The Famous Sons of

Ancient and Medieval

AZERBAIJAN

Chingiz QAJAR

Shirvanshah Firidun ibn-Firiburz.

Contents
PREFACE
So was Spoken about Zarathustra. ZOROASTER (ZARDUSHT)
The King of Manne, a State that Became the Cradle of Animal Style in Art.
ULLUSUNU
The Amazon Who Defeated King Cyrus the Great. TOMYRIS
The Man Who Created Azerbaijan 2,300 Years Ago. ATROPATES
The King of Azerbaijan and Armenia, the Father of Antony and Cleopatra's
Daughter-in-law. ARTHAVAZD FROM ATROPATENE
The Ruler of a Country that Professed Zoroastrianism, Christianity and Islam.
JAVANSHIR
Mavali-Arabic Language Poet from Azerbaijan. MUSA IBN-BASHSHAR
SHAHAVAT
Twenty Years Face to Face with the Caliphate. BABEK AL-KHURAMI
The First Azerbaijani Poet to Become Known in the Middle East. QATRAN
AZERBAIJANI ( TABRIZI)
The Holy Shirazian From Shirvan. BABA KUKHI BAKUVI
The Outstanding Disciple of Ibn Sina. BAHMANYAR AL-AZERBAIJANI
The Leader of the Arabian Scientists. KHATIB TABRIZI
The Great Atabey. SHAMS AD-DIN IL -DENIZ
The Founder of the Sufi Brotherhood, One of the Most Authoritative In the Islamic
World. SHIKHAB AD-DIN OMAR SUHRAVARDI
The Philosopher - a Martyr SHIKHAB AD-DIN SUHRAVARDI
The King of Poets. ABUL-ALA GANJAVI
The Khakan of Poetry . KHAGANI SHIRVANI
The Creator of Unique Balms. OMAR IBN-OSMAN KAFI AD-DIN
The Zenith of the Islamic Renaissance. SHEIKH NIZAMI GANJAVI
(GANJALI)
The Great Lady of the Sufi Realm. MEHSET1 GANJAVI
The Sheikh of Engineers. AJAMI NAKHCHIVANI
The King Renowned for His Herculean Strength. JAHAN PEHLEVAN
The Sultan of Azerbaijan. GIZIL ARSLAN
The King of The Kingdom of Science. NASIR AD-DIN TUSI
The Greatest of the Grand Viziers. FAZLULLAH RASHID AD-DIN
The Founder of the Gizilbash Mystic Path. SAFI AD-DIN ISKHAK ARDEBILI
The Sun that Will Never Set Again. SHAMS TABRIZI
The Head of the Musical System School. SAFI AD-DIN URMAVI
The Interpreter of Sufi Mysteries. MAHMUD SHABUSTARI
The Author of an Outstanding 13th Century Medical Science Book. MAHMUD
SHIRVANI

The Medieval Physician Who Treated Stress. ABDUL MEJID TABIB

The Author of the First Persian-Azerbaijani Dictionary. FAHR AD-DIN
HINDUSHAH NAKHCHIVANI
The Encyclopaedia of the Economic and Political Life of Azerbaijan in the Epoch
of II Khans. MAHAMMED IBN HINDUSHAH NAKHCHIVANI
The Inventor of a Divine Script. MIR ALI TABRIZI
The Philosopher who was Executed and Buried in Nakhchivan. FAZLULLAH
NAIMI
The Man Who Spent His Life Looking for Monuments and Miracles of the World.
ABDRASHID SALEH IBN-NURI AL-BAKUVI
The Great Poet, Theorist and Propagandist of Khurufism. IMAD AD-DIN
NASIMI
Unique in his Time, Unequalled in Musical Art. ABDULGADIR MARAGHI
An Outstanding Physician from Lenkoran. RAMAZAN IBN SHEIKH ALI
LENKORANI
A Medieval Linguist from Garabagh. SADALLAKH AL-BARDAI
The Shah of the Great Shirvan. SHIRVANSHAH IBRAHIM I
The Power and Glory. SHIRVANSHAH KHALILULLAH I
The President of the First Chess Club. HAJI ALI TABRIZI AL-SHATRANJI
A Shah and Poet. MUZAFFAR AD-DIN JAHAN SHAH (HAGIGI)
The Creator of a Unique Bronze Couldron. ABD AL-AZIZ TABRIZI
A Prominent Medieval Calligrapher of Azerbaijan. JAFAR TABRIZI
The Emperor and Empire. HASAN BEY BAYANDUR-UZUN HASAN
The World Famous Sufi from Baku. SEYID YAHYA BAKUVI
The Great Sheikh, Distinguished General, Eminent Statesman and Notable Poet.
SHAH ISMAIL
Son of the Great Shah Ismail and Father of Shah Abbas the Great. SHAH
TAHMASIB I
Like the Light of the Sun. USTAD SULTAN MAHAMMED
The Cavalier Lifting Clouds of Dust. QARAPIRI BEY QAJAR
The Titan of all Turkic Poetry. MAHAMMED FIZULI
The Author of a Medical Treatise Written in Verse. YUSIF MAHAMMAD IBN
YUSIF TABIB
The Author of the Best Histories. HASAN BEY RUMLU
The Leading Architect of the Great Moguls. AGHA MTJREK MIRZA GHIYAS
The Faithful Son of Three Countries. MIR SEYID ALI
A Prominent King of Garabagh. SULTAN IMAM GULU QAJAR
The Greatest Among The Greats. SHAH ABBAS THE GREAT
A Star of Great Magnitude in the Constellation of Talents. SADIQ BEY AFSHAR
The Sheikh of Calligraphers. ALI RIZA TABRIZI
Azerbaijani Don Juan at the Spanish Royal Court. DON JUAN PERSIAN

A Famous Doctor and Poet RUQN AD-DIN MASUD MASIHI (DOCTOR

RUQNA)
The Last Great Classical Poet of Iran and Azerbaijan. SAIB TABRIZI
The Shah of Persia Elected by the Great Azeri-Turkic Gurultay (Cungress).
NADIR SHAH AFSHAR
The Courageous Freedom Fighter. HAJI CHELEBI
The Great Khan of the Garabagh Khanate. PAN AHALI BEY JAVANSHIR
The One Who Restored Azeri Iran AGHA MAHAMMED SHAH QAJAR
The Life Sacrificed for Azerbaijan ABBAS MIRZA SON OF FATALI SHAH
QAJAR
One Struggle More, and I am Free. JAVAD KHAN ZIYAD-OGHLU QAJAR
A Life Spent in Piligrimage. ZEYNAL AB-DIN SHIRVANI
The Master of Love Poetry. MOLLA PANAH VAGIF
The Key to Wisdom. MIRZA SHAFI
One of the Last Medieval Encyclopaedists of Azerbaijan. MIR MOHSUN
NAVVAB GARABAGI
A Virtuoso Tar Player and the Inventor of the Azerbaijani Tar. SADIQJAN
GARABAGLI
A Great Master of Qajar Painting. ALLAHVERDI AFSHAR

FOREWORD

For over 2,000 years, the territory of historical Azerbaijan, stretching from
the Caucasus Mountains to the Sefid-rud River in Iran, was populated by kindred
peoples and tribes, who spoke a common language and were notable for their
original habits, traditions and culture. More than 2,300 years ago, the ruler of
Media Minor, Aderbad (Atropates in Greek), founded a powerful independent
state: Aderbadagan (Atropatene). With the expansion of Arabs during the 8th and
9th Centuries, Aderbadagan, as a pail of a Caliphate and half-independent
province, was called Azerbaijan (in the Arab manner) - a name that has been
preserved since then.

Azerbaijan is a land of plenty with a temperate climate and rich natural

resources, located at the intersection of routes connecting Sumer, Greek, Roman,
Iranian, Turkic, Indian, Chinese and other civilizations. All things considered,
Azerbaijan has been notable since ancient times for its high level of manufacture,
original culture and history. New religions, religious sects and orders,
philosophical schools, medicine and sciences sprang up and flourished in the
region. Prominent Oriental poets and painters created their immortal works there;
the best samples of their artistic activities are kept in famous museums worldwide.

These works include remarkable miniatures, manuscripts, metalwork, and carpets

and fabric, manufactured in the territory' of Azerbaijan in the past and present.
The people of Azerbaijan profess Islam. Azerbaijan adopted the religion
through its previous experience of preceding great beliefs. Azerbaijan is referred to
as the birthplace of Zoroastrianism and the motherland of Zoroaster, founder of
this faith, as medieval Muslim scholars believed. Azerbaijan transformed into one
of the world's first countries to adopt Christianity and Judaism on its territory.
Traces of these communities have survived in the northern parts of the country.
It should be noted that statehood has long been typical for Azerbaijan.
There were such ancient states as Manna, Aderbadagan, Caucasian Albania,
Shirvan, and other state formations set up by conquerors from Assyria, Urartu,
Greece and Rome. Following the establishment of Islam, there sprang up huge
Turkic-Azeri Empires of Atabeys, Ilkhans, Agh Goyunlu, Gara Goyunlu and
Safavids with capitals in Azerbaijan (Tabriz, Maragha and Nakhchivan). These
states were headed by highly educated monarchs who were patrons of culture,
science and art. Worthy of note was that patrons of art and literature were widely
spread among nobility as well. Patrons of art and literature such as the senior vizier
of Ilkhan ruler, Fazlullah Rashid, and the nephew of Shah Tahmasib I, Sultan
Ibrahim Mirza, were famous for their enlightenment activities all over the Near
East. These states and state formations left their ineffaceable imprint on the ethno
genesis of Azerbaijani people. Furthermore, their culture and art created the
necessary economic, legal and cultural prerequisites for men of distinction in all
the areas of public life, culture and art.
The life and creativity of these distinguished people proceeded in Baku,
Ganja, Shemakha, Barda, Tabriz, Nakhchivan, Ardebil, Qazwin and other capital
towns of Azerbaijan. There were schools and universities, private and public
libraries, health houses - a sort of present-day clinic - pharmaceutical centres and
pharmacies, observatories, paper, dye and ink shops, decorative design and
copying works. Musical and poetic majlises (meetings) were held at palaces with
the participation of famous poets, composers, musicians and singers. There were
also sports teams of pehlevans (wrestlers), chovgan (polo) players, horsemen, bowshooters and chess players, who competed with each other. Most palace
arrangements, including sport competitions, were held to the accompaniment of
music. Also, special buildings called Nagara Khana housed the so-called
ceremonial orchestras.
This book contains biographies of scholars, theologians, philosophers,
literary critics, linguists, poets, painters, calligraphers, musicians, musicologists,
composers, astronomers, engineers, architects, musicians, statesmen and
commanders. The biographies are placed in chronological order to enable the
reader to get an idea of the development of culture and arts in Azerbaijan from
ancient times to the beginning of the 19th century.

So was Spoken
about Zarathustra
Zoroaster (Zardusht)
For nearly 200 years, scientific debates have
been under way regarding the birthplace of Zardusht
(Zarathustra, Zoroaster), founder of the religion named
in his honour - Zoroastrianism.The problem is far from
being solved. The birthplace of the prophet has not yet
been identified. Most medieval Muslim historians
(Biruni, Balazuri, Qazwini, Yagut al-Hamavi, etc.),
quoting later Zoroastrian sources, believe that
Zoroaster was born in Azerbaijan.
With its numerous fire temples, Azerbaijan
played an essential role in the creation and
dissemination of the canonized text of the ZendAvesta - the sacred writing of Zoroastrianism. It was a
Frieze fragment from the
Baku Bay fortification. 13th
place where Zoroastrianism was transformed into a
century.
world religion. One of the most revered fire temples in
Persia, Adurhushnaps, was built in Shiz, now Takhti Suleyman (Solomon).
According to ancient chronicles, Zoroaster lived 258 years before
Alexander the Great. About 3,000 years ago, a man called Parashaspa lived with
his wife Dogdo in Azerbaijan
near the city of Urmiya. They
lived in a palace on the bank of
the Daraj River, on mount
Azbar. They gave birth to a son
called Zoroaster. A medieval
manuscript stated that even in
his childhood, Zoroaster differed
from other children. He never
cried and his perpetual laugh
illuminated his parents' home
with Heavenly Light.
Since his early childhood,
A Postcard 19th century. The Temple of Fire. Surakhana.
Near Baku.
he was notable for his distinct
wisdom, and all the evil
magicians' attempts to kill him failed. Ministers of cult raised him, and at the age
of 15 he began wandering about the world as a minister of cult. When he was 30,

Zoroaster as a Prophet declared a new religion. He could not find any followers in
his own country, so he had to preach the new religion.
Once when he
passed a sacramental
river, the Heavenly
Spirit,
Bahman,
appeared before him
to take him to the
throne of God, Ahura
Mazda.
There,
Zoroaster was given a
Heavenly Revelation.
After that, Zoroaster
went to Hell, where the evil spirit Anghra
Mainyu (Ahriman) tempted him to leave the
religion. Zoroaster, however, managed to
escape the temptation. He returned to the
earth and declared a new teaching in the form
of sacred writing under the name ZendAvesta. The evil spirits pursued him on the
earth too, but Zoroaster drove them away
each time by praying from the Zend-Avesta.
Having obtained an inspiration from
Heaven, Zoroaster dressed in white clothes,
took a sacramental fire and cypress scepter in
his hand, came to the court of King Vishtaspa
and converted him to the new religion. As a
result, the neighboring rulers demanded that
he return to the religion of their ancestors, so
Dakhmas Towers of Silence. 1. Near
Yazd. Iran. 2. Gonahkend. Country
Vishtaspa declared war against them.
Buluh. 3rd-4th Centuries. Republic of
Vishtapsa won and Zoroaster's teaching
Azerbaijan. 3. Kharaba-Gilan. Julfa.
strengthened its position in Vishtaspa's
3rd-4th
Centuries.
Republic
of
country.
Azerbaijan.
Vishtaspa built numerous fire temples
in Baktria. Zoroaster spent his last days there and was assassinated by either evil
magicians or hostile warriors.
Zoroaster's doctrine proclaimed monotheism and the existence of a
permanent struggle between two principles - good and evil. Ahura Mazda was in
charge of the good, while Ahriman led the evil. Zoroaster taught that men should
assist Ahura Mazda in combating Ahriman. After all, according to Zoroaster,
Ahura Mazda should win this battle and exterminate evil in this world forever.

