1 s2.0 S037887411400782X Main

Journal of Ethnopharmacology 160 (2015) 149163
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Journal of Ethnopharmacology
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jep
Review
Banana (Musa spp) from peel to pulp: Ethnopharmacology, source

of bioactive compounds and its relevance for human health
Aline Pereira n, Marcelo Maraschin
Federal University of Santa Catarina, Plant Morphogenesis and Biochemistry Laboratory, PO Box 476, 88049-900 Florianopolis, Brazil
art ic l e i nf o
a b s t r a c t
Article history:
Received 29 April 2014
Received in revised form
5 November 2014
Accepted 5 November 2014
Available online 13 November 2014
Ethnopharmacological relevance: Banana is a fruit with nutritional properties and also with acclaimed
therapeutic uses, cultivated widely throughout the tropics as source of food and income for people.
Banana peel is known by its local and traditional use to promote wound healing mainly from burns and
to help overcome or prevent a substantial number of illnesses, as depression.
Aim of the study: This review critically assessed the phytochemical properties and biological activities of
Musa spp fruit pulp and peel.
Materials and methods: A survey on the literature on banana (Musa spp, Musaceae) covering its botanical
classication and nomenclature, as well as the local and traditional use of its pulp and peel was
performed. Besides, the current state of art on banana fruit pulp and peel as interesting complex matrices
sources of high-value compounds from secondary metabolism was also approached.
Results: Dessert bananas and plantains are systematic classied into four sections, Eumusa, Rhodochlamys, Australimusa, and Callimusa, according to the number of chromosomes. The fruits differ only in their
ploidy arrangement and a single scientic name can be given to all the edible bananas, i.e., Musa spp. The
chemical composition of bananas peel and pulp comprise mostly carotenoids, phenolic compounds, and
biogenic amines. The biological potential of those biomasses is directly related to their chemical
composition, particularly as pro-vitamin A supplementation, as potential antioxidants attributed to their
phenolic constituents, as well as in the treatment of Parkinsons disease considering their contents in Ldopa and dopamine.
Conclusion: Bananas pulp and peel can be used as natural sources of antioxidants and pro-vitamin A due
to their contents in carotenoids, phenolics, and amine compounds, for instance. For the development of a
phytomedicine or even an allopathic medicine, e.g., banana fruit pulp and peel could be of interest as raw
materials riches in benecial bioactive compounds.
& 2014 Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords:
Musa spp
Banana peel
Bioactive compounds
Phytochemistry
Metabolomics
Parkinsons disease
Contents
1.
2.
3.
4.
Musa sppIntroduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Traditional use of pulp and peel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Banana fruit bioactive compounds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.1.
Carotenoids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.1.1.
Pro-vitamin A supplementation through banana fruit. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.2.
Phenolic compounds and avonoids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.3.
Amine compounds. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Banana peel as an interesting complex matrix of high-value compounds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.1.
Carotenoids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.2.
Phenolic compounds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.3.
Amine compounds. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
n
Correspondence to: Plant Morphogenesis and Biochemistry Laboratory, Federal
University of Santa Catarina, Florianopolis, Santa Catarina, Brazil.
Tel.: 55-48-3721-5328/5442; fax: 55-48-3721-5335.
E-mail addresses: [email protected] (A. Pereira),
[email protected] (M. Maraschin).
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2014.11.008
0378-8741/& 2014 Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved.
150
151
153
153
155
156
157
157
157
157
158
150
4.3.1.
4.3.2.
5. Conclusion . . .
Acknowledgments .
References . . . . . . .
A. Pereira, M. Maraschin / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 160 (2015) 149163
Parkinsons disease . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Bioavailability of amine compounds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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1. Musa sppIntroduction
Musa spp, comprising dessert bananas and plantains, are
among the worlds leading fruit crops as source of energy in the
diet of people living in humid tropical regions. Banana is a term
including a number of hybrids in the genus Musa, dessert bananas
and plantains, Musaceae (Robinson, 1996; Stover and Simmonds,
1987). And in Arabic banan means nger (SEBRAE, 2008).
Dessert bananas have rm pulp when the fruit is not ripe and
soft pulp during its maturation (Kajuna et al., 1997). It is known
that dessert banana pulp and peel contains some secondary
metabolites in their composition, e.g. catecholamines (Kanazawa
and Sakakibara, 2000), phenolics (Verde-Mendez et al., 2003), and
carotenoid compounds (Van den Berg et al., 2000), as well as
pyridoxine (vitamin B6Leklem, 1999). Many of bananas volatile
compounds such as esters (Prez et al., 1997) and alcohols
(Nogueira et al., 2003) play an important role in the aromatic
properties of dessert bananas.
Plantains are generally the larger, more angular starchy fruits of
hybrid triploid cultivars in the banana family intended for cooking
(Robinson, 1996). They are rich in carbohydrates as the dessert
banana, rmer and less valued as a fresh product even when
mature, as they still contain starch at this stage (Valmayor et al.,
2000). Plantains are consumed necessarily cooked and used as raw
material for production of our, crisps, beer, and wine (Akubor,
2003; Lemaire et al., 1997). As in dessert bananas, the pulp and
peel of diverse plantain cultivars (Red Yade, Mbeta 1, Big Ebanga,
Moto Ebanga, Batard, Essang, Mbouroukou no 1, and Mbouroukou
no 3) also have phenolic compounds (Tsamo et al., 2015). Except in
India and Southeast Asia, where while dessert bananas are consumed in large quantities, the use of cooked bananas and plantains
is not so widespread (FAO, 2014). In Africa, especially Ghana and
Uganda, they are important staple food crops (Dei-Tutu, 1975;
Goode, 1974). The methods used to cook bananas and plantains do
not generally entail elaborate processes, being prepared by boiling
or steaming, baking or roasting and frying. However, in some
areas, particularly West Africa, the fruit is also pounded. Roasted
or baked bananas and plantains are also prepared in both East and
West Africa by placing peeled or unpeeled fruit either on the ashes
of a re or in an oven (Walker, 1931; Dalziel, 1937; Boscom, 1951;
Whitby, 1972; Goode, 1974; Tezenas du Montcel, 1979).
The genus Musa comprises all edible cultivars and was further
divided into four sections, Eumusa, Rhodochlamys, Australimusa,
and Callimusa according to the number of chromosomes (Table 1).
Thus, the genome with eleven chromosomes (2n 22) is characteristic of Eumusa and Rhodoclamys, while ten chromosomes
(2n 20) is found in Callimusa and also from Australimusa. Eumusa
is the largest and the most geographically widespread section to
which most cultivars derived from Musa acuminata Colla and Musa
balbisiana Colla species belong (Stover and Simmonds, 1987). In its
turn, the section Australimusa contains Musa textilis Ne that also
produces parthenorparic edible bananas such as the bananas
collectively known as Fei cultivars found in the Pacic islands.
The Fei bananas are characterized by their erect bunches, pink
red to purple sap and deep yellow or orange colored fruit pulps.
However, the Australimusa distribution and variability are lesser
than the Eumusa. The other two sections of Musa, Rhodochlamus
159
159
160
160
160
and Callimusa are only appreciated for their ornamental properties, because parthenocarpy is absent and they do not produce
edible fruit. In addition, there is one specie for which the relevant
section has yet to be determined, i.e. Musa ingens N.W.Simmonds
(2n 14) (Horry et al., 1997).
Carl Von Linn (17071778), the father of modern taxonomy,
classied the banana species as Musa x paradisiaca L. and Musa x
sapientum L. However, in 1955, the studies from the botanists
Simond and Shepherd resulted in the development of a classication system to edible banana cultivars. Simond and Shepherd
concluded that there were two wild species of banana (section
Eumusa): Musa acuminata Colla and Musa balbisiana Colla.
In the taxonomic separation of M. x sapientum L. from M. x
paradisiaca L., genotypic descriptions were used to delimit the constituent taxa in the Musa germplasm (Shepherd, 1990; Simmonds and
Weatherup, 1990; Swennen, 1990; Swennen et al., 1995; Vuylsteke et
al., 1991), due to the unavailability of more conservative data for
characterization. Reports on taxonomic research on Musa (Shepherd,
1990; Simmonds and Weatherup, 1990; Swennen, 1990; Swennen et
al., 1995) avoided the use of the names Musa x paradisiaca L. for
plantain and M. x sapientum L. for banana. The morphological
attributes in the characterization of the Musa genus and its molecular
cytogenetic characterization had been also employed to distinguish
between the two widely cultivated triploid Musa x sapientum L. and M.
x paradisiaca L. (Osuji et al., 1997). The pattern of occurrence and
distribution of the different types of stomata discriminate the diploid
species Musa acuminata Colla and Musa balbisian Colla from their
triploid cultivars (Osuji, 1995). Therefore, the occurrence of papillae on
the abaxial bract surface of M. x sapientum L. and their absence in M. x
paradisiaca L., as well as the occurrence of calcium oxalate crystals in
the adaxial epidermis of Musa acuminata Colla and the absence in M. x
paradisiaca L. can be used as taxonomic informations to distinguish the
triploids (Osuji, 2006).
Actually, bananas differ only in their ploidy arrangement and
currently most banana taxonomists seem to agree that a single
scientic name can be given to all the edible bananas, i.e., Musa
spp (El-Khishin et al., 2009). The hybrids arose from the two
diploid species Musa acuminata Colla and Musa balbisiana Colla are
native to Southeast Asia. There are diploid, triploid, and tetraploid
hybrids composing subspecies of Musa acuminata Colla, and
between Musa acuminata Colla and Musa balbisiana Colla
(Robinson, 1996; Stover and Simmonds, 1987). Conventionally,
the haploid contributions of the respective species to the cultivars
are noted with the letters A and B. Therefore, the cultivars can
present genomic combinations depending on the basic number of
chromosomes, e.g., AA, AB, AAA, AAB, ABB, AAAA, AAAB, AABB,
and ABBB (El-Khishin et al., 2009). Some important cultivars
according to their genomic group and subgroup are shown in
Table 2. The fruits from subspecies AA and AAA are sweeter and
include almost all the cultivars of current market importance.
Cooking bananas or plantains are hybrid triploid cultivar AAB, ABB,
or BBB that have high starch content (Zhang et al., 2005). In
addition, some cultivars have genome from other wild species, e.g.,
Musa schizocarpa N.W.Simmonds (S genome) from Eumusa and
Musa textilis Ne (T genome) from Australimusa. Researches with
cultivars from New Guinea conrmed by genomic in situ hybridization the combination of other genomes, including AS, AAS, ABBS,
AAT and ABBT, with other species also contributing such as Musa
angustigermma N.W.Simmonds (T genome) subgenus Australimusa
and Musa schizocarpa N.W.Simmonds (S genome) subgenus Rhodochlamys (DHont et al., 2000).
Whereas most of the cultivars come from the genomes of Musa
acuminata Colla and Musa balbisiana Colla, it became almost
impossible to point which is the banana species. To solve this
problem it was developed a system called genomic cluster that
uses the term species of Musa spp followed by the genomic group
characterized by the letters A and B, respectively, from Musa
acuminata Colla and Musa balbisiana Colla. If there is an interesting
mutation that would constitute one or more new cultivars with a
similar set of genotypes, it is called subgroup (Simmonds and
Shepherd, 1955).
Ancestral bananas are fertile diploids while the main groups of
bananas grown today are clones of plants, mostly triploids reproduced entirely vegetatively. For producers and consumers, this
feature presents two advantages as triploid gives the plant vigor
and makes it easier to grow than diploids. Second, the clonal
propagation of 3n genotypes assures them genetic uniformity which
facilitates management, both in the eld and throughout the consumer market. However, triploid ensures sterility of the fruit enabling
it to be eaten without risks of nding seeds. On the other hand, the
nature of these plants also presents obstacles to their cultivation and
improvement. First, the genetic uniformity of these plants facilitates
the spread of diseases on banana plants. For example, the Cavendish varieties throughout the world are all susceptible to leaf spot
diseases. Plantains are also susceptible to black leaf streak disease,
whether in Africa, South America, or Asia. Furthermore, the sterility
151
of the clones currently grown is a considerable hindrance to their

