Contents

IntroductionOne. Word Building as Lexicological Phenomenon

.1 Word Building as a part of Lexicology
.2 The Ways of Word Building
.2.1 Affixation
.2.2 Conversion
.2.3 Abbreviation
.2.4 CompositionTwo. Analysis of the Examples from E. A. Poes Prose and
Poetry
.1 Derivation by means of Affixation
.1.1 Suffixation
.1.2 Prefixation
.2 Conversion
.3 Abbreviation
.4 Composition

Introduction
theme of our diploma paper is Comparative Analysis of Word
Building in Prose and Poetry (on the basis of E.A. Poe's works). The cause
of this selecting is the linguistic importance of this subject because word
building is a major part of morphology representing the study of
construction rules of words and comparative analysis of its usage in a few
different kinds of literature (prose and poetry in our case) can bring a
particular linguistic value. Our investigation is connected with E.A. Poes
works because both prose and poetry are represented in his literary creation
and they give a vast field for the linguistic research due to high quality and
innovation.main goal is to prove that major processes of word building play
a relevant role in prose and poetry in E. A. Poes works and to investigate
which of them are the most frequent and productive.
It leads to several objectives:) to select theoretical sources connected
with the subject-matter;) to study these theoretical sources;) to learn what
ways of word building exist;) to find out which of these ways are the most
productive;) to investigate the works of E. Poe (in poetry and prose);) to pick
out and analyze a certain amount of examples in order to prove the
hypothesis of the diploma;) to come to certain conclusions;) to present the
results of the investigation
The hypothesis of the work is that affixation is the most productive
process of word building in E. A. Poes prose and poetry.
(Actuality of the diploma is in the importance of the subject and
practical investigation of the novels written in British English and American
English)
Actuality of this paper is in the importance of the subject of the

research that opens prospects in further studying of this aspect, because

knowledge of word-formation is one of the most effective aids to the
expanding of ones vocabulary, and is of great value in inferring word
meaning.following methods of investigation have been used, such as:
selective, syntactical, and comparative (different methods of translation).
The structure of the work is the following: Introduction, Chapter One,
Chapter Two, Conclusions, Bibliography, and two Appendixes.
Chapter One is called Word Building as a Lexicological
Phenomenon. It contains many theoretical data on different ways of word
building as affixation, conversion, abbreviation, and dealing with
compounds - composition. We see that there are numerous different patterns
of compound formations, which can be distinguished, based on formal and
semantic criteria. It represents the theoretical material for studying of such
authors as: V. Adams, Ginsburg R.S., Arnold I.V, H. Marchand, and O.
Meshkov O.D. etc.
Chapter Two is entitled Analysis of the Examples on the Basis of
E.A. Poes Prose and Poetry. It represents about 200 examples picked out
of E. Poes prose and poetry, which are collected, classified, analyzed, and
presented in different tables. The chapter is divided into several subchapters.
Each of them gives the detailed analysis of the examples picked out of E.A.
Poes prose and poetry of each above mentioned word formation pattern.
Conclusions is the part of the diploma in which the results of the
investigation as well as the confirmation of the hypothesis of the work is
shown to our satisfaction, that is, affixation is the most productive process of
word building in E.A. Poes prose and poetry.
Bibliography presents a good and important selection of the authors
dealing with the subject of the investigation and some internet sites

connected with the same subject. It also presents the list of dictionaries used
in the course of work and literary sources by E.A. Poe.
Appendix 1 shows the examples, which were not included in Chapter
Two.
Appendix 2 presents the statistic data of the research.

Chapter One. Word Building as a Lexicological Phenomenon

building is the study of words, dealing with the construction or
formation rules of words in a certain language. This paper studies and
analyses various ways of word-building two kinds of literature (prose and
poetry) so that similarities and differences are found between them through
comparison. This will be done in the following, theoretically-oriented
chapter, where we present some theories that have explicitly aimed at
modeling these relationships.have studied the theoretical sources dealing
with numerous affixation processes in English in this part of the diploma.
We saw that it is not always easy to differentiate affixes from other
morphological entities, and then after investigating some general
characteristics of English affixation, we see that suffixation and prefixation
are very common and extremely restricted phenomenon in English wordformation. In the next section of this chapter we will have a closer look at
the characteristics of some non-affixational processes by which new words
can be derived. First, three major problems of conversion will be discussed
and, then abbreviations will be investigated. We have touched upon one of
the most productive means of creating new words in English, compounding,
in the final subparagraph of our work. We have seen that there are numerous
different patterns of compound or composed formations which can be
distinguished on the basis of formal and semantic criteria., the term word
building does not have a clear cut, universally accepted usage. It is
sometimes referred to all processes connected with changing the form of the
word by, for example, affixation, which is a matter of morphology. In its
wider sense word formation denotes the processes of creation of new lexical
units. Although it seems that the difference between morphological change

of a word and creation of a new term is quite easy to perceive, there is

sometimes a dispute as to whether blending is still a morphological change
or making a new word. There are, of course, numerous word formation
processes that do not arouse any controversies and are very similar in the
majority of languages. [12, 34]of the distinctive properties of human
language is creativity, by which we mean the ability of native speakers of a
language to produce and understand new forms in their language. Even
though creativity is most apparent when it comes to sentence formation, it is
also manifest in our lexical knowledge, where new words are added to our
mental lexicon regularly. The most comprehensive expositions of word
formation processes that speakers of a language regularly use both
consciously and unconsciously to create new words in their language are
presented in this paper. [9, 56]
1.1 Word building as part of lexicology
term word-building or derivational pattern is used to denote a
meaningful combination of stems and affixes that occur regularly enough to
indicate the part of speech, the lexico-semantic category and semantic
peculiarities common to most words with this particular arrangement of
morphemes. Every type of word building (affixation, conversion,
abbreviation, and composition for compound words) as well as every part of
speech has a characteristic set of patterns. [3, 81]word-building are
understood processes of producing new words from the resources of this
particular language. Together with borrowing, word building provides for
enlarging and enriching the vocabulary of the language.English language is
in a permanent state of renewal and change. Language is the mirror of
society and the English vocabulary reflects the quick social, cultural, and

scientific changes undergone by modern society. New entries are constantly

added, as speakers have to refer to new concepts, objects, and ideas. In the
English vocabulary verbs, nouns, adjectives and adverbs belong to open
classes, that is to say, they are open because they can be extended
indefinitely by the addition of new items. [4, 45]these new words, save
exceptions, are not created from nowhere, but are either borrowed or formed
by combining words or parts of words which already exist in the language,
abbreviating them or changing their word class Speakers of English can
easily coin new terms to suit their needs. Journalists, in particular, take
advantage of the power that the English language has to generate new terms.
When we read a newspaper or a magazine we are likely to come across
words which we have never seen or heard before because they have just
been coined by a creative speaker or writer. However, native speakers are
perfectly able to process innovative word uses, and these words can be easily
understood because they share the pattern of established words in the
vocabulary. If alcoholic is familiar, then other words formed on the same
pattern, such as workaholic or shopaholic, are also comprehensible.
Knowledge of word-formation is, therefore, one of the most effective aids to
the expanding of ones vocabulary, and is of great value in inferring word
meaning. [1, 79]are various ways of forming words, but largely, the various
processes can be classified based on frequency of usage, into major and
minor processes. There are three major processes, namely, affixation,
conversion, abbreviation and compounding. There are eight minor processes,
namely, blending, clipping, acronymy, back-formation, words from proper
names, reduplication, neo-classical formation and miscellaneous. We will
only touch upon major processes of word building because the attempt to
pick out and analyze all the processes in E. Poes prose and poetry turned out

to be fruitless due to their specificity. [5, 26]dealing with word-formation

proper, we will first explain some of the terminology to use in the study and
discussion of word building. The rule of word-formation define the scope
and methods whereby speakers of language may create new words; for
instance, the -able word-formation rule says, -able is to be added form an
adjective meaning fit to be , or to nouns to form an adjective with the
sense showing the quality of. In addition, one of the noun compound
formations is noun plus noun. However, it should be pointed out that any
rule of word-formation is: of limited productivity in the sense that not all
words which result from the rule of the rule are acceptable: they are only
acceptable only when they have gained an institutional currency in the
language [11, 15]
Root , stem , and base are terms used in linguistics to designate
that part of a word that remains when all affixes have been removed. If we
describe a word as an autonomous unit of language in which a particular
meaning is associated with a particular sound complex and which is capable
of a particular grammatical employment and able to form a sentence by itself
we have the possibility to distinguish it from the other fundamental language
unit, namely, the morpheme. According to the role they play in constructing
words, morphemes are subdivided into roots and affixes. The latter are
further subdivided, according to their position, into prefixes, suffixes and
infixes, and according to their function and meaning, into derivational and
functional affixes, the latter also called endings or outer formatives.
[10,40]root is a form, which is further analyzable, either in terms of
derivational or inflectional morphology. It is that part of a word -form
reform that remains when the inflectional and derivational suffixes have
been removed. A stem is of concern only when dealing with inflectional

morphology inflectional (but not derivational) affixes are added to it: it is the
part of the word-form which remains when all inflectional affixes have been
removed. [12, 47] When a derivational or functional affix is stripped from
the word, what remains is a stem. The stem expresses the lexical and the part
of speech meaning. This stem is a single morpheme; it contains nothing but
the root, so it is a simple stem. [11, 25]example, in the word desirable,
desire is the base to which a suffix -able is added or in order words, an
-able word-formation rule is applied; but -desire is also the root because
it is not further analyzable. However, when un-is then added to desirable
the whole of this item desirable would be referred to as the base, but it
could not be considered a root because it is analyzable in terms of
derivational morphology, nor is it a stem since it does not permit the adding
of inflectional affixes.a subject of study, word-formation is that branch of
lexicology, which studies the pattern on which a language, in this cases the
English language, coins new word. Thus, affixation, conversion and
compounding or composition, are the three major types of word-formation in
contemporary English.morphemes are subdivided into two large classes:
roots (or radicals) and affixes. The latter, in their turn, fall into prefixes
which precede the root in the structure of the word (as in re-read, mispronounce, unwell) and suffixes which follow the root (as in teach-er,
cur-able, diet-ate). [5, 70], which consist of a root and an affix (or
several affixes), are called derived words or derivatives and are produced by
the process of word building known as affixation (or derivation).Derived
words are extremely numerous in the English vocabulary. Successfully
competing with this structural type is the so-called root word, which has
only a root morpheme in its structure. This type is widely represented by a
great number of words belonging to the original English stock or to earlier

borrowings (house, room, book, work, port, street, table, etc.).

Modern English, has been greatly enlarged by the type of word-building
called conversion (e. g. to hand, v. formed from the noun hand; to can, (v).
from can, ().; to pale, (v). from pale, (adj).; a find, (n). from to find, (v).;
etc.). [1, 59]widespread word-structure is a compound word consisting of
two or more stems (e. g. dining-room, bluebell, and mother-in-law,
good-for-nothing). The word-building process called composition
produces words of this structural type.somewhat odd-looking words like flu,
pram, lab, M. P., V-day, H-bomb are called shortenings, contractions or
curtailed words and are produced by the way of word-building called
shortening (contraction).minor types of word-formation, together with the
four major types of word-formation (affixation, conversion, abbreviation and
compounding) are the means by which new words are created in the English
language. Genuine coinages are rare. [6, 56]

1.2 The Ways of Word building

this subparagraph, we present a number of word-formation processes
that involve affixes as their primary or only means of deriving words from
other words or morphemes and the processes, which derived words without
any graphical changes. The four types (root words, derived words,
compounds, shortenings) represent the main structural types of Modern
English words, and conversion, derivation and composition the most
productive ways of word-building. [2,45]
1.2.1 Affixation
Affixation consists in adding derivational affixes (i.e., prefixes and
suffixes) to roots and stems to form new words. For example, if the suffix
-able is added to the word pass, the word passable is created. Likewise, if to
the word passable the prefix in-is attached, another word is formed,
namely impassable. Affixation is a very common and productive
morphological process in synthetic languages. In English, derivation is the
form of affixation that yields new words.is one of the most productive ways
of word building throughout the history of English. It consists in adding an
affix to the stem of a definite part of speech. Affixation is divided into
suffixation and prefixation. The process of affixation consists in coining a
new word by adding an affix or several affixes to some root morpheme. The
role of the affix in this procedure is very important and therefore it is
necessary to consider certain facts about the main types of affixes. [2, 62])
Suffixationis the formation of words with the help of suffixes. Suffixes
usually modify the lexical meaning of the base and transfer words to a
different part of speech. There are suffixes how-ever, which do not shift