Zoroaster preached morals, such as good ideas, good words and good deeds.
He also instructed his followers to be generous, honest and restrained in one's
desires, and he recommended avoiding cruelty
and lawlessness. Each person, according to
this doctrine, should protect the cleanliness of
fire, water and earth. It was prohibited to
contaminate earth and fire through bodily
contact. Therefore, corpses were usually
placed on an elevated rocky place or on a
stone structure - Dakhma ("Silence Tower") where beasts and birds devoured it. Bones
were hidden in special places.
Zoroastrianism
was
expounded
through sacred writing in the Sacramental
Book "Zend-Avesta". Zoroastrian priests
preached the idea that Gats - the oldest part of
the Book - as well as its other parts, were
written by Zoroaster himself through a
celestial revelation from Ahura Mazda. In the
Zend-Avesta, this idea is expressed through a
repeating phrase: "So Ahura Mazda told
Zarathustra". Eventually, this new religion
penetrated not only the East, but also the
West. Zoroastrianism is the world's oldest
religion, and it influenced other religions such as Judaism, Christianity,
Islam and Buddhism. Zoroastrianism
became the first state religion.
As has been noted above,
contemporary Zoroastrians and early
Muslims regarded Azerbaijan as the
birthplace
of
Zoroaster
and
Zoroastrianism. The coronation of the
legendary Jamshid and Sassanidian
Shahinshahs took place in Azerbaijan,
Zindani Suleyman formation near Takhtiwhich was also where the ZendSuleyman.
Avesta was compiled for the first
time. Yampolskiy considered Azerbaijan "the papal area" of Zoroastrianism. The
most revered temples were located in Azerbaijan, where Zoroastrian priests from
the Azerbaijani tribe of Mag lived. The word "mag" was widely spread in scores of
languages. In Azerbaijan, the word mag survived under the name of Mughan Duzu

10

(I loath of Mags) and a large number of settlements (Mughanli, Mughan,

Mugh-anlo, etc.) scattered all over Azerbaijan and eastern parts of Georgia. For
Muslims, the word "Mughan" meant "Zoroastrian" or "fire worshipper", so the
names of the above mentioned villages might be connected with the locations of
Zoroastrians among Muslims.
Azerbaijanis have
preserved
many
Zoroastrian customs. The
names
Zardusht
and
Zoroaster and the word
"Dakhma" ("hovel") are
widely used in Azerbaijan.
Traces of Zoroastrianism
can been seen during the
celebration of Novruz
Bairam ("New Day"), the
spring equinox and the first
day of the New Year.
Traditions
during
this holiday include jumping over a bonfire,
lighting candles, dyeing eggs and preparing
traditional dishes. In many regions of
Azerbaijan, blowing out a candle and putting
out a bonfire or furnace by water are
considered to be sins. The sudden blowing out
of candle or lamp means an affliction for one's
family in the near future, such as the death of a
family member. To needlessly make a vow by
a fire is a serious sin.
Water is also sacramental: one is not
Iskandar Destroys the Temple of the
Fire-Worshippers.
Iskander-nama.
allowed
to scold it or needlessly swear by it.
Nizami. 1418. Institute of Manuscripts,
Original
Azerbaijani dishes, such as samani
Baku.
halvasi, ash and pahlava, still remain as ritual
meals. Through the Moslem religion, the Zoroastrian rite of five daily prayers with
the washing of hands and feet has survived.
Takhti Suleyman.ca. 2nd Century BC. East Azerbaijan, Iran.

11

Under the influence of Zoroastrianism, religious movements, such as

Hurramism and Hurufism sprang up in Azerbaijan. It is
believed that the role of Zoroastrianism in shaping
Shiism was especially great. The main objects
worshipped by Zoroastrians were water, fire, haoma
and Gaush-Urvan (the soul of a bull). The gods of these
four objects were gods related to various natural events.
There were gods of the sky, earth, sun, moon, wind, etc.
Daily worship consisted of offerings and libations to
fire and water.
Special temples were built to worship fire (the
god of Fire was Atur) and water (the goddesses of Water
and Fecundity were Aredvi-Sura and Anachita). From
times immemorial, fire played a leading role for
worshippers in Azerbaijan. In the word "Azerbaijan"
there are components of odur-adur-atur-azer, which
always meant fire, though its origin has long been
forgotten. In fire temples, fire was placed on special
high pedestals in the form of altars or mounted on the
roofs of high cult temples. The fire temples were called
"the place of fire" or "the house of fire".
Primitive men were impressed with the
Fire altars. 7th Century.
Sasanian Coins (details).
Absheron peninsula and its neighboring islands as an
Private collection.
ideal place for cults of fire, water, wind and haoma.
And it's no wonder why, with their ever-burning fires on land and in the sea,
stormy winds, a great number of lakes filled with unique fish and plantations of
unusual and delicious grapes. It may be assumed that long before the appearance of
Zoroastrianism, the Absheron peninsula had been a large cult center, as can be
witnessed by rock drawings in Absheron and Gobustan. Zoroastrianism and
Mazdaism found favorable conditions in Absheron to develop and form local cults
of fire, water and wind.
The Absheron peninsula was the center of Mazdaism and Zoroastrianism,
and there are enough arguments to corroborate this point of view. First of all is the
presence of Pars on Absheron (the self-given name of Persian-speaking Tats).
Zoroastrians escaped from Persia to India after the victory of Islam and called
themselves Pars. Most probably, Absheron Parses also fled to escape from
prosecutions by Muslims.
Most geographical denotations of Absheron can be explained in Zoroastrian
terms. Ancient authors dealt with sacramental lands in Albania and eternal fires
blazing on the islands of the Caspian Sea. Medieval Arabian historians wrote about

12

13

Albanian fire worshippers. At the end of the 19th Century, there were still
eyewitnesses who remembered original fire-worshippers.
They spoke about mosques and churches built on the ruins
of the fire-temples.
Medieval
Muslims
frequently
termed
Zoroastrianism as fire-worshiping, since fire played a
crucial role in this religion. According to local legends and
ancient chronicles, Juma Mosque in lcheri Shaher, and
Albanian church were erected on the place of fire and
water temples. On the island of Pirallahi there was a
strongly revered fire temple. An image of bull worshipped
by Zoroastrians was typical for numerous archaeological
finds at lcheri Shaher and its vicinity.
Above the gates of Gosha Gapi (Double Gates) of
lcheri Shaher, there is an image of
a bull surrounded by two Safavid
lions. As is seen, the bas-belief is
designed
to
symbolize
the
suppression of last Zoroastrians in
Baku and Absheron by Shah Abbas
people. The name of these gates
goes probably back to the
deformed Gaush-Gapi (Gates of a
Bull).
Fire altar. Naqshi Rustam. 9th-6th Centuries BC.
Iran.
Azerbaijanian
scientists
have identified that the famous
tower Giz Galasi (Maiden's Tower) situated in lcheri Shaher was a Zoroastrian
temple. Some researchers are prone to attribute numerous towers of Absheron to
Zoroastrian temples. It was medieval Azerbaijanian geographer Bakuvi who also
stressed that there were such towers in all the villages of Absheron. Obviously the
defensive nature of some of them do not rule out their use as temples.
The good outward appearance of the towers can be explained by the revival
of Zoroastrianism on Absheron after the arrival of Seljuks and Mongols in the Near
East. In these times, the Persian Zoroastrians fled from prosecution of Muslims to
the south of Fars, where in the cities of Turkobad and Sharafabad they created a
new center of Zoroastrianism. At the same time, a probability remains that
Zoroastrians settled down on Absheron as well.
The well-known expert in medieval ceramics S.Guseynova, proceeding
from the analysis of a large number of stamps on ceramic vessels of Azerbaijan
and, in particular, Absheron and Baku, inferred that some of them, especially in the
epoch of Nizami, were manufactured to be used for Zoroastrian ritual ceremonies.

14

Zoroastrian temples, just as the ones of other religions, were dedicated to

certain deities, cults or festivities.
Zoroastrian calendar numbered 360 days, divided into 12 months, each of
which consisted of 30 days. Each of the twelve months and each of the thirty days
of a month were dedicated to some deity and
were marked as religious holidays. Solemnly
celebrated were days whose names concurred
with those of the month. On holidays, all
people gathered in fire temples to eat, drink
and thus please God. In total, the Zoroastrian
priests recognized thirty main deities worthy
of worshipping. The number of towers
(temples) on Absheron is close to this figure
too. The last twenty fifth tower was recently
discovered in Sabunchi. Outside Absheron,
there is just one identical tower in the village
of Saadan, Divichi region. Analysis of
Absheron toponyms is indicative that the
names of settlements where towers -temples
were located end with "han", "khan", "san", "kan",
"an", "van" and mean a place or house. We have
already noted that fire temples were also called House
or Place of Fire and most Absheron toponyms can
easily be attributed to the Zoroastrian calendar.
Below shown are names of Absheron
settlements, most of which undoubtedly originate from
the names of days, months and feasts of the famous
Zoroastrian calendar.
Baku - Baga-van. The seventh month of the
year - Baga-yadis (month of worshipping God - Mitra)
and the sixteenth day of each month were devoted to
Baga (God).
Fire temples, or castles
Sura-khana (village near Baku). Sura -one of
that were later built in the
places of the fire temples.
the names of goddess of water and fecundity. Arcdvi Baku and beyond.
Sura -Anahit.
1.Baku. (Giz Galasi)
Tur-kan (village near Baku). (A) Tur-Kan. Atur
2.Mardakan I. 3.Ramana.
4.Mardakan II.
- the Fire. To Atur was devoted the ninth month of the
year and the ninth day of each month. In the ninth day
of the ninth month the Zoroastrian feast Azer-cheshn was celebrated. On this day,
fire temples were visited to offer sacrifices, kindled home fires.

15

Gau-san (village near Baku). Gau-Bull. The Zoroastrian feast of bull

worshipping was celebrated on the fourteenth day of each month.
Mashta-gha (village near Baku). Mazda -Zoroastrian supreme deity. In the
olden times, the name of Ahura Mazda was spelt as Mashda-ku, Mazda-ka and
Mazdu-ka. The tenth month of the year and the first day of each month and each
week were devoted to Ahura Mazda.
Shaban, Shuban (village near
Baku). Shaban, Aban, Apam - the deity of
water. The eighth month of the year and the
tenth day of each month were devoted to
this deity. There was a temple of fire
worshippers destroyed recently.
Marda-kan (village near Baku).
(M)Arda-Kan (habita-tion,village of Arta).
(M)Arta-kan and related Shahan (village
near Baku). Sha-(k)han. (A)Sha-(k)han.
Arta (Asha) - a divinity of righteousness and
Chiragh Gala (Fortress of Fire). 5thspace order. The second month of the year
6th Centuries. Divichi. Photo by Farid
and the third day of each month were
Mamedov.
devoted to this deity.
Ramana (village near Baku). Ramano was a Zoro-astrian supreme deity of
Peace and Quiet. This holiday was celebrated very solemnly on the day of autumn
equinox on the 21st day of the seventh month.
Fatmai (village near Baku). One of numerous Zoro-astrian fiests - FatmaiEdas was devoted to Ahura Mazda and the souls of deceased righteous man. This
holiday was second to Novruz and celebrated in the last day of the year, on the eve
of Novruz. And now Azerbaijanians on the eve of Novruz pray for the deceased,
visit their graves and leave there a samani (a plate with shoots of wheat) and
holiday khoncha (a plate with ritual meal).
Saadan (village near Baku). Saada - an ancient Zoro-astrian fiest dedicated
to fire. Saada was marked hundred days before Novruz (Pars. Saada - hundred) in
November or December.
Nuvadi (village near Baku). Nuvad-ruz - holiday celebrated ninety days
before Novruz (Pars.Nuvad - ninety, ruz-day). On this day, to protect oneself
against evil spirits it was recomended to eat garlic, drink wine and cook sabzigovurma .
Nov-khana (village near Baku). Nov-ruz - a new day. Novruz was devoted
to fire and celebrated on the day of spring equinox. It was believed that Zoroaster
was born on this day .
Zabrat and Jorat (villages near Baku). Zab-Ratu and Jo-Ratu (Pars.-Place
of Ratu). Ralu- spiritual God of humanity.

16

Gobustan Bogustan (The valley near Baku) - (Place of God).

All the above-stated is illustrative that Absheron since ancient times has
been a large center of local and Middle East cults, including fire-worshipping,
subsequently it turned into the center of Zoroastrianism. Pilgrims came here by
land and by sea. Pilgrims arriving by land were welcomed by temples of Gobustan,
Shikh, Sabail, Baku and all Absheron. Those arriving by sea were greeted by
magnificent temples of their favorite deity scattered along the seacoast of
Absheron. After that pilgrims went round all the temples, making offering and
libation.
The routs of pilgrims could easily be traced by the location of caravansaraies and ovdans on Absheron and on the approaches to Baku. The origin of a
pilgrim group (caravans) may be established through the analysis of caravansaraic's names. All the data reaffirm that pilgrims arrived from India, Iran, Central
Asia and Armenia, where from ancient times there have been professed
Zoroastrianism. For many years scientists have been making attempts to learn the
secret of these caravan-saraies and ovdans located far from trade caravan ways.
This mystery may be explained through recognizing the existence of the pilgrim's
caravan ways. This route was to cross Gobustan, Shaban, Sabail, Baku, Surakhana, Mastagha, Mardakan, Shahan, Absheron (village), Turkan to Pirallahi. The
second route might be laid via Gau-san and Turkan.
The King of Manne, a State
that Became the Cradle
of Animal Style in Art
Ullusunu
During the 9th through 7th Centuries B.C., the state of Manna arose and
developed in the territory that later became Atropatene, and then medieval
Azerbaijan. A king with heritable authority led the country, which was divided into
a number of provinces (Surigash, Messi, Uishdish, Arsiyanshi and others). During
the period of its peak, Manna was one of the largest countries in the Near East. Its
rise occurred during continuous wars with Assyria and Urartu.
Manna reached its highest point of power during the time of King Iranzu
and his son Ullusunu. Until recently, only a few authorities on ancient history
knew about the existence of this country. In the middle of the 20th Century, an
amateur archaeologist found a number of treasures in Azerbaijan - in Marlik,
Hasanlu and Zivie. Among the findings were sets of gold, silver and bronze
handiworks. The style of some of these antiques was very similar to the so-called
"Scythian animal style".