genetic improvement (Jenny et al., 2003).
Generally, banana production is based on triploid cultivars.
However, the diploid genomic becomes important because it is a
source of resistance and tolerance alleles to biotic and abiotic
stress (Jenny et al., 2003). The banana breeding programs worldwide have generated successful tetraploid hybrids from crosses
between triploid cultivars and wild or improved diploids, which
have agronomic traits of interest including small size, resistance to
pests, and physicochemical quality of fruits (Silva et al., 2002).
2. Traditional use of pulp and peel

Plantains as well as dessert bananas and the other parts of the
Musa spp plant, which include roots, pseudostems, stems, leaves,
and owers have long been used in local and traditional medicine
in America, Asia, Oceania, India and Africa (Tsamo et al., 2015).
In the Brazilian local and traditional medicine banana peel has
a history of utility to promote wound healing mainly by burns
when used topically (Balbach, 1945). Peels of ripe bananas can be
used to make a poultice for wounds, which is wrapped around an
injury to reduce pain or swelling. As the inside of the peel has
antiseptic properties, it can be wrapped directly around wounds or
cuts in an emergency (INIBAP, 2002). Silva (2005) described some
medicinal plants from Gois, Brazil, and among them Musa spp.
The banana tree has an important local and traditional value to
treat anemic people. Bananas are a healthy food for children
around six months, because it does not produce cramps or
Table 1
Systematic of the Musaceae family.
Family
Genus
Sections
Species
Musaceae
Musa
Callimusa (2n 20)
Musa
Musa
Musa
Musa
Musa
Musa
Musa
Musa
Musa
Musa
Musa
Musa
Musa
Musa
Musa
Australimusa (2n 20)
Eumusa (2n 22)
Rhodoclamys (2n 22)
beccarii N.W. Simmonds

borneensis Becc.
coccinea Andrews
gracilis Holttum
textilis Ne
angustigemma N.W. Simmonds
bukensis Argent
jackeyl W. Hill
lolodensis Cheesman
maclayl F.Muell.ex. Mikl.-Maclay
peekelii Lauterb.
lasiocarpa Franch.
boman Argent
troglodytarum L.
acuminata Colla or Musa cavendishii Lamb.
Musa balbisiana Colla

Musa basjoo Siebold & Zucc. Ex linuma
Musa cheesmani N.W. Simmonds
Musa aviora N.W. Simmonds
Musa halabanensis Meijer
Musa itinerans Cheesman
Musa nagensium Prain
Musa. x paradisiaca L.
Musa. x sapientum L.
Musa schizocarpa N.W. Simmonds
Musa sikkimensis Kurz
Musa sumatrana Becc.
Musa laterita Cheesman
Musa ornata Roxb.
Musa sanguinea Hook. f.
Musa velutina H. Wendl. & Drude
Subspecies
burmanica
N.W. Simmonds
malaccensis (Ridl.) N.W. Simmonds
truncata (Ridl.) Kiew
microcarpa (Becc.) N.W. Simmonds
errans (Blanco) R.V. Valmayor
152
Table 2
Worldwide distribution of some banana cultivars according to their genomic group and subgroup.
Genomic
groupn
Subgroup
Cultivar
Fruit
usage
Geographic
distribution
AA
Sucrier
Frayssinette
Dessert
banana
Dessert
banana
Dessert
banana
All continents
Figue sucre
Ouro
Matti, Kadali, Sannachenkadali, Chingan, Calcutta 4, Sikuzani
Pisang Lilin
Pisang Berangan
Lakatan
AAA
Gros Michel
Gros Michel
Cavendish
Figue rose
Lacatan, Poyo, Grand Naine, Williams,

Petite Naine, Nanica
Figue rose
Lujugira
Intuntu
Dessert
banana
Dessert
banana
Dessert
banana
Cooking
Mujuba
Cooking
Caipira
Dessert
banana
Dessert
banana
Dessert
banana
Yangambi-5
Giant cavendish
Grand Nain, Valery
AAAA
Dwarf cavendish
Red banana, Robusta, Green red, Monsmarie
Champa Nasik
Champa Nasik
AAAB
Goldnger
Goldnger
AB
Adukkan, Poomkali, Njalipoovan, Valiyakunnan, Adakkakunnan, Pedalimoongil,

Velipputtubale
Ney Poovan
Safet Velchi
Sukari
AAB
ABB
Dessert
banana
Dessert
banana
Pome
Prata, Branca, Pacovan
Mysore, Poovan, Perumpadali, Dudhsagar, Palayankodan, Krishnavazhai, Charapadati,

Nendran, Quintal nendran, Pedathi, Velipadathi
Plantain
French, Horn
Cooking
Corne
Cooking
Terra
Batard, Mbouroukou-1, Mbouroukou-3

Terra, Pacovan, DAngola
Figo
Figo Vermelho or Figo Cinza
Bluggoe
Bluggoe
Cooking
Dessert
banana
Dessert
banana
Cooking
Pisang Awak
Fougamou
Dessert
banana
Kosthalontha, Karpooravalli, Boothibale, Konchikela, Peyan

Matooke
Butobe
Cooking
AABB
Ouro da Mata
ABBB
Klue Terapod
Dessert
banana
Cooking
Saba
Cooking
Represents combinations of the Musa balbisiana Colla and Musa acuminata Colla genomes. Cooking means plantain varieties
All continents
All continents
East African
highland
East African
highland
Brazil
Central and
West Africa
Egypt
Egypt, India
India
East African
highland
America,
Australia
India
Africa
Caribbean
Africa
Caribbean
Belgium
Brazil
Maca, Silk
Note: Source: Bakry et al. (1997), Davey, et al. (2007), Nakasone and Paull (1999), Resmi et al. (2011), Rieger (2006), SEBRAE (2008).
India
Indonesia,
Malaysia
Indonesia,
Malaysia
Indonesia,
Malaysia
All continents
India, East
Africa
India, East
Africa
All continents
Figue Pomme
Elavazhai
Saba
Brazil
Dessert
banana
Dessert
banana
Dessert
banana
Dessert
banana
Poteau
BB
BBB
All continents
Brazil, India,
Egypt
India
Brazil
Philippines,
America
Philippines,
America
Philippines,
America
India
East African
Highland
Brazil
Philippines,
America
India
Indonesia,
Malaysia
diarrhea. The juice from the pseudostem is sweetened and oral

