
maintenance or operation of artificial islands,
off-shore terminals, installations and other
structures and devices necessary for the
exploration and exploitation of the resources
of the zone or for the convenience of shipping
or for any other purpose; Exclusive jurisdiction
to authorize, regulate and control scientific
research; Exclusive jurisdiction to preserve and
protect the marine environment and to prevent
and control marine pollution.

Exclusive Economic Zone:

An exclusive economic zone extends from

the outer limit of the territorial sea to a
maximum of 200 nautical miles (370.4 km) from
the territorial sea baseline, thus it includes the
contiguous zone.

In the exclusive economic zone, the Union

has- sovereign rights for the purpose of
exploration, exploitation, conservation and
management of the natural resources, both
living and non-living as well as for producing

Chronicle IAS Academy

No person (including a foreign

Government) shall, except under, and in
accordance with, the terms of any agreement
with the Central Government or of a licence or
a letter of authority granted by the Central
Government, explore or exploit any resources
of the exclusive economic zone or carry out
any search or excavation or conduct any
research within the exclusive economic zone
or drill therein or construct, maintain or operate
any artificial island, off-shore terminal,
installation or other structure or device therein
for any purpose whatsoever. But it is not
applicable to the citizens of the nation.
Continental Shelf:

Each coastal State has a continental shelf

that is comprised of the seabed and subsoil of
the submarine areas that extend beyond its
territorial sea throughout the natural
prolongation of its land territory to the outer
edge of the continental margin, or to a distance

[19]

of 200 nm from its baselines where the outer

edge of the continental margin does not extend
up to that distance (or out to a maritime
boundary with another coastal State).

Seamount: A submarine mountain or peak

rising more than 1000 metres above the ocean
floor.
Guyot: A flat-topped seamount.
Submarine Trench: A long, narrow and steep
sided depression on the ocean bottom.

C
IA H
S RO
A N
C IC
A
D LE
EM
Y

Wherever the outer edge of a coastal State's

continental margin extends beyond 200 nm
from its baselines, it may establish the outer
limit of its continental shelf in accordance with
the UN Convention on the Law of the Sea.
The portion of a coastal State's continental shelf
that lies beyond the 200 nm limit is often called
the extended continental shelf.

Submarine Ridge: A ridge on the floor of

ocean. It is a few hundred kilometres wide and
hundreds and thousands of kilometres is length.

A coastal State has sovereign rights and

exclusive jurisdiction over its continental shelf
for the purpose of exploring it and exploiting
its natural resources. The natural resources of
the continental shelf consist of the mineral and
other non-living resources of the seabed and
subsoil together with living organisms belonging
to sedentary species, that is to say, organisms
which, at the harvestable stage, either are
immobile on or under the seabed or are unable
to move except in constant physical contact
with the seabed or subsoil.
High Seas:

The high seas are comprised of all parts of

the sea that are not included in the exclusive
economic zone, in the territorial sea or in the
internal waters of a State, or in the archipelagic
waters of an archipelagic State.
Terminology

Continental Shelf: The area lying between

shoreline and the continental slope. Its seaward
slope is very gentle and is covered with shallow
water.

Continental Slope: The area extending from

the margin of the continental shelf to the deep
sea floor, Its slope towards the sea floor is very
steep.
Continental Rise: The gently inclined slope
from the deep sea-floor to the foot of the
continental slope.
Abyssal Plain: The area of deep ocean floor.
These are deep sea plains.

[20]

Submarine Canyon: A deep gorge on the ocean

floor.

Bank: A more or less flat topped elevation

located in the continental margins. The depth
of water over a bank is relatively small.
Reef: A line of rocks in the tidal zone of a
coast submerged as high water but partly
increased at low water.

Shoal: It is a detached elevation with shallow

depth.
Salinity: The degree to which water contains
dissolved salts.

Ice floats: The drifting ice fields. Their height

is not more than four metres.

Icebergs: Huge masses of floating ice. Their

height varies from 5 metres to 90 metres.
Waves: A deformation of water surface in the
form of an oscillatory movement which
manifests itself by an alternating rise and fall
of that surface.

Currents: It is the general movement of a mass

of water in a fairly defined direction over great
distances.
Drift: The motion of ocean water generally at
a low velocity, as a result of surface friction
from the prevailing winds.
Tide: The regular rise and fall of water level in
the world's ocean, resulting from the
gravitational attraction that is exerted upon the
earth by the moon and then sun.
Ecology: It is the study of interrelationship
between the living system and the environment.

Environment: It includes the outer surrounding

atmosphere of the living system.
Physical factor: These are the non-living factors
of the environment.

Chronicle IAS Academy

Direct uses of oceans to man:

(a) Oceans are a great source of food supply, such as fish.
(b) Oceans are storehouse of minerals.
(c) Oceans provide the most important means of natural transport to the man.
Indirect uses of oceans to man:

C
IA H
S RO
A N
C IC
A
D LE
EM
Y

(a) Climate: Oceans influence the distribution of temperature and humidity over the earth's
surface.
(b) Source of energy: Tidal force, differences in oceanic temperatures, and geothermal energy
are great source of energy.

Oceans: regulators and stabilizers of earth's climate

Water not only heats up slowly than land but also cools much more slowly than land. The
enormous absorbing and liberating capacities of the oceans do not allow extreme temperature
on the coastal areas and over the surface of the earth. Ocean currents also help in modifying
the distribution of temperature along the coastal areas. The oceans are the main source from
which our atmosphere derives its moisture and gives rain. Thus, the oceans are great regulators
and stabilisers of climatic phenomena over the earth's surface.
The major commercial fishing grounds of the world:

Five major commercial fishing regions have been identified:

(a) North American waters.

(b) North West European waters.

(c) South American waters.

(d) North East Asian waters.

(e) East Indian waters.

Important minerals found in the oceans:

Oceans are storehouse of large number of minerals. Mineral occur both in solution and in
suspension.
Minerals found in solution are dissolved salts that are common in sea water such as common
salt, magnesium and bromine.

Other minerals such as petroleum, natural gas, manganese, phosphorite, sulphur, titanium,
zircon, monazite, gold, platinum, diamonds, tin, iron, sand, gravel and others, are also found
in the oceans.
Ocean and International Trade:

The oceans provide the most important means of natural transport to man. It is the easiest
and cheapest one. No road or railway line needs to be constructed. Oceans no more divide
continents but provide natural links between them. They are the natural highways for
trade.
Countries that have successfully harnessed the tidal forces: Russia, France and Japan.

Chronicle IAS Academy

[21]

Pelagic: The open ocean environment.

Plankton: Floaters which have no means of reef
propulsion.
Necktons: Swimming organisms of the aquatic
environment.
Benthos: The organisms that live on the ocean
floor.

Ooze: Fine textured sediment formed on the

ocean basins at depths greater than 2000
metres.
Red Clay: An ocean floor deposit of the abyssal
zone. It is derived from a combination of
volcanic ash, meteoric dust etc.

C
IA H
S RO
A N
C IC
A
D LE
EM
Y

Coral: It is kind of calcareous rock made of the

skeletons of minute sea organisms, called polyp.

Pelagic deposits: The deep sea sediments

unaffected by land derived material and derived
mainly from the remains of pelagic marine
organisms.

Fringing Reef: It is a coral platform attached

to the coast of a continent.

Terrigenous deposits: The deposits that have

been derived from land but subsequently mixed
in with marine deposits of the littoral zone.

Diatoms: Single celled microscopic algae

covered with silicon shell.

Dinoflagellates: Unicellular, microscopic algae

having two flagella for locomotion.

[22]

Chronicle IAS Academy