17

Gold cup escavated in Marlik. Manna, Iran. llth-12th Centuries BC.

18

The history of the discovery and study of one of these treasures is very
interesting. American archaeologist Robert Dayson led an expedition in the
Urmiva Lake region in southern
Azerbaijan, near the fortress of
Hasanlu in the territory of ancient
Manna. His group found traces of
conflagration in one
of the
archaeological layers. In this layer,
they found a gold bowl of extraordinary beauty. This find was
significant in the scientific community
for two reasons. The first was the bowl
itself which showed a highly technical
and artistic level. Experts identified on the bowl a scene of a sacrifice being made
to gods, as well as scenes portraying ancient myths of tribes that lived in this
region in the second millennium B.C.
The second reason for the bowl's
importance was that it enabled
archaeologists to put together historical
events regarding the nearby fortress with
surprising accuracy. During the siege,
which destroyed the fortress three
warriors were instructed to rescue the
Golden hair-fillet. 1st Mil. B.C. Manna.
most prized possession of the fortress - a
Jafar Abad. (Khalkhal, East Azerbaijan,
sacred gold bowl. By the time these men
Iran). Azerbaijan, Museum, Tabriz, Iran.
got to the second floor, the fire had
already spread through the entire building, and the floor collapsed beneath them.
The first warrior fell with his iron and gold sword. The second warrior fell on his
right side, bearing the bowl in his right hand and extending his left hand out against
the wall. The third warrior fell on him and they were all crushed under fragments
of the collapsed builing.
Experts agreed that these treasures were among the products of Manna's
people. Art experts and collectors began to talk about Manna. At last, the origin of
Scythian art - together with the arts of Media and Persia - was found. Further
findings have confirmed this idea. For example, the art of metal crafting was so
amazing that art collectors and connoisseurs have focused on Azerbaijan for 100
years.
Iranian art connoisseur V. Lukonin wrote in his book dedicated to the art of
ancient Iran, or more correctly the art of Manna, Media, Atropatenc and Iran, "The
works of art, about which there is speech, represent art developed here in the
Plaque decorated in Scythian animal style.
(Museum of Historical Jewellery, Kiev). Gold.
4th Century BC.

19

period of the 10th through 6th Centuries B.C. At this time, in the whole outlined
territory, there were some state formations, among which was Manna in
Azerbaijan. The kings of Manna's state
accepted active participation in policy and
interfered in the struggle of Assyria, Urartu
and Elam. Later, Media power grew here,
according to Herodotus, in the middle or at
the end of the 7th Century B.C. Scythian
tribes and their chiefs strengthened, so that
Above and below. Gold cup escavated in
Hasanlu. 8th-7th Centuries B.C. Manna,
East Azerbaijan, Iran.

after 28 years, they were "lords of Asia".

The art of this territory was the base on
which the art of the Scythians, Medians and

Persians was formed. This stage, submitted by

articles of virtue of Zivie, is particularly
interesting on the one hand, because in these
articles we notice a final stage of the
development of a recently opened civilization,
and on the other hand, because they are directly
connected to the initial stage of Scythian art and
the first monuments of Persian art".
Manna's history is poorly investigated,
and much of it is known only from Assyrian and
Urartu sources, which do not always recount events
objectively. After the death of one of the great Manna
kings, Iranzu, in about 716 B.C., authorities transferred
power to his son Aza. He continued his father's policy of
trying to unite with Assyria in its struggle against Urartu.
A number of Manna's rulers, however, openly opposed this
policy. In particular, Metatti, Telusina and Bagdattu
regarded Assyria with hostility, and as a result, they killed
Aza and his brother.
Ullusunu mounted the throne and was compelled,
against his will, to adhere to Urartu orientation. He even
conceded some areas that bordered Assyria to
Manna Musician. Brass vessel.
Manna, West and East Azerbaijan,
Urartu. Assyria, indignant by such a turn of
Iran. 8th Century B.C.
events, invaded Manna. Assyrian King Sargon
II arrested Bagdattu and ordered him to be whipped to death. Bagdattu's corpse
was exposed to set an example for the people of Manna. The Assyrians set fire to
Izirtu, the capital of Manna, and conquered a number of fortresses.

20

Ullusunu threw himself at the victors' mercy. A message from Sargon II

states that Ullusunu came forward to him "together with great patriarchs, advisers,
seeds of his kind, vicegerents and rulers, governed by his country", but he also
"sent a senior son with a presentation and testimonial
donation" to Sargon II.
Sargon II forgave Ullusunu and left him on Manna's
throne. In 714 B.C., Sargon began a campaign against Urartu,
and the two kings agreed upon a treaty. The kings met in an
agreed place, where Ullusunu gave horses and cattle to
Sargon's army. Sargon promised Ullusunu that he would take
territories lost by Manna from Urartu. In honour of Ullusunu,
the king of Assyria arranged a feast. Ullusunu sat at a higher
place than his father Iranzu had in his time. Sargon said,
"Before Ullusunu, king and the lord, 1 set the table of honor,
his throne higher than his father Iranzu". I. Diakonov wrote
that it was equivalent to the recognition of Manna as an
allied power.
Sargon II continued in the struggle against Urartu.
Ullusunu helped his ally in every possible way, and the
Urartu Army suffered a crushing defeat. Sargon returned
Manna's fortresses to Ullusunu. Sargon's army seized Urartu,
destroyed many cities and seized an enormous amount of
loot. Urartu King Rusa I, could not stand the shame of defeat
committed suicide. Sargon returned to Ullusunu 22 fortresses
and two fortifying cities. After the defeat of Urartu, Ullusunu
successfully reclaimed areas that had been seized from
Manna, and the stated reached the high point of its power.
Assyria recognized Manna as its equal partner. During
the time of Sargon II`s successors, Ullusunu even managed to
seize some areas of Assyria. During Ullusunu's rule in
Archer from Manna.
Manna, he re-edified fortresses and the city with large
Brass vessel. Manna,
temples and palaces, and the art of handicraftsmen was
West and East
Azerbaijan, Iran. 8th
developed. I. Diakonov wrote that "Manna, and possibly
Century B.C.
even more northern Urmia areas located in territories of
future Atropatene, rose to higher economic levels than a
large part of the territory of East Media".
One of the Manna vessels from the 8th Century B.C. portrays a Mannean
playing a musical instalment that strongly resembles the ancient Azerbaijani
instruments saz or tanbur. The pose of the musician and his manner of touching the
strings suggest that the musician is from Azerbaijan and that musical traditions
Ruler from Manna.
Brass vessel.
Manna, West and
East Azerbaijan,
Iran. 8th Century
B.C.

21

have been saved in this region since ancient times. The history and culture of
Manna is only the beginning of the study, and it is necessary to study many more
histories to discover the interrelationship of its culture and language with more
ancient countries.

The Amazon Who Defeated

King Cyrus the Great
Tomyris
Often called "the father of history", Herodotus was the first of the Greek and European -historians. His "History" is divided into nine books and is devoted
to the description of the Greco-Persian Wars and to the events that took place
during these wars. Herodotus is considered to be one of the most outstanding
historians in the world, although the events and facts described by him were, in the
tradition of his time, on the verge of fantasy and myth.
One such half-mythical historical episode, narrated by Herodotus in the first
book of his "History", concerns the
events connected with the killing of
the Persian king, Cyrus, in 529 BC,
when he tried to take over the
empire of Massagetae. At that time,
this empire existed in the territory
of modern Azerbaijan and was
located north of the river Araxes.
Herodotus
wrote
the
following:
"The Massagetae are a
numerous and brave tribe and they
live behind the river Araxes
Tomb of Cyrus the Great.Pasargada, Iran.
opposite the Issedons. Some
believe them to be Scythians. In their dress and way of life, the Massagetae
resemble the Scythians. They fight both on horseback and on foot; neither method
is strange to them. They use bows and lances, but their favourite weapon is the
battle-axe. Their arms are all of either gold or brass. For their battle-axes, they
make use of brass; for headgear, belts and girdles, they use gold. So too are their
horses caparisoned: they give them breastplates of brass, but employ gold about the
reins, the bit, and the cheek-plates. They use neither iron nor silver, having none in
their country; but they have brass and gold in abundance.

22

"The following are some of their customs: each man has but one wife, yet
all the wives are held in common" for this is a custom of the Massagetae and not of
the Scythians, as the Greeks wrongly say. Human life does not come to its natural
close with these people; but when a man grows very old, all his kinsfolk come
together and offer him up in sacrifice, offering at the same time some cattle. After
the sacrifice, they boil the flesh and feast on it; those who end their days thus arc
reckoned the happiest. If a man dies of disease they do not eat him, but bury him in

Battle between the Athenians and Amazons. Delphi Museum, Greese.

the ground, bewailing his ill fortune that he did not come to be sacrificed.
"They sow no grain, but live on their herds and fish, of which there are
plenty in the Araxes. Milk is what they chiefly drink. The only god they worship is
the sun, and to it they offer the horse in sacrifice; under the nation of giving to the
swiftest of the gods is the swiftest of all mortal creatures".
The heroine of Herodotus' narration was Tomyris, who had mounted the
throne at the death of her husband, the late king. Herodotus wrote that Cyrus sent
ambassadors to her, with instructions to court her on his part, pretending that he
wished to take her as wife. Tomyris, however, was aware that it was her kingdom and not herself - that he wanted to court. She forbade the men to approach. Cyrus,
therefore, finding that he could not succeed with this deceit, marched towards the
Araxes and openly displayed his hostile intentions. He began construction on a
bridge on which his army might cross the river, and he began building towers on
the boats that were to be used in the passage.

23

While the Persian leader was occupied with these labours, Tomyris sent a
herald to him, who said, "King of the Medes, cease pressing this enterprise, for you
cannot know if what you are doing will be of real advantage to you. Be content to
rule in peace your own kingdom, and cry to see us reign over the countries that are
ours to govern. As, however, I know you will not choose to hearken to this
counsel, since there is nothing you less desire than peace and quietness, come now,
if you are so mightily desirous of meeting the Massagetae in arms. Leave your
useless toil of bridge making, and let us retire three days. March from the
riverbank, and come across with your soldiers. If you like better to give us battle
on your side of the stream, retire yourself an equal distance".
At this offer, Cyrus called together the chiefs of the Persians and requested
them to advise him on what he should do. All the votes were in favour of his letting
Tomyris cross the stream and having a battle on Persian ground.
But Croesus the Lydian, who was present at the meeting of the chiefs,
disapproved of this advice. He said, "My counsel, therefore, is that we cross the
stream and push forward as far as they shall fall back, then seek to get the better of
them by stratagem. I am told they are unacquainted with the good things on which
the Persians live and have never tasted the great delights of life. Let us then prepare
a feast for them in our camp; let sheep be slaughtered without stint and the wine
cups be filled full of noble liquor. And let all manner of dishes be prepared. Then
leaving behind us our worst troops, let us fall back towards the river. Unless I am
very much mistaken, when they see the good fare set out, they will forget all else
and fall to. Then it will remain for us to do our parts manfully".
When the two plans were thus placed in contrast before him, Cyrus changed
his mind; preferring the advice that Croesus had given him, he returned to tell
Tomyris that she should retire, and that he would cross the stream. She therefore
retired. Cyrus gave Croesus into the care of his son Cambyscs - whom he had
appointed to succeed him on the throne - with strict orders to pay him all respects
and to treat him well if the expedition was successful. Cyrus sent them both back to
Persia, and then he crossed the river with his army.
After having advanced a day's march from the river, Cyrus did as Croesus
had advised him: he led the worthless portion of his army into the camp and drew
off with his good troops towards the river. Soon afterwards, a detachment of the
Massagetae - one-third of their entire army led by Queen Tomyris' son Spargapises
- fell upon the group that had been left behind by Cyrus, and put them to the sword.
Then, seeing the banquet prepared, they sat down and began to feast. When they
had eaten and drunk their wine and
had sunk into sleep, the Persians under Cyrus arrived, slaughtered many,
and imprisoned even more. Among these last was Spargapises himself.
When Tomyris heard what had befallen her son and her army, she sent a
herald to Cyrus, who thus addressed the conqueror: "You bloodthirsty Cyrus! Pride