administrated in diarrhea. By topical administration, this juice is
employed to wash ulcers and to treat aphtas in children. Infusion
of the owers of the banana plant in water followed by an
overnight rest are used to treat health problems in the eyes. Syrup
of banana owers is used to heal pulmonary problems. Green
banana is used by topical application in wound healing and cancer.
Neiva et al. (2014) studied the traditional knowledge from plants
used for the treatment of giardiasis in Brazil. Banana leaf and fruit
were cited by the interviewees in health facilities from a municipal
public primary healthcare and private institution specializing in
digestive system diseases, in So Lus, Maranho, Brazil.
Musa (M.) paradisiaca L., commonly called Kaila in Pakistan, is
traditionally used for the treatment of inammation, rheumatism,
gripe, diabetes, hypertension, cough, and bronchitis. Unripe bananas are astringent and their ashes are used to treat diarrhea
(Morton, 1987). Plantain juice is used as an antidote for snake bite
(Reid, 1961). In ethnoveterinary medicine, Musa paradisiaca L. is
used to treat the hooves and injuries while its green fruit is used
for the treatment of diarrhea (Lans et al., 2006). Musa seminifera
Lour is native from Bangladesh and this plant is commonly known
as Bichi kola, Aitta kola, or Doia kola, and distributed throughout
the country. Musa seminifera Lour has been used in local and
traditional medicine in Bangladesh in the treatment of diarrhea,
dysentery, and excess menstruation (Partha and Hossain, 2007). In
Thailand and India, banana is widely consumed as a food staple
and has been traditionally used for gastrointestinal tract disorders
as diarrhoea and gastritis (Bunyapraphatsara, 1996). Abe and
Ohtani (2013) studied the local knowledge and uses of medicinal
plants on Batan Island, the Philippines, and could provide new
avenues for pharmacological investigations to improve healthcare
for a range of ailments. The young leaves of Musa paradisiaca L.,
locally named viniveh (guyud variety), are used to treat fever and
headache by forehead external application with oil. The ripe fruits
of Musa sapientum L., locally named viniveh (tsina variety), are
used to treat diarrhea through the intake of bananas three times a
day. The juice from Musa spp, locally named viniveh, is used to
treat abdominal pain (Abe and Ohtani, 2013). Iranian traditional
medicine as a complementary and alternative medicine involves
several non-pharmacological treatments, among which food therapy is the most notable. Data from an Arabic source indicate that
Musa spp provides little nutriment and it is useful against heat in
the chest, the lungs, and the bladder, and softens the stomach
(Touwaide and Appetiti, 2013). Based on the resources of Iranian
traditional medicine, bananas are prescribed for depressed
patients (Tavakkoli-Kakhki et al., 2014).
According to Kumar et al. (2012), banana fruits from India are
traditionally used to help overcome or prevent a substantial
number of illnesses and health conditions as depression (related
to the banana tryptophan content), anemia (high iron content
which stimulates the production of hemoglobin), and blood
pressure control (high potassium content and low in salt). Bananas
can be source of vitamin B6. The vitamins B6 and B12, as well as
the potassium and magnesium content help the body recover from
the effects of nicotine withdrawal. Bananas can help people trying
to give up smoking. The fruits are also used against constipation
(high in ber, including bananas in the diet can help restore
normal bowel action), hangover (to build up depleted blood sugar
levels), heartburn and ulcers (bananas have a natural antacid effect
in the body), and against stress condition, because potassium
content is a vital mineral (Bhutani and Atal, 1984; Kumar
et al., 2012). Under the stress conditions, our metabolic rate rises,
thereby reducing our potassium levels. These conditions can be
rebalanced with the help of a high-potassium banana content.
Taken a piece of banana peel and place it on the wart, with the
yellow side out, can be a natural alternative to kill off a wart and to
153
reduce swelling and irritation after a mosquito bite by rubbing the

affected area with the inside of a banana skin (Kumar et al., 2012).
3. Banana fruit bioactive compounds

Fruit consumption has been increased due to a series of wellknown nutritional and therapeutic effects on the human health,
mostly resulting from their contents in phytochemicals with
antioxidant properties, for instance. Recent studies indicate that
frequent consumption of fruits might be related to the retardation
of aging and prevention of certain illnesses including cancer and
cardiovascular diseases (Wang et al., 1997; Bae et al., 2008;
Kawasaki et al., 2008; Wright et al., 2008), which are related to
cell oxidative stress caused by free radicals. Indeed, there is a large
body of evidences that free radicals are responsible for the damage
of lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids in cells, leading to several
physiological and pathological abnormalities. According to SauraCalixto and Goni (2006) and Wang et al. (1997), compounds from
the plant secondary metabolism can be found in the fruits as
carotenoids, phenolic acids, avonoids, vitamin C and E contributing for the antioxidant activity, depicting a clear therapeutic
potential. However, such phytochemical compounds that come
from fruits are highly affected not only by genetic factors, but also
by environmental ones in the geographic region of production,
fruit maturity stage at harvest, farming practices, harvesting time,
post-harvest handling and processing, and storage conditions
(Rodriguez-Amaya, 2010). Because of its particularities, in special
its low cost, banana is consumed all over the world and it can be
considered an important fruit regarding its potential as functional
and nutraceutical food.
3.1. Carotenoids
Carotenoids are a diverse group of yelloworange pigments
found in many biological systems, acting as accessory pigments
in photosynthesis, for example. Several health-promoting effects
of carotenoids such as immune-enhancement and reduction of
the risk of developing degenerative diseases, cancer, cardiovascular diseases, cataract, and macular degeneration have been
claimed (Krinsky and Johnson, 2005; Tapiero et al., 2004;
Voutilainen et al., 2006). According to Erdman et al. (1993),
alfa-carotene, beta-carotene, and beta-cryptoxanthin, but not
lycopene, are known to have pro-vitamin A activity. This is
associated with yellow, orange or red color they impart to many
foods (Rodriguez-Amaya, 2001).
There are many reports in the literature about the existence of
banana genotypes rich in those pigments. For example, Setiawan
et al. (2001) determined the carotenoid content of 18 fruits,
including banana (Musa x paradisiaca L.), commonly consumed
in West Java, Indonesia. The authors observed a large sample-tosample variation in -cryptoxanthin, lycopene, and beta-carotene
contents for the studied fruits as showed in Table 3.
Samples of fruit pulps of three plantain varieties (Batard,
Mbourourkou-1, and Mbourourkou-3) and two dessert banana
varieties (Cavendish and Yangambi-5) were assayed by Davey et al.
(2006) for pro-vitamin A carotenoid content. Trans-alfa-carotene
and trans-beta-carotene were found to occur as majoritarian compounds, with additional small amounts of the cis-betacarotene (Table 3). Besides, the authors claim that these results
were related to the banana cultivation sites and their genomic
variability. Other signicant carotenoid found was lutein, but in
small amount. Lutein does not have pro-vitamin A activity, while
having important antioxidant properties and human health benets as inhibitor of the age-related macular degeneration.
154
Table 3
Concentration of pVACs (t-AC, t-BC, and c-BC) and RAE of some banana genotypes all over the world.
Genotype
t-AC
t-BC
c-BC
RAE
Country
Reference
Aibwo/Suria #1
Aibwo/Suria #2
Bantol Red
Batard
Batard
Baubaunio
Cavendish
Cavendish
Cavendish
Chek Porng Moan
Dimaemamosi
Duningi
Entukura
Enzirabahima
Fagufagu
Galeo
Gatagata/Vudito #1
Gatagata/Vudito #2
GCTV 215
Grand Naine
Grand Naine
Gunih
Henderneyargh
Huki Matawa
IC2
Iholena Lele
Kabucuragye
Katimor
Kibuzi
Kokopo
Musa paradisiaca
Mbouroukou-1
Mbouroukou-1
Mbouroukou-3
Mbouroukou-3
Mbwazirume
Mpologoma
Musa spp (Uht ipali)
Musa spp (Usr wac)
Musa troglodytarum (Uht en yap)
Musa troglodytarum (Uht karat)
Nakhaki
Nakitembe
Pagatau
Pisang Mas
Pitu
Pongani
Porapora
Pusit
Ropa
Saena
Tereza
Toraka Parao
Wambo
Warowaro
Williams
Yalim
Yangambi-5
Yangambi-5
Wasolay
Jari Buaya
Malbut
Jaran
Saba
Caipira
Bucaneiro
Nam
Thap Maeo
23.58 mg/gww
15.17 mg/gww
70 nmol/gdw
35 pmol/gdw
35 nmol/gdw
2.49 mg/gww
8 pmol/gdw
8 nmol/gdw
nd
50 nmol/gdw
nd
nd
nd
nd
15.24 mg/gww
nd
0.79 mg/gww
0.42 mg/gww
nd
2 nmol/gdw
nd
nd
44 nmol/gdw
2.93 mg/gww
nd
78 nmol/gdw
nd
74 nmol/gdw
nd
nd
nd
31 pmol/gdw
29 nmol/gdw
28 pmol/gdw
26 nmol/gdw
nd
nd
5.46 mg/gww
6.77 mg/gww
14.72 mg/gww
2.96 mg/gww
nd
nd
nd
nd
nd
nd
nd
99 nmol/gdw
36.82 mg/gww
0.79 mg/gww
nd
2.50 mg/gww
nd
o 0.02 mg/gww
nd
nd
3 pmol/gdw
3 nmol/gdw
172 mg/gdw
415 mg/gdw
145 mg/gdw
127 mg/gdw
9 mg/gdw
2 mg/gdw
17 mg/gdw
19 mg/gdw
135 mg/gdw
59.45 mg/gww
25.72 mg/gww
130 nmol/gdw
36 pmol/gdw
38 nmol/gdw
3.32 mg/gww
6 pmol/gdw
5 nmol/gdw
4.6 mg/gww
65 nmol/gdw
24.17 mg/gww
7.43 mg/gww
4.90 mg/gww
3.19 mg/gww
34.28 mg/gww
12.55 mg/gww
6.95 mg/gww
4.47 mg/gww
5.77 mg/gww
1 nmol/gdw
4.47 mg/gww
14.27 mg/gww
124 nmol/gdw
2.96 mg/gww
4.02 mg/gww
107 nmol/gdw
1.41 mg/gww
84 nmol/gdw
4.28 mg/gww
11.42 mg/gww
0.7212.2 mg/gww
34 pmol/gdw
34 nmol/gdw
26 pmol/gdw
25 nmol/gdw
1.91 mg/ gww
1.46 mg/ gww
11.81 mg/gww
20.82 mg/gww
63.60 mg/gww
9.18 mg/gww
4.62 mg/gww
5.27 mg/gww
4.54 mg/gww
11.39 mg/gww
11.27 mg/gww
2.13 mg/gww
7.88 mg/gww
101 nmol/gdw
13.24 mg/gww
0.58 mg/gww
2.46 mg/gww
5.26 mg/gww
19.04 mg/gww
1.66 mg/gww
6.20 mg/gww
16.27 mg/gww
1 pmol/gdw
1 nmol/gdw
74 mg/gdw
525 mg/gdw
102 mg/gdw
162 mg/gdw
61 mg/gdw
9 mg/gdw
5 mg/gdw
22 mg/gdw
147 mg/gdw
nd
nd
11 nmol/gdw
5 pmol/gdw
4 nmol/gdw
nd
1 pmol/gdw
1 nmol/gdw
nd
9 nmol/gdw
nd
nd
nd
nd
nd
nd
nd
nd
nd
nd
nd
nd
9 nmol/gdw
nd
nd
6 nmol/gdw
nd
7 nmol/gdw
nd
nd
nd
6 pmol/gdw
5 nmol/gdw
3 pmol/gdw
3 nmol/gdw
nd
nd
nd
nd
nd
nd
nd
nd
nd
nd
nd
nd
nd
9 nmol/gdw
nd
nd
nd
nd
nd
nd
nd
nd
0 pmol/gdw
0 nmol/gdw
28 mg/gdw
224 mg/gdw
34 mg/gdw
nd
13 mg/gdw
nd
nd
nd
36 mg/gdw
2.95 mg/g
2.77 mg/g
7.63 mg/g
2.51 ng/g
2.57 mg/g
0.37 mg/g
0.47 ng/g
0.42 mg/g
0.38 mg/g
4.23 mg/g
2.01 mg/g
0.62 mg/g
0.41 mg/g
0.27 mg/g
3.49 mg/g
1.05 mg/g
0.61 mg/g
0.39 mg/g
0.48 mg/g
0.09 mg/g
0.37 mg/g
1.19 mg/g
6.73 mg/g
0.37 mg/g
0.33 mg/g
6.67 mg/g
0.12 mg/g
5.57 mg/g
0.36 mg/g
0.95 mg/g
0.061.02 mg/g
23.48 ng/g
2.28 mg/g
18.56 ng/g
1.77 mg/g
0.16 mg/g
0.12 mg/g
1.21 mg/g
2.00 mg/g
5.91 mg/g
0.89 mg/g
0.39 mg/g
0.44 mg/g
0.38 mg/g
0.95 mg/g
0.94 mg/g
0.18 mg/g
0.66 mg/g
6.93 mg/g
2.64 mg/g
0.08 mg/g
0.21 mg/g
0.54 mg/g
1.59 mg/g
0.14 mg/g
0.52 mg/g
1.35 mg/g
0.11 ng/g
0.11 mg/g
14.51 mg/g
70.37 mg/g
15.96 mg/g
18.79 mg/g
6.00 mg/g
0.83 mg/g
1.13 mg/g
2.62 mg/g
19.38 mg/g
Makira, Solomon Islands