words from one part of speech into another; a suffix of this kind usually
transfers a word into a different semantic group, e. g. a concrete noun
becomes an abstract one, as is the case with child-childhood, friendfriendship, etc.main function of suffixes in Modern English is to form one
part of speech from another; the secondary function is to change the lexical
meaning of the same part of speech. (e.g. educate is a verb, educatee is
a noun, and music is a noun, musicdom is also a noun). [5, 56]are
different classifications of suffixes in linguistic literature, as suffixes may be
divided into several groups according to different principles:
) The first principle of classification that, one might say, suggests
itself is the part of speech formed. Within the scope of the part-of- speech
classification suffixes naturally fall into several groups such as:) Nounsuffixes, i.e. those forming or occurring in nouns, e. g.-er, -dom, ness, -ation, etc. (teacher, Londoner, freedom, brightness, justification,
etc.);) Adjective-suffixes, i.e. those forming or occurring in adjectives, e. g.
-able, -less, -ful, -ic, -ous, etc. (agreeable, careless, doubtful,
poetic, courageous, etc.);) Verb-suffixes, i.e. those forming or occurring in
verbs, e.g.-en, -fy, -ize (darken, satisfy, harmonize, etc.);) Adverbsuffixes, i.e. those forming or occurring in adverbs, e.g.-ly, -ward.
(quickly, eastward, etc.). [8, 76]
) Suffixes may also be classified into various groups according to the lexicogrammatical character of the base the affix is usually added to. Proceeding
from this principle one may divide suffixes into:) Deverbal suffixes (those
added to the verbal base), e. g. -er,-ing, -ment, -able, etc. (speaker,
reading, agreement, suitable, etc.);) Denominal suffixes (those added to the
noun base), e. g. -less, -ish, -ful, -ist, -some, etc. (handless,
childish, mouthful, violinist, troublesome, etc.);) De-adjectival suffixes
(those affixed to the adjective base), e. g. -en, -ly, -ish, -ness, etc.
(blacken, slowly, reddish, brightness, etc.). [11, 80]
) A classification of suffixes may also be based on the criterion of sense

expressed by a set of suffixes. Proceeding from the principle suffixes are

classified into various groups within the bounds of a certain part of speech.
For instance, noun-suffixes fall into those denoting:) the agent of an action,
e. g. -er,-ant (baker, dancer, defendant, etc.);) Appurtenance, e. g. -an, ian, -ese, etc. (Arabian, Elizabethan, Russian, Chinese, Japanese, etc.);)
Collectivity, e.g. -age, -dom, -ery (-ry), etc. (freightage,
officialdom, peasantry, etc.); d) diminutiveness, e. g. -ie, -let, -ling,
etc. (birdie, girlie, cloudlet, squirreling, wolfing, etc.). [11, 82]
) Suffixes are also classified as to the degree of their productivity.is usually
made between dead and living affixes. Dead affixes are described as those
which are no longer felt in Modern English as component parts of words;
they have so fused with the base of the word as to lose their independence
completely. It is only by special etymological analysis that they may be
singled out, e. g. -d in dead, seed, -le, -l,-el in bundle, sail,
hovel; -ock in hillock; -lock in padlock; -t in flight, gift,
height. It is quite clear that dead suffixes are irrelevant to present-day
English word building; they belong in its diachronic study.affixes may be
easily singled out from a word, e. g. the noun- forming suffixes -ness, dom, -hood, -age, -ance, as in darkness, freedom, childhood,
marriage, assistance, etc. or the adjective-forming suffixes -en, ous, -ive, -ful, -y as in wooden, poisonous, active, hopeful,
stony, etc. [15,32], not all living derivational affixes of Modern English
possess the ability to coin new words. Some of them may be employed to
coin new words on the spur of the moment; others cannot, so that they are
different from the point of view of their productivity. Accordingly they fall
into two basic classes - productive and non-productive word-building
affixes.has been pointed out that linguists disagree as to what is meant by the
productivity of derivational affixes. Following the first approach all living
affixes should be considered productive in varying degrees from highly
productive (e. g. -er, -ish,-less etc.) to non-productive (e. g. -ard, cy, -ive etc.)., it becomes important to describe the constraints imposed
on and the factors favoring the productivity of affixational patterns and
individual affixes. The degree of productivity of affixational patterns very
much depends on the structural, lexico-grammatical and semantic nature of
bases and the meaning of the affix. For instance, the analysis of the bases
from which the suffix -ize can derive verbs reveals that it is most productive
with noun-stems, adjective-stems also favor ifs productivity, whereas verbstems and adverb-stems do not, e. g. criticize(critic),organize (organ),
itemize (item), mobilize (mobile), localize(local), etc. [2,51]of the
semantic structure of a verb in -ize with that of the base it is built on

shows that the number of meanings of the stem usually exceeds that of the
verb and that its basic meaning favors the productivity of the suffix -ize to
a greater degree than its marginal meanings, e. g. to characterize character, to moralize - moral, to dramatize - drama, etc.treatment of
certain affixes as non-productive naturally also depends on the concept of
productivity. The current definition of non-productive derivational affixes as
those which cannot hg used in Modern English for the coining of new words
is rather vague and maybe interpreted in different ways. Following the
definition the term non-productive refers only to the affixes un-likely to be
used for the formation of new words, e.g. -ous", -th, fore-and some
others (famous, depth, foresee).one accepts the other concept of productivity
mentioned above, then non-productive affixes must be defined as those that
cannot be used for the formation of occasional words and, consequently,
such affixes as-dom,-ship,-ful,-en,-ify,-ate and many others are
to be regarded as non-productive. The theory of relative productivity of
derivational affixes is also corroborated by some other observations made on
English word-formation.instance, different productive affixes are found in
different periods of the history of the language. It is extremely significant,
for example, that out of the seven verb-forming suffixes of the Old English
period only one has survived up to the present time with a very low degree
of productivity, namely the suffix -en (e. g. to soften, to darken, to
whiten). [6,39], there are cases when a derivational affix being
nonproductive in the non-specialized section of the vocabulary is used to
coin scientific or technical terms. This is the case, for instance, with the
suffix -ance which has been used to form some terms in Electrical
Engineering, e.g. capacitance, impedance, reactance. The same is true of the
suffix -ity which has been used to form terms in physics, and chemistry
such as alkalinity, luminosity, emissivity and some others. [10,67])
Prefixationmorphemes affixed before the stem are called prefixes. Prefixes
modify the lexical meaning of the stem, but in so doing them seldom affect
its basic lexico-grammatical component. Therefore, both the simple word
and its prefixed derivative mostly belong to the same part of speech. The
prefix mis-, for instance, when added to verbs, conveys the meaning
wrongly, badly, unfavorably; it does not suggest any other part of
speech but the verb. Compare the following oppositions: behave misbehave, calculate - miscalculate, inform - misinform, lead - mislead,
pronounce - mispronounce. The above oppositions are strictly proportional
semantically, i.e. the same relationship between elements holds throughout
the series. There may be other cases where the semantic relationship is
slightly different but the general lexico-grammatical meaning remains, (cf.

giving - misgiving, take - mistake and trust - mistrust.) [16, 65]is the
formation of words by means of adding a prefix to the stem. In English it is
characteristic for forming verbs. Prefixes are more independent than
suffixes. Prefixes can be classified according to the nature of words in which
they are used: prefixes used in notional words and prefixes used in
functional words. Prefixes used in notional words are proper prefixes which
are bound morphemes, e.g. un-(unhappy). Prefixes used in functional
words are semi-bound morphemes because they are met in the language as
words, e.g. over-(overhead).main function of prefixes in English is to
change the lexical meaning of the same part of speech. But the recent
research showed that about twenty-five prefixes in Modern English form one
part of speech from another (bebutton, interfamily, postcollege etc).
[8,124]can be classified according to different principles:
. Semantic classification:semantic effect of a prefix may be termed adverbial
because it modifies the idea suggested by the stem for manner, time, place,
degree and so on. A few examples will prove the point. It has been already
shown that the prefix mis-is equivalent to the adverbs wrongly and badly,
therefore by expressing evaluation it modifies the corresponding verbs for
manner.1 The prefixes pre- and post- refer to time and order, e. g. historic pre-historic, pay - prepay, view -preview. The last word means to view a
film or a play before it is submitted to the general public. Compare also:
graduate: postgraduate (about the course of study carried on after
graduation), Impressionism: Post-impressionism. The latter is so called
because it came after Impressionism as a reaction against it. The prefixes
in-, a-, ab-, super-, sub-, trans-modify the stem for place, e. g.
income, abduct to carry away, subway, transatlantic. Several prefixes serve
to modify the meaning of the stem for degree and size. [15,137] the
examples are out-, over-and under-.) Prefixes of negative meaning,
such as: in-(invaluable), non-(nonformals), un-(unfree) etc,group of
negative prefixes is so numerous that some scholars even find it convenient
to classify prefixes into negative and non-negative ones. The negative ones
are: de-, dis-,in-im-, il-, ir-. Part of this group has been also
more accurately classified as prefixes giving negative, reverse or opposite
meaning. [6, 165]general idea of negation is expressed by dis- it may
mean not, and be simply negative or the reverse of, asunder, away,
apart and then it is called reversative. Cf. agree - disagree (not to agree)
appear - disappear (disappear is the reverse of appear), appoint - disappoint
(to undo the appointment and thus frustrate the expectation), disgorge
(eject as from the throat), dishouse (throw out, evict).) Prefixes denoting
repetition or reversal actions, such as: de-(decolonize) re-(revegetation),

dis-(disconnect)) Prefixes denoting time, space, degree relations, such as:

inter-(interplanetary), hyper-(hypertension), ex-(ex-student),
pre-(pre-election), over-(over drugging) etc.
. Origin of prefixes:the point of view of etymology, affixes are subdivided
into two main classes: the native affixes and the borrowed affixes. By native
affixes, we shall mean those that existed in English in the Old English period
or were formed from Old English words. The latter category needs some
explanation. The changes a morpheme undergoes in the course of language
history may be of very different kinds. A bound form, for instance, may be
developed from a free one. This is precisely the case with such English
suffixes as -dom, -hood, -lock, -ful, -less, -like, -ship, The
suffix-hood that we see in childhood, boyhood is derived from Old
English had state. The OE -dom was also a suffix denoting state. The
process may be summarized as follows: first -dom formed the second
element of compound words, and then it became a suffix and lastly was so
fused with the stem as to become a dead suffix in wedlock. The nouns
freedom, wisdom, etc. were originally compound words. The most important
native suffixes are: -d, -dom, -ed, -en, -fold, -ful, -hood, ing, -ish, -less, -let, -like, -lock, -ly, -ness, -oc, -red, ship, -some,-teen, -th, -ward, -wise,-y. [9, 77]) Native
(Germanic), such as: un-, over-, under-etc.) Romanic, such as: in-,
de-,ex-, re-etc.) Greek, such as: sym-, hyper-etc.we analyze such
words as: adverb, accompany where we can find the root of the word
(verb, company) we may treat ad-,ac-as prefixes though they were never
used as prefixes to form new words in English and were borrowed from
Romanic languages together with words. In such cases we can treat them as
derived words. But some scientists treat them as simple words. Another
group of words with a disputable structure are such as: contain, retain,
detain and conceive, receive, deceive where we can see that re-,
de-, con-act as prefixes and -tain, -ceive can be understood as roots.
But in English these combinations of sounds have no lexical meaning and
are called pseudo-morphemes. Some scientists treat such words as simple
words, others as derived ones. [11, 56]majority of prefixes affect only the
lexical meaning of words but there are three important cases where prefixes
serve to form words belonging to different parts of speech as compared with
the original word. These are in the first place the verb-forming prefixes
be-and en-, which combine functional meaning with a certain variety of
lexical meanings. Be-forms transitive verbs with adjective, verb and noun
stems and changes intransitive verbs into transitive ones. Examples are:
belittle (v) to make little, benumb (v) to make numb, befriend (v) to

treat [3, 182]

1.2.2 Conversion
Conversion is the derivational process whereby an item changes its word
class without the addition of an affix. [1,89 ] Thus, when the noun sign
shifts to the verb sign(ed) without any change in the word form we can say
this is a case of conversion. However, it does not mean that this process
takes place in all the cases of homophones [3, 68]. Sometimes, the
connection has to do with coincidences or old etymological ties that have
been lost. For example, mind and matter are cases of this grammatical
sameness without connection by conversion-the verbs have nothing to do
today with their respective noun forms in terms of semantics.is particularly
common in English because the basic form of nouns and verbs is identical in
many cases. It is usually impossible in languages with grammatical genders,
declensions or conjugations. [11, 43]status of conversion is a bit unclear. It
must be undoubtedly placed within the phenomena of word-formation;
nevertheless, there are some doubts about whether it must be considered a
branch of derivation or a separate process by itself (with the same status as
derivation or compounding). [5, 88]this undetermined position in grammar,
some scholars assert that conversion will become even more active in the
future because it is a very easy way to create new words in English. There is
no way to know the number of conversions appearing every day in the
spoken language, although we know this number must be high. As it is a
quite recent phenomenon, the written evidence is not a fully reliable source.
We will have to wait a little longer to understand its whole impact, which
will surely increase in importance in the next decades.is a characteristic
feature of the English word-building system. It is also called affixless
derivation or zero-suffixation. Saying that, however, is saying very little
because there are other types of word building in which new words are also
formed without affixes (most compounds, contracted words, sound-imitation
words, etc.). [3,150] the notion of conversion is to re-classification of
secondary word classes within one part of speech, a phenomenon also called
transposition.consists in making a new word from some existing word by
changing the category of a part of speech, the morphemic shape of the
original word remaining unchanged. The new word has a meaning, which
differs from that of the original one though it can more or less be easily
associated with it. It has also a new paradigm peculiar to its new category as
a part of speech. The term conversion first appeared in the book by Henry
Sweet New English Grammar in 1891. Conversion is treated differently
by different scientists, e.g. prof. A.I. Smirntitsky treats conversion as a

