Marine insurance

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Admiralty law
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Ordinamenta et consuetudo maris

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Hanseatic League
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Freight rate
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Marine insurance

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International Maritime Organization

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Marine insurance covers the loss or damage of ships, cargo, terminals, and any transport
or cargo by which property is transferred, acquired, or held between the points of origin
and final destination..
Cargo insurance discussed here is a sub-branch of marine insurance, though Marine
also includes Onshore and Offshore exposed property (container terminals, ports, oil
platforms, pipelines); Hull; Marine Casualty; and Marine Liability.

Contents
[hide]

1 Origins of formal marine insurance

2 Practice
3 Protection and indemnity
4 Actual total loss and constructive total loss
5 Average
6 Excess, deductible, retention, co-insurance, and franchise
7 Tonners and chinamen
8 Specialist policies
9 Warranties and conditions
10 Salvage and prizes
11 Marine Insurance Act, 1906
12 See also
13 References
14 External links

15 Bibliography

[edit] Origins of formal marine insurance

Maritime insurance was the earliest well-developed kind of insurance, with origins in the
Greek and Roman maritime loan. Separate marine insurance contracts were developed in
Genoa and other Italian cities in the fourteenth century and spread to northern Europe.
Premiums varied with intuitive estimates of the variable risk from seasons and pirates.[1]
The modern origins of marine insurance law in English law were in the law merchant,
with the establishment in England in 1601 of a specialized chamber of assurance separate
from the other Courts. Lord Mansfield, Lord Chief Justice in the mid-eighteenth century,
began the merging of law merchant and common law principles. The establishment of
Lloyd's of London, competitor insurance companies, a developing infrastructure of
specialists (such as shipbrokers, admiralty lawyers, bankers, surveyors, loss adjusters,
general average adjusters, et al), and the growth of the British Empire gave English law a
prominence in this area which it largely maintains and forms the basis of almost all
modern practice. The growth of the London insurance market led to the standardization
of policies and judicial precedent further developed marine insurance law. In 1906 the

Marine Insurance Act was passed which codified the previous common law; it is both an
extremely thorough and concise piece of work. Although the title of the Act refers to
marine insurance, the general principles have been applied to all non-life insurance.
In the 19th century, Lloyd's and the Institute of London Underwriters (a grouping of
London company insurers) developed between them standardized clauses for the use of
marine insurance, and these have been maintained since. These are known as the Institute
Clauses because the Institute covered the cost of their publication.
Within the overall guidance of the Marine Insurance Act and the Institute Clauses parties
retain a considerable freedom to contract between themselves.
Marine insurance is the oldest type of insurance. Out of it grew non-marine insurance and
reinsurance. It traditionally formed the majority of business underwritten at Lloyd's.
Nowadays, Marine insurance is often grouped with Aviation and Transit (cargo) risks,
and in this form is known by the acronym "MAT".

[edit] Practice
The Marine Insurance Act includes, as a schedule, a standard policy (known as the "SG
form"), which parties were at liberty to use if they wished. Because each term in the
policy had been tested through at least two centuries of judicial precedent, the policy was
extremely thorough. However, it was also expressed in rather archaic terms. In 1991, the
London market produced a new standard policy wording known as the MAR 91 form and
using the Institute Clauses. The MAR form is simply a general statement of insurance;
the Institute Clauses are used to set out the detail of the insurance cover. In practice, the
policy document usually consists of the MAR form used as a cover, with the Clauses
stapled to the inside. Typically each clause will be stamped, with the stamp overlapping
both onto the inside cover and to other clauses; this practice is used to avoid the
substitution or removal of clauses.
Because marine insurance is typically underwritten on a subscription basis, the MAR
form begins: We, the Underwriters, agree to bind ourselves each for his own part and not
one for another [...]. In legal terms, liability under the policy is several and not joint, i.e.,
the underwriters are all liable together, but only for their share or proportion of the risk. If
one underwriter should default, the remainder are not liable to pick his share of the claim.
Typically, marine insurance is split between the vessels and the cargo. Insurance of the
vessels is generally known as "Hull and Machinery" (H&M). A more restricted form of
cover is "Total Loss Only" (TLO), generally used as a reinsurance, which only covers the
total loss of the vessel and not any partial loss.
Cover may be on either a "voyage" or "time" basis. The "voyage" basis covers transit
between the ports set out in the policy; the "time" basis covers a period of time, typically
one year, and is more common.

[edit] Protection and indemnity

Main article: Protection and indemnity insurance
A marine policy typically covered only three-quarter of the insured's liabilities towards
third parties. The typical liabilities arise in respect of collision with another ship, known
as "running down" (collision with a fixed object is an "harbour"), and wreck removal (a
wreck may serve to block a harbour, for example).
In the 19th century, shipowners banded together in mutual underwriting clubs known as
Protection and Indemnity Clubs (P&I), to insure the remaining one-quarter liability
amongst themselves. These Clubs are still in existence today and have become the model
for other specialized and noncommercial marine and non-marine mutuals, for example in
relation to oil pollution and nuclear risks.
Clubs work on the basis of agreeing to accept a shipowner as a member and levying an
initial "call" (premium). With the fund accumulated, reinsurance will be purchased;
however, if the loss experience is unfavourable one or more "supplementary calls" may
be made. Clubs also typically try to build up reserves, but this puts them at odds with
their mutual status.
Because liability regimes vary throughout the world, insurers are usually careful to limit
or exclude American Jones Act liability.