Philippines
Belgium
Cameroon
Humid tropical Africa
Cameroon
Belgium
Camboja
Papua New Guinea
Papua New Guinea
Uganda
Uganda
Papua New Guinea
Belgium
Cameroon
Belgium
Papua New Guinea
Philippines
Belgium
Hawaii
Uganda
Philippines
Uganda
Papua New Guinea
Indonesia
Belgium
Cameroon
Belgium
Cameroon
Uganda
Uganda
Pohnpei, Micronesian
Kosrae, Micronesian
Uganda
Uganda
Papua New Guinea
Belgium
Papua New Guinea
Papua New Guinea
Papua New Guinea
Philippines
Uganda
Papua New Guinea
Belgium
Papua New Guinea
West and Central Africa
Cameroon
Papua New Guinea
Malaysia
Papua New Guinea
Indonesia
Costa Rica
Brazil
Saint Lucia
Thailand
Brazil
Englberger et al. (2010)

Davey et al. (2009b)
Davey et al. (2006)
Davey et al. (2007)
Davey et al. (2006)
Davey et al. (2007)
Fungo and Pillay (2010)
Davey et al. (2007)
Setiawan et al. (2001)
Davey et al. (2006)
Davey et al. (2007)
Davey et al. (2006))
Davey et al. (2007)
Englberger et al. (2003a,b)
Davey et al. (2006)
Davey et al. (2007)
Borges et al. (2014)
pVAC: pro-vitamin A carotenoid; t-AC: trans-alfa-carotene; t-BC: trans-beta-carotene; c-BC: cis-beta-carotene; RAE: retinol activity equivalents; nd not determined;
gww g of wet weight; gdw g of dry weight.
Davey et al. (2007) have shown in a within-fruit, within-hand,

within-plant, and between-plants study that pro-vitamin A carotenoids contents varied signicantly across all the sampled groups. In
a further assay, Davey et al. (2009b) evaluated the pro-vitamin A

carotenoid contents of 171 genotypes from Musa, e.g., bananas and
plantains. The results indicated carotenoids varying within
genotypes to an average of 720.5% per cultivar. In Musa pulp, over

90% of the total pro-vitamin A carotenoids are trans-alfa-carotene
and trans-beta-carotene. The remaining 10% comprise cis-carotenoids, lutein, and other unidentied compounds. The Bantol Red
(uncharacterized genome), Pusit (uncharacterized genome), Iholena
Lele (AAB), Henderneyargh (AAB), Katimor (AAB), and Chek Porng
Mean (uncharacterized genome) cultivars showed to contain the
higher pro-vitamin A carotenoids, with values of 44 to 130 nmol/g
dry weight (Table 3). The variations in pro-vitamin A carotenoids
contents appear to be at least partly related to the differences in the
developmental status of the fruit, as well as genotype-specic
(Davey et al., 2009b).
Twenty six genotypes from Embrapa Mandioca e Fruticulturas
banana germplasm active bank in Brazil were evaluated by Mattos
et al. (2010). The triploids AAB and ABB genomic groups presented
higher amounts of carotenoid content than the triploid AAA one, a
trait associated to the B genome. Similar results were obtained by
Englberger et al. (2003a) that analyzed the carotenoid content of 13
banana cultivars. Musa troglodytarum L. (local named Uht en yap),
Musa spp (Usr wac), Musa spp (Uht ipali), and Musa troglodytarum L.
(Uht karat) genotypes were found to have beta-carotene levels
greater than 918 mg/100 g edible portion (Table 3). Although those
banana genotypes are not documented by a cultivar name, they are
thought to belong to the Cavendish subgroup, the primary banana
cultivar marketed globally (INIBAP, 2002).
Banana genotypes from the International Institute of Tropical
Agriculture germplasm collection in Uganda, Papua New Guinea,
had the highest levels of beta-carotene with 24.17 g/g edible pulp
(Table 3). A positive correlation was detected between pulp color
intensity and beta-carotene concentration. These ndings concur
with earlier observations reported for Micronesian and Brazilian
bananas which showed that the content of beta-carotene is higher
in yellow to orange bananas than in those with white or beige
pulp. Indeed, carotenoid levels seem to increase with the intensity
of fruit esh coloration towards yellow and orange (Englberger
et al., 2003a; Fungo and Pillay, 2010).
Borges et al. (2014) established the carotenoidic prole of
accessions from the Embrapa Mandioca e Fruticultura germplasm
from Brazil, aiming to select superior genotypes to be used in
future crosses in the development of biofortied cultivars (rich in
pro-vitamin A carotenoids). The study showed that the carotenoid
content of Musa fruits mainly consists of beta-carotene and alfacarotene, whereas the proportion of these compounds varied
depending on the cultivars genotype. Results revealed the genotypes Jari Buaya, Thap Maeo, and Jaran as rich sources of provitamin A, especially when compared to the main cultivars
commercially available (e.g. Cavendish subgroup), Additionally, in
the Musa germplasm assayed, a great variability for these compounds was found to occur, showing that the improvement of
these characteristics can be obtained successfully in the banana
genetic breeding program (Table 3).
Pro-vitamin A carotenoids differ in their vitamin A activities
because of their distinct chemical structures. For this reason, the
concept of retinol activity equivalent (RAE) has been adopted and
it considers that 12 mg of trans-beta-carotene correspond to 1 mg of
retinol (Yeum and Russel, 2002). The conversion factors for other
possible isomers of cis-beta-carotene and trans-alfa-carotene are
not known; therefore, for all these compounds (if present), a
conversion factor of 24: 1, per mg of ingested carotenoid (Davey
et al., 2009a) have been used. On the basis of these conversion
factors, it is possible to calculate RAEs and thus the vitamin A
nutritional value of banana genotyopes as shown in Table 3.
An issue worth mentioning as one compares carotenoid contents among cultivars/genotypes refers to the analytical protocol
used to extract, quantify, and identify those secondary metabolites. Indeed, a series of methods have been reported in literature,
155
differing in any extension regarding one or more procedures and/

or analytical techniques. For instance, an important but often
ignored aspect of carotenoid analysis is the impact of the postharvest processing and sample storage. Lyophilization continues to
be widely considered the appropriate means of preserving biological sample. Davey et al. (2006) and (2009a) found no signicant
difference in the recoveries of total pro-vitamin A carotenoids
from lyophilized and fresh banana samples and no further signicant loss during storage of lyophilized tissue in the dark, at
20 1C. On the other hand, variable losses were detected to occur
in frozen pulp tissues. However, sample lyophilization resulted in
signicant degradation of beta-carotene and especially lycopene,
because it increases sample porosity with consequently exposure
to oxygen during storage (Rodriguez-Amaya, 2010). This way,
caution should be taken in comparative analysis of banana
genotypes as sources of pro-vitamin A, since eventual conclusions
might rely on erroneous approaches due to important methodological and analytical discrepancies.
3.1.1. Pro-vitamin A supplementation through banana fruit