morphological way of forming words when one part of speech is formed

from another part of speech by changing its paradigm, e.g. to form the verb
to dial from the noun dial we change the paradigm of the noun (a
dial,dials) for the paradigm of a regular verb (I dial, he dials, dialed,
dialing). A. Marchand in his book The Categories and Types of Present-day
English treats conversion as a morphological-syntactical word-building
because we have not only the change of the paradigm, but also the change of
the syntactic function, e.g. I need some good paper for my room. (The noun
paper is an object in the sentence). I paper my room every year. (The verb
paper is the predicate in the sentence) [1, 90]from the perhaps more
obvious possibility to derive words with the help of affixes, there are a
number of other ways to create new words on the basis of already existing
ones. We have already illustrated these in the first chapter of this book, when
we briefly introduced the notions of conversion, truncations, clippings,
blends, and abbreviations. In this chapter we will have a closer look at these
non-concatenative processes. We will begin with conversion. Conversion
can be defined as the derivation of a new word without any overt marking.
In order to find cases of conversion we have to look for pairs of words that
are derivationally related and are completely identical in their phonetic
realization.can be seen from the organization of the data, different types of
conversion can be distinguished, in particular noun to verb, verb to noun,
adjective to verb and adjective to noun. Other types can also be found, but
seem to be more marginal (e.g. the use of prepositions as verbs, as in to
down the can). Conversion raises three major theoretical problems that we
will discuss in the following: the problem of directionality, the problem of
zero-morphs and the problem of the morphology-syntax boundary. [11,
92]question of conversion has, for a long time, been a controversial one in
several aspects. The essence of this process has been treated by a number of
scholars (e. g. H. Sweet), not as a word-building act, but as a mere functional
change. From this point of view the word hand in Hand me that book is not a
verb, but a noun used in a verbal syntactical function, that is, hand (me) and
hands (in She has small hands) are not two different words but one. Hence,
the s cannot be treated as one of word-formation for no new word
appears. [15,128]to this functional approach, conversion may be regarded as
a specific feature of the English categories of parts of speech, which are
supposed to be able to break through the rigid borderlines dividing one
category from another thus enriching the process of communication not by
the creation of new words but through the sheer flexibility of the syntactic
structures.this theory finds increasingly fewer supporters, and conversion is
universally accepted as one of the major ways of enriching English

vocabulary with new words. One of the major arguments for this approach to
conversion is the semantic change that regularly accompanies each instance
of conversion. Normally, a word changes its syntactic function without any
shift in lexical meaning. E. g. both in yellow leaves and in the leaves were
turning yellow the adjective denotes color. Yet, in the leaves yellowed the
converted unit no longer denotes color, but the process of changing color, so
that there is an essential change in meaning. The change of meaning is even
more obvious in such pairs as hand - to hand, face - to face, to go
- a go, to make -a make, etc. [15,180]two categories of parts of speech
especially affected by conversion are nouns and verbs. Verbs made from
nouns are the most numerous amongst the words produced by conversion: e.
g. to hand, to back, to face, to eye, to mouth, to nose, to dog,
to wolf, to monkey, to can, to coal, to stage, to screen, to
room, to floor, to blackmail, to blacklist, to honeymoon, and very
many others.are frequently made from verbs: do (e. g. This is the queerest
do I've ever come across. Do - event, incident), go (e. g. He has still plenty
of go at his age. Go - energy), make, run, find, catch, cut,
walk, worry, show, move, etc.can also be made from adjectives: to
pale, to yellow, to cool, to grey, to rough (e. g. We decided to
rough it in the tents as the weather was warm), etc.can be formed from
nouns of different semantic groups and have different meanings because of
that, e.g.) Verbs have instrumental meaning if they are formed from nouns
denoting parts of a human body e.g. to eye, to finger, to elbow, to shoulder
etc. They have instrumental meaning if they are formed from nouns denoting
tools, machines, instruments, weapons, e.g. to hammer, to machine-gun, to
rifle, to nail,) Verbs can denote an action characteristic of the living being
denoted by the noun from which they have been converted, e.g. to crowd, to
wolf, to ape,) Verbs can denote acquisition, addition or deprivation if they
are formed from nouns denoting an object, e.g. to fish, to dust, to peel, to
paper,) Verbs can denote an action performed at the place denoted by the
noun from which they have been converted, e.g. to park, to garage, to bottle,
to corner, to pocket,) Verbs can denote an action performed at the time
denoted by the noun from which they have been converted e.g. to winter, to
week-end. [11, 94]can be also converted from adjectives, in such cases they
denote the change of the state, e.g. to tame (to become or make tame),
to clean, to slim etc. Nouns can also be formed by means of conversion
from verbs.nouns can denote:) instant of an action e.g. a jump, a move,)
process or state e.g. sleep, walk,) agent of the action expressed by the
verb from which the noun has been converted, e.g. a help, a flirt, a
scold,) object or result of the action expressed by the verb from which the

noun has been converted, e.g. a burn, a find, a purchase,) place of the
action expressed by the verb from which the noun has been converted, e.g.
a drive, a stop, a walk. Many nouns converted from verbs can be used
only in the Singular form and denote momentaneous actions. In such cases
we have partial conversion. Such deverbal nouns are often used with such
verbs as: to have, to get, to take etc., e.g. to have a try, to give a
push, to take a swim. [10, 95]frequent but also quite possible is
conversion from form words to nouns. e. g. He liked to know the ins and
outs. Shant go into the whys and wherefores. He was familiar with ups
and downs of life. Use is even made of affixes. Thus, ism is a separate word
nowadays meaning a set of ideas or principles, e. g. Freudism,
existentialism and all the other -isms.all the above examples the change of
paradigm is present and helpful for classifying the newly coined words as
cases of conversion. But it is not absolutely necessary, because conversion is
not limited to such parts of speech which possess a paradigm. That, for
example, may be converted into an adverb in informal speech: I was that
hungry I could have eaten a horse. [3,189]speaker realizes the immense
potentiality of making a word into another part of speech when the need
arises. One should guard against thinking that every case of noun and verb
(verb and adjective, adjective and noun, etc.) with the same morphemic
shape results from conversion. There are numerous pairs of words (e. g.
love, n. - to love, v.; work, n. - to work, v.; drink, n. - to drink, v., etc.) which
did, not occur due to conversion but coincided as a result of certain historical
processes (dropping of endings, simplification of stems) when before that
they had different forms. On the other hand, it is quite true that the first cases
of conversion (which were registered n the 14th c.) imitated such pairs of
words as love, n. - to love, v. for they were numerous in the vocabulary and
were subconsciously accepted by native speakers as one of the typical
language patterns [6, 167]
1.2.3 Abbreviation
In the process of communication, words and word-groups can be shortened.
The causes of shortening can be linguistic and extra-linguistic. By extralinguistic causes, changes in the life of people are meant. In Modern English
many new abbreviations, acronyms, initials, blends are formed because the
tempo of life is increasing and it becomes necessary to give more and more
information in the shortest possible time. There are also linguistic causes of
abbreviating words and word-groups, such as the demand of rhythm, which
is satisfied in English by monosyllabic words. When borrowings from other
languages are assimilated in English, they are shortened. Here we have

modification of form on the basis of analogy, e.g. the Latin borrowing

fanaticus is shortened to fan on the analogy with native words: man,
pan, tan etc. There are two main types of shortenings: graphical and lexical.
[2,209]
. If the abbreviated written form lends itself to be read as though it were an
ordinary English word and sounds like an English word, it will be read like
one. The words thus formed are called acronyms (from Gr. acros- end
+onym - name). This way of forming new words is becoming more and
more popular in almost all fields of human activity, and especially in
political and technical vocabulary: U.N.O., also UNO - United Nations
Organization, NATO - the North Atlantic Treaty Organization, SALTStrategic Arms Limitation Talks. The last example shows that acronyms are
often homonymous to ordinary words; sometimes intentionally chosen so as
to create certain associations. Thus, for example, the National Organization
for Women is called NOW. Typical of acronymic coinages in technical
terminology are JATO, laser, maser and radar. JATO or jato means jetassisted take-off; laser stands for light amplification by stimulated
emission radiation; maser- for micro-wave amplification and stimulated
emission radiation; radar -for radio detection and ranging, it denotes a
system for ascertaining direction and ranging of aircraft, ships, coasts and
other objects by means of electro-magnetic waves which they reflect.
Acronyms became so popular that their number justified the publication of
special dictionaries, such as D.D. Spencers Computer Acronym
Handbook. [5,189] Acronyms present a special interest because they
exemplify the working of the lexical adaptive system. In meeting the needs
of communication and fulfilling the laws of information theory requiring a
maximum signal in the minimum time the lexical system undergoes
modification in its basic structure: namely it forms new elements not by
combining existing morphemes and proceeding from sound forms to their
graphic representation but the other way round - coining new words from the
initial letters of phrasal terms originating in texts.
. The other subgroup consists of initial abbreviation with the alphabetical
reading retained, i.e. pronounced as a series of letters. They also retain
correlation with prototypes. The examples are well known: B.B.C. - the
British Broadcasting Corporation; G.I. - for Government Issue, a widely
spread metonymical name for American soldiers on the items of whose
uniforms these letters are stamped. The last abbreviation was originally an
Americanism but has been firmly established in British English as well.
M.P is mostly used as an initial abbreviation for Member of Parliament,
also military police, whereas P.M. stands for Prime Minister.are freely

used in colloquial speech as seen from the following extract, in which .

Snow describes the House of Commons gossip: They were swapping
promises to speak for one another: one was bragging how two senior
Ministers were in the bag to speak for him. Roger was safe, someone said,
he'd give a hand. What has the P.M. got in mind for Roger when we come
back? The familiar colloquial quality of the context is very definitely
marked by the set expressions: in the bag, give a hand, get in mind, etc. [12,
34]
. The term abbreviation may be also used for a shortened form of a written
word or phrase used in a text in place of the whole for economy of space and
effort. Abbreviation is achieved by omission of letters from one or more
parts of the whole, as for instance abbr for abbreviation, bldg- for
building, govt- for government, wd- for word, doz or dz for dozen,
ltd for limited, B.A.- for Bachelor of Arts, N.Y.- for New York State.
Sometimes the part or parts retained show some alteration, thus, oz
denotes ounce and Xmas denotes Christmas. [15, 34]
. An interesting feature of present-day English is the use of initial
abbreviations for famous persons names and surnames. Thus, George
Bernard Shaw is often alluded to as G.B.S., Herbert George Wells as H.G.
The usage is clear from the following example: Oh, yes... where was I?
With H.G.s Martians, [7,137]is no uniformity in semantic relationships
between the elements: Z-bar is a metallic bar with a cross section shaped like
the letter Z, while Z-hour is an abbreviation of zero-hour meaning
the time set for the beginning of the attack, U is standing for upper
classes in such combinations as U-pronunciation, U-language. Cf. Uboat (a submarine). Non-U is its opposite.will have been noted that all
kinds of shortening are very productive in present-day English. They are
especially numerous in colloquial speech, both familiar colloquial and
professional slang. They display great combining activity and form bases for
further word-formation and inflection.of words consists in clipping a part of
a word. As a result we get a new lexical unit where either the lexical
meaning or the style is different from the full form of the word. In such
cases as fantasy and fancy, fence and defence we have different
lexical meanings. In such cases as laboratory and lab, we have different
styles. [2,112]does not change the part-of-speech meaning, as we have it in
the case of conversion or affixation, it produces words belonging to the same
part of speech as the primary word, e.g. prof is a noun and professor is
also a noun. Mostly nouns undergo abbreviation, but we can also meet
abbreviation of verbs, such as to rev from to revolve, to tab from to tabulate
etc. But mostly abbreviated forms of verbs are formed by means of

conversion from abbreviated nouns, e.g. to taxi, to vac etc. Adjectives

can be abbreviated but they are mostly used in school slang and are
combined with suffixation, e.g. comfy, dilly, mizzy etc. As rule pronouns,
numerals, interjections, conjunctions are not abbreviated. The exceptions
are: fif (fifteen), teenager, in ones teens [7,189]abbreviations are
classified according to the part of the word which is clipped. Mostly the end
of the word is clipped, because the beginning of the word in most cases is
the root and expresses the lexical meaning of the word.type of abbreviation
is called deflexion orapocope. Here we can mention a group of words
ending in o, such as disco (dicotheque), expo (exposition), intro
(introduction) and many others. On the analogy with these words there
developed in Modern English a number of words where o is added as a
kind of a suffix to the shortened form of the word, e.g. combo
(combination), Afro (African) etc. In other cases the beginning of the word
is clipped. In such cases we have apheresis, e.g. chute (parachute),
varsity (university), copter (helicopter), thuse (enthuse) etc.
Sometimes the middle of the word is clipped, e.g. mart (market), fanzine
(fan magazine) maths (mathematics). Such abbreviations are called
syncope. Sometimes we have a combination of apocope with apheresis,when
the beginning and the end of the word are clipped, e.g. tec (detective), van
(avanguard) etc. [8,176] Sometimes shortening influences the spelling of the
word, e.g. c can be substituted by k before e to preserve
pronunciation, e.g. mike (microphone), Coke (coca-cola) etc. The same rule
is observed in the following cases: fax (facsimile), teck (technical college),
trank (tranquilizer) etc. The final consonants in the shortened forms are
substituted by letters characteristic of native English words.
1.2.4 Composition
This type of word-building, in which new words are produced by combining
two or more stems, is one of the three most productive types in Modern
English, the other two are conversion and affixation. Compounds, though
certainly fewer in quantity than derived or root words, still represent one of
the most typical and specific features of English word-structure.
[2,113]words are words consisting of at least two stems which occur in the
language as free forms. In a compound word the immediate constituents
obtain integrity and structural cohesion that make them function in a
sentence as a separate lexical unit. E. g.: I'd rather read a time-table than
nothing at all.or compounding is the way of word building when a word is
formed by joining two or more stems to form one word. The structural unity
of a compound word depends upon: a) the unity of stress, b) solid or