24

not yourself on this poor success: it was the grape-juice, which, when you drink it,
makes you so mad, and as you swallow it down brings up to your lips such bold
and wicked words. It was this poison wherewith you didn't ensnare my child. Now
hearken what I advise, and be sure I advise you for your good. Restore my son to
me and leave the land unharmed, and triumph over a third part of the host of the
Massagetae. Refuse, and I swear by the sun, the sovereign lord of the Massagetae,
bloodthirsty as you are, I will give you your fill of blood".
Cyrus did not pay attention to the words of this message. As for
Spargapises, when the wine had worn off and he saw the extent of his calamity, he
asked Cyrus to release him from his bonds. When his wish was granted and the
fetters were taken from his limbs, he killed himself as soon as his hands were free.
When she found out that Cyrus had paid no heed to her advice, Tomyris
collected all the forces of her kingdom and waged a battle against him. Of all the
combats in which barbarians have engaged among themselves, this could have
been the fiercest. The following was the manner of it: first, the two armies stood
apart and shot their arrows at each other. Then, when their quivers were empty,
they fought hand-to-hand with lances and daggers. Thus they continued fighting
for a length of time, neither choosing to give ground. At length, the Massagetae
prevailed. The greater part of the Persian army was destroyed and Cyrus himself
fell, after having reigned for 29 years.
By order of the queen, a search was made among the slain for the body of
Cyrus. When it was found, she took the skin and filled it full of human blood, and
then dipped the head of Cyrus into it, saying, "I live and have conquered you in
fight, and give you your fill of blood". The first king of the Persian Empire - constructed on the base of Great Media, which he destroyed - was killed so
disgracefully by a woman.
The Man Who Created
Azerbaijan
2,300 Years Ago
Atropates
On October 1, 331 B.C., near the ruins of the ancient capital of AssyriaNineveh at the township of Gaugamela, a battle occurred which affected the fates
of many people of Western Asia. The battle between Alexander the Great and the
King of Persia Darius Achaemenid ended in complete victory for Alexander the
Great and the final destruction of the gigantic Achaemenids Empire. Into the hands
of Alexander fell Darius' wife, mother and two daughters, as well as many riches.
This battle was significant to historians because it was the first time that a
Media ruler ("satrap") was mentioned in historical accounts. Modem historians

25

Parthia. Artabanes III (10-38

AD). Drachma (detail).Silver.
AT (Atropatene).
Arabian Caliphate. Azerbaijan.
168 AH. Dirham. Silver.
Arabian Caliphate. Azerbaijan.
105 AH. Dirham. Silver.

believe that Atropates conquered almost all of the

territory of what later became medieval Azerbaijan,
as well as part of Great Media. After the battle,
Atropates did not present himself in an offer of
obedience to Alexander. Alexander, therefore,
removed Atropates from his position as satrap of
Media, and he appointed an Oxodat to the throne.
Alexander, however, was not satisfied with this new
leader, and he restored the position of satrap to
Atropates in 328 B.C.
Atropates understood the futility of his
struggle against Alexander, so he chose to pursue
diplomatic negotiations with the leader. As a result,
part of Media's territory was saved from the
conqueror's invasion. This territory was called Small
Media, then Atropatene Media and, finally,
Atropatene.
Alexander studied Zoroastrianism and
proclaimed to be the Son of God and successor of the
Great King in the grace of Ahura Mazda. He made
successful crusades in Central Asia, East Iran and
India, thus creating a great empire, which became
increasingly difficult to rule. He dreamed of
creating a new aristocracy of "Hellene-Persians",
which could successfully rule over this colossal
empire. In every possible way, Alexander
encouraged mixed marriages between the
representatives of Persian and Macedonian royal

houses and aristocracy.

The first steps in this direction were the festivities in Susa, which were
celebrated over a period of several days in honor of the mass wedding between the
representatives of these two countries. Alexander simultaneously married two
Persian princesses - Satire, daughter of Darius, and Parisatidas, daughter of
Artaxerxses III. On that day, 80 Greeks and Macedonians married representatives
of local aristocracy. Expensive gifts were given to the 10,000 warriors who married
Persian women: each of these warriors received a gold bowl. Actors, musicians and
jugglers from Greece performed at the celebration.
At these Susa festivities, Atropates did not miss his opportunity to
consolidate his position as independent ruler of Media. He married the daughter of
the head of the Macedonian cavalry Perdikka, one of the nearest companion-inarms of Alexander.

26

At the end of 324 B.C., Bariax announced himself King of Persia and Media
and crossed swords with the conqueror. Atropates suppressed Bariax's rebellion,
seized him and sent him and his men to Alexander, who executed them.
Alexander regularly visited the different parts of his empire. During one
such trip, he visited the Nisay fields, located on the border with Atropates' satrapy,
where famous horses were bred. Atropates went there and stayed for some time as
part of Alexander's entourage. During these trips, as well as every other possible
opportunity, Alexander organized
grandiose festivities. At one of
these
festivities,
Atropates
brought
for
Alexander's
entertainment
a
group
of
horsewomen, dressed in the I
clothes of horsemen, with spears
instead of axes and easy boards
instead of the usually accepted
heavy ones. Ancient authors
considered these horsewomen as
legendary "Amazons", who were
located in the "mountains in
Albania".
On June 13, 323 B.C.,
Alexander died in Babylon, the
The Bier of Iskander the Great. Shah-name. Firdowsi.
1330-1336. Tabriz. Freer Gallery of Art, Washington
prospective capital of his state.
DC.
Immediately following his death,
satraps assembled in Babylon for the division of the satrapies. Atropates, confident
of his authority in Small Media, did not attend the meeting. The regency of power
went to his son-in-law Perdikka. Per-dikka's aspiration to save the state from
disintegration caused counteraction of the contracting parties, and as a result, he
died in 321 B.C. Following his death, the second division of satrapies was held.
Atropates' satrapy was not included in the division. Academician Igrar Aliev noted
that from that time, Small Media could have been considered as an independent
state. Small Media was then transformed into an independent state, and later named
Atropatene (Aderbadagan or Azerbaijan), and Atropates accepted a royal title.
Two-and-a-half centuries after the kingdom of Manna had fallen, an
independent state rose again in its territory. Within the boundaries of this territory,
origins of various states were formed, preserving state and ethnic continuity. Due
to the wise and far-seeing policy of Atropates, Small Media became the first
Eastern state that sought independence from Macedonian conquerors. Small Media
was, in fact, the most independent of the satrapies up to the death of Alexander.

27

Greek geographer Strabo wrote: "Media was divided into two parts: Great Media
and Atropates Media. The second part received its name from the warlord
Atropates, who would not admit that the country was dependent of Macedonia as a
part of Great Media. Actually, after mounting the throne, Atropates made his own
decision that his country was independent. Also, it is rather significant from a
military point of view that the country could offer 10,000 horsemen and 40,000
infantrymen..."
The population of Atropatene was very mixed ethnically. The names and
geographical names were mostly Zoroastrian. After accepting Islam, they became
Arabic. Consequently, the determination of the ethnic origin of Atropates and the
population of Atropatene is very difficult, as even Zoroastrian names have reached
us mostly in their Greek interpretations. So, even the accepted name of this country
- Atropatene - is Greek. The Zoroastrian (Mcdes) name of this country was
Aderbadagan, Aderbaijan in Arabic (Azerbaijan).
We still do not know by what name these people called themselves and their
country. What we do know, however, is that over the centuries and millenniums
conquerors and various faiths and languages came and went, but the borders of
Azerbaijan created by Atropates have remained virtually unchanged. Within these
borders, people distinguished from neighboring people by their original customs,
character and culture, have lived for 2,300 years.
The King of Azerbaijan and Armenia,
the Father of Antony and
Cleopatra's Daughter-in-law
Artkhavazd from Atropatene
In the 1st Century' B.C., the Parthian and Roman Empires struggled for
authority in West Asia. In 38 B.C., the Parthian Empire suffered a crushing defeat
by the Romans near the city Gindary. The Roman army struggled under the
command of Marcus Antony's warlord Publiy Ventilia. After the battle, Antony
demoted Ventilia, and he took the lead of the huge army himself.
Antony's marriage to Cleopatra, the Empress of Egypt, in 36 B.C., made
him an autocrat of a large country and installed reliance in the practicability of his
plans to create a great Asian Power like that of Alexander the Great. Antony, on
account on this, named his son born to Cleopatra, Alexander, and he prepared a
new campaign against Parthia.
The Parthian army waited for Antony in Euphrates, but he moved north
through Armenia with the armies of the Kings of Armenia and Pont, in hopes of
passing through Atropatcnc Media and attacking the Parthian army from the rear.

28

The hilly relief of Atropatene, according to this plan, should have weakened any
opportunities of the famous Parthian cavalry.
Understanding the critical nature of the
situation, the Parthians ended all civil strife and
rallied around the Parthian King Fraat IV. The
Parthian leader gathered about 40,000 soldiers, while
Atropatene King Artha-vazd mobilized more than
10,000 troops.
Seizing with large difficulties part of
Atropatene, Antony admitted a large tactical error.
He kept a train, consisting of 300 heavy carriages, to
transport siege-guns and machines led by Oppius
Statsian, and he went on ahead with his main forces.
Antony hoped to approach unexpectedly Fraaspa. the
capital of Atropatcnc, seize it and capture the family of the King Arthavazd of
Atropatene, who were there. However, when Antony approached Fraaspa, the city
appeared to be perfectly prepared for a long defense.
While Antony was preparing for the siege, the Parthians and Atropatenians
destroyed the Roman train. Oppius Statsian died, Pont's
King was handed over in captivity, and the King of
Armenia receded back into Armenia. The siege-guns were
destroyed, and the army of Antony was blocked at Fraaspa.
The Parthians and Atropatenians refused battle and
disturbed Antony's army with daily attacks.
The coming winter compelled the Romans to leave
Atropatene and to leave Armenia through the mountains.
The Roman losses were huge: it is believed that more than
35,000 Romans died in Atropatene. Inspired by Cleopatra,
Antony's massive expedition into Azerbaijan ended in
Bust of Mark Antoni,
complete failure.
Kingston lacy.
As the scholar Igrar Aliev wrote, "The King of
Atropatene won a great victory. The victory was especially significant, as he won a
lot of treasure, including roman ensigns that had belonged to Oppius Statsian.
Furthermore, he had the King of Pont, Polemon, in captivity. All this promoted the
growth of the authority of Atropatene and its King Arthavazd".
After these events, Arthavazd wanted to use these victories to neutralize
Parthian presence in Atropatene. Arthavazd had a quarrel with Parthian King, Fraat
IV, the formal pretext of which was the dividing of the booty. In 35 B.C., King
Arthavazd of Atropatene sent Polemon, King of Pont, from captivity to Antony,
with the offer of peace and union. It changed all of Antony's plans, and he decided
Bust of Cleopatra. British
Museum, London.

29

to continue his campaign against Parthia. This decision shows that the authority
and military power of Arthavazd's army were at very high levels at this time.
However, before setting off against the Parthians in union with Atropatene,
Antony decided to settle
accounts with the King
of Armenia, and so he
moved to Armenia.
Here,
Arthavazd
returned to Antony the
ensigns
of
Oppius
Statian. The King of
Armenia was captured,
put in chains and sent as
a souvenir to Cleopatra,
and the capital of
Armenia was seized.
After this, Antony went
back to Alexandria, where he celebrated his triumph over Armenia.
Antony ordered the marriage of his and Cleopatra's son Alexander to the
daughter of Arthavazd Iotana. In connection with the engagement, he announced
the son to be King of Parthia, Atropatene and Armenia. The characters of Antony
and Cleopatra can now be seen as the parents of Alexander and as the participants
of a joint struggle with an aggressive neighbour.
At last, in the spring of 33 B.C., Antony moved through Armenia from the
east. However, disturbing messages from Italy had started to reach him, and his
war with Oktavian began. After that, Antony kept for Arthavazd a small army,
transmitted to him a part of the Armenian territory and left him. Arthavazd
remained alone with the allied armies of Parthia and Armenia. Due to the help of
the Roman armies, Arthavazd for the first time successfully resisted the allies.
Afterwards however, Antony withdrew the armies for his war against Oktavian,
and Arthavazd suffered a defeat in the war against the Parthians and was captured
and held in captivity. Soon, however, he found the possibility to run, and in 31
B.C., according to Plutarch, the King of Atropatene sent an auxiliary detachment to
help Antony in his battle at Share against the Oktavian army.
In a desperate situation, Cleopatra had the King of Armenia executed and
sent his head to Arthavazd in Atropatene in hopes of aiding Atropatene in its
struggle against Oktavian. Antony and Cleopatra, however, suffered a complete
defeat in the battle against Gaius Caesar of Oktavius, future ruler of the Roman
Empire (Augustus).

30

Augustus of Oktavian, taking into account the merits of Arthavazd of

Atropatene and desiring to neutralize the Parthians' acts by his patronage, returned
to him the Armenia territory, as well as Iotana, the bride of Alexander.
The dreams of Arthavazd had come true: he had become the ruler of two
empires, Atropatene and Armenia. However, it did not last long. In 20 B.C., his
son Ariobarzan II came to power in Atropatene. Ariobarzan had lived in Rome for
more than 10 years, had a good
Roman education and was very friendly to Rome. Therefore, it is not
surprising that the Romans handed to him the throne of Armenia. After the death of
Ariobarzan, Augustus put his son Arthavazd on the throne. In honour of
Arthavazd, a silver coin with the image of Augustus and the inscription on the back
"King Arthavazd the Great" was made in Rome.
Imp(eratore) Domitiano Caesare
Aug(usto) Germanic(o) L.Julius
Maximus > leg(ionis) Ful(minatae)
The age of Domitian Caesar Augustus Germanicus. Latius Julius Maxim
centuriaon of the 12th instant legion.
The Ruler of a Country that
Professed Zoroastrianism,
Christianity and Islam
Javanshir
n the 4th Century AD - possibly earlier - the state of Albania was
established in the territory of the modern republic of Azerbaijan. Albania actively
participated in events that occurred in the Caucasus and in Asia Minor. Many
ancient authors wrote about this state.
In the 7th Century, Caucasian Albania experienced difficulty for several
years. Sassanian Iran came from the South, trying to restore Zoroastrianism in
Albania, which practiced Christianity; from the West, Byzantium aspired to take
the Alban church under control; and the Turkic-Khazars broke through the
Caucasus from the North. The Arabs came from the South, bearing the new and
all-winning doctrine of Islam.
A young Albanian prince named Javanshir played an important role during
the final battles against the Arabs. On the side of Sassanian Iran, Javanshir was the
son of Varaz Gregor Mehranid, ruler of the feudal possession Gardman, which was
situated on the Gardman River. Meh-ranids, who had escaped from Iran, inhabited