Animals are unable to synthetize retinoids and need a dietary
supply of these compounds in the form of vitamin A. The fat soluble
vitamin A occurs in two major ways in Nature, mainly as retinyl
esters from animal food sources or in the form of pro-vitamin A
carotenoids from several plant species. The most abundant carotenoid is beta-carotene, a precursor of vitamin A also called provitamin A, because its activity as vitamin A is only found after its
conversion to retinol within the body (Chichili et al., 2005).
Because vitamin A is stored in the liver, some strategies are
needed to ensure adequate vitamin A intakes for people, for
example, supplements given daily or once every four to six months.
An alternative to vitamin A is the fortication of commonly
consumed foods to improve the diets of people helping to reduce
the prevalence of vitamin A deciency. The routine supplementation
schedule to be followed was previously described in the WHO/
UNICEF/IVACG/1997 Task Force publication Vitamin A Supplements: A guide to their use in the treatment and prevention of
vitamin A deciency and xerophthalmia (WHOWorld Health
Organization, 1998).
Not rare, native genotypes of bananas as previously demonstrated in this review contain meaningful amounts of pro-vitamin
A carotenoids, which periodically administered to the diet might
mitigate the vitamin deciency and the famine in any extension.
This is because by adopting the supplementation of vitamin A
using external sources of food staples such as genetic bred or
transgenic crops usually results in a strong dependency of the local
communities and governments as to the furnishers of seeds,
fertilizers, and pesticides, for instance. Furthermore, it is well
known that the introduction of exogenous and genetic improved
crop species in a given environment usually suffers from adaptation constraints that are time- and cost-relevant, mostly for
marginal populations. Thus, the rational exploitation of native
genotypes of bananas seems to sound a better choice to collaborate in avoiding vitamin A deciency and xerophthalmia.
As example of the authors point of view above described, a
study of the nutrient content of bananas was initiated by the
Federated States of Micronesia due to the emergence of a serious
problem of vitamin A deciency among children and women. The
previous work in Micronesia identied yellow/orange-eshed
carotenoid-rich banana cultivars, in particular Fei cultivars, with
potential to alleviate vitamin A deciency. Thirteen of the Micronesian banana cultivars analyzed contained enough pro-vitamin A
carotenoids to meet at least half of the daily estimated vitamin A
requirements for a non-pregnant and non-lactating woman. If a
non-pregnant and non-lactating woman ate 500 g in a day of one
156
of the cooked Musa troglodytarum (uht en yap and uht karat

bananas), or Musa spp (usr wac, uht ipali, usr wac es sie, usr kuria,
usr macao, uht akatan bananasTable 3) she would be able to
obtain her total requirement of 500 mg of retinol equivalent
(Englberger et al., 2003a). A similar comparison for a 25-yearold child shows that the child could obtain the total vitamin A
requirement of 400 mg of retinol equivalent (FAO/WHO, 1988), by
eating 250 g in a day of cooked Musa troglodytarum (uht en yap
and uht karat bananas) and Musa spp (usr wac and uht ipali
bananasTable 3). However, studies on bioavailability of these
foods have not yet been carried out and further investigation is
needed to conrm the contribution of these foods to meeting
vitamin A requirements (Englberger et al., 2003a).
There is a great diversity of Makira bananas in Solomon Islands
as previous demonstrated by Englberger et al. (2010). Fei cultivars
and three non-Fei cultivars were assessed for esh color, fruit size,
and other attributes and analyzed as to their pro-vitamin A
carotenoids (alfa- and beta-caroteneTable 3) and total carotenoids. Prominent differences were observed in carotenoid contents which ranged from 5945 mg beta-carotene/100 g fresh
weight in the yellow/orange eshed Fei Aibwo/Suria genotype to
58 mg beta-carotene/100 g fresh weight in the white eshed
Saena one. Comparatively to cultivars with light-colored esh,
the yellow/orange-esh cultivars generally showed to contain
higher carotenoid concentrations. Total carotenoids varied from
137 to 9400 mg/100 g fresh weight among the studied genotypes,
revealing a huge chemical diversity regarding that trait associated
to the genetic variability of the Salomon islands banana. Seven out
of ten cultivars presented high pro-vitamin A carotenoid concentrations, meeting the estimated daily vitamin A requirements for
pre-school children and non-lactating, non-pregnant female
adults, within normal consumption patterns.
The nutrient-rich cultivars, including FeI genotypes, should be
promoted for their potential to contribute to vitamin A intake and
overall health. According to the number of banana ngers to meet
the recommended safe intake for non-pregnant female adult some
cultivars are thought to be of interest as, for instance: Aibwo/Suria:
0.6, Fagufagu: 1.5, Gatagata/Vudito: 2.3, Ropa: 2.7, Huki Matawa:
3.9, Toraka Parao: 4.4, and Baubaunio: 6.6. Similarly, for pre-school
children and non-lactating women the number of banana ngers
recommended is as follows: Aibwo/Suria: 0.4; Fagufagu: 1.2;
Gatagata/Vudito: 1.8; Ropa: 2.1; Huki Matawa: 3.1; Toraka Parao:
3.5 and Baubaunio: 5.3 ngers/cultivar/daily intake, respectively,
within normal consumption patterns (WHO, 2004).
3.2. Phenolic compounds and avonoids
Phytochemicals, especially phenolics in fruits and vegetables,
are the major bioactive compounds known for health benets
(Cook and Sammon, 1996). Bananas commonly consumed in
Recife, eastern Brazil, have considerable amounts of some bioactive phytochemicals as observed in the fruit pulp of the cultivars
Pacovan (Musa acuminata Colla) and Comprida (Musa x paradisiaca L.). The average values for the total phenolic compounds
were 44.46 75.46 and 52.02 74.22 mg of catechin equivalent/
100 g of fresh weight, respectively (Mlo et al., 2006). According
to Bravo (1998), the presence of polyphenols in fruits and
vegetables is greatly inuenced by genetic factors, environmental
conditions, and degree of ripeness, for instance.
Many of the natural antioxidants exhibit a wide range of
biological effects including antibacterial, antiviral, anti-inammatory, antiallergenic, antithrombotic, and vasodilatory actions (Cook
and Sammon, 1996). Banana pulp contains various antioxidants, e.
g., vitamins, carotenoids, and phenolic compounds such as catechin, epicatechin, lignin and tannins, and anthocyanins (SEBRAE,
2008; Someya et al., 2002). For this reason, the banana cultivars
from Malaysia (southeast Asia) were chosen for analysis by

Sulaiman et al. (2011), due to their high consumption by local
people and common availability in local markets. Aqueous extract
from Awak pulp showed the highest total phenolic content
(0.36 70.01 mg of gallic acid equivalent/g fresh weight).
Borges et al. (2014) analyzed the phenolic compounds and total
avonoids content of 29 banana accessions belonging to the
Embrapa Mandioca e Fruticultura germplasm in Brazil. UVvisible
spectrophotometry was initially used and revealed an interesting
discrepancy of contents of these secondary metabolites among the
banana accessions. The average content of phenolic compounds
for all the samples was 24.23 mg of gallic acid equivalent/100 g dry
pulp. By analyzing all the accessions, the total avonoids average
content was 2.41 mg of quercetin equivalent/100 g of dry pulp. The
catechins epicatechin and gallocatechin were detected, by reversephase high performance liquid chromatography, to be the most
abundant compounds in the pulp of the studied biomass, highlighting Nam (114.44 g/100 g of dry pulp) and Highgate
(359.96 g/100 g of dry pulp) cultivars, respectively. In addition,
triploid genotypes showed the major contents of phenolic compounds (Highgate cultivar), as well as total avonoids (Wasolay
cultivar), an important nding for future crosses in order to
develop biofortied cultivars (Borges et al., 2014).
In the group of polyphenolic compounds, avonoids have been
extensively studied and include catechins, proanthocyanins,
anthocyanidins, avones, avonols, and their glycosides. Studies
on the structure-activity relationship have afforded consistent
evidence revealing the specic role of structural components and
requirements for scavenger radicals, chelating action, and oxidizing activity of avonoid compounds. In fact, the in vitro antioxidant activity of avonoids and their metabolites depends on the
arrangement of functional groups in the nuclear structure (Heim
et al., 2002). Most of the benecial effects of avonoids on human
health are attributed to their antioxidant and chelating properties
(Heim et al., 2002) and also to antimutagenic and antitumoral
effects (Middleton and Harborner, 1986; Rice-Evans et al., 1996).
Flavonoids inhibit a variety of enzyme systems. Among them,
there are several oxygenases such as prostaglandin synthase, the
key enzyme in eicosanoids biosynthesis. Further, avonoids also
act by inhibiting the hyaluronidase activity helping to maintain
proteoglycans of connective tissue and preventing the spread of
bacterial or tumor metastases (Havsteen, 2002). By hindering the
oxidation reactions, in which avonoids are preferentially oxidized, they preserve the bodys natural antioxidants such as
ascorbic acid (Korkina, Afanasev (1997)).
Lewis et al. (1999) identied the avonoid leucocyanidin as the
major product in aqueous extract of unripe plantain pulp (Musa x
sapientum L.), that also showed signicant anti-ulcerogenic activity. In general, this suggests that avonoids, leucocyanidin analogues in particular, may have considerable therapeutic potential in
the treatment of gastric diseases.
The consumption of tropical fruits has been associated with
many medicinal properties. Alothman et al. (2009) studied a local
cultivar of banana known as Pisang mas, in Malaysia. The authors
determined the polyphenolic contents in aqueous extract
(27.071.96 mg gallic acid equivalents/100 g fresh weight) and also
in acetone 90% (v/v), resulting in higher phenolic amounts, e.g.,
72.272.03 96 mg gallic acid equivalents/100 g fresh weight. Similarly, the avonoid content was also determined in the aqueous
extract (13.771.55 mg catechin equivalents /100 g fresh weight)
and in that organosolvent extract, and a superior amount was
detected in the later, i.e., 23.770.75 mg catechin equivalents
/100 g fresh weight. The antioxidant activities of the banana fruit
extracts varied considerably. The aqueous extract exhibited a FRAP
of 0.5970.15 mmol Fe(II)/g fresh weight and a 36.8%72.93% DPPH
inhibition as the acetone extract showed a FRAP of 5.2670.35 mmol
157
Fe(II)/g fresh weight and 68.0%70.51% DPPH inhibition. The antiulcerogenic activity from unripe plantain pulp could be explained by
the higher antioxidant activity of the organosolvent extracts,
directly correlated to their superior amounts of phenolic compounds and the avonoid leucocyanidin.
considered one of the complex plant matrix rich in high-value