hyphenated spelling, c) semantic unity, d) unity of morphological and

syntactical functioning. These are characteristic features of compound words
in all languages. For English compounds some of these factors are not very
reliable. As a rule English compounds have one uniting stress (usually on the
first component), e.g. hard-cover, best-seller. We can also have a double
stress in an English compound, with the main stress on the first component
and with a secondary stress on the second component, e.g. blood- vessel.
The third pattern of stresses is two level stresses, e.g. snow- white, sky-blue.
The third pattern is easily mixed up with word-groups unless they have solid
or hyphenated spelling. [7,103]in English compounds is not very reliable as
well because they can have different spelling even in the same text, e.g. warship, blood- vessel can be spelt through a hyphen and also with a break,
insofar, underfoot can be spelt solidly and with a break. All the more so that
there has appeared in Modern English a special type of compound words
which are called block compounds, they have one uniting stress but are spelt
with a break, e.g. air piracy, cargo module, coin change, pinguin suit etc. The
semantic unity of a compound word is often very strong. In such cases we
have idiomatic compounds where the meaning of the whole is not a sum of
meanings of its components, e.g. to ghostwrite, skinhead, brain-drain etc. In
nonidiomatic compounds semantic unity is not strong, e. g., airbus, to
bloodtransfuse, astrodynamics etc. English compounds have the unity of
morphological and syntactical functioning. They are used in a sentence as
one part of it and only one component changes grammatically, e.g. these
girls are chatter-boxes. Chatter-boxes is a predicative in the sentence and
only the second component changes grammatically. There are two
characteristic features of English compounds: a) both components in an
English compound are free stems, that they can be used as words with a
distinctive meaning of their own. The sound pattern will be the same except
for the. The stems are bound morphemes, as a rule.) English compounds
have a two-stem pattern, with the exception of compound words which have
form-word stems in their structure, e.g. middle- of-the-road, off-the-record,
up-and-doing etc. The two-stem pattern distinguishes English compounds
from German ones. [9,146]) Ways of forming compound wordsstructural
cohesion of a compound may depend upon unity of stress, solid or
hyphenated spelling, semantic unity, unity of morphological and syntactic
functioning, or, more often, upon the combined effect of several of these or
similar phonetic, graphic, semantic, morphological or syntactic factors.
[6,64]integrity of a compound is manifest in its indivisibility, i.e. the
impossibility of inserting another word or word-group between its elements.
If, for example, speaking about a sunbeam, we can insert some other word

between the article and the noun, e. g. a bright sunbeam, a bright and
unexpected sunbeam, because the article a is a separate word, no such
insertion is possible between the stems sun and beam, for they are not words
but morphemes here. Syntactic ties are ties between words, whereas in
dealing with a compound one studies relations within a word, the relations
between its constituents, the morphemes. In the compound spacecraft space
is not attribute, it is the determinant restricting the meaning of the
determinatum by expressing the purpose for which craft is designed or the
medium in which it will travel.great variety of compound types brings about
a great variety of classifications. Compound words may be classified
according to the type of composition and the linking element; according to
the part of speech to which the compound belongs; and within each part of
speech according to the structural pattern (see the next paragraph). It is also
possible to subdivide compounds according to other characteristics, i.e.
semantically, into motivated and idiomatic compounds (in the motivated
ones the meaning of the constituents can be either direct or figurative). A
classification according to the type of the syntactic phrase with which the
compound is correlated has also been suggested. Even so there remain some
miscellaneous types that defy classification, such as phrase compounds,
reduplicative compounds, pseudo-compounds and quotation compounds.
[15,178]classification according to the type of composition permits us to
establish the following groups:
) The predominant type is a mere juxtaposition without connecting elements:
heartache (n), heart-beat(n), heart-break(n), heart-breaking(a),
heart-broken(a), heart-felt(a).
) Composition with a vowel or a consonant as a linking element. The
examples are very few: electromotive (a), speedometer (n), AfroAsian (a), handicraft(n), statesman(n).
) Compounds with linking elements represented by preposition or
conjunction stems: down-and-out (n), matter-of-fact (a), son-in-law(n),
pep-per-and-salt(a), wall-to-wall (a), up-to-date(a), on the up-andup(adv) (continually improving), up-and-coming, as in the following
example: No doubt hed had the pick of some up-and-coming jazzmen in
Paris. There are also a few other lexicalised phrases like devil-may-care
(a), forget-me-not(n), pick-me-up(n), stick-in-the-mud(n), whats-her
name(n). [12, 97]classification of compounds according to the structure of
immediate constituents distinguishes:
) Compounds consisting of simple stems: film-star;
) Compounds where at least one of the constituents is a derived stem:
chain-smoker;

) Compounds where at least one of the constituents is a clipped stem:

maths-mistress (in British English) and math-mistress (in American
English). The subgroup will contain abbreviations like H-bag (handbag) or
Xmas (Christmas), whodunit (n) (for mystery novels) considered
substandard; [11,112]
) Compounds where at least one of the constituents is a compound stem:
wastepaper-basket.what follows the main structural types of English
compounds are described in greater detail. The list is by no means
exhaustive but it may serve as a general guide.) Classification of English
compoundsto the parts of speech compounds are subdivided into:
. Noun compounds: Noun compounds are subclassified according to the
syntactic relation of the compounding elements:) Subject and verb: The verb
may take the form of the base or that of the base plus -ing. Example are
headache the headaches, heartbeat the heart beat; crybaby the baby
cries; commanding officer the officer commands and revolving door the
door revolves.) Verb and object: The verb may take the form of the base or
that of the base + -ing. For example: pickpocket to pick pockets
birthcontrol to control birth; house-keeping to keep house; and
dressmaking to make dresses.The type housekeeping and dressmaking is
very productive.) Verb and adverbial: Verbal noun in -ing + adverbial
(consisting of a prepositional phrase); e.g. swimming pool to swim in the
pool or a pool for swimming; diving board to dive from a board,
drinking cup to drink out of a cup; typing paper to type on paper. It is a
very productive type. [3, 89]) Subject and object: steamboat steam powers
the boat; gaslight the gas produces light; honeybee the bee produces
honey.) Restrictive relations: the first element restricts the meaning of the
second: raindrop a drop of raining; moonwalk a walk on the moon;
evening school a school in the evening; tablecloth a cloth for the table;
ashtray a stray for ash; breakfast time the time for breakfast.These types
of words like ashtray, tablecloth and breakfast time expressing purpose is
very productive.) Appositive relations: the first element is in apposition to
the second one: e.g. a peasant girl the girl is a peasant, a pine tree the tree
is a pine.Compound nouns can also be formed from phrasal verbs. This
type is very common in contemporary English. Examples are: sit-in,
dropout , phone-in, breakdown, walk-on , walkout, setback ,
and take-off. [11,113]
. Adjective compounds: Adjective compounds are also subclassified
according to the syntactic relation of the compounding elements:) Subject
and verb: Examples are thunder-strick (houses) thunder struck the
houses; weather-beaten (rocks) weather beat the rocks; suntanned (skin)

sun tanned the skin. This type is highly productive.) Verb and object: The
verb is in the form of present participle, e.g. fault-finding to find fault;
peaceloving to love peace; record-breaking to break records. It is a
productive type.) Verb and adverbial: e.g. ocean-going to go across
oceans; hardworking to work hard everlasting to last forever; wellbehaved to behave well; new-laid (eggs) x has laid (the eggs) recently.)
Noun and adjective: e.g. taxfree free from tax; seasick sick due to sailing
on the sea; watertight tight against water; ocean green as greenas the
ocean; crystal-clear as clean as a crystal; knee-deep so deep as to reach
the knees. [5,120]) Coordinating relationship: e.g. bittersweet sweet but
bitter; Anglo-French relation relation between Great Britain and
Francecompounds also are formed from:) Phrasal verb: This endlessly
talked-about topic bored me. (cf. this topic has been talked about
endlessly.)) Adverbial phrases: They kept a round-the -clock (all the time)
watch on the house. (cf. They watched the house round the clock.)) From
proverbs and idiomatic expressions: My grandfather displayed a never-tobe-too-old-to-learn spirit (from the proverb One is never too old to
learn.)) From an attributive clause: a jet-propelled plan (a plane that is
propelled by jet). [11,114]
. Verb compounds: Verb compounds fall into main groups according to their
method of formation:) Those formed by back-formation: Back-formation is a
reversal of derivation, for instance, house-keep is formed by deleting ing and -er from housekeeping and housekeeper, which entered the
language much earlier.) Those formed by conversion. In this case, the verb
compounds are converted from noun compounds; e.g. to blue-pencil, to
honeymoon, to machine-gun, to nickname, to outline, to snowball,
etc. [5,100]
. According to their structure compounds are subdivided into:) Compound
words proper which consist of two stems, e.g. to job-hunt, train-sick,
go-go, tip-top) Derivational compounds, where besides the stems we
have affixes, e.g. ear-minded, hydro-skimmer,) Compound words
consisting of three or more stems, e.g. cornflower- blue, eggshell-thin,
singer-songwriter,) compound-shortened words, e.g. boatel,
tourmobile, VJ-day, motocross, Intervision, Eurodollar,
Camford. [3,98]can make a conclusion that a compound word is made up
of two or more words that together express a single idea. There are three
types of compounds. An open compound consists of two or more words
written separately, such as salad dressing, Boston terrier, or April Fools Day.
A hyphenated compound has words connected by a hyphen, such as ageold, mother-in-law, force-feed. A solid compound consists of two

words that are written as one word, such as keyboard or typewriter. In

addition, a compound may be classified as permanent or temporary. A
permanent compound is fixed by common usage and can usually be found in
the dictionary, whereas a temporary compound consists of two or more
words joined by a hyphen as needed, usually to modify another word or to
avoid ambiguity. [2, 87]general, permanent compounds begin as temporary
compounds that become used so frequently they become established as
permanent compounds. Likewise many solid compounds begin as separate
words, evolve into hyphenated compounds, and later become solid
compounds. Although the dictionary is the first place to look when you are
trying to determine the status of a particular compound, reference works do
not always agree on the current evolutionary form of a compound, nor do
they include temporary compounds. The following general rules apply to
forming compounds. Keep in mind that words that are made up of a word
root plus a prefix or a suffix are not normally considered compounds, strictly
speaking. [5, 78]
. According to the relations between the components, compound words are
subdivided into:) Subordinate compounds where one of the components is
the semantic and the structural centre and the second component is
subordinate; these subordinate relations can be different:comparative
relations, e.g. honey-sweet, eggshell-thin, with limiting relations, e.g.
breast-high, knee-deep, with emphatic relations, e.g. dog-cheap, with
objective relations, e.g. gold-rich, with cause relations, e.g. love-sick,
with space relations, e.g. top-heavy, with time relations, e.g. springfresh, with subjective relations, e.g. foot-sore etc) Coordinative
compounds where both components are semantically independent. Here
belong such compounds when one person (object) has two functions, e.g.
secretary-stenographer, woman-doctor, Oxbridge etc. Such
compounds are called additive. This group includes also compounds formed
by means of reduplication, e.g. fifty-fifty, no-no, and also compounds
formed with the help of rhythmic stems (reduplication combined with sound
interchange) e.g. criss-cross, walkie-talkie. [6, 76]
. According to the order of the components compounds are divided into
compounds with direct order, e.g. kill-joy, and compounds with indirect
order, e.g. nuclear-free, rope-ripe.suggested subdivision into three groups is
based on the degree of semantic cohesion of the constituent parts, the third
group representing the extreme case of cohesion where the constituent
meanings blend to produce an entirely new meaning. [1,103]following joke
rather vividly shows what happens if an idiomatic compound is
misunderstood as non-idiomatic.