31

Gardman. Mehranids were Zoroastrians, and they managed to distribute their

influence to almost all of Albania in a rather short time, and they transferred their
capital to Barda. The stabilization of the situation in the
country had already prevented Iran-Byzantium wars for
many years. Albania, however, turned into an arena of
wars between these states.
In 623, the Byzantium army of Emperor Irakli and
troops of its ally, Khazars Kagan, invaded the territory of
Albania. This Byzantium-Khazars army seized
Nakhchivan, Tiflis and other cities in the Caucasus. In
Gazaka they destroyed a famous temple of fire-worshippers. The Khazars consolidated in Albania and had
their administrative centre in Gabala. After the rout, many
Khazars remained in Albania.
In 628, Iran and Byzantium reached a peace
Stone Figure. 5th-6th
Centuries. Aghdam
agreement, under which Armenia fell under the authority
region, Caucasian
of Byzantium, Georgia became independent, and Albania
Albania.
remained dependent on Sassanids Iran. Emperor Heraclius
(Irakli) came to Gardman with his army, baptized Varaz
Gregor, and in every possible way promoted the
construction of churches throughout the entire country.
Georgian chronicles state that Emperor Heraclius
baptized not only Varaz Gregor, but also "all his people".
Varaz Gregor was the first of the Mehranids to receive the
title of king over all of Albania. Weakened by wars with
Byzantium, Iran could hardly withstand the onrush of the
Arabs. Albanian troops fought in battles against the
Arabs, led by the son of Varaz Gregor, Javanshir.
Albanian historian Musa Qalankatli noted that Javanshir
and his group of soldiers fought for seven years in these
wars against the Arabs. During this time, Javanshir
proved to be a brave soldier and a talented warlord.
Javanshir. 7th Century.
In 636, the Arabs won an important victory in their
Caucasian Albania.
Hermitage. St.
battle against the Persians, which occurred near the
Petersburg
ancient capital of the Sassanids Empire, Medain. Under
the command of Sassanids warlord Rustam, 80,000 troops from Atropathene
fought in the battle against Javanshir and his troops, rhe Persian army suffered a
defeat, and Javanshir's army departed.
Historical chronicles have described brighter victories for Javanshir's troops
after this battle. Shah-in-Shah of Iran Iezdigerd especially recognized the merits of

32

Javanshir and "gave him a banner and loud pipes, two gold spears and a gilded
board which he had always carried before.
He esteemed him above all and gave him a
gold belt, decorated in pearls, and a sword
with a gold handle. He also gave to him
bracelets for his wrists and put on his head
a perfect diadem. He gave him garters,
decorated in pearls, and he hung many
strings of pearls around his neck".
After taking part in several more
battles, Javanshir understood that the sands
of the Sassanids Empire were running out,
and that same year, he returned home. An
Albanian historian wrote: "In the continuation of seven years, brave Javanshir
fought in these burdensome wars. Being 11 times badly wounded, he took leave of
them".
When those defeated by the Arab Sassanids troops invaded the country in
639, Javanshir, in union with Georgia and the ruler of Suniq (Zangezur) levied war
on them. One historian wrote about the courage displayed by him during these
battles: "He personally struck Gegmazi, the leader of the army. By taking many
prisoners of war,
horses, mules and a
lot of riches, they
came back. In the
mountains,
they
confronted them once
again, and this time,
the victory went to
him".
The Persians seized and held in captivity natives of Javanshir and again
invaded Albania. Eventually, however, Javanshir finally overwhelmed the
Persians. Afterwards, Javanshir married the daughter of Suniq's ruler. However,
Javanshir could not preserve the independence of Albania.
In 654, the Arabs invaded Albania under the command of Salman ibn
Rabiya, commander of the Caliph Osman. Some of their troops even reached
Gabala, Shaki and Derbent, but past Derbent, Khazars blocked the way. When the
Arabs arrived outside Derbent, the people of the city locked the gates, and "the
Khazars Khakan met them with cavalry", killing 4,000 Arabs. As expert historian
of Albania Kamilla Trever wrote: "The Arabs were probably especially interested
in the submission of Albania, taking into account its strategic position between
Stone capital with Albaian script. 5th-6th
Centuries. Caucasian Albania. Museum of
Azerbaijani History, Baku.

33

Khazars in the north and Atropathene (which had still not been subordinated) in the
south. Its position also included trade-ways from Asia Minor in the Northern
Caucasus, and mineral resources in Volga
and in the Russian steppes.
At Caliph Ali, internal wars strongly
weakened the Caliphate, and Javanshir took
advantage of this. Khazars and Byzantium
now directly threatened the independence of
Albania, and Javanshir was compelled to
search for ways of rapprochement with
Byzantium. He exchanged letters with
Byzantium Emperor Constantine II and met
with him a few times as well. Javanshir
offered to accept the Albanian people under
his protection, and the Byzantium Emperor accepted this
offer with great pleasure. He sent Javanshir a precious gift
on behalf of the Byzantium court, and he named Javanshir
ruler of Gardman and king of Albania. An Albanian
historian wrote: "He sent him gifts of magnificent
souvenirs - silver thrones with cut-out gilt backs, clothes
made of gold-yarn fabrics, and a sword sprinkled in pearls
from his own belt... He gave him all the villages and
regions of the kings of Agvan". The policy of
rapprochement with Byzantium at that time was clearly
justified. Its borders, as wrote Qalankatli, now reached
from "Iberia up to the gates of the Khons and up to the
river Araks".
Two years after the conclusion of the treaty with
Byzantium, Albania was faced with the invasion of
Khazars. The Khazars reached Kura, where Albanian
troops defeated them and forced them to retreat from
Albania. A few years later, the Khazars suddenly made
Caucasian Albania.
another raid, but this time they reached Araks. Javanshir
Imitations of Hellenistic
coins (3rd Century AD.)
was compelled to enter into negotiations with Khazars.
On the coast of Kura, he met with the Khazars ruler. The
meeting ended in a peace contract, under which Khazars returned captives, and
Javanshir married a daughter of Khazars Khakan. Byzantium eased off its struggle
against the Arabs, which allowed Javanshir to be released from dependence.
In 667, Javanshir made a move toward negotiations and went to the capital
city of the Caliphate. The Caliph met him with solemnity and officially recognized
Red
earthen
candlesticks
with
inscription in Albanian (Caucasian)
language. 5th-6th Centuries. Azerbaijani
History Museum, Baku.

34

him as king of Albania. The diplomatic talents of Javanshir, as well as his personal
qualities, allowed him to open up friendly relations with the Caliph. Three years
later, Javanshir received an invitation from the Caliph
to be the intermediary in his negotiations with the
Emperor of Byzantium. Javanshir agreed and carried
out the task perfectly. Both parties were satisfied with
the results of the negotiations.
Javanshir returned home with expensive and
outlandish gifts, including palace weapons, expensive
clothes, an elephant and parrots. The establishment of
friendly relations with the Muslim Caliphate became a
landmark in the history of Azerbaijan and the process
of Islamisation in the country. This event was probably
a reason for the organization of a conspiracy among
Christian feudalists against their ruler - Javanshir died
Yezidabad Fortress. 7th
in 669 of serious wounds, inflicted on him by one of
Century. Nakhchivan. Photo
the participants of the plot.
by Farid Mamedov.
Javanshir was an outstanding commander and a
wise state personality. He was an important figure in
Azerbaijan's history, as he was able to restore and keep
independence of the country. He was also a talented
diplomat and knew how to solve problems peacefully
and, therefore, established mutual relations with the
Arabians, Byzantines and Khazarians. Javanshir
contributed significantly to the development of the
material and spiritual culture of Albania, which, to a
large degree, was connected to his friendly relations with
the Caliphate and Byzantium.
An outstanding Albanian historian named Musa
Qalankatli mentioned above wrote "A History of Albania" under the instruction of Javanshir. Unlike the works
of historians before him, materials from the palatial
Stone fiqure. 5-6th
archives were given to him to be used. For example, he
centuries. Aghdam Region
CaucasusAlbaniya.
cites Vachagan's letters to bishops, Javanshir's letter to
Republic of Azerbaijan.
Byzantium Emperor Constantine, a letter from Constantine to Javanshir, and others. He also cites the elegy of
the courtier poet Davtak, who wept for Javanshir after his murder and damned the
murderers. In the conclusion of his poem, he wrote: "He was to us the lamp of the
true world, a man at the wheel, the tamer of heavy waves, brave Javanshir,

35

Rekonstruction of Javanshir Fortress in smayilli. By J. Giyasi.

36

disseminating host of enemies!"

Musa
Qalankatli
wrote
that
Javanshir built many palaces and
temples in Barda and in other cities.
Soon after the death of
Javanshir, Albania obeyed the
Arabs and the people of its lowlands
accepted Islam. The Islamization of
the mountain regions, which had
kept Christianity until then, was in
due course delayed, and the
population of upland Garabagh, by
accepting the Armenian language as
the language of the church, partially
underwent Armenization.
Javanshir fortress in smayilli.
6th Century, Republic of Azerbaijan.
Photo by Farid Mamedov.

Mavali-Arabic Language
Poet from Azerbaijan
Musa ibn Bashshar Shahavat
By the 7th to 9th Centuries, Islam had spread throughout vast territories,
stretching from Spain to North and West India. Arab, Turkic and Persian peoples
largely contributed to the dissemination of Islam, the establishment of state
formations and the so-called "Muslim culture".
In the first centuries of Islamic dissemination, it was the Arabic language
that served major means of communication in all the Muslim countries. Persians
and Turks made a significant contribution to the development of Arabic. It was no
mere coincidence that a galaxy of outstanding poets arose from Azerbaijan called
"mavali", who wrote their works in Arabic. In his famous book "Ash-Shir va-shshuara", ibn Qutayb ad-Dinavari - quoting Abul Yazgan - wrote as follows: "There
is no poet among mavalis in Medina who does not come from Azerbaijan".
Further, he referred to Ismail ibn Yassar, his brother Musa Shahavat and Abul
Abbas. It should be noted that in due course Arabic gave way to other languages,
though it remained a means of spiritual culture.
Persian and Turkish had to fight heavily to survive as languages. Turkish
especially had to compete with such highly developed languages as Persian and
Arabic, which had century-long written literature traditions. Moreover, these
languages served two major religions - Zoroastrianism and Islam.

37

It may then be supposed that long before the adoption of Islam, the Turks
had maintained close relations with Persian-speaking tribes, had worshipped Ah
Lira Mazda and, to an extent, had known one of the
Persian languages or dialects. Therefore, when the
language of Farsi began combating Arabic, Turks gave
their preference to the former. Famous Persianlanguage poetic schools were established in Central
Asia and Azerbaijan. Simultaneously, Turkish
literature arose, inferior to that of neither Arabic nor
Persian. In nearly all the territories from Baghdad to
Delhi, Turkish was used as the spoken language of
nobility and military regulations until the 17th to 19th
Centuries. Nevertheless, Azerbaijani scholars and
poets still used Arabic and Persian, as well as Turkish.
One of the most outstanding Arabic poets from
Azerbaijan
was Musa Shahavat, who wrote in the late
A group of Greek
Philosophers. Mukhtar l7th and early 8th Centuries. His father's name was
Hikam (selection of Wise
Bashshar. There are different views on the origin of
Sayings). 11th century
the poet's pen-name. "Shahavat" is translated from
(copy). Topkapi saray
Museum, stanbul.
Arabic as "greedy" and simultaneously as "sweets".
According to one version, Musa was engaged in re-selling sweets. According to
another version, he was very greedy and on seeing somebody wearing expensive
clothes, eating tasty food or galloping on a horse, he began tearfully to beg for all
of it. According to historical chronicles, Musa often visited Azerbaijan, his
motherland, from where he brought back sugar and sweets for resale. In all
probability, his penname "Shahavat" was attributable to this line of occupation.
Musa Shahavat's quniya was abu Mahammed. Thus, his full name was abu
Mahammed Musa ibn Bashshar Shahavat. Regretfully, a collection of verses
(divan) of Shahavat has not yet been discovered. A few of the poet's well-known
verses were identified in various collected stories of Tazkire authors of a different
epoch. For this reason, most of them are of a panegyrical nature. It was basically
Musa Shahavat's verses that provided scanty biographical information.
One of the most popular verses by Shahavat was a panegyric in honor of
emir Said ibn Khalid ibn Abdallah ibn Khalid ibn Asid. Musa Shahavat fell in love
with a slave, so he decided to marry her. However, the girl's owner demanded
10,000 dirhams from Musa as ransom. Musa asked his friends to help him, and by
joint efforts he managed to collect 4,000 dirhams. To get the remaining 6,000
dirhams, he asked his close friend and cousin Said ibn Khalid al-Osmani, but was
refused. Then Musa saw his cousin Said ibn Khalid ibn Abdallah ibn Khalid ibn
Asid, who lent Musa 6,000 dirhams and, even better, presented him with another
2,000 dirhams for wedding expenses. After that, as the well-known Shahavat