compounds (Laufenberg et al., 2003). Banana peel is rich in
phytochemical compounds, mainly antioxidants. Ripe banana peel
contains the anthocyanins delphinidin and cyaniding (Seymour,
1993), and catecholamines (Kanazawa and Sakakibara, 2000).
3.3. Amine compounds
4.1. Carotenoids
Catecholamines, e.g. dopamine, norepinephrine (noradrenaline), and epinephrine (adrenaline), are a group of biogenic amines
(Steiner et al., 1996). Probably, the best well known example of
action of those biogenic amines in mammals as neurotransmitters
is their hormonal regulation on the glycogen metabolism (Kimura,
1968). In its turn, in plants a wider number of biosynthetic
pathways can be performed favoring the obtainment of more
catecholamine types (Smith, 1980), i.e., chemodiversity.
Though typically found in mammals, catecholamines have been
also reported to occur in many plants in considerable amounts as
showed by Ponchet et al. (1982) in the pulp of bananas (Musa
acuminata Colla and Musa. s sapientum L., var. Baracoa) and plantain,
for example. Anderson et al. (1958) showed that the ingestion of
bananas produces an increased urinary excretion of the serotonin
(5-hydroxytryptamine) metabolite 5-hydroxyindoleacetic acid. Based
on the observation reported by those authors, Waalkes et al. (1958)
determined by uorometry and for the rst time the catecholamines
composition of acetone acidied extracts of banana pulp (serotonin:
28 mg/g; norepinephrine: 1.9 mg/g, and dopamine: 7.9 mg/g). The
presence of 3,4-dihydroxyphenylalanine (L-dopa) was also found in
the fruits. Those potent physiologic agents present in a food as widely
distributed as the banana is clinically interesting.
By analyzing banana pulp antioxidants, Kanazawa and Sakakibara
(2000) identied in Musa cavendishii Lamb. dopamine as a strong
water-soluble metabolite. The amounts of that biogenic amine were
determined in pulp at the various ripening stages dened by color
scores as follows: all green (1), light green (2), half-green (3), halfyellow (4), green chip (5), full yellow (6), star (7), and duffel (8)
(Loeseck, 1950). According to the ripening stages, the dopamine
levels in ripened banana pulp ready to eat were 7.072.0 mg/100 g of
13 stages, 9.173.1 mg/100 g of 46 stages, 7.372.4 mg/100 g of
67 stages, and 3.472.2 mg/100 g of 78 stages (Kanazawa and
Sakakibara, 2000).
Carotenoids are also natural antioxidants and they contribute

to the stability of foods. Such pigments are not evenly distributed
in the food itself as various investigators have found that carotenoids are usually more concentrated in the peel than in the pulp of
fruits and vegetables (Rodriguez-Amaya, 2001).
Three plantain varieties (Batard, Mbourourkou-1, and Mbourourkou-3) and two dessert banana varieties (Cavendish and Yangambi5) were investigated by Davey et al. (2006) for pro-vitamin A
carotenoid content. Banana peel has substantially higher carotenoid
values in some varieties than the underlying fruit pulp and that the
pro-vitamin A carotenoids present consist primarily of trans-betacarotene. Banana peel (Musa spp, cv. Prata An) might be considered
a source of carotenes as trans-beta-carotene (174.8777.86 mg/g dry
weight), trans-alfa-carotene (164.87710.51 mg/g dry weight), and
cis-beta-carotene (92.2175.37 mg/g dry weight), which are the major
carotenoids from this raw material. That biomass is also source of
lutein (39.7079.06 mg/g dry weight), zeaxanthin (7.2171.07 mg/g
dry weight) and beta-cryptoxantin (1.2170.37 mg/g dry weight) in
minor concentrations. Banana peel is a kind of important raw
material that might be more exploited regarding its carotenoidic
concentration as well as in the pulp.
4. Banana peel as an interesting complex matrix of high-value

compounds
Generally, peels from consumed bananas are used in the animal
feeding, as organic fertilizer or they are simply discarded (Charrier
et al., 2004). Disposal of these peels (pomace) may cause environmental problems. In Costa Rica, for instance, it is common to
practice the disposal of banana excess and waste in the rivers.
However, the high carbohydrate content of that biomass increases
the oxygen biochemical demand in rivers and reduces the populations of aquatic animals causing an imbalance in the ecosystem
(Zhang et al., 2005).
Currently, there are few reports in literature describing the
usage of this pomace, e.g., production of ethanol (Tewari et al.,
1986), methane (Bardiya and Somayaji, 1996; Gunaseelan, 2004),
feed for livestock (Onwuka et al., 1997), or as adsorbents for water
purication (Annadurai et al., 2004). Depending on the technology
employed, the pomace can be converted into commercial products
either as raw material for secondary processes such as ingredients
of new products with therapeutic activity. These natural products
can also be used directly as functional compounds in human
nutrition and prevention and health care. Indeed, among the
numerous sources of bioactive compounds, banana peel could be
4.2. Phenolic compounds

The potential of plant biomasses as source of bioactive compounds also refers to the by-products and/or residues of a given
production system. For instance, fruit residues (i.e., pomace) are
inexpensive, easily available, and contain bioactive molecules.
Consequently, over the past years research focus has shifted to
such residues as a possible source of antioxidants compounds.
Shui and Leong (2006) reported that antioxidant compounds as
( )-epicatechin and proanthocyanidins, which existed as dimers
through pentamers in star fruit (Averrhoa carambola L.) residues,
delay oxidative rancidity of soya bean oil to a greater extent than
butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT). Babbar et al. (2011) investigated
the antioxidant potential in terms of ABTS and DPPH scavenging
abilities, ferric reducing antioxidant power, and phenolic contents
of residue extracts of four important fruits grown in Ludhiana,
India, between them the banana peel. The antioxidant activities in
terms of ABTS determined for banana peel were found to be
5.67 70.32 mg trolox equivalent/g dry weight, respectively. The
methanolic extracts considerably differed in the antioxidant
activity as measured by the DPPH method, e.g., banana peel:
837 0.70%. Such ndings reveal an important trait of banana peel
as source of compounds able in scavenging free radicals as
antioxidant mechanism of action, comparatively to other plant
residual biomasses. By relating antioxidant activity to phenolic
contents in biomass samples one could expect a direct relationship
for those variables, as it seems not to be the case for the banana
peel as demonstrated by Babbar et al. (2011) and other studies
(Demiray et al., 2009; Sulaiman et al., 2011). Indeed, for example,
carotenoids as beta-carotene and vitamins are not phenolic
compounds, but they might also contribute in enhancing antioxidant activity in banana peel extracts. On the other hand, one can
assume that even low amounts of phenolic compounds in plant
extracts can afford prominent antioxidant activities depending on
the types of those secondary metabolites, typically indicating that the qualitative prole of the phenolic extract is
158
meaningful. Whether that is the case for the banana peel samples
it remains to be elucidated. Besides, banana peels might be an
important source of antioxidant compounds considering a growing interest of the food and pharmaceutical industries on medicinal plant biomasses for development of new therapeutic and
prophylactic products. In order to pursue a further technological
usage of that residual biomass, in vivo studies in both pre-clinical
and clinical levels on the toxicology, bioavailability, distribution,
metabolization, and excretion of phenolic compounds from banana peels extracts are needed to subsidize an eventual industrial
application.
Oxygen free radical processes are involved in both physiological
and pathological conditions, which skin tissue repair caused
mainly by trauma and burns (Croft, 1998; Sies, 1985). The role of
antioxidants in the removal of inammation products is already
known and these compounds are also benecial in wound healing
for other reasons. Antioxidants work against the excess of proteases and reactive oxygen species (ROS), protecting protease
inhibitors from oxidative damage. In addition, antioxidants can
prevent destruction of broblasts and other cells caused by ROS
over generation, and therefore may be important in the successful
treatment of lesions (Houghton et al., 2005). The Brazilian local
and traditional knowledge described by Balbach (1945) (Section 2)
corroborated the role of antioxidants in banana peel.
Despite the predominance of substances from synthetic origin
in the therapeutic arsenal, including antiinammatory drugs, in
recent years there has been a renewed interest in local and
traditional therapeutic practices by many health professionals.
Hence, herbs and other phytochemicals have been used as an
alternative or complementary therapy. For example, many phytotherapeutics, including extracts of Aloe vera, passion fruit (Passiora edulis), aroeira (Schinus terebinthifolius), and unripe banana
(Musa x sapientum L.) have been tested and used in the treatment
of skin lesions (Agarwal and Goel, 2008; Castelo et al., 2006;
Garros et al., 2006).
The antioxidant compounds from commercial banana peel
Musa cavendishii Lamb. were studied by Someya et al. (2002)
and the antioxidant gallocatechin was identied. In fact, gallocatechin was more abundant in peel (158 mg/100 g dry weight.) than
in pulp (29.6 mg/100 g dry weight.) in Musa cavendishii Lamb.
genotypes as the antioxidant activity of the banana peel extract
against lipid auto-oxidation was stronger than that of the banana
pulp extract. This result was consistent with the gallocatechin
analysis and its higher content may account for the better antioxidant effects. Thus, banana peels might be considered as a good
source of natural antioxidants for foods, as well as among others
possible applications.
The antioxidant activity of banana peel extracts (Musa x
paradisiaca L.) was studied using an experimental model of rats
subjected to a normal diet compared to rats with a diet rich in
fatty acids. Animals treated orally with banana peel extract
showed signicantly decreased concentrations of peroxidation
products (MDA), hydroperoxides, and conjugated dienes. At the
same time, the enzymatic activities of catalase and superoxide
dismutase increased signicantly in treated animals, as well as the
concentration of reduced glutathione (Vijayakumar et al., 2008).
According to Agarwal and Goel (2008), plantain banana (Musa x
sapientum L.) has been shown peptic ulcer protective activity. With
the premise that the drug promoting ulcer healing could have
effect on wound healing activity in rats by oral doses (50, 100 and
200 mg/kg/day) of aqueous (MSW) and methanolic (MSE) extracts
were investigated. Both MSW and MSE (100 mg/kg) showed
optimal effect on wound contraction and epithelization in excision
wound when administered for 21 days. Both MSW/MSE (100 mg/
kg for 10 days) increased wound breaking strength and levels of
hydroxyproline, hexuronic acid, hexosamine, superoxide
dismutase, reduced glutathione in the granulation tissue and