Patient: They tell me, doctor, you are a perfect lady-killer.: Oh, no, no! I
assure you, my dear madam, I make no distinction between the sexes.this
joke, while the woman patient means to compliment the doctor on his being
a handsome and irresistible man, he takes or pretends to take the word ladykiller literally, as a sum of the direct meanings of its constituents. [2,
123]this chapter, we have looked at numerous affixational processes in
English. We investigated some general characteristics of English affixation;
we saw that suffixation and prefixation are very common and extremely
restricted phenomenon in English word-formation. In the next chapter, we
will have a closer look at the characteristics of some non-affixational
processes by which new words can be derived.In this chapter we have
looked at a number of word-formation processes that do not involve affixes
as their primary or only means of deriving words from other words or
morphemes. We have seen that English has a rich inventory of such nonaffixational processes, including conversion, and abbreviation. Each of these
mechanisms was investigated in some detail and it turned out that, in spite of
the initial impression of irregularity, a whole range of systematic structural
restrictions can be determined. As with affixation, these restrictions can refer
to the semantic, syntactic, and phonological properties of the words involved
and are highly regular in nature.
affixation conversion abbreviation composition poe

Chapter Two. Analysis of the Examples on the Basis of E. Poes

Prose and Poetry
The practical part of our works deals with the major processes of word
building in E. Poes works. Giving the examples of their using in Poes prose
and poetry we want to face with the problem that neither a traditional
morphological nor a syntactic interpretation sufficiently explains the unique
function of word-formation. From a linguistic perspective, this work offers a
reasonable insight into the English language as regards word formation.
Language is a living instrument, so it evolves with its users and adjusts to
the times; accordingly, some words fall out of use because speakers no
longer have need for them, whereas some new words arise in response to
different motivations: pragmatic, communicative and connotative. Both the
birth and the death of words are illustrated in the prose and poetry.has never
lost its native powers of making new words by derivation, of building up
words of native stocks and parts. Though these powers were atrophied by
centuries of foreign domination in cultural matters during the French
supremacy and to a less extent by the almost overwhelming importance of
Latin at the Renaissance, they never ceased to be; and its huge expansion in
the later centuries, these powers have been to some extent called into use.
[16, 34]supplement our review of word-formation processes, of which
compounding has been given primary attention, one has to present some
instances of words derived by means of affixation and coined by the process
of compounding, such a way of producing new words is extremely
productive in English.derivation with composition, the analysis shows that
while a different conceptual process is involved, composition also includes

large areas where it fades into prefixation and suffixation. Finally, derivation
is contrasted with conversion which generally requiring a larger degree of
contextual support than derivation, and this is regarded as the major reason
for the continuing productivity of derivational word-formation in
English.article shows how language resorts to the productive use of already
existing devices to cater for both new and ever-present needs. Therefore
derivation, compounding, conversion are used to name new realities, to
speed up communication, to gain in conciseness, to awaken positive
associations, to build individual and collective identities, and above all, to
maintain a desirable status quo. [18, 67]
2.1 Derivation by means of Affixation
Affixation is a phenomenon giving two ways of word building:
suffixation and prefixation. Comparing both linguists have come to the
conclusion that suffixation is a more fruitful way of forming new derivatives
than prefixation, though it is also widely used in forming new words, that is
the new parts of speech.
2.1.1 Suffixation
a) Nominal suffixessuffixes are often employed to derive abstract
nouns from verbs, adjectives and nouns. Such abstract nouns can denote
actions, results of actions, or other related concepts, but also properties,
qualities and the like.examples from E.A. Poes poetry
"As in that fleeting, shadowy, misty strifesemblance with reality,
which brings" [19, 67]

Semblance (n) It is formed by adding the suffix "-ance", and stands

for the word "resemblance". It is attached mostly to verbs, -ance creates
action nouns such as absorbance, riddance, retardance. The suffix is closely
related to -cy/-ce which attaches productively to adjectives ending in the
suffix -ant/-ent. Thus, a derivative like dependency could be analyzed as
having two suffixes (dependency) or only one (dependency).
This some visitor entreating entrance at my chamber door-late visitor
entreating entrance at my chamber door" [19,144]
Entrance (n)-derived from the verb to enter with the suffix "-ance"
We can find -ance nominals only if there are corresponding antadjectives.
Defendant of the palace- reared its head.the monarch Thought's
dominion" [19, 56]
Defendant (n) the word derived from the verb "to defend" by adding
of suffix "-ant". This suffix forms count nouns referring to persons or to
substances involved in biological, chemical, or physical processes
(attractant, dispersant, etchant, suppressant). Most bases are verbs of
Latinate origin.
It was many and many a year ago,a kingdom by the sea [19, 67]
(n)-derived by adding suffix "-dom" to the noun "king" The native
suffix -domis semantically closely related to -hood and - ship which

express similar concepts.

It was night in the boredom of Octobermy most immemorial year"
[19, 77]
Boredom (n) the suffix -dom attaches to nouns to form nominals
which can be paraphrased as state of being something as in apedom,
clerkdom, slumdom, yuppiedom.

That the play is the tragedy, "Man,"its hero the Conqueror Worm"
[19, 23]
Conqueror (n) formed from the verb "conquer" by adding of the
suffix"-or" its orthographic variant of the suffix "-er". The orthographic
variant -or occurs mainly with Latinate bases ending in /s/ or /t/, such as
conductor, oscillator, compressor. The suffix -or is frequently used in the
poem Conqueror Worm
In the clamor and the clangor of the bellsgone to their eternal rest"
[19, 89]
Clangor (n) the verb to clang" is added by the suffix "-or'
With a desperate desire,a resolute endeavor [19, 90]
(n) it is the native origin word and stands for "the try".
Thy messenger hath knowndreamed for thy Infinity [19, 22]
Messenger (n) the word "message" is added by the suffix"-er" The
suffix -er can be seen as closely related to suffix-ee as its derivatives
frequently signify entities that are active or volitional participants in an
event.
It was down by the dank tarn of Auber,the ghoul-haunted woodland
of Weir" [19, 99]

Auber (n) the suffix -er is used to create person nouns indicating
place of origin or residence (e.g. Londoner, New Yorker, Highlander, New
Englander)like thoughts that are the souls of thought,, far wilder, far sealer
visions [19,109]
(n) derived from the word "to seal". Suffix -er is often described as
a deverbal suffix, but there are numerous forms (not only inhabitant names)
that are derived on the basis of nouns (e.g whaler, noser, souther).
Enchantress fills my soul with Beauty (which is Hope),are far up in
Heaven- the stars I kneel to [19, 62]
Enchantress (n)-The word prince is added be the suffix "-ess". This
suffix derives a comparatively small number of mostly established nouns
referring exclusively to female humans and animals (stewardess, lioness,
tigress, and waitress).
Then- in my childhood, in the dawna most stormy life- was drawn.
[19, 50]
Childhood (n) It is built from the suffix "-hood" and the word "child
Similar in meaning to the suffixes -dom, hood derivatives express
concepts such as state (as in adulthood, farmerhood).and collectivity (as
in beggarhood, Christianhood, companionhood).
The heritage of a kingly mind,a proud spirit which hath striven [19,
71]

(n) the suffix-age derives nouns that express an activity (or its
result) as in coverage, leakage, spillage, and nouns denoting a collective
entity or quantity, as in acreage, voltage, yardage.

Adorn yon world afar, afar- The wandering star. [19, 95]
Wandering (adj.) derived from the verb "to wander" by adding the
suffix "-ing". Derivatives with this deverbal suffix denote processes
(begging, running, sleeping) or results (building, wrapping, stuffing). The
suffix is somewhat peculiar among derivational suffixes in that it is
primarily used as a verbal inflectional suffix forming present participles.
In a mad expostulation with the deaf and frantic fire [19,121]
Expostulation (n) the word consist of the verb "expostulate" which
stands for to convince" and suffix "-ion. Derivatives in -ion denote
events or results of processes. As such, verbal bases are by far the most
frequent, but there is also a comparatively large number of forms where the
suffix -ation is directly attached to nouns without any intervening verb in
the suffix-ate. The suffix has Latin origin.
What a world of merriment their melody foretells! [19, 119]
Merriment (n) derived from the adjective "merry" by adding the
suffix "-ment". This suffix derives action nouns denoting processes or results
from (mainly) verbs.
And much of Madness, and more of Sin,Horror the soul of the plot
[19,120]
(n) formed by the suffix "-ness" which is the most productive suffix

of English. The suffix -ness is much less restrictive than its close semantic
relative- ity. But in E. Poe's poetry there are only a few example of using
this suffix.examples from E.A. Poes prose
Indeed, some remote connection between this passage in the English
moralist and a portion of the character of Ligeia [20, 65]
Passage (n) is derived by the suffix -age. This suffix derives nouns
that express an activity (or its result) as in coverage, leakage. Base words
may be verbal or nominal and are often monosyllabic.
Ah, word of no meaning! Behind whose vast latitude of mere sound
we entrench our ignorance of so much of the spiritual [20, 46]
(n) is formed by the suffix -al. A number of verbs take -al to form
abstract nouns denoting an action or the result of an action. The teeth
glancing back, with a brilliancy almost startling. [21, 78]
Brilliancy (n) the word consists of the base and the suffix -cy. The
suffixes -cy/-ce which attaches productively to adjectives ending in the
suffix -ant/-ent. Thus, a derivative like dependency could be analyzed as
having two suffixes (depend -ent -cy) or only one (depend -ency)
It was faultless -- how cold indeed that pickpocketee when applied to
a majesty so divine! [21, 35]
Pickpocketee (n) is derived by the means of the suffix -ee. The
meaning of this suffix can be rather clearly discerned. It derives nouns
denoting sentient entities that are involved in an event as non-volitional

participants.
I forget myself, were in no manner acted upon by the ideal, nor was
any tincture of the mysticism which I read to be discovered. [20,199]

Mysticism (n) the word is formed by means of the suffix-ism.

Forming abstract nouns from other nouns and adjectives, derivatives
belonging to this category denote the related concepts state, condition,
attitude, and system of beliefs or theory, as in blondism, Parkinsonism,
conservatism, revisionism, Marxism.
She seemed also conscious of a cause, to me unknown, for the gradual
alienation of my regard. [19, 68]
Alienation (n) is made with the suffix -ion. This Latinate suffix has
three allomorphs: when attached to a verb in -ify, the verbal suffix and ion surface together as -ification (personification).
I think, truly defines to consist in the saneness of rational being
[21,132]
(n) is derived by the suffix -ness. Quality noun forming -ness is
perhaps the most productive suffix of English. With regard to potential base
words, -ness is much less restrictive than its close semantic relative -ity.) Verbal suffixesare four suffixes which derive verbs from other
categories (mostly adjectives and nouns), -ate, -en, -ify and -ize, and all of
them occur in E.Poes prose and poetry.examples from E.A. Poes poetry
Astarte's bediamonded crescentwith its duplicate horn [19,151]
Duplicate (v) formed by the suffix "-ate" Forms ending in this suffix
represent a rather heterogeneous group. There is a class of derivatives with

chemical substances as bases, which systematically exhibit so- called

ornative and resultative meanings.bloom the thunder-blasted treethe blacken
eagle soar! [19, 90]
Blacken (v)is made by merging of the adjective "black and the suffix
"-en" The Germanic suffix -en attaches to monosyllables that end in a
plosive, fricative or affricate.
And the silken sad uncertain rustling of each purple curtainme- filled
me with fantastic terrors never felt before [19,160]
Silken (v) is formed form the noun "silk" and the suffix "-en". Most
bases are adjectives (e.g. blacken, broaden, quicken, ripen), but a few nouns
can also be found (e.g. strengthen, lengthen)
My tantalize spiritblandly reposes [19, 74]
(v) this word has roots in Latin mythology and formed by adding of
the suffix "-ize". Both -ize and -ify are polysemantic suffixes, which can
express a whole range of related concepts such as locative, ornative, and
causative/factitive, resultative, inchoative, performative, similative.examples
from E.A. Poes prose
In studies of a nature more than all else adapted to deaden
impressions of the outward world [20, 170]
(v) is derived from the word dead by means of the suffix -en. The
Germanic suffix -en attaches to monosyllables that end in a plosive,
fricative or affricate. Most bases are adjectives (e.g. blacken, broaden,

quicken, ripen) and nouns can also be found (e.g. strengthen, lengthen).all
we want just now, you know, uncle, is that you would indicate the time
precisely [21, 65]
(v) this example of the suffixation has the suffix -ate and can be
paraphrased as provide with something, as fluorinate, or make into
something, as in methanate.
All I accomplished was the demolition of the crystal which
humidifies the dial of the clock upon the mantel-piece [19, 33]
(v) made by the suffix -ify. Both -ize and -ify are polysemous
suffixes, which can express a whole range of related concepts such as
locative,

ornative,

and

causative/factitive,

resultative,

inchoative,

performative, simulative.) Adjectival suffixesadjectival suffixes of English

can be subdivided into two major groups. A large proportion of derived
adjectives are relational adjectives, whose role is simply to relate the noun
the adjective qualifies to the base word of the derived adjective.following
are the examples from E.A. Poes poetry
A dark unfathomed tideinterminable pride [19, 30]
(adj.) the verb "to intermine" is combined with the suffix "-able". The
suffix chiefly combines with transitive and intransitive verbal bases, as in
deferrable and perishable, respectively, as well as with nouns, as in
serviceable, fashionable.
, opaque, immortal- all by dintthe dear names that he concealed
within't. [19, 71]
Immortal (adj.) is produced by the suffix the "-al. This relational

suffix attaches almost exclusively to Latinate bases (accidental, colonial,

cultural, federal, institutional, and modal).
Gazing, entranced, adown the gorgeous vista,thrilling as I see, upon
the right [19, 51]
(adj.) is derived from the noun gorge" by adding he suffix "-ous".
This suffix derives adjectives from nouns and bound roots, the vast majority
being of Latinate origin (curious, barbarous, famous, synonymous, and
tremendous).
O God! Can I not save?from the pitiless wave [19, 21]
(adj.) this word is combined by adding the suffix "-less' to the
adjective "pity". Semantically, -less can be seen as antonymic to -ful,
with the meaning being paraphrasable
Up many and many a marvellous shrinewreathed friezes intertwine?
blend the turrets and shadows thereall seem pendulous in air" [19,100]
Marvellous (adj.) and pendulous (adj.) are derived by the suffix "ous"
Their odorous souls in an ecstatic death-on the upturned faces of these
roses [19,104]
Ecstatic (adj.) is form by adding the suffix "-ic" to the base -ecstate".
Being another relational suffix -ic also attaches to foreign bases (nouns
and bound roots). Quite a number of -ic derivatives have variant forms in
-ical (electric - electrical, economic - economomical, historic - historical,

magic - magical etc.).