38

researcher Malik Mahmudov points out, Shahavat wrote a panegyric that brought
him fame as a wisecracker and poet.
Using the fact that the names and patronymics of both of his cousins
coincided, Musa Shahavat was successful in designing his verse so that a panegyric
to one cousin was replaced by a satire of another. Infuriated by the satire, Said ibn
Khalid al-Osmani complained to Caliph Suleyman ibn Abd al-Malik. Musa came
to the Caliph and explained his verse as follows: "Since their names and
patronymics are identical, I decided to present them under their mothers' names to
avoid confusion, so 1 did not write a panegyric to cousin Said al-Osmani, and he
was angry about it". The Caliph was very pleased with the poet's answer, so he let
Musa go.
Another well-known work by Musa Shahavat was his laudatory ode
dedicated to Khamsa ibn Abdallah Mobed, a famous singer of the period. He sang at Shahavat's request - the ode to Khamsa during a grand rally. The singer won a
prize worth 400 dinars and shared it with the poet. The song was later included in
the anthology of the 100 best songs of that period. Apparently, as soon as Mobed
learnt about Guteyb ibn Muslim's seizure of five towns in Central Asia,
heexclaimed, "My five songs cost more than five towns seized by Guteyb ibn
Muslim". Among these five songs was the above-mentioned ode by Musa
Shahavat.
Another one of Musa's poems included information that in 712, Musa got
married for the second time to the daughter of Maulana, named Khamida.
It has to be kept in mind that a number of Musa Shavat's verses came as a
response to injustices administered by governmental officials and theologians.
Malik Mahmudov points out that Shahavat's verses were so popular that people
cited them in everyday life and at court. It was not surprising that individual
expressions and fragments from Shahavat's verses became current as aphorisms,
proverbs and sayings
Twenty Years Face to Face
with the Caliphate
Babek al-Khurami
Azerbaijan was one of the main places of Zoroas-trianism, and the most
esteemed Zoroastrian temples were located here. That is why one of the primary
goals of the peasants' rebellion, led by Babek in the beginning of the 9th Century,
was to banish Islam and restore the ancient beliefs.
The exact date of Babek's birth is not known, but most scientists believed it
to be 798-800. The purely Arabic name of his father (Abdulla) indicates that he
was a Muslim. However, it is possible that Babek's father, like many others, only

39

formally accepted Islam to avoid taxes. Abdulla lived in Azerbaijan and made his
living by selling oil. He married a woman from the Bilalabad village who gave
birth to their two children - Hasan (who would later
accept the name Babek) and Abdulla.
After robbers murdered Abdulla, his elder son
Hasan started to baby-sit in order to make a living for his
mother and little brother. When Hasan turned 10, he
became a shepherd. Arab Historian Mahammed Ibn Ishak
described an interesting fact from this period of Hasan's
life: Once, Babek's mother went to look for her son who
had not returned home on time. She found him sleeping
Arabian
Caliphate.
Arran. 89 AH. Dirham.
naked under a tree, and there was blood all over his body.
Silver.
When he woke and stood up, the blood changed color and
disappeared. Babek's mother understood that her son would be engaged in great
deeds and there would be a lot of blood spilt.
Several years later, Hasan started to drive
camel cattle. He traveled a lot with a caravan
through all of Azerbaijan. Later, his good
knowledge of the land would help him in a war
against regular Arabic troops. Afterwards, Hasan
moved to Tabriz, where, for the first time, he was
introduced to the Hurramits doctrine. Here he
understood that the Islamization of Azerbaijan by
Arabs was fatal. When Hasan turned 18, he
moved back to Bilalabad, and at this point in his
life he finally accepted the name Babek.
In Bilalabad there was a Hurramit
organization led by a wealthy man Javidan ibn
Sukhrak who lived in the Baaz fortress. Javidan was engaged in a conflict with his
neighbour feudal Abu Imran, which kept him constantly ready for action. Once
Javidan was returning home from Zanjan and stayed for the night in Babek's house.
Javidan was impressed by Babek. He had not expected to meet such a bright and
intelligent young man in a poor peasant's house. He invited Babek to join his
detachment. First, Babek refused as he did not want his mother to stay alone, but
Javidan promised to pay his mother 10 dirhemmes each month. The next morning,
Babek left with Javidan for the journey to the Baaz fortress.
The location of this fortress is still a subject of numerous arguments.
According to the scholar Bunyatov Baaz, the fortress was situated between the
rivers Araks and Akhar by the city of Ordubad in the Garabagh district.
Two warriors of Fatimid Egypt. 11th
Century.

40

Panorama of the Fort of Babek. East Azerbaijan, Iran. Photo by Khanali Siami.

41

Babek worked as the manager of Javidan's estate. Everybody - including

Javidan's wife - was fond of him. When Javidan was killed in a fight against Abu
Imrah in 816, his wife gathered warriors by her husband's corpse and declared his
last will: "Pass my message to my people: my soul will transfer from my body to
Babek's, who will become very powerful with your help. He will defeat all our
enemies and restore the doctrines of Mazdac. The most contemptible and worthless
of you will respect him under his leadership". As Mahammed Ibn Iskhak reported,
the warriors wondered why Javidan had not told them, to which she replied:
"Everybody left for their own homes and he couldn't send messengers to you since
he feared the Arabs would learn about the accident. So I am the one telling you his
last will: "I will die tonight and my soul will transfer to Babek's body. I am
delegating my power to him. I'll curse anybody who goes against my will".
The warriors agreed and Javidan's wife gave orders to kill a bull, to skin it
and to put a glass of wine and bread on the skin. Everybody put a foot on the skin,
soaked a piece of bread in wine and ate it, saying, "I believe in you, Babek's spirit,
as I used to believe in Javidan's spirit". Afterwards, everybody kissed Babek's
hand, and a feast began. After Babek succeeded Javidan, he became the leader of
the Hurramitcs community in Baaz and accepted his non-Muslim name, Babek.
Long before the appearance of Babek, the Hurramites were fighting the
Arabs and their policy of Islamisation. During Javidan's rule, Azerbaijan turned
into one of the most severe confrontation places, with Baaz as the Hurramite
capital. The Hurramites' religion was based on the Mazdakism and Zoroastrianism
doctrines. It preached the existence of a constant conflict between good and evil,
and between light and darkness. All his life Babek fought against the Caliphate and
tried to restore the ancient Zoroastrian and Mazdakism beliefs.
Muslim historians wrote about the Hurramites from a subjective point of
view: they described incest among the Hurramites, the lack of a family institution
and polygamy. According to Muslim historians, Hurramites were constantly
engaged in drunken fiestas. As Abu Muzaffar Isfarain reported, "Babekitcs of both
sexes gathered on a hill to engage in all kinds of wrong deeds. Then they turned off
the lights and every man spent the night with a woman he had won".
After becoming the Hurramites leader, Babek started to take some serious
actions: his goals were to banish the Arabs, abolish Islam and restore ancient
beliefs. A rebellion against the Arabs took place throughout all of Azerbaijan and
then moved further into the North [Arran] and into the South [Jabil and Khorasan].
Babek always destroyed all fortifications and killed Arab soldiers and civilians.
Also, the local feudal lords who acted against Babek were exterminated. In almost
20 years, more than 250,000 people were murdered and about 10,000 were
captured.
The success of Babek could be explained in favourable circumstances. One
of them was a conflict between two brothers, Emin and Mamun, who were suc-

42

cessors of their father Caliph Kharun ar-Rashid. Mamun won the conflict, after
which he changed his policy dramatically in favour of the Arabs, although his
mother was Persian. In 819 the capital was moved from Khorasan to Baghdad.
Mamun used regular troops against Babek. However, Babek's army grew much
stronger and there were several battles that neither side won. Mamun changed his
commanders several times, but this did not help.
The first battle took place in 819. The Arab army was commanded by
Yahya ibn Muaza Ibn Muslim who was later substituted by Isa Ibn Mahammed Ibn
Abu Khamed, ruler of Azerbaijan and Armenia. Babek won the battle against Abu
Khamed, and he gradually transformed his poorly equipped detachment into a
well-organized and trained army.
After Mamun realized that the situation was getting worse, he appointed
Mahammed Ibn Khumayda at-Tusi as chief of the army. Under the leadership of
this talented warrior, Babek was forced to return to Baaz. Khumayda's army
surrounded the fortress in June of 829, and a battle began which Babek won, using
his reserved detachments. Babek's victory had a great effect on the whole Arabic
population. Mamun was going to continue the war against Babek, but he had to
postpone it as the Caliphate became involved in a war with Byzantine. The
Hurramites rebellion also involved such places as Isfahan, Fars Kuhistan and
Khorasan.
Pre-Arabic customs and ways of life were practiced in Baaz. Women had
equal rights to men. They did not have to cover their faces, they could choose their
husbands, and they could socialize with other men. There were always sounds of
music and singing in Baaz.
During this peaceful period, Babek started to feel undefeated, and he
changed his battle strategy. His first wife was Javidan's widow. Then he was
married to the daughter of Prince Sunik Vasak. According to legend, he had other
wives as well. Some sources indicated that Babek had seven sons and three
daughters, while others said it was 17 sons and 23 daughters.
In 833 Caliph al-Mamun died, and his brother Al-Mutasim succeeded him
as the new Caliph. In his last will, al-Mamun wrote: "Regarding the Hurramites,
send against them the most cruel man, and supply him with a lot of money, armor
and troops. If this man isn't able to defeat the Hurramites, you yourself must fight
against them".
The first thing that Mutasim did after becoming Caliph was to reorganize
the Arab army. He hired a lot of Turks who were known as brave and skillful
soldiers. It was the Turkish detachments that later played the key role in defeating
Babek's army.
The capital was moved from Baghdad to Samarra. The first battle against
Babek took place near Khamadan. Here Babek changed his traditional battle
technique and fought in a field. Arabic troops led by Iskhak ibn Ibrahim ibn Musab

43

won this battle. Thousands of soldiers in Babek's army were killed, and the rest
escaped. Babek returned to Baaz and started to form a new army. This defeat
strongly damaged Babek's image, and many of his followers started to question his
divine origin. Meanwhile, Mutasim ordered one of his emirs, Abu Saids
Mahammed, to surround the Baaz fortress and to stop the supply of food and
armour. Several chief detachments of Babek were defeated.
Afterwards, Mutasim formed a new army and appointed a noble Iranian
(Turkic by birth) Heydar ibn Kaus el-Afshin, who was known as one of the most
talented warriors, as its chief commander.
Afshin was also appointed as ruler of Azerbaijan, Armenia, Arran, Munan
and Jabal. Afshin was formally a Muslim. However, later events indicated that
Afshin was following Zoroastrianism and that he wanted to liberate country from
Arabic rule.
Afshin was acting slowly in his war against Babek. Many medieval and
modern historians have interpreted his strategy as an attempt to choose the right
moment for starting a war against the Caliphat in alliance with Byzantine and
Babek. In the spring of 836 Afshin reached Baaz and surrounded the fortress.
Babek remembered the bad experience of the battle near Khamadan and decided to
stay in the fortress. Afshin waited patiently for Babek to leave the fortress. Finally,
Afshin made a tactical move: he pretended that his army was leaving. One of
Babek's groups of soldiers tried to chase away the army and was defeated.
Another time, one of the prominent Arabian generals, Buga al-Kabir,
engaged in a battle against Babek, which the latter won. This didn't stop Buga and
he kept waiting for another opportunity to beat Babek.
At one point, a detachment of several thousand of Buga's soldiers stopped to
spend the night in the mountains. Babek's armv was able to kill almost all of the
Arabians. Afshin's brother was seriously wounded, and Buga could hardly escape.
At the end of the winter Mutasim sent another 9,000 Turkish soldiers under
the leadership of Itakh and Jafar ibn Dinar. Babek wrote in his letter to Roman
Emperor Phiofil: "The king of the Arabs has sent against me almost everybody
including those living in the palace. If you decide to attack this country now,
nobody will stop you". After receiving this message, Phiofil started a war against
the Caliphate. However, despite the difficulties of the war against the Romans,
Mutasim transferred none of his soldiers from Azerbaijan. After winning the war
against the Romans, Mutasim wrote to Afshin: "Allah made the Romans escape
when they saw our army. You must finish with Babek as soon as possible". Afshin
decided to surround the Baaz fortress. Babek sent Adsin one of his most skillful
commanders with a detachment of 10,000 soldiers to stop Afshin.
Adsin's detachment was defeated and he had to return back to Baaz. Babek's
other attempt to stop Afshin also did not work. Afshin, therefore, was able to surround the Baaz and to establish a camp as Afshin was planning for a long siege.

44

Normal life was continuing to pass inside the fortress. During the nights the
Hurramitc troops left the fortress but most of them were beaten. However, when
Jafar ibn Dinar was not able to attack the
fortress successfully, Babek became hopeful,
and he decided to take a new courageous
action. In the event of success, this would
have completely destroyed Afshin's army.
Before the next attack of Arabs, Babek sent
almost all of his soldiers led by Adsin to hide
in the forest on a mountain. However, Afshin
learnt about this move and at night three of
his detachments surrounded the forest, and
Jafar's army attacked the fortress. On the next day Adsin's army was completely
destroyed and he himself was killed.
Babek watched the battle from the fortress. He understood that this war was
ending. When the Turkish detachment rushed into the fortress, Babek decided to
win some time and asked for official forgiveness in written form from the Caliph.
Afshin sent messengers to the capital. Babek used this opportunity and escaped to
Arran hoping to get from there to
Byzantium. When Afshin learnt about the
escape, he ordered the ruin of the fortress.
Afshin concealed a large amount of booty
from the Caliph and sent most of it to his
homeland. Later a historian wrote, "This
wealth would be a foundation for the
establishment
of
an
independent
Maverannahr, where Afshin would be king, and his closest friends would be the
heads of provinces".
When the Caliph finally sent the letter of forgiveness, Afshin asked Babek's
son to take it to Babek. The son refused, and none of the captives agreed to do it
either. They said, "O, Amir, none of us would ever agree. You don't know Babek
as we do". After all of that, Afshin made one of the prisoners take the letter to
Babek. Babek cut the prisoner's head, saying: "Who are you that you bring me a
message from a dog?"
Babek and five of his fellow travelers - his brother Abdulla, his mother, his
wife, his commander-in-chief Muaviya and his servant were trying to reach
Byzantium. After a long journey they reached the area where Babek's close friend
Sahl ibn Sumbat lived. This man invited Babek to stay at his castle and assured
him of his loyalty.
Gold
cup.
Early
11th
Century.
Azerbaijan. British Museum. London.