decreased percentage of wound area, scar area and lipid peroxidation comparatively to the control group. This indicate that plantain
banana extracts favoured wound healing, a biological activity
related to their antioxidant effect and to the property of modulate
various wound healing biochemical parameters, promoting the
process of early keratinisation and healing.
Unripe banana peel contains leucocyanidin, a avonoid that
induces cell proliferation by increased incorporation of thymidine
into cellular DNA (Novak et al., 2003), accelerating the healing of
skin wounds (Lewis et al., 1999). The pulp and peel of unripe
banana have been used in the treatment of cracked nipples and
peptic ulcers in humans (Novak et al., 2003). Studies with rats
have shown the efcacy of unripe banana in the prevention and
treatment of peptic ulcers. Interestingly, the active agent in unripe
bananas is water soluble and becomes inactive in ripe bananas
(Best et al., 1984).
Gallocatechin consists of the largest groups of naturally occurring phenols with antioxidant potential that is widely distributed
in leaves, seeds, bark, and owers of plants (Heim et al., 2002).
Musa spp peel gallocatechinrich extract (GE: 106.6 mg/mL) wound
healing potential were studied. GE treatment was able to decrease
the epithelization period, healing the lesions in 9 days, as well as
to increase the hydroxyproline content over the treatment period,
Histological analysis of the lesions conrmed the GE healing
potential, showing broblast proliferation and induction of reepithelialization process. On the one hand, ROS are necessary for
effective defense against invading pathogens and cell signaling
and even in the absence of infection, low levels of ROS are
necessary for cell signaling, especially angiogenesis. Consequently,
a closer relationship between production and detoxication of ROS
is crucial for the normal repair process of an injury. The results of
this study suggest that the extract of Musa spp banana peel was
able to prevent oxidative damage to cellular structures in the
lesion bed during the experimental period, which was more
important in the early days of the healing process apparently
because it allowed the control of ROS levels. The injury space
conditioned to cellular proliferation culminated quickly and effectively in the end of that healing process (Pereira, 2010).
To assess the effects of unripe Musa sapientum peel on the
healing of surgical wounds in rats, Atzingen et al. (2013) used a 4%
M. x sapientum L. peel gel for the treatment of the lesions by
excision model. The treatment of surgical wounds showed to be
effective, resulting in an increased number of polymorphonuclear
cells on day 7, reduced wound contraction, reduced vascular
proliferation, and increased concentration of collagen bers on
day 21.
4.3. Amine compounds
The tradicional use of bananas in India, described by Kumar et al.
(2012) and related to the banana tryptophan content, is about to
prevent or help a substantial number of illnesses and health
conditions as depression. This traditional Indian knowledge is
directly related to the researches from Chemuturi and Donovan
(2006), Hashizume et al. (1987), Kanazawa and Sakakibara (2000),
Murata et al. (1988), and Wang et al. (2013), for instance. Considering that tryptophan is one of the precursor aminoacids for dopamine synthesis, directly affecting the content of this biogenic amine
in banana peel, and the increasing interest on Parkinsons disease,
the possibility of prevent or treat that neurodegenerative disease by
using banana peel as biomass source of dopamine is thought to be
relevant.
Kanazawa and Sakakibara (2000) considered that bananas
should contain antioxidants in peel to shield against peroxidizing
factors. Tropical fruits have strong antioxidant activity, as well as
banana peel water-extract that suppressed the auto-oxidation of

linoleic acid by 65-70% after 5-day incubation in an emulsion
system by peroxide value determination and thiobarbituric acid
reactivity. According to the ripening stages (Loeseck, 1950), the peel
dopamine levels (12907420 mg/100 g of 13 stages, 4307210 mg/
100 g of 46 stages, 3807160 mg/100 g of 67 stages, and
5007270 mg/100 g of 78 stages) were higher than the ripened
banana pulp (7.072.0 mg/100 g of 13 stages, 9.173.1 mg/100 g of
46 stages, 7.372.4 mg/100 g of 67 stages, and 3.472.2 mg/100 g
of 78 stages (Kanazawa and Sakakibara, 2000). Levodopa was also
determined in banana peel (Musa spp, cultivar Prata An) acidied
extracts (full yellow: 150732 mg/100 g dry weight). Dopamine also
shows higher antioxidant capacity in vitro (by DPPH assay) comparatively to other natural antioxidants as ascorbic acid, glutathione
reduced, and several phenolic compounds, as gallocatechin gallate,
for instance (Kanazawa and Sakakibara, 2000).
The biogenic amines are important in the metabolic pathways
for plants pathogen resistance (Newman et al., 2001; RoepenackLahaye et al., 2003), they also affect plant growth and development by their interaction with phytohormones via auxin oxidation
(Kuklin and Conger, 1995), inuence plant owering (Khurana
et al., 1987), and sugar metabolism (Szopa et al., 2001). In fact,
catecholamines in both methylated or non-methylated forms are
required in small quantities (Kulma and Szopa, 2007) and have
important regulatory functions (Kulma and Szopa, 2007), showing
a rapid intracellular increased in plant leaves submitted to wounding (Bruhn and Lundstrom, 1976), water stress (Swiedrych et al.,
2004), and ABA treatment (Swiedrych et al., 2004; Szopa et al.,
2001). Besides the vegetal approaches, banana peel biomass might
be considered as a raw material source of that biogenic amine for
the development of a pharmaceutical formulation for the treatment of Parkinsons disease, especially the peels where the highest
concentration of dopamine have been found in comparison to the
pulp, as showed by Kanazawa and Sakakibara (2000).
4.3.1. Parkinsons disease

Since its initial description, by James Parkinson in 1817,
Parkinson's disease (PD) has been characterized as a movement
disorder, and its diagnosis is based on the presence of two or more
cardinal motor signs: tremor at rest, decrease of voluntary movements, bradykinesia, rigidity, stooped posture, and postural
instability (Barrio et al., 1997; Deumens et al., 2002). PD is the
second neurodegenerative disorder related to age and the most
common in humans, behind only Alzheimers disease. The primary
cause of PD is not fully understood. Indeed, epidemiological
studies have highlighted that some environmental factors may
be associated with an increased risk of developing PD, such as
exposure to certain types of herbicides and pesticides (Fall et al.,
1999; Vanacore et al., 2002). Recent ndings suggest that it might
be associated with oxidative stress triggered by one or more factors, such as brain aging, genetic predisposition, mitochondrial
abnormalities, free radical production, and environmental toxins
(Alexi et al., 2000; Olanow et al., 1998).
Since it was introduced on 1960, levodopa has been the most
widely used and effective drug for the symptomatic therapy of PD
(Olanow et al., 2006). According to Obeso et al. (2000), a constant
ring rate of CNS dopamine neurons, stable striatal dopamine
concentration, and the continuos activation of striatal dopamine
receptors are essential for normal basal-ganglia function (Bdard
et al., 1986; Grondin et al., 1996; Jenner, 2000). Engber et al.
(1989), Juncos et al. (1989), Morissette et al. (1997), and Pavon
et al. (2006) ndings demonstrated that standard doses of levodopa are unable to restore basal-ganglia physiological activity to
normal, because non-physiological discontinuous or pulsatile
dopamine replacement induces disruption in the dopamine-
159
denervated basal ganglia leading to the development of motor

complications and dyskinesia characteristic from PD. Also disease
severity can inuence the risk that a drug will induce pulsatile
stimulation and motor complications (Bdard et al., 1986; Pearce
et al., 1998). The pulsatile stimulation of striatal dopamine receptors can induce molecular and neurophysiological changes in
striatal neurons that are associated with dyskinesias. Stocchi
et al. (2002) studied 40 patients with advanced PD with severe
levodopa-related motor complications and they showed the benet of continuous infusion of lisuride (levodopa formulation). In
addition, studies in animal models in which dyskinesias associated
with intermittent delivery of either levodopa or an agonist of
dopamine can be avoided with continuous delivery of the drug
(Bibbiani et al., 2005, Blanchet et al., 1995). A long-acting oral
therapy that reects the pharmacokinetics and clinical benets of
levodopa would be a better alternative treatment without the
motor complications (Alexi et al., 2000; Olanow et al., 1998).
4.3.2. Bioavailability of amine compounds

In dogs, monkeys, and humans, more than 99% of the circulating dopamine is present in two isomeric forms, dopamine-3O-SO4
and dopamine-4O-SO4, which differ in metabolic stability and
biological activity (Johnson et al., 1980). According to Hashizume
et al. (1987), oral administrations of dopamine (50 mg/body) and
1-dihydroxyphenylalanine (L-dopa, 250 mg/body) increased the
plasma levels of these dopamine sulfates almost 100-fold. Intravenous dopamine infusion (5 pg/kg/min during 30 min) markedly
increased the plasma free dopamine concentration. The increase in
total plasma dopamine sulfate (dopamine-3O-SO4 and dopamine4O-SO4) after intravenous administration of dopamine was less
than its oral administration. The activity of the enzyme phenolsulfotransferase is found in the liver, kidneys, gut, brain, platelets,
and in many other human tissues (Whittemore et al., 1985).
Hashizume et al. (1987) nds indicate that O-sulfation of dopamine may be in the intestine, especially 3-O-sulfation, which is the
main pathway for metabolism of L-dopa and orally administrated
dopamine.
It has been known that catecholamines are metabolized by
cathechol-o-methyl transferase (COMT), monoamine oxidase
(MAO), and sulphotransferase (SFT). Murata et al. (1988) studied
the bioavailability and pharmacokinetics of intravenous and oral
dopamine in dogs. Intravenous administration of aqueous solution
of 10 mg of dopamine, whose concentration decreased rapidly
after administration, results in two main metabolites determined
in the animals plasma, dopamine-3O-SO4 (2.7%) and 3,4-dihydroxyphenyl acetic acid (4.9%). Oral administration of an aqueous
solution of 100 mg of 14C dopamine in dogs showed a low
bioavailability of the drug (approximately 3%). This reects its
extensive rst-pass metabolism in the intestine and also in the
liver during the absorption process, which resulted in urinary
excretion of 14C dopamine-3O-SO4 predominantly.
Considering that one banana fruit weight approximately 100 g
and the levels of dopamine in the banana pulp at 46 stages
(9.17 3.1 mg/100 g, item 3.3), the ingestion of the fruit is not
enough to supply the treatment of PDs by facing rst-pass
metabolism. On the other hand, banana peel could be an alternative dopamine source (1290 7 420 mg/100 g of 13 ripening
stage), which is 142 times higher than the pulp content (Kanazawa
and Sakakibara, 2000), an important issue for the development of
pharmaceutical formulations.
To deal with rst-pass metabolism, Murata et al. (1989)
synthesized a dopamine prodrug N-(N-acetyl-L-methionyl)-O,Obis(ethoxycarbonyl)dopamine. Protecting the catechol system and
the amino group, with ethoxycarbonyl or N-acetyl-L-methionyl
group, it is possible to decrease the rst-pass metabolism of oral
160
dopamine and improve its bioavailability (approximately 30%) in