How many scenes of what departed blissmany thoughts of what
entombed hopes. [19, 109]
Departed (adj.) derived by the adding of the suffix -ed to the verb
"to depart. This suffix derives adjectives with the general meaning as in
broad-minded, pig-headed, and wooded.
Entombed (adj.) the suffix "-ed" is added to the verb "to entomb.
The majority of derivatives are based on compounds or phrases (emptyheaded, pig-headed, air-minded, and fair-minded).following are the
examples from E. A. Poes prose
Through a species of unutterable horror and awe, for which the
language of mortality has no sufficiently energetic expression [20, 143]
Unutterable (adj.) consist of the base utter, prefix un- and the
suffix -able. The suffix chiefly combines with transitive and intransitive
verbal bases, as deferrable and perishable, respectively, as well as with
nouns, as in serviceable, fashionable.
I derived, from many existences in the material world, a sentiment
such as I felt always aroused within me by her large and luminous orbs.
[19,209]
Material (adj.) derived by the means of the suffix -al. This
relational suffix attaches almost exclusively to Latinate bases (accidental,

colonial, cultural, federal, institutional, and modal).it rather a caprice of my

own -- a wildly romantic offering on the shrine of the most passionate
devotion? [21,165]
Romantic (adj.) is built be the suffix -ic. Being another relational
suffix, -ic also attaches to foreign bases (nouns and bound roots). Quite a
number of -ic derivatives have variant forms in -ical (electric electrical, economic - economomical, historic - historical, magic - magical
etc.).
The most beautiful became the most hideous. [21,172]
Beautiful (adj.) constructed with the suffix - ful. The adjectival
suffix -ful has the general meaning having something, being
characterized by something and is typically attached to abstract nouns, as
beautiful, insightful, purposeful, tactful.
His complexion was absolutely bloodless. [20,249]
Bloodless (adj.) derived by the means of the suffix -less.
Semantically, -less can be seen as antonymic to --ful, with the meaning
being paraphrasable as without something: expressionless, hopeless,
speechless, and thankless.
Yet I believe that I met her first and most frequently in some large,
old, decaying city near the Rhine. [20, 72]

Decaying (adj.) the suffix -ing is added to the word to decay. This
verbal inflectional suffix primarily forms present participles, which can in
general also be used as adjectives in attributive positions.
His imagination was singularly vigorous and creative; and no doubt it
derived additional force from the habitual use of morphine. [19,290]
Vigorous (adj.) combined by the adding of the suffix -ous. This
suffix derives adjectives from nouns and bound roots, the vast majority
being of Latinate origin (curious, barbarous, famous, synonymous, and
tremendous).
Creative (adj.) this suffix forms adjectives mostly from Latinate verbs
and bound roots that end in t or s: connective, explosive, fricative,
offensive, passive, preventive, and primitive, receptive, speculative. Some
nominal bases are also attested, as in instinctive, massive.can conclude
according the examples, which are given above that the main function of
suffixes in E.A. Poes prose, and poetry is to form one part of speech from
another; the secondary function is to change the lexical meaning of the same
part of speech. Suffixation is the most productive type of affixation in E.A.
Poes literally works and throughout the history of English literature. It
consists in adding a suffix to the stem of a definite part of speech. E. Poe
used the process of affixation to coin a new word by adding a suffix or
several suffixes to some root morpheme.role of the suffixation in E. Poes
works is very important and therefore it is necessary to consider certain
features of this process dominating in E. A. Poes prose and poetry. From the
scope of the part-of- speech classification Noun-suffixes and Adjectivesuffixes prevail in comparing with the other types of this classification.
According to the lexico-grammatical character of suffixes, de-nominal and

de-adjectival suffixes are the most frequently used ones. Also a wide
spread have the Latin and Greek suffixes due to specificity of E. Poes
works.
2.1.2 Prefixation
In contrast to compounding, affixation links so-called prefixes and
suffixes, which are not independent, to words of all types. The type of affix
determines the effect the affixation will have on the word. Here, we discuss
supportive and opposing prefixes. They are used to express support for or
disapproval of whatever is expressed by the word they are attached
to.prefixes of English can be classified semantically into the following
groups. First, there is a large group that quantify over their base words
meaningexamples from E.A. Poes poetry
Flapping from out their transparent wingsWoe [19,198]
Transparent (adj.) the prefix "trans-"designating direction and
location (super-, sub-, hyper-, hypo-, mid-, trans-, ultra-and
retro-).

However,

many

direction

and

location

prefixes

have

quantificational senses as well, exploiting the conventional metaphorization

of over as more and under- as -iess.
Can struggle to its destined eminence,-distant spheres, from time to
time [19,14]
(adj.) derived by the prefix di-" which denotes twice or two (bi-,
bilateral, bifurcation and di-, disyllabic, intransitive)

Lest an evil step be taken,-the dead who is omnipotent [19,42]

(a)

is

derived

by

the

prefix

omni-which

denotes

all

(omni-omniscient, omnipresent, omnirange).

For the same end as before-Videlicet, a tent-I think extravagant
[19,58]
Extravagant (a) is made by the prefix "extra-". It could be included
here, with the meaning of 'outside', and one needs to imagine an appropriate
situation, for example, extracurricular., there are numerous locative prefixes.
Locative prefixes determine the place, or relative place, or (relative)
direction, of action or objects. Also, abstract nouns and processes or
relations are determined in terms of locality.examples from E. A. Poes
poetry
And I have other reasons for so doingmy innate love of contradiction
[19, 68]
(n) Prefix "contra-"Another prefix that overlaps in meaning with
against or in opposition to is counter-, which can be prefixed to nouns and
verbs.
While the star that oversprinklesthe heavens seem to twinkle [19, 66]
(v) the verb "to sprinkle" is added by the prefix "over-" is one of the
most productive English prefixes.
Wreathed in myrtle, my sword I'll concealthose arch-enemies devoted
and brave [19, 94]

(n) the noun "enemy" is combined with the prefix "arch-.

Arch-has meaning 'principle', attaches to nouns referring to people
occupying an important social or psychological role.examples of Locative
prefixes in E. Poes prose.
and then I entered the antechamber. [20, 127]
Antechamber (n) is derived by the adding of the prefix "ante-",which
denotes before and added to nouns.circumnavigated this area again and
again. [21, 28]
Circumnavigate (v) is completed by the prefix circum- which
means around and mostly added to verbs, nouns.
I could smelt the extrasensory of this performance in the air. [19,
171]
Extrasensory (adj.) is based on the prefix extra-which stands for
outside, beyond and added to: adjectives, nouns.
The beast cut her forefinger and disfigured her face. [21, 40]
Forefinger (n) is made by adding the prefix fore-to the noun
finger. This prefix means in front, front part of.Prefixesthird group
consists of prefixes expressing negation: de-, dis-, in-, non-, un-
etc.examples from E.A. Poes poetry
the jewels of antichrists throne,of Hell! And with a pain [19, 105]

Antichrist (n) it is completed by of the prefix anti-" to the base. This

polysemantic prefix can express two different, but related notions in the
words like anti-war, anti-abortion, anti-capitalistic, anti-scientific, and antifreeze.
Vast forms that move fantasticallya discordant melody [19,121]
(adj) the prefix dis- is closely related semantically to un-and
de-, the prefix dis-forms reversative verbs from foreign verbal bases
disassemble, disassociate, discharge, disconnect, disproof, disqualify.
Disconsolate linger- grief that hangs her head,follies that full long
have Red [19,154]
(v) the verb "consolate" is mixed with the "prefix" dis- Apart from
deriving reversative verbs, this suffix uniquely offers the possibility to
negate the base verb in much the same way as clausal negation does:
disagree, not agree, disobey, not obey, dislike, not like.
Yet heavier far than your Petrarchan stuff-downy nonsense that the
faintest puff [19,125]
(n) the word "sense is added by the prefix "non-" Nouns prefixed
with non-can either mean absence of something or not having the
character of something (non-delivery, non-member, non-profit, non-stop).
While the angels, all pallid and wan,, unveil, affirms [19.141]
Unveil (v) the verb "to veil" is added o the prefix" un-" which can

attach to verbs and sometimes nouns.

I see them still- two sweetly scintillant, unextinguished by the sun
[19, 38]
(v) is derived by the adding of the prefix "un". The prefix is also used
to negate simple and derived adjectives: uncomplicated, unhappy,
unsuccessful, and unreadable.examples from E.A. Poes prose
The asymmetrical architecture of this palace frightened me. [20, 59]
Asymmetrical (adj.) is derived by the means of the prefix a-which
stands for not, lacking in, not affected by and added to adjectives, nouns.
I felt disgust being in front of this statue. [20, 62]
Disgust (n) is derived by the prefix dis -which denotes not,
absolute opposite of what is meant by the second element and added to
abstract nouns, verbs.
This unexpected blizzard was crashing all around. [20,231]
Unexpected (adj.) is derived by the means of the prefix un-which
has meaning not, the opposite of and before words of French origin
transformed in in-, il-(before l), im- (before p), ir- (before r).
These are the most commonly used prefixes of negation.can conclude
according the examples of suffixation and prefixation which are given above
that the process of affixation is the most productive in E.A. Poes prose and

poetry. Affixation consists in adding derivational affixes (i.e., prefixes and

suffixes) to roots and stems to form new words. Affixation is a very common
and productive process of word building in E.A. Poes prose and poetry.
Affixation is divided into suffixation and prefixation, they both are presented
above in examples according the context of our investigation.. Poe used
Prefixation to form the words by means of adding a prefix to the stem. In his
works, it is mostly characteristic for forming verbs. If we analyze the
examples according the Semantic classification of prefixes-Prefixes of
negative meaning are frequently used (de-, dis-,in-im-, il-, ir-)
Prefixes denoting repetition or reversal actions and Prefixes denoting
time, space, degree relations rarely occur in E. Poes prose and poetry and
have small number in comparison with the other types of Prefixation. From
the point of view of etymology the using of the borrowed affixes (Romanic,
such as: in-, de-,ex-, re-and Greek, such as sym-, hyper-) play
an important role in E. Poes literally works.analyzed the total amount of the
cases (from E. Poes prose and poetry) in which the processes of affixation
take place, we can draw a conclusion that the role of the suffixation in his
works is dominative.
2.2 Conversion
Conversion is the derivational process whereby an item changes its
word class without the addition of an affix. [2,78 ] Thus, when the noun
sign shifts to the verb sign(ed) without any change in the word form we
can say this is a case of conversion. However, it does not mean that this
process takes place in all the cases of homophones [6, 67]. Sometimes, the
connection has to do with coincidences or old etymological ties that have

been lost. For example, mind and matter are cases of this grammatical
sameness without connection by conversion-the verbs have nothing to do
today with their respective noun forms in terms of semantics.is particularly
common in English because the basic form of nouns and verbs is identical in
many cases. It is usually impossible in languages with grammatical genders,
declensions or conjugations. [11, 56]status of conversion is a bit unclear. It
must be undoubtedly placed within the phenomena of word-formation;
nevertheless, there are some doubts about whether it must be considered a
branch of derivation or a separate process by itself (with the same status as
derivation or compounding). [16,176]this undetermined position in
grammar, some scholars assert that conversion will become even more
active in the future because it is a very easy way to create new words in
English. [11,156 ] There is no way to know the number of conversions
appearing every day in the spoken language, although we know this number
must be high. As it is a quite recent phenomenon, the written evidence is not
a fully reliable source. We will have to wait a little longer to understand its
whole impact, which will surely increase in importance in the next decades.)
Noun - verb conversion. Today the largest number of words formed by
conversion is constituted by verbs from nouns.examples from E.A. Poes
poetry
My sorrow; I could not awakenheart to joy at the same tone [19, 96]
Joy (n) - to joy (v) the noun is converted into the verb and it denotes
the act of being asleep or the process of triumph.
For the moon never beams without bringing me dreamsthe beautiful

[19.185]
Beam (n) - to beam (v) the word is turned into verb and took the
meaning to appear through something.
the startled ear of nightthey scream out their affright! [19, 74]
Scream (n) - to scream (v) the noun is conversed into the verb and
denotes the action in which someone is involved in the process of making
the noise.
Streams up the turrets silently-up the pinnacles far and free [19.134]

Stream (n) - to stream (v); Gleam (n) - to gleam (v) the noun are
converted into the verbs and they turned the natural phenomenon into the
actions.
With its Phantom chased for evermore,a crowd that hammers it not
[19.247]
(n) - to hammer (v) in this case of conversion the word express the
action done with the noun as instrument. It can be exemplified with
hammer (to hit a nail by means of a hammer).
visions of the dark nighthave dreamed of joy departed[19.259]
Dream (n) - to dream (v) the noun is converted into the verb and it
denotes the act of being asleep or the process of dreaming.
Where an Eidolon, named NIGHT,a black throne reigns upright [19,
74]
(n) - to reign (v) this abstract noun is turned into verb denoting the
process of being enthroned.
Ah, let us mourn! - For never morrowdawn upon him desolate?
[19,215]
Mourn (n) - to mourn (v) the noun is conversed into the verb and
denotes the action in which someone is involved in the process of
grieves.the queen of the angels
To shield me from harm [19,215]

Shield (n) - to shield (v) the word is turned into verb and took the
meaning to protect from something.
The examples from E.A. Poes proseNegros canned apples. [19,134]
Can (n) - to can (v) it stands for to put in/on something the nouns
are usually locative nouns denoting a place, a container or a specified
location and can be paraphrased as The workers put apples in cans.
They sheltered the orphans. [21.248]
Shelter (n) - to shelter (v) To give something, to provide something
It can be paraphrased as They gave shelter to the orphans.
William weeded the garden [20.143]
Weed (n) - to weed (v) To deprive of something or to remove the
object denoted by the noun from something It can be paraphrased as He
cut off weeds in the garden.
She mothered the orphan [20, 24]
Mother (n) - to mother (v) To be / act as something with respect to
It can be paraphrased as She looked after the orphan like a mother.
Will you please mail the parcel? [18.247]

Mail (n) - to mail (v) To send / go by something It can be

paraphrased

as

Will

you

please

send

the

parcel

by

mail?