45

By that time, however, Sahl ibn

Sumbat had already received a letter from
Afshin promising million dirham award for
the capture of Babek. Therefore, he sent one
of his men who knew Babek into the castle.
Sahl wanted Babek to be arrested outside the
castle so that he wouldn't understand who had
betrayed him. Babek and his brother were
captured while they were hunting. Sahl
received his award and other gifts, and also
was freed from paying taxes. M. Tomara
wrote, "Beginning from this time Sahl's luck
began, and the legendary man from Palestine
founded a kin that later gave kings to
Armenia, Abkhasia and Georgia". The
scholar Bunyatov, however, wrote that Sahl
ibn Sumbat was the descendant of Albanian
King Zarmikh and by this refused the hypothesis about his Armenian origin.
Afshin and the prisoners started to move towards the capital. He was met by
his son Motasim-Garun and by noblemen. They awarded Afshin and the last act of
a tragedy started.
Babek and his brother were taken to the capital in
rich clothes riding an elephant and a camel. There were
a lot of soldiers in fancy clothes along the road, and
Babek kept repeating, "What a shame that I wasn't able
to kill all of these dogs!" Finally, they reached the
Caliph's palace. M. Tomara described this event: "All
buildings were decorated with fancy carpets. A hundred
lions were chained in the palace yard. The Caliph's perSilver dish with repousse
sonal
guards with fancy weapons were there, as well as
figures. Iran, probably
8th
Century.
British
7,000 white slaves. Walls were decorated in expensive
Museum, London.
arms. The prisoners were taken into the palace. They
passed through a famous room with a tree, which had eighteen golden branches
and golden birds with gems instead of eyes, and then they reached the Caliph's
hall. Mutasim was waiting for them with a chief on his left side and Chief Kadi
Akhmcd ibn Abi Duad on his right side. A skin of torture was laid on the floor and
an executioner stood by it. Executions took place according to an ancient custom
on this piece of skin in the presence of the Caliph. Afshin was seated close to the
Caliph".

46

Babek had an executioner named Nudnud who was brought to the capital
with other prisoners. He was supposed to kill Babek and his brother. First, Babek
was named. Then Nudnud cut Babek's right hand and slapped Babek's face several
times with it. He did the same with Babek's left hand. Then he cut both legs.
Babek lay in a bloody pool. Then Nudnud took out Babek's stomach and
after that he cut off his head. Babek's body was crucified and exposed in Samaria.
This place since then was called "Babek's cross". Babek's head was put on the main
bridge of Baghdad and after that was sent to Khorasan as a warning to the local
people who were going to rebel. Babek's brother was executed the same way in
Baghdad.
Afshin was at the peak of his glory. The best poets honored him in their
poems. He received 20 million dirhams from the Caliph. Afshin's son Hasan
married Utruju, the daughter of the most prominent Turkish general, Ashnas. The
Caliph himself brought his bride to the wedding.
However, Afshin's mounting strength started to disturb the Caliph. He was
accused of a secret relationship with Babek, of worshiping idols and of designing a
plot with the aim of destroying the Arab empire and restoring the one that existed
during Khosrof's reign. He was condemned, but the Caliph didn't want to execute
him since he was afraid of Afshin's popularity among the people. Afshin died from
natural causes in prison.
Babek's rebellion covered a vast territory equal to the territories of the
modern European states. Over the period of 20 years, Babek, due to his brilliant
military talent, led a huge peasant state where he tried to make his people happy
and free. Every time Azerbaijani people stand to fight for their independence and
liberty, the name and deeds of their great ancestors show them the right way.
The First Azerbaijani Poet to Become
Known in the Middle East
Qatran Azerbaijani (Tabrizi)
One of the first poets in Azerbaijan to become famous throughout the
Middle East was Qatran Tabrizi. He was born in 1010 near Tabriz in the town of
Shahbad. His full name was Abu Mansur Qatran Jili Azerbaijani. He went to
school in Shahbad, and then continued his studies in Tabriz. At that time in
Azerbaijan, one of the most authoritative and advanced states was the state of
Shaddadids, with its capital city in Ganja, which from the time of the flowering of
the Arabian Caliphate, became the cultural centre of the north of the Muslim
world. In Ganja there were universities, schools, private and public libraries,
observatories and medical centres. From there, Muslim culture was spread to
neighbouring Christian countries. Scientists, poets, architects, and handicraftsmen

47

from many Eastern countries gathered there. Qatran moved there after finishing his
studies. In Ganja he was soon linked to the court of Shaddadids, where he became
a major influence.
The majority of Qatran's verses of that period were devoted to Abdulhasan
Lashkari, the country's ruler, and to events connected with him. Because of this it
is possible to determine the time Qatran spent in Ganja. Qatran wrote about the
visit of a governor of the state of Ravvadids, Abu Mansur Vahsudan, to Abdul
Hasan Lashkari's court in Ganja. This visit, as researchers of the poet consider,
could have taken place between 1035 and 1040. In 1042 Qatran was already in
Tabriz and was the witness of a terrible earthquake, which demolished a large part
of the city. Hence, Qatran returned to Tabriz before this tragic event, though some
researchers think that Qatran went to Ganja after the earthquake. The possibility
that Qatran returned repeatedly to Ganja is not excluded.
Qatran met the well-known Iranian poet and philosopher Nasir Khosrov in
Tabriz in 1046. In his famous book "Safar-nama" (The Book of Trips), Nasir
Khosrov wrote about meeting a magnificent poet called Qatran.
From then on, Qatran was in Nakhchivan in the Palace of the local
governor, and then went back again to Tabriz. Qatran Tabrizi acquired large
popularity in many countries after his death as a talented poet, scientist and wise
philosopher. He was well known and loved in Khorasan and Iraq. Qatran wrote
such famous writings as "Kovs-nama", "Gush-nama", "Vamik and Azra" and
"Divan", consisting in the main form of qasids. Rashid Vatvat, a 12th Century
Central Asian poet, wrote that he knew only one true poet, Qatran Tabrizi.
Qatran began to write poetry from an early age and had great success. A
large part of his work was devoted to qasids, eulogizing different rulers. To the
modern reader they are interesting for their objective valuation of the Palace's
political climate and events, in which heroes of the qasids participated. For
example, information, brought by Qatran Tabrizi about several campaigns of the
Oguzs in Azerbaijan, is very interesting. His verses about the earthquake in Tabriz
have brought him glory and are still read today with excitement:
Make your way to Tabriz, learn how God's mighty had cast
it down,
Make your way to Tabriz, learn the tale of that most tragic town.
The city through the centuries raised its head to the sky.
Through the centuries men raised its walls up on high.
The town where men stretched out their hands for a star,
The town that raised lowers to Saturn on far,
Lost its pride and was crushed in the space of one hour,
Death took a great toll in the span of one hour.
Many women of beauty, like Kashmir's most fair,
Died in gardens of paradise - still they lie there.
The departed, entombed, shall rest evermore

48

In once lovely homes in the earth's ghastly maw.

Men whose homes were once filled with rich goods of all kinds.
Men whose stores were once tilled with rich goods of all kinds.
Have been felled by misfortune and roll in the dust.
They perforce sold their sons for the sake of a crust.
People starve though the city is bursting with bread.
People thirst though the waters have everywhere spread.
In penury people put value on wealth.
But, death being near, on life and on health...

Azerbaijani scholars, on the basis of the analysis of medieval sources, have

shown that Qatran Tabrizi was the first in the history of Persian lexicography to
compile an explanatory dictionary of the Parsi language. Many scholars wrote
about Qatran's work, including Asadi Tusi, a poet who compiled the Persian
language diction ary, "Logate" (9th Century);
Mahammed bin Hindushah (13th Century), the
author of another dictionary Sikhakhul-furs", and
Nakhchivani.
In his work "Safar-name", the well-known
Iranian poet Nasir Khosrov Alvi describes the
process of the ere- ation of Qatran's dictionary:
"In Tabriz I met with the poet known as
Qatran. He recited perfect verses, but his Persian is
a little poor. He brought and read to me "Divan'"s
by Dagigi and Man jikin and asked me to explain
some unintelligible words to him. Then he wrote
their interpretation and read me his verses".
Most experts believe this idea of Nasir
Khosrov can be explained by the fact that Persian
Abu-Mahammed Abdul Kayum
Tabrizi, 1370. Water colour, ink
(Dari) was not Qatran Tabrizi's mother tongue and
And gold on Paper. Jelayerids
that he was the first Azerbaijani poet writing in this
state.
language.
For the most part, medieval authors called the dictionary simply "Logate
Qatran", (The Dictionary of Qatran) or with a similar meaning "Farkhange Qatran"
or with a similar meaning "Farkhange Qatran". Later his dictionary was called
"Tafasir fi lugatil-furs", or subsequently in an abbreviated form "Tafasir". Qatran
Tabrizi has undoubtably made an appreciable mark on the development of
poetry and lexicography in Azerbaijan and Iran.
Qatran Tabrizi died in Tabriz in 1080 and was buried in the Suhrab quarter
in the famous cemetery of poets.

49

The Holy Shirazian From Shirvan

Baba Kukhi Bakuvi
Far from Baku in Shiraz there is a grave, which is very popular among the
local population and for numerous pilgrims. This tomb has numerous legends of its
history. According to one of them, the great Persian poet Hafiz received a poetic
inspiration after praying all night at this grave, the grave of his teacher. According
to another legend, a daughter of Shirvanshah was buried near this esteemed grave,
as if she arrived here to look after his grave and to serve pilgrims who came here
from all countries of the Muslim world. The person, who was deserving of so much
respect during his life and so deeply esteemed for almost 1,000 years, was a native
of Shirvan named Baba Kukhi
Bakuvi.
The first mention of his
name in modern sources can be
found in the work of
Bakikhanov, "Gulistani-lrem":
"Sheikh abu Abdullah Ali bin
Mahammed
from
Baku,
according to many historians,
was notable in secular and
spiritual sciences. From an
early age he learnt from famous
Khanaghah. Pirsahat, Shirvan. 13th-15th Centuries.
contemporaries such as Sheikh
Azerbaijan Republic.
Abdull-Khafif
and
Sheikh
Abul-Qasim-Kesheri. He had a scientific dispute with the well-known Sheikh Abu
Sayid Abu Khayr and a long-term connection with Sheikh Abul-Abbas from
Nigavend, who highly appreciated his knowledge. Towards the end of his life he
retired from society and lived in a cave near Shiraz where the most literate people
in the East visited him. He died in 1051".
Information about Baba Kukhi Bakuvi can be found in the book, "Essay on
the History of Medieval Baku", by Sara Khanum Ashurbeyli: "Some people think
that he was Sufi. I do not intend to judge so quickly this old and, for a long time,
confused question. I shall only remind you that Bakuvi never called himself Sufi,
but directly considered Sufism as a hostile ideology. He was Kalandar, which had
some differences to Sufism".
Baba Kukhi Bakuvi wrote the philosophical treatises, "Akhbar-al-Arifin",
"Akhbar al-Gafilin" and "Badayat khal al-Khallaj", in Arabic, and a collection of
verses "Divan" in Parse. Krimskiy wrote this about "Divan": "It is sometimes
difficult to decide whether it is an allegorical hymn about the ardent love of

50

mystics to God or a burning sensual song of brave, passionate descent towards

earthly and flirtatious women":
"My heart has tormented, but my sweet has no business up to it.
I suffered in separation, but my sweet does not desire to cure me.
From my eyes tears flowed, more plentifully than pearl rain from clouds.
But her mouth laughs, and she does not want to bind up
The wound of my heart".

The history of one of the oldest manuscripts of "Divan", is very interesting.

The Iranian scientist Khabibullah Imad found a chest hidden in the wall whilst he
was renovating his house, in which among other manuscripts was "Divan", by
Bakuvi.
There is much uncertainty regarding the biography of the poet. So far some
researchers, including the outstanding scholar Zakir Mamedov, have considered
that the author of the treatises was Baba Kukhi, but "Divan" was written by
Mahammed Bakuvi. The spelling of "Divan"
relates to a later term. The dispute is not resolved yet; therefore, the biography of Baba Kukhi
Bakuvi will be stated here, basically, according
to the book "The World Outlook of Baba Kukhi
Bakuvi", by Solmaz Rzakulizade. This book
completely investigated, for the first time, the
thinker's creativity, and it considered that both
of the mentioned works belonged to one person:
Baba Kukhi Bakuvi.
Shiraz, Iran. Baba Kukhis living and
Bertels wrote, "It is my deep belief that
burial place.
"Divan" by Kukhi really belongs to a scholar
and sheikh, known also by the name ibn
Bakuya. We also completely contribute this belief, and on the base of recognition
of the identity of Baba Kukhi and ibn Bakuya, we shall state the thinker's
biography".
Baba Kukhi was born in Baku in 933 or 934. It is believed that he was the
brother of known thinker and vizier of Shirvanshah Minuchihr, Pir Husein
Shirvani. His grave, which is in the village of Navahi on the river Pirsaghat, is still
there and is often visited by his devotees. He lived for more than 100 years and
died in 1074. His full name was abu Abdallah Mahammed ibn Abdal-lah ibn
Ubaydullah ibn Bakuye. Nisba Shirazi, or Nishapuri, is frequently added because
Kukhi lived in Nishapur and Shiraz for a long time.