[edit] Actual total loss and constructive total loss

These two terms are used to differentiate the degree of proof where a vessel or cargo has
been lost. An actual total loss occurs where the damages or cost of repair clearly equal or
exceed the value of the property. A constructive total loss is a situation where the cost of
repairs plus the cost of salvage equal or exceed the value.
The use of these terms is contingent on there being property remaining to assess
damages, which is not always possible in losses to ships at sea or in total theft situations.
In this respect, marine insurance differs from non-marine insurance, where the insured is
required to prove his loss. Traditionally, in law, marine insurance was seen as an
insurance of "the adventure", with insurers having a stake and an interest in the vessel
and/or the cargo rather than simply an interest in the financial consequences of the
subject-matter's survival.

[edit] Average
The term "Average" has two meanings:
1. In marine insurance, in the case of a partial loss or emergency repairs to the
vessel, average may be declared. This covers situations where, for example, a ship

in a storm might have to jettison certain cargo to protect the ship and the
remaining cargo. "General Average" requires all parties concerned in the venture
(Hull/Cargo/Freight/Bunkers) to contribute to compensate the losses caused to
those whose cargo has been lost or damaged. "Particular Average" is levied on a
group of cargo owners and not all of the cargo owners.
2. In the situation where an insured has under-insured, i.e., insured an item for less
than it is worth, average will apply to reduce the amount payable. There are
different ways of calculating average, but generally the same proportion of underinsurance will be applied to any payout due.
An average adjuster is a marine claims specialist responsible for adjusting and providing
the general average statement. He is usually appointed by the shipowner or insurer.

[edit] Excess, deductible, retention, co-insurance, and

franchise
An excess is the amount payable by the insured and is usually expressed as the first
amount falling due, up to a ceiling, in the event of a loss. An excess may or may not be
applied. It may be expressed in either monetary or percentage terms. An excess is
typically used to discourage moral hazard and to remove small claims, which are
disproportionately expensive to handle. In marine The term "excess" signifies the
"deductible" or "retention".
A co-insurance, which is typically governs non-proportional treaty reinsurance, is an
excess expressed as a proportion of a claim in percentage terms and applied to the
entirety of a claim.
A franchise is a deductible below which nothing is payable and beyond which the entire
amount of the sum insured is payable. It is typically used in reinsurance arbitrage
arrangements.

[edit] Tonners and chinamen

These are both obsolete forms of early reinsurance. Both are technically unlawful, as not
having insurable interest, and so were unenforceable in law. Policies were typically
marked P.P.I. (Policy is Proof of Interest). Their use continued into the 1970s before they
were banned by Lloyd's, the main market, by which time, they had become nothing more
than crude bets.
A "tonner" was simply a "policy" setting out the global gross tonnage loss for a year. If
that loss was reached or exceeded, the policy paid out. A "chinaman" applied the same
principle but in reverse: thus, if the limit was not reached, the policy paid out.

[edit] Specialist policies

Various specialist policies exist, including:

Newbuilding risks: This covers the risk of damage to the hull while it is under
construction.
Yacht Insurance: Insurance of pleasure craft is generally known as "yacht
insurance" and includes liability coverage. Smaller vessels such as yachts and
fishing vessels are typically underwritten on a "binding authority" or "lineslip"
basis.
War risks: General hull insurance does not cover the risks of a vessel sailing into
a war zone. A typical example is the risk to a tanker sailing in the Persian Gulf
during the Gulf War. The war risks areas are established by the London-based
Joint War Committee, which has recently moved to include the Malacca Straits as
a war risks area due to piracy. If an attack is classified as a "riot" then it would be
covered by war-risk insurers.
Increased Value (IV): Increased Value cover protects the shipowner against any
difference between the insured value of the vessel and the market value of the
vessel.
Overdue insurance: This is a form of insurance now largely obsolete due to
advances in communications. It was an early form of reinsurance and was bought
by an insurer when a ship was late at arriving at her destination port and there was
a risk that she might have been lost (but, equally, might simply have been
delayed). The overdue insurance of the Titanic was famously underwritten on the
doorstep of Lloyd's.
Cargo insurance: Cargo insurance is underwritten on the Institute Cargo Clauses,
with coverage on an A, B, or C basis, A having the widest cover and C the most
restricted. Valuable cargo is known as specie. Institute Clauses also exist for the
insurance of specific types of cargo, such as frozen food, frozen meat, and
particular commodities such as bulk oil, coal, and jute. Often these insurance
conditions are developed for a specific group as is the case with the Institute
Federation of Oils, Seeds and Fats Associations (FOFSA) Trades Clauses which
have been agreed with the Federation of Oils, Seeds and Fats Associations and
Institute Commodity Trades Clauses which are used for the insurance of
shipments of cocoa, coffee, cotton, fats and oils, hides and skins, metals, oil seeds,
refined sugar, and tea and have been agreed with the Federation of Commodity
Associations.