dogs. Regarding the pharmacokinetic of dopamine and dopamine
prodrug, Murata et al. (1990) studied their absorption and metabolism also in dogs. After oral administration, the absorption rate
constant of dopamine was smaller than the formation rate constants of the metabolites dopamine-O-SO4 and 3,4-dihydroxyphenyl acetic acid in the dogs plasma. In addition, when the prodrug
N-(N-acetyl-L-methionyl)-O,O-bis(ethoxycarbonyl)dopamine was
orally administrated, the formation rate constant of N-(N-acetylL-methionyl)dopamine was larger than the metabolic formation
rate contants of dopamine-O-SO4 or 3,4-dihydroxyphenyl acetic
acid. In conclusion, dopamine prodrug played an important role to
the reduction of rst-pass metabolism.
Dopamine, when undergoes high intestinal and hepatic rst
pass metabolism following oral administration, has good bioavailability following nasal administration (Dahlin et al., 2000, 2001).
In addition, intranasal drug delivery offers the advantage over the
oral route administration of higher permeability for polar molecules (Gervasi et al., 1991). Dahlin et al. (2001) investigated the
levels of [3H]dopamine in blood, cerebrospinal uid (CSF), and
brain tissue of rats. The nasal absorption of [3H]dopamine was
achieved in 15 min after administration. The [3H]dopamine levels
after nasal administration were about 2.3 times higher than after
intravenous administration (75 719 dpm and 32 74 dpm, respectively) in the CSF and about 6.8 times higher (184 768 dpm and
277 10 dpm, respectively) in the right olfactory bulb. Metabolism
of [3H]dopamine in the olfactory mucosa was not extensive and
therefore the metabolism to dihydroxyphenylacetc acid must have
occurred during the transfer to or in the CSF. This results showed
signicantly higher amounts of unchanged dopamine in brain
tissue samples after nasal administration of [3H]dopamine to rats
than after intravenous administration, indicating a direct pathway
for this drug from the nasal cavity into the brain of the animals.
Chemuturi and Donovan (2006) also studied the role of nasal
mucosal metabolism of dopamine by this route of administration.
Dihydroxyphenylacetc acid (less than 0.5% of the initial amount of
dopamine placed into the system) was the only metabolite
detected in the in vitro assay, likely due to saturation of monoamine oxidase (MAO) localized in the submucosal region of the
nasal explants from bovines. However, at low concentrations of
dopamine its transport and metabolism reduce. Nasal dopamine
transport across the epithelial layer has been shown to be
mediated by cellular-based protein carriers DAT and the OCT
family (Amenta et al., 2001; Eisenhofer, 2001). The high systemic
bioavailability of dopamine and its apparent preferential transport
into the central nervous system, following intranasal administration, is the combination of the limited dilution of dopamine
solution, the activity of multiple uptake transporters, and the
rapid saturation of MAO in the submucosal tissues (Dahlin et al.,
2001). Chemuturi and Donovan (2006) and Dahlin et al. (2001)
suggest that intranasal administration of dopamine is a promise
mode of delivery along the olfactory neurons this neurotransmissor directly to the brain.
Recently, Wang et al. (2013) designed as a dipeptide mimetic
prodrug of dopamine named as D-phenylglycine-L-dopa (D-PhG-Ldopa), which has 31-fold higher oral bioavailability than L-dopa in
rats. After intravenous administration, both D-PhG-L-dopa and Ldopa entered the brain rapidly (Tmax 1 min). D-PhG-L-dopa demonstrated 1.97-fold higher systemic bioavailability than L-dopa,
probably due to its lower clearance rate and larger volume of
distribution. The terminal half-life of brain dopamine upon D-PhGL-dopa administration was 2.51 times longer than that upon L-dopa
administration.D-PhG-L-dopa, as a dopamine prodrug, prevents or
prolongs the fast decarboxylation process of L-dopa and works as a
sustained dopamine-releasing system usefulness for treating Parkinsons disease.
5. Conclusion
Bananas and plantains are largely consumed all over the world
as food staples and for medicinal purposes as they are interesting
sources of bioactive secondary metabolites. Bananas and plantains
belong to the genus Musa and according to peculiar morphogenetic characteristics their cultivars are distributed into four sections: Eumusa, Rhodochlamys, Australimusa, and Callimusa and
classied according to their genomic group, subgroup, fruit usage,
and geographic distribution.
Phytochemical and pharmacological studies of bananas and
plantains have received much interest because it has been demonstrated that Musa spp extracts present pharmacological activities
attributed to their phenolic, carotenoid, and amine constituents.
However, despite of the continuous progress on the phytochemical
and pharmacological potential of those species, the development
of a phytomedicine or even an allopathic medicine from Musa spp
biomasses such as fruit peels (e.g.) requires a more detailed
investigation. For example, in Brazil, there is a growing interest
in developing a banana-based phytomedicine for wound healing
taking into account the ethnopharmacological data available, as
well as for Parkinsons disease treatment. For that, relevant issues
of the usage of Musa spp extracts, especially focusing on the
scientic support for quality control, efcacy, safety, and toxicity,
shall be addressed in both preclinical and clinical studies. Finally,
considering the genetic diversity of Musa spp and its adaptation to
a wide range of environmental conditions all over the world, one
could expect that future rational and ethnopharmacologicaloriented researches will provide the suitable support for clinical
employment of Musa spp secondary metabolites in modern
medicine.
Acknowledgments
The authors gratefully acknowledge the nancial support of the
Coordenao de Aperfeioamento de Pessoal de Nvel Superior
(CAPES) and the Fundao de Amparo Pesquisa e Inovao do
Estado de Santa Catarina (FAPESC) (CHAMADA PBLICA FAPESC N
04/2012 UNIVERSAL) for nancial support for part of this work.
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Journal of Ethnopharmacology 160 (2015) 149163

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Banana (Musa spp) from peel to pulp: Ethnopharmacology, source

A. Pereira, M. Maraschin / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 160 (2015) 149163

A. Pereira, M. Maraschin / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 160 (2015) 149163

of the clones currently grown is a considerable hindrance to their

2. Traditional use of pulp and peel

Callimusa (2n 20)

Australimusa (2n 20)

Eumusa (2n 22)

Rhodoclamys (2n 22)

beccarii N.W. Simmonds

Musa balbisiana Colla

A. Pereira, M. Maraschin / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 160 (2015) 149163

Lacatan, Poyo, Grand Naine, Williams,

Grand Nain, Valery

Adukkan, Poomkali, Njalipoovan, Valiyakunnan, Adakkakunnan, Pedalimoongil,

Prata, Branca, Pacovan

Mysore, Poovan, Perumpadali, Dudhsagar, Palayankodan, Krishnavazhai, Charapadati,

Batard, Mbouroukou-1, Mbouroukou-3

Figo Vermelho or Figo Cinza

Kosthalontha, Karpooravalli, Boothibale, Konchikela, Peyan

A. Pereira, M. Maraschin / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 160 (2015) 149163

diarrhea. The juice from the pseudostem is sweetened and oral

reduce swelling and irritation after a mosquito bite by rubbing the

3. Banana fruit bioactive compounds

A. Pereira, M. Maraschin / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 160 (2015) 149163

Makira, Solomon Islands

Englberger et al. (2010)

Davey et al. (2007) have shown in a within-fruit, within-hand,

a further assay, Davey et al. (2009b) evaluated the pro-vitamin A

A. Pereira, M. Maraschin / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 160 (2015) 149163

genotypes to an average of 720.5% per cultivar. In Musa pulp, over

differing in any extension regarding one or more procedures and/

3.1.1. Pro-vitamin A supplementation through banana fruit

A. Pereira, M. Maraschin / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 160 (2015) 149163

of the cooked Musa troglodytarum (uht en yap and uht karat

from Malaysia (southeast Asia) were chosen for analysis by

A. Pereira, M. Maraschin / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 160 (2015) 149163

considered one of the complex plant matrix rich in high-value

3.3. Amine compounds

Carotenoids are also natural antioxidants and they contribute

4. Banana peel as an interesting complex matrix of high-value

4.2. Phenolic compounds

A. Pereira, M. Maraschin / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 160 (2015) 149163

dismutase, reduced glutathione in the granulation tissue and

A. Pereira, M. Maraschin / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 160 (2015) 149163

banana peel water-extract that suppressed the auto-oxidation of

4.3.1. Parkinsons disease

denervated basal ganglia leading to the development of motor

4.3.2. Bioavailability of amine compounds

A. Pereira, M. Maraschin / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 160 (2015) 149163

dopamine and improve its bioavailability (approximately 30%) in

A. Pereira, M. Maraschin / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 160 (2015) 149163

A. Pereira, M. Maraschin / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 160 (2015) 149163

Osuji, J.O., 2006. Microstructural characters of the inorescence bracts discriminate

A. Pereira, M. Maraschin / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 160 (2015) 149163

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