[19,143]summered in Qingdao. [21.202]

Summer (n) - to summer (v) To spend the period of time denoted by
something (We spent summer in Qingdao.)) Verb- noun conversion
Conversion from verb to noun is also quite common. Nouns converted
from verbs are not as numerous as verbs converted from nouns, because the
English speaking people are inclined to employ derivation by means of
deverbal suffixes (as in arrangement from arrange, ratification from ratify
and the numerous noun-formations in -ing ) or to employ a ready-made
synonym from borrowed words (as to climb, ascent; to scatter,
dissemination)examples from E.A. Poes poetry
The curtain, a funeral pall,down with the rush of a storm [19.215]
rush (v) - rush (n) the meaning of the verb is shifted and instead of
action it denotes the numinalizated name of this process
The tremble of a living wirethose unusual strings [19.217]
To tremble (v) - tremble (n) in this case of conversion the word
expresses the effect done with the noun as biological process.
A walkway for the queenliest dead that ever died so young-dirge for
her the doubly dead in that she died so young. [19, 97]

To dirge (v) - dirge (n) the verb denoting the act of church ceremony
is shifted to the noun reflected its matter.I wished the morrow; - vainly I had
sought to borrowmy books surcease of sorrow- sorrow for the lost Lenore[19, 96]
surcease (v) - surcease (n) the verb is conversed to show the matter of
the action.examples from E.A. Poes poetry
A few days ago in Baltimore, Ms. Burns was in her apartment in the
middle of a high- rise in the middle of everywhere in place. [21, 213]
To rise (v) - rise (n) this verb can also be nominalised, like in turn
(where to turn)
This election had been the most emotionally draining experience of
my life. [21, 234]
To experience (v) - experience (n) the noun coming from verbs can
express state of mind or state of sensation
More than half of the incidents were involved loss of consciousness or
a heart attack. [20, 151]
To attack (v) - attack (n) the noun coming from the verb can express
state of mind or state of sensation.
Noah will be living proof that one animal is able to carry, and give
birth to, a healthy animal that is the clone of a completely different species.
[19, 217]

To clone (v) - clone (n) In this case the noun refers to the subject of
the original verb.) Adjective - noun conversion- noun conversion is
classified into two groups: partial conversion and complete conversion.
Partial conversion: Some adjective are used as nouns when preceded by the
definite article such as the poor, the wounded; yet these converted nouns
take on only some of the feature of the noun; i.e. they do not take plural and
genitive inflections, nor can they be preceded by determiners like a, this, my,
etc. early (n. - adv.).examples from E.A. Poes poetry
A void within the filmy Heavenwaves have now a redder glow [19,
31]
Void (adj.) - void (n)
I feel it more than half a crime,Nature sleeps and stars are mute [19,
54]
(adj.) - mute (n)
From their high thrones in the Heavenlight like hope to mortals given
[19, 55]
(adj.) - mortal (n)
But their red orbs, without beam,thy weariness shall seem [19, 108]
(adj.) - orb (n)examples from E.A. Poes prose
From one direction comes the rich smell of frying bread, from another
the aroma of boiled pork dumplings and from yet another fermented or

"smelly" bean curd, a Chinese favorite. [20, 65]

Favorite (adj.) - favorite (n) - is the case of nominalization which
occurs when the noun is elided and the adjective is widely used as a
synonym of an existing set pattern.
We have to assume the worst. [21, 45]
The worst (adj.) - worst (n) this adjective can still be changed to the
comparative and superlative form (adjective nature).
We've got some older fans now, but the more the merrier-everyone's
welcome! [19, 178]
More (adj.) - more (n) - these adjective and noun cannot have any
inflections if their number or case is changed, they will produce
ungrammatical sentences.process of Conversion is mostly peculiar to E.A.
Poes poetry because of the necessity to state a poetical thought in a limited
number of syllables. Due to Conversion one can contain the sense of a whole
phrase into a single word. In the most of the cases to distinguish the type of
Conversion which was used is obviously impossible because of the basic
form of nouns and verbs are identical in many cases. Conversion from verb
to noun is the most typical aspect of this word formational process in the
case of E. Poes prose and poetry. The others are not frequently occur in his
literally works due to the period when they were created (Conversion is
more peculiar to the Modern Literature.)

2.3 Abbreviation
An abbreviation is a short way of writing a word or a phrase that
could also be written out in full. Abbreviations are very rarely used in formal
writing of E. Poe. Almost the only ones which are frequently used are the
abbreviations for certain common titles, when these are used with someone's
name: Mr Willis, Dr Livingstone, Mrs Thatcher, Ms Harmon, St Joan.
(Note that the two items Mrs and Ms are conventionally treated as
abbreviations, even though they can be written in no other way.) When
writing about a French or Spanish person, you may use the abbreviations for
the French and Spanish equivalents of the English titles: M. Mitterrand, Sr.
Gonzlez. (These are the usual French and Spanish abbreviations for
Monsieur and Seor [], equivalent to English Mister.)
Other titles are sometimes abbreviated in the same way: Prof.
Chomsky, Sgt. Yorke, and Mgr. Lindemann []. However, it is usually
much better to write these titles out in full when you are using them in a
sentence: Professor Chomsky, Sergeant Yorke, and Monsignor
Lindemann. The abbreviated forms are best confined to places like
footnotes
<http://www.informatics.sussex.ac.uk/department/docs/punctuation/node48.
html> and captions of pictures.in E.A. Poes prose occur abbreviations b.c.
and a.d., usually written in small capitals, for marking dates
<http://www.informatics.sussex.ac.uk/department/docs/punctuation/node42.
html> as before or after the birth of Christ:
According to tradition, Rome was founded in 753 b.c.
[21,169]emperor Vespasian died in a.d. 79. [21,170]can conclude that the
process is sufficient in the case of E. Poes prose and poetry due to the
specificity of his literally works and the period of time when they were
created.

2.4 Composition
E.A. Poe created a great amount of compound words in his literally
works, many of them not purely ornamental or pretentious, not humorous or
satirical, but poetic, evocative, fancy-embodying, according to the "power of
words" at their suggestive best, as. E.Poe expressed it. Many of these come
from his poems: the "angel-nod," the "after-drunkenness of soul," the "eaglehope," the "fountain-flood" of the Naiad, the "ghoul-haunted woodland," the
"lip-begotten words," the "sad-serene City in the Sea," the "silvery-silken,"
the "spirit-land," the "star-dials," the "star-isles," the "love-haunted heart,"
the "wanlight," and the "storm-tormented ocean of his thoughts," and "surftormented shore."list of compounds is full of these fantasies of his creative
auctorial spirit. The compound in E. Poes prose and poetry are humorous,
often satiric, sometimes shocking in its novelty, and not essentially
contributory to the total "power of words" of English language. This type
probably arises from the habitual indulgence in linguistic play, puns, fanciful
place names, and jocular coinages of the authorthe variety of his interests
encompassed scientific developments, especially demonstrated in Eureka,
we find him apparently coining such terms as "concentralization," "countervortex," "imparticularity," "cycloid," "nebulist," "space-penetrating", "lightparticles" and "light-impressions," and "ray-streams." A few, but very few, of
his coinages may be attributable to misconceptions or even typographical
mistakes, such as "sphereicity," or "fillogram," or "post-pranclian," or
"nare," but Poe's mastery of Latin and, probably of Greek, as well as a still
disputed control over German, French, Spanish, and Italian makes his errors
or blunders very few indeed.) Noun-Noun Compositionmost common type
of word formation is the combination of two (or more) nouns in order to

form a resulting noun:

Noun + Noun = Noun
This type of word building is very common to E. Poes prose and
poetry among so many words, there would have to be many pertaining to
common and commonplace objects, perhaps showing that Poe merely
embalmed in his books expressions widely current, but not recorded by any
of the contemporary or, for a few words, subsequent dictionaries: "balloonbag," "chandelier-chain," "cigar-girl" and "perfumery-girl," "demon-traps",
"dog-leaf," "history-writing," "humming-top, " "mail-robber," "trunk-paper,"
"walking-advertiser"

and

"walking

advertisement,"

and

''coffin-

tressels.''examples from E.A. Poes poetry

The storm, the earthquake, and the ocean-wrath(Ah! will they cross me in my angrier path?) [19, 56 ]
Earthquake (n + n = n) Neutral compound. Compound words proper,
with indirect order of the words. The compound may create a whole new
meaning of the used words.
But now, at length, dear Dian sank from sight,a western couch of
thundercloud [19, 60]
(n + n = n) It is noun compound according to the parts of speech
classification. Neutral compound. It is compound words proper, which
consist only of two stems, with the direct order of the components.

O! Nothing earthly save the thrillmelody in woodland rill [19,173]

(n. + n = n) Neutral compound. Compound words proper, with the
direct order of the words. In this case the nature of the compound is selfexplanatory, and their meanings are quite comprehensible even for those
who encounter them for the first time.examples from E.A. Poes prose
Innumerable battle-lanterns, which swung to and fro above her
rigging The battle-lanterns were always at hand. [21, 89]

Battle-lantern (n + n = n) Neutral compound. Compound words

proper, with indirect order of the words. The compound may create a
completely new meaning of the used words.
The true book-purpose is answered. [16.37]
Book-purpose (n + n = n) It is semantically simple compound which
can be easily understand and is coined by E. Poe.
Death-furniture floundered about [21.184]
Death-furniture (n + n = n) It is noun compound according to the
parts of speech classification. Neutral compound. It is compound words
proper, which consist only of two stems, with the direct order of the
components.
The frogman croaked away [20.75]
Frogman (n + n = n) this compound is made by E. Poe for the aims of
his narration and it characterize the awkward looking man.) Verb-Noun
Composition
Here verbs describe what is done with an object or what a subject
"does", in short, a new noun is formed, usually referring to something
concrete, and the verb defines the action related to it:
Verb + Noun = Noun

The examples from E.A. Poes poetry

In spring of youth it was my lot
To haunt of the wide drawbridge a spot [19, 21]
Drawbridge (v + n = n) draw + bridge = drawbridge. Neutral
compound. Compound words proper, with indirect order of the words. A
drawbridge is a bridge that can be inclined in order to allow ships to pass, or
"drawn". Here, the noun is the direct object.
Come! Let the burial rite be read- the funeral song be sung!-walkway
for the queenliest dead that ever died so young [19, 82]
(v + n = n) walk + way = walkway. In the word walkway (a way to
walk on) the noun may stand for an adverb of place.
Thy soul shall find itself alonedark thoughts of the grey grindstone
[19, 92]
Grindstone (v + n = n) Grind + stone = Grindstone. Neutral
compound. Compound words proper, with indirect order of the words. Here,
the word as part of speech is the subject.
But that, among the rabble-men,ambition is chain'd down. [19, 184]
Rabble-men (v + n = n) rabble + man = rabble-man. This compound
is coined by E. Poe in his poem Tamerlane and it has meaning common
people, plebeians.examples from E.A. Poes prose

by that analogy which speaks in proof-tones to the imagination

alone. [21, 159]
Proof-tone (v + n = n) proof + tone = proof-tones. It is noun
compound according to the parts of speech classification. Neutral
compound. It is compound words proper, which consist only of two stems,
with the direct order of the components
the tinkering of the Punch-men among the tombs [20, 105]
man (v + n = n) punch + man = punch-men. It is E. Poes neologism
and has a metaphoric function in his works. In this case the nature of the
compound is not self-explanatory, and their meanings are quite
incomprehensible for those who encounter them for the first time.) NounAdjective Composition.and adjectives can also be compounded in the
opposite order:
Noun + Adjective = Adjective
examples from E.A. Poes poetry
Rome to the Caesar- this to meheritage of a heartsick [19, 153]
(n + adj. = adj.) heartsick (a person suffering from heart disease).
Neutral compound. Compound words proper, with indirect order of the
words. In this case, the resultant is an adjective, while the noun explains the
objective.
Sought a precipitate pathway up through heaven,fell a soul-black veil

of light. [19, 149]

Soul-black (n + adj. = adj.) Neutral compound. Compound words
proper, with indirect order of the words. Another possibility is that the noun
supports the adjective, i.e. as an intensifier.
It is not that my founts of blissgush-strange! With tears. [19, 189]
Gush-strange (n + adj. = adj.) gush + strange = gush-strange. Neutral
compound. Compound words proper, with indirect order of the words. In
this case, the resultant is an adjective, while the noun explains the
objective.examples from E.A. Poes prose
the expression of his earnest and human-evil eye. [20.194]
Human-evil (n + adj. = adj.)... revolve, moon-pale, about their starry
circles. [19.279]
Moon-pale (n + adj. = adj.)love which shall be passion-free
[19.382]
Passion-free (n + adj. = adj.)patent-black line (business), perhaps an
error for patten-blacking [20.285]
Patent-black (n + adj. = adj.)
by the sable-draperied, by the corporate Night. [19.74]
Sable-draperied (n + adj. = adj.)
All these examples of compounds which are built by means of adding
a noun to a adjective and have the similar structure and they are coined by E.
A. Poe. The compounds listed above play mostly stylistical function in his
prose and their meaning may be incomprehensible without the contest of the

literal work but they brightly characterize the compositional tendencies in E.