[edit] Warranties and conditions

This section may be confusing or unclear to readers. Please help clarify the
section; suggestions may be found on the talk page. (May 2011)
A peculiarity of marine insurance, and insurance law generally, is the use of the terms
condition and warranty. In English law, a condition typically describes a part of the
contract that is fundamental to the performance of that contract, and, if breached, the nonbreaching party is entitled not only to claim damages but to terminate the contract on the

basis that it has been repudiated by the party in breach. By contrast, a warranty is not
fundamental to the performance of the contract and breach of a warranty, while giving
rise to a claim for damages, does not entitle the non-breaching party to terminate the
contract. The meaning of these terms is reversed in insurance law. Indeed, a warranty if
not strictly complied with will automatically discharge the insurer from further liability
under the contract of insurance. The assured has no defense to his breach, unless he can
prove that the insurer,by his conduct has waived his right to invoke the breach, possibility
provided in section 34(3) of the Marine Insurance Act 1906 (MIA). Furthermore in the
absence of express warranties the MIA will imply them, notably a warranty to provide a
seaworthy vessel at the commencement of the voyage in a voyage policy (section 39(1))
and a warranty of legality of the insured voyage (section 41).[2]

[edit] Salvage and prizes

The term "salvage" refers to the practice of rendering aid to a vessel in distress. Apart
from the consideration that the sea is traditionally "a place of safety", with sailors honourbound to render assistance as required, it is obviously in underwriters' interests to
encourage assistance to vessels in danger of being wrecked. A policy will usually include
a "sue and labour" clause which will cover the reasonable costs incurred by a shipowner
in his avoiding a greater loss.
At sea, a ship in distress will typically agree to "Lloyd's Open Form" with any potential
salvor. The Lloyd's Open Form is the standard contract, although other forms exist. The
Lloyd's Open Form is headed "No cure no pay"; the intention being that if the
attempted salvage is unsuccessful, no award will be made. However, this principle has
been weakened in recent years, and awards are now permitted in cases where, although
the ship might have sunk, pollution has been avoided or mitigated. In other circumstances
the "salvor" may invoke the SCOPIC terms (most recent and commonly used rendition is
SCOPIC 2000) in contrast to the LOF (Lloyd's Open Form) these terms mean that the
salvor will be paid even if the salvage attempt is unsuccessful. The amount the salvor
receives is limited to cover the costs of the salvage attempt and 15% above it. One of the
main negative factors in invoking SCOPIC (on the salvors behalf) is if the salvage
attempt is successful the amount at which the salvor can claim under article 13 of LOF is
discounted.
The Lloyd's Open Form, once agreed, allows salvage attempts to begin immediately. The
extent of any award is determined later; although the standard wording refers to the
Chairman of Lloyd's arbitrating any award, in practice the role of arbitrator is passed to
specialist admiralty QCs.
A ship captured in war is referred to as a prize, and the captors entitled to prize money.
Again, this risk is covered by standard policies.

[edit] Marine Insurance Act, 1906

Main article: Marine Insurance Act 1906

The most important sections of this Act include:
4: a policy without insurable interest is void.
17: imposes a duty on the insured of uberrimae fides (as opposed to caveat
emptor), i.e., that questions must be answered honestly and the risk not
misrepresented.
18: the proposer of the insurer has a duty to disclose all material facts relevant to
the acceptance and rating of the risk. Failure to do so is known as non-disclosure
or concealment (there are minor differences in the two terms) and renders the
insurance voidable by the insurer.
33(3): If [a warranty] be not [exactly] complied with, then, subject to any
express provision in the policy, the insurer is discharged from liability as from the
date of the breach of warranty, but without prejudice to any liability incurred by
him before that date.
34(2): where a warranty has been broken, it is no defence to the insured that the
breach has been remedied, and the warranty complied with, prior to the loss.
34(3): a breach of warranty may be waived (ignored) by the insurer.
39(1): implied warranty that the vessel must be seaworthy at the start of her
voyage and for the purpose of it (voyage policy only).
39(5): no warranty that a vessel shall be seaworthy during the policy period
(time policy). However if the assured knowingly allows an unseaworthy vessel to
set sail the insurer is not liable for losses caused by unseasworthiness.
50: a policy may be assigned. Typically, a shipowner might assign the benefit of
a policy to the ship-mortgagor.
60-63: deals with the issues of a constructive total loss. The insured can, by
notice, claim for a constructive total loss with the insurer becoming entitled to the
ship or cargo if it should later turn up. (By contrast an actual total loss describes
the physical destruction of a vessel or cargo.)
79: deals with subrogation, i.e., the rights of the insurer to stand in the shoes of
an indemnified insured and recover salvage for his own benefit.
Schedule 1 of the Act contains a list of definitions; schedule 2 contains the model policy
wording.

[edit] See also

History of insurance
Classification society
Legal definitions of wreckage
Inland marine insurance