Poes prose.) Adjective-Noun Composition
Another major type of word formation is the compounding of Adjectives and
nouns:
Adjective + Noun = Nounexamples from E.A. Poes poetry
And so, all the night-tide, I lie down by the sidemy darling- my darling- my
life and my bride [19, 56]
tide (adj. + n = n) the flow that occurs at night. In this case, the adjective
defines or describes the character of the noun. It is also possible, however, to
link the two segments and end up with a totally new word.
Too coldly- or the stars- however it wasdream was as that night-wind- let it
pass. [19, 96]
Night-wind (adj. + n = n) night + wind = night-wind. Neutral compound.
Compound words proper, with indirect order of the words. In this case, the
nature of the compound is self-explanatory, and their meanings are quite
comprehensible even for those who encounter them for the first time.
Till the fair and gentle Eulalie became my blushing bride-the young Eulalie
with yellow-hair became my smiling bride [19, 55]
hair (adj. + n = n) yellow + hair = yellow-hair. Neutral compound.
Derivational compounds, where besides the stems we have affix -ed.
With all thy train, athwart the moony sky-like red-flies in Sicilian night. [19,
104]
Red-fly (adj. + n = n) nouns, such as: baby-moon, globe-trotter Neutral,
which are formed by joining together two stems without any joining
morpheme, e.g. ball-point, to window-shop, Compound words proper which
consist of two stems.examples from E. A. Poes poetry
Those which came from the larboard being what are called backwater
seas. [19, 73]
Backwater (adj. + n = n) back + water = Backwater.

the burn of blue-fire melodramaticism. [21.188]

Blue-fire (adj. + n = n) blue+ fire= Blue-fire.
He has broken Fair-law. [20, 176]
Fair-law (adj. + n = n) fair+ law= Fair-law.
a pile of ratlin-stuff and old sails [21, 208]
Ratlin-stuff (adj. + n = n) ratlin+ stuff= Ratlin-stuff.
There were the Philadelphia picturesque-hunters. [19,128]
Picturesque-hunter (adj. + n = n) Picturesque + hunter= Picturesque-hunter.
lunar-lunatic theories in St. Pierre [20,182]
Lunar-lunatic (adj. + n = n) Lunar + lunatic = Lunar-lunatic
Frog Pond munching of peanuts and pumpkins and buried in big-wigs
[21.394]
Big-wig big + wig = big-wig
All these examples of compounds which are built by means of adding a
adjective to a noun and have the similar structure and they are coined by
E.A. Poe. The compounds listed above play mostly stylistical function in his
prose and their meaning may be incomprehensible without the contest of the
literal work but they brightly characterize the compositional tendencies in E.
Poes prose.are very often used in E. Poes literally works because of their
brevity and vividness, which were necessary for his humorous and grotesque
works. For example a schoolboy is more concise than a boy attending
school, up-to-the-minute information is more vivid than the latest
information. The old man would sit for hours, thinking sadly of all the
might-have-been is more compact and expressive than thinking sadly of
the desirable things that could have happened in the past. Adjective
compounds like coffee-pot-fresh, dew-bright and lemon-fragrant, often
seen in advertising, are particularly vivid.is a phenomenon that needs more
study than it has received, especially for its influence upon literary figures.
Such a study would require a careful examination of the magazines and

newspapers of the day and the reading habits and scope of references,
interests, and author assignments of figures such as Poe, Melville, and
Hawthorne. Among Poe's words are many almost flippant coinages of this
sort, often compounds but also single words, especially for the proper noun
derivatives. These coinages indicate, to my mind, a power of satire attached
to a gay and merry spirit that too few readers impute to the poet of "The
Raven" and the writer of Tales of the Grotesque []tendencies, in his
coinages, which tell us much more about his personality than there is time to
indicate here. He used "looking" as a sort of enclitic at the end of thirty-eight
compounds, such as "cosy-looking," "ivory-looking," "square-looking," and
''light-house-looking.'' "Like," added to a noun, provided twenty-four words,
from the useful "chasm-like" to the humorous "forlorn-hope-like." His use of
"soul" as the first element in eight compounds is probably symptomatic of
his belief. Finally, perhaps appropriately for the first-person narrator par
excellence, he started thirteen compounds with "self."

Conclusions
The practical part of our work deals with the major processes of word
building in E.A. Poes creative works in prose and poetry. Having chosen
and analysed more than 300 examples and their usage in Poes prose and
poetry we wanted to face the problem that neither a traditional
morphological nor a syntactic interpretation sufficiently explains the unique
function of word-formation and to make a comparative analysis of these
word building ways.can conclude, according to the examples of suffixation
and prefixation, which are shown in Chapter Two, that the process of
affixation is the most productive in E.A. Poes prose and poetry. Affixation
consists in adding derivational affixes (prefixes and suffixes) to roots and
stems to form new words. Affixation is a very common and productive
process of word building in E.A. Poes prose and poetry. Affixation is
divided into suffixation and prefixation, they both are presented above in
examples according to the context of our investigation..A. Poe used
Prefixation to form the words by means of adding a prefix to the stem. It is
mostly characteristic for forming verbs in his works. If we analyze the
examples according to the Semantic classification of prefixes- Prefixes of
negative meaning are frequently used (de-, dis-,in-im-, il-, ir-)
Prefixes denoting repetition or reversal actions and Prefixes denoting
time, space, degree relations rarely occur in E. Poes prose and poetry and
have small number in comparison with the other types of prefixation. From
the point of view of etymology the using of the borrowed affixes (Romanic,
such as: in-, de-,ex-, re-and Greek, such as: sym-, hyper-) play
an important role in E. Poes literally works.analyzed the total amount of the

cases (from E. Poes prose and poetry) in which the processes of affixation
take place, we can draw a conclusion that the role of the suffixation in his
works is dominative. The rest of the examples are presented in Appendix
1.process of Conversion is mostly peculiar to E.A. Poes poetry because of
the necessity to state a poetical thought in a limited number of syllables. Due
to Conversion he can contain the sense of a whole phrase into a single word.
In the most of the cases to distinguish the type of conversion which was used
is obviously impossible because of the basic form of nouns and verbs are
identical in many cases. Conversion from verb to noun is the most typical
aspect of this word formational process in the case of E.A. Poes prose and
poetry. The others are not frequently occur in his literally works due to the
period of time when they were created (Conversion is more peculiar to the
Modern Literature.)
Abbreviations are very rarely used in formal writing of E. Poe. Almost
the only ones, which are frequently used, are the abbreviations for certain
common titles, abbreviations b.c. and a.d., for marking dates
<http://www.informatics.sussex.ac.uk/department/docs/punctuation/node42.
html> as before or after the birth of Christ.
Another dominant among the processes of word building in E.A.
Poes prose and poetry is Composition. Compounds are very often used in E.
Poes literally works because of their brevity and vividness, which were
necessary for his humorous and grotesque works. For example a
schoolboy is more concise than a boy attending school, up-to-theminute information is more vivid than the latest information. The old
man would sit for hours, thinking sadly of all the might-have-been is more
compact and expressive than thinking sadly of the desirable things that
could have happened in the past. Adjective compounds like coffee-potfresh, dew-bright and lemon-fragrant, often seen in advertising, are

particularly vivid..A. Poe created a great amount of compound words in his

literally works many of them not purely ornamental or pretentious, not
humorous or satirical, but poetic, evocative, fancy-embodying, according to
the "power of words" at their suggestive best, as he expressed it; many of
these come from his poems. The list of compounds is full of these fantasies
of his creative auctorial spirit. The compounds in E. Poes prose and poetry
are humorous, often satiric, sometimes shocking in its novelty, and not
essentially contributory to the total "power of words of the English
language.derivation with composition, the analysis shows that while a
different conceptual process is involved, composition also includes large
areas where it fades into prefixation and suffixation. Finally, derivation is
contrasted with conversion which generally requiring a larger degree of
contextual support than derivation, and this is regarded as the major reason
for the continuing productivity of derivational word-formation in English.,
we can conclude that the most productive way of word building in E.A.
Poes prose and poetry is affixation. This result professes the hypothesis of
our diploma thesis. The parity statistics of word building processes in E.A.
Poes prose and poetry is presented in Appendix 2.

Bibliography
1. [1] Adams V. Introduction into English Word formation. Lnd, 1986.
. [2] Akhmanova O.S. Lexicology: Theory and Method. M. 1972
. [3] Bauer, Laurie, English Word-formation, Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press. 1983
. [4] Arnold I.V. The English Word. M. 1986.
. Burchfield R.W. the English Language. Lnd.,1985.
. [5] Block, Bernard and Trager, G. Outline of Linguistic Analysis.
Baltimore, 1942.
. [6] Downing, Pamela 1977, On the creation and use of English compound
nouns, N.Y,1986.,
. Chafe, Wallace L. Meaning and the Structure of Language. ChicagoLondon, 1970.
. [7] Fries, Charles The Structure of English. N. Y., 1953.
. [8] Ginzburg R.S. et al. A Course in Modern English Lexicology. M., 1979.
. [8] Jespersen, Otto. Growth and Structure of the English Language.
Oxford, 1982.
. [9] Hatcher, Anna G., An introduction to the analysis of English
compounds 1960
. Howard Ph. New words for Old. Lnd., 1980.
. Labov W. The Social Stratification of English in New York City.
Washington, 1966.
. [10] Maurer D.W., High F.C. New Words - Where do they come from and
where do they go. American Speech. 1982.
. [11] Marchand H. The Categories and Types of Present-Day English Word-

Formation. Wiesbaden, 1960.

. Patridge E. Slang To-day and Yesterday. Lnd., 1979.
. [12] Potter S. Modern Linguistics. Lnd., 1957.
. Quirk R. Style and Communication in the English Language. Lnd., 1980.
. Schlauch, Margaret. The English Language in Modern Times. Warszava,
1965.
. [13] Sheard, John. The Words we Use. N.Y..,1954.
. Vesnik D. and Khidekel S. Exercises in Modern English Wordbuilding. M.,
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Dictionaries. Literary sources

33. [19] John W. Ostrom, ed., The Letters of Edgar Allan Poe, 1966 (revised
edition) Lnd. 1980.
. [20] The Collected Works of Edgar Allan Poe (Vol. 1 - Poems; Vols. 2 & 3 Tales and Sketches) Lnd. 1980.
. [21] The Collected Writings of Edgar Allan Poe (Vol. 1 - The Imaginary
Voyages, Pym, etc) Lnd. 1980.
. [22] The Collected Writings of Edgar Allan Poe (Vol. 2 - The Brevities,
Marginalia, etc) Lnd. 1980.

Appendix 1
Compound Words Coined by E.A. Poe
After-dream - the after-dream of the reveller upon opium [21,273]
After-drunkenness - And after-drunkenness of soul / Succeeds the glories
of the bowl [19, 58]
All-hallowed - To join the all-hallowed mirth / of more than thrones in
heaven. [21,207]
Angel-nod - Nor ask a reason save the angel-nod / she grants to us. [19.114]
Babylon-like - Up fanes - up Babylon-like walls [21.200]
Banner-like - Some lilies wave all banner-like, above a grave. [19.193]
Beast-like - The imitations made by the dwarf were sufficiently beast-like.
[18.223]
Cab-introduction - The cab-introduction will bring among us a peculiar
race of people, the cabman. (i.e., introduction of cabs) [21, 57]
Child-opinion - The child-opinion coincides with that of the man proper.
[18.92]
Death-producing - and of its forbidden fruit, death-producing, and a
distinct intimation. [4.202]
Death-struggles - My death-struggles with the water [20.590]
Eastern-looking - An Eastern-looking city, such as in the Arabian Tales.
[21.169]
Fancy-exciting - Fancy-exciting and reason-repressing character of the
alleged [19.134] discoveries.
Gaily-jewelled - Not the gaily-jewelled dead / Tempt the waters from their

bed. [21.202]
Half night-mare - recurring visions, half night-mare, half asphyxia.
[19.215]
Humming-top - The words must be all in a whirl, like a humming-top.
[21.275]
Ill-based - A truly profound philosophy might readily prove them ill-based.
[19.247]
King-coxcomb - He is king-coxcomb of figures of speech. [20.130]
Lee-lurch - lee-lurch about the whole sign [20.170] also The brig gave a
tremendous lee-lurch. [3.96]
Maiden-angel - A maiden-angel and her seraph-lover [21.112]
Misty-looking - a misty-looking village of England. [21.301]
Moon-hoax-y - It had an amazingly moon-hoax-y air. [20.247]
Ocean-wrath - The storm, the earthquake, and the ocean-wrath [19.105]
Opium-engendered - wild visions, opium-engendered [20.264]
Patriot-farmer - He has taken us abroad with the patriot-farmer in his
rambles about his homestead. [19.14]
Plague-goblins - Plague-goblins were the popular imps of mischief. [2.172]
Ready-slided - It is just as well to print them (vowels) ready-slided.
[19.259]
Seraph-lover - A maiden-angel and her seraph-lover [21.112]
Shoe-peas - the monastic hair-cloths and shoe-peas [18.93]
Shovel-footed -Not a shovel-footed negro waddles across the stage. [19.114]
Silvery-silken - There fell a silvery-silken veil of light. [20.445]
Soul-life - was dearer to my soul than its soul-life. [21.467]
Star-isles - At the many star-isles / that enjewel its breast [20,110]
Star-litten - To duty beseeming / these star-litten hours [21,109]

Time-eaten - Time-eaten towers that tremble not! [21,199]

Town-lamp - the only one (light) apparent except those of the town-lamps
[21, 293]
Under-toned - to give voice to under-toned comments about the condition
of the Island of Manhattan. [19, 74]
Unthought-like - unthoughtlike thought - scarcely the shades of thought
[18,167]
Vampire-wing-like - And vampire-wing like pannels back [19,185].
Weather-lanyards - As the brig gave a tremendous lee-lurch the word was
given to cut away the weather-lanyards. [19, 96]
World-reason - a conventional World-Reason awakens us from the truth
of our dream [18, 312]

Appendix 2