51

Initially, Baba Kukhi was educated by his

father who was a theologian. He displayed his
independent character and love of travel from an
early age. After a quarrel with his brother, he
moved to the lowlands of the river Pirsaghat, and
then to the region of the sacred mountain
Babadagh (a number of researchers believe that
this mountain was named in honour of Baba
Kukhi). After that, he travelled around
Azerbaijan, Iran and other countries, meeting
scientists and visiting sacred places. It is thought
that he returned to Shirvan some time around
988-990.
In his youth Baba Kukhi dreamed of
becoming a Muhadis, a composer of a collection
of hadises. However, to write new hadises, it was
Khamsa of Nizami: Iskandar
necessary to meet with other Muhadises and
visiting a Hermit. Atributed to Mir
travel extensively around different cities and
Musavvir.
1535-1540.
British
countries. Bakuvi wrote many hadises. Abd
Museum, London.
Allah Ansari wrote that according to Bakuvi, he
succeeded in writing 30,000 hikayats and 3,000 hadises.
Bakuvi lived in Shiraz for many years with his teacher abu Abdallah ibn
Khafif. Under his influence, Bakuvi became a follower of Sufism in 981-982.
When abu Abdallah ibn Khafif died, it is believed that Bakuvi started traveling
again. He visited centres of science, including Baghdad. Then he went to Nishapur,
a centre of the distribution of the Sufi doctrine in the 10th and 11th Centuries.
Solmaz Rzakulizade wrote about this period of Bakuvi's life: "Here, on the one
hand, disciples of Sheikh Bayazid al-Bistami were calling for "ecstasy" and
preaching the need to "be in trance by God", and intoxication (Ar.-Sukr) by divine
love. On the other hand, the disciples of Sheikh Juneyd al-Baghdadi, believing in
"ecstasy", confused danger for Sufi. The disciples of Juneyd thought that the
unique faithful way for Sufis was a condition "of sobriety and quiet sober prayer".
Ancient sources tell us about the friendship of Bakuvi and the Khorasans
Abu Abd ur-Rahman Sullami and abu al-Qasim Kushayri, and about their
discussions with abu Abbas Nekhavendi (in which he recognised the superiority of
Bakuvi in the end). They also tell us about his direct contacts with abu Said ibn
Abul-Khayr, a Sufi Sheikh who was popular at that time.
Bertels wrote this about the Nishapur period of Bakuvi's life: "It is possible
to admit that in Nishapur the theological beliefs of Kukhi underwent essential
changes. The credo of the Khorasan school of Sufism disagreed with the doctrines
of the Iraqi school. It was that moment when the Khorasan Sufis began to diverge

52

from the influence of Iraq and have the concepts of Sufism stated in numerous
theoretical works, such as Kushayri, Sarraj, Jullabi and Sulami. Thus, Kukhi was
involved in an area which must have caused him serious internal struggles".
After the death of Sulami, the control of Sufi Khanaka was passed to
Bakuvi, which testifies to his large influence at that time. However for some
obscure reasons he left Nishapur and moved to Shiraz. Near Shiraz, in the
mountains at the town of Jafarabad, there were caves. Bakuvi settled down in one
of them and never left it; he spent his last years in persistent labour and prayers.
The main works of Baba Kukhi were written there. The scholar was popular
throughout the East. People traveled to him from all over the region to worship and
receive advice.
The region were Baba Kukhi was buried was named in his honour,
according to the geographer N. Keremov. Famous poets such as Nizami Ganjavi
("Iskender-name"), Saadi, Hafiz, Abd ur-Rahman Jami, Nasimi, Seyid Azim
Shirvani and many others wrote verses about Baba Kukhi Bakuvi. Right up to the
present day, people in Shirvan have kept legends and songs connected with the
memory of the great Shirvanian. The outstanding Azerbaijani traveller and
geographer Zeynal ab-Din Shirvani visited the mausoleum of Baba Kukhi at the
beginning of the last century. He paid the expenses for the reconstruction of the
mausoleum and the nearby territory.
The Outstanding Disciple
of Ibn Sina
Bahmanyar al-Azerbaijani
Abu-1-Hasan Bahmanyar ibn al-Marzban al-Azer-baijani was one of the
most eminent Azerbaijani philosophers and an outstanding representative of the
philosophical school of peripatetism.
The time of Bahmanyar's birth is not known. The date of his death was
given in the 12th century author Ali ibn Zayd al-Paykhani's work, "Tatimmat sivan
al-khikma". In this work, he wrote, "The Philosopher Bahmanyar Sage, a disciple
of Abu Ali [ibn Sina], a fire worshipper, did not have a good command of Arabic
and came from Azerbaijan. Among Bahmanyar's books are "Cognition", "About
Music" and a set of treatises. Bahmanyar died in 458 (1065-1066), 30 years after
the death of Abu Ali".
Professor Zakir Mamedov looked at the following facts and legends in order
to determine Bahmanyar's date of birth. Stories told that once, when ibn Sina was
at a smithy, someone went there and asked the blacksmith for a fire. The
blacksmith said to him: "Bring me a shovel and I shall give you some coal". The
applicant then tapped on the ground and said to the smith, "Put some coal in this

53

shovel", ibn Sina was so amazed by the intelligence of the young man that he
offered him a place as one of his students. That young man was Bahmanyar.
Bahmanyar mentioned in one of his stories
that he was among the pupils of ibn Sina. "One fine
day the other pupils of ibn Sina and 1 had a lesson on
Saturday. We very lazily participated in the discussed theme so the teacher said, "Your break has
obviously passed without benefit". My friends and 1
answered that during our break we went to take a
walk and consequently could not complete our task.
In reply to this, the teacher sighed and with tears in
his eyes said, "The equilibrist by daily exercise
Aristotle (left). The description
of Animals, by Ibn Bakhtishu.
reaches such a degree of perfection that amazes even
Early 13th Century.
an expert in everything. Why were none of you wise
enough to prefer schoolwork to inactivity?"
Ibn Sina wrote that Bahmanyar was closer to him than a son and that he had
brought him up and had given him a good education so that he could be an
outstanding scientist. From all this information, it
follows that Bahmanyar must have been 10-15 years
younger than ibn Sina and, therefore, he must have
been born at the end of the 10th Century. A number of
works by medieval authors and several polemical
works of ibn Sina, such as "Al-mubakhasat" ("Joint
Discussions") and "At-Alikat" ("Explanations"), were
created from discussions with Bahmanyar about
questions of physics, metaphysics, psychology and
logic.
Fortunately, for the history of science,
Socrates in discussion with
"Explanations"
was saved in Bahmanyar's own library.
his pupils. Seljuk manuscript.
Two
letters,
based on conversations between
13th
Century.
Topkapi
Palace Library, Istanbul.
Bah-manyar and ibn Sina, are stored in St. Petersburg
and Tashkent. Bahmanyar's work was very popular
and had a wide circulation throughout the East. His works were rewritten and
stored in many universities and palatial libraries. Among Bahmanyar's most
popular works were "At-tahsil" ("Knowledge"), "Az-zina" ("Ornament"), "Albajava-saada" ("Pleasure and Happiness") and "Fil-musika" ("About music").
Manuscripts of his books have been rewritten and distributed up to the present day
and are stored in almost all large libraries in the world. Since the last century, his
books have been translated into European languages. Some of Bahmanyar's works
were translated into Persian almost immediately after being written. "At-tahsil"

54

was translated into Russian by the outstanding orientalist A. Sagadeev and and was
published in Baku in 1983 in three volumes.
Bahmanyar created a new school of philosophy. His scientific and teaching
activity has played a major part in the development and distribution of scientific
and philosophical ideas in Azerbaijan and the East as a whole.
Among his disciples was the outstanding philosopher and poet Abul Abbas
al-Lavkaki of Khorasan. Through al-Lavkaki and Abulfat ibn Khayyam (another
disciple and philosopher), researchers of Bahmanyar have been able to trace a
connection between the scientific schools of Bahmanyar and Nasiraddin Tusi.
The well-known enlightener and historian of Muslim cultures Shihab adDin al-Marjani, when speaking about the history of philosophy, placed Bahmanyar
among the four most prominent philosophers from the East. He said, "The greatest
among them were Abu Nasr al-Farabi, Abu Ali ibn Sina, Kadi Abul Valid
Mahammed ibn Ahmad ibn Rushd and Bahmanyar ibn al-Marzban".
The Leader of the Arabian
Scientists
Khatib Tabrizi
In the middle of the 11 th Century,
Azerbaijan was still included in the Arabian
Caliphate. Although the Caliphate had
already begun its decline, intensive
development of science, poetry and art,
which had begun during the rule of the first
three Caliphs, continued. Academies
("Homes of Wisdom"), universities (madrasah), schools, public and private libraries
and observatories were functioning in the
cities. Knowledge spread among the
prosperous city-dwellers as well as the common people.
A young man with a khurjin (valise)
on his shoulder traveled along the dusty way
from Tabriz to Syria. In his khurjin was a
little meal, and his other arm held books.
The young man was named Khatib and he was from Tabriz. He was heading for a
small town called Maara an-Numan, where a philologist, known in the East as the
scientist Abul-Ala al-Maariya, lived.

55

At school, Khatib look a great interest in the theory of Eastern poetics, and
he collected and read many books on this theme. A talented young man at the age
of 20, he had questions that local scientists could not answer, and one of them
advised Khatib to seek help from a known linguist living in small Syrian town.
When Khatib reached his place of destination, the books he had been
carrying on his shoulders were drenched in perspiration flowing down from his
shoulders. This episode was from the life of a young man who would later become
a great scientist. In fact, these books were exhibited in a mosque during the last
farewell to this sound scholar.
An Arabian scientist recognized the great Azerbaijani scientist, litterateur,
linguist, poet and commentator as the "leader of literary, grammatical and lexicographical sciences". He was also described as "a wise sheikh, the leader of Arabian
sciences, gonfalon of literary criticism, a source of wisdom, the leader of all writers". The scholar G. Arasli named him "the greatest person raised by Azerbaijan in
the 11th Century".
Yahya bin Ali Khatib Tabrizi was born in 1030 in the capital city of
Azerbaijan, Tabriz. Details of Khatib's childhood and adolescence are unknown to
us. All chroniclers began his biography from his arrival in the small Syrian town
Maara an-Numan.
Abul-Ala al-Maariya, who Khatib came to learn from, was one of the
greatest representatives of Arabian literature and an experienced connoisseur of
Arabian linguistics and philology. Khatib Tabrizi later wrote that there could
hardly be found any word spoken by Arabs that Abul-Ala did not know. The
scientist was blind and had a phenomenal memory.
One story tells about his incredible ability to recite from memory: "In
Neman, in the mosque of Maar, I was sitting before him (Abul-Ala) and reading
something to him from books. I had been with him for two years and had not seen
a single person from my country. But suddenly I saw one of my neighbours
entering the mosque to offer prayers, and I knew him at once. I felt an immense
pleasure. Abul-Ala said to me, "What has happened to you?" I answered him that
in two years I had not met anybody from my country, and that I had just seen one
of my neighbours. He said to me, "Go and have a talk with him". I said, "Let's
round off a lesson", to which he replied, "Stand up, I shall wait for you".
I rose and spoke with the neighbour at some length in Azerbaijani. I
returned and sat before him (Abul-Ala). He asked which language it was. I
answered, "This is the language of the population of Azerbaijan". He said, "it is a
language I do not know and do not understand. However, 1 memorized all of your
conversation". After that, he repeated our entire conversation word for word. My
neighbour was very surprised and said, "How could he learn it if he didn't
understand it?"

56

An ancient chronicler wrote that after ending his studies with Abul-Ala,
Khatib continued to study in various countries and cities of the Middle East with
the most famous scientists of that time. The professor Mahmudov, however, has
shown that before departing on his trip, Khatib went back to his motherland Tabriz.
It was probably just after the death of his teacher in 1057, or little bit earlier.
Khatib stayed in Tabriz for only a short while.
The plan to study again attracted him and soon he was in Syria again. He
went to different cities there to have lessons in theology, lexicography and poetics
from well-known Arabian scientists at that time - Ali Raggi, ibn Dakhan, ibn
Burkhan and Salim Razi.
In 1064 Khatib went to Damascus, where his friendship with famous
historian Khatib Baghdadi (1002-1071) began. Baghdadi happened to be not only a
good teacher and friend, but also a rich maecenas. He helped Khatib Tabrizi
financially and helped him with his purchase of writing materials and paper.
After this, Khatib went to Egypt, where he studied Arabian grammar with
the noble scientist Takhir ibn Babashaz.
On September 22, 1067, a significant event occurred in the cultural life of
the Middle East. A university opened in Baghdad that would become well known
throughout the East. It was opened by the Seljuk Turk hakims and was named
Nizamiyya in honour of the Persian Nizamimulk.
This university differed from others, not only because of the size,
equipment and large group of scientists and teachers assembled from all over the
Middle East, but also because of the administrative system. This was the first
known state university. The teachers and students were here completely under state
funding. The educational program, determined also by the state, was aimed at
orthodox Islam. Despite this, the university continued teaching secular subjects,
such as history, linguistics, astronomy, mathematics and others, and it played a
huge role in the development of the various sciences. Seljuk hakims personally
selected the teachers. From the first day of the university's opening, and up to the
final days almost 40 years later, Khatib Tabrizi taught philology there and was the
organizer and chief of its famous library.
Scientists from all over the East were assembled in Baghdad at that time,
and in order to be approved among them, it was necessary to have significant
scientific authority. Khatib Tabrizi had the opportunity to use the huge library at
the university, and he constantly filled up with the necessary literature and
organized lectures and disputes with the participation of the university teachers, as
well as a large number of scientists, who were attracted to Baghdad by the glory of
this educational establishment.
On 3 January 1109, the great scientist died. Khatib Tabrizi was buried in
Baghdad in the cemetery called Bab Abraz.

57

Literary criticism was the primary focus of Khatib Tabrizi's creative

activities. He wrote about 20 treatises on this theme. Khatib Tabrizi wrote
comments on the Koran in four books, literary works and a number of treatises
devoted to lexicography, grammar and theory of Arabian poetics.
Mahammed Ali Tarbiyet analyzed the significance of Khatib Tabrizi's
works in the Arabian literary field, and he named Khatib Tabrizi the "mother" of
the Arabian language. The professor Mahmudov considered that his works could
be divided into four groups: the comments on poetic works, linguistic treatises,
theological research and works on problems of poetics.
Of Khatib Tabrizi's comments on poetic works, the largest interest is
presented in the comments on the work by Arabian poet Abu Tammam (796-843)
called "Khamasa" ("Heroism"). The history of the creation of this work is very
interesting. Coming back from Khorasan in Iraq, he stayed in Khamadan at his
friend Abul Vafa Salam's home. Although he had not planned to stay in
Khamadan, a strong snowfall compelled him to remain at his friend's for some
months. Due to his good memory and his friend's very rich library, Abu Tammam
created an anthology of Arabian poetry and called it "Khamasa". It included the
works of more than 600 poets over 300 years.
As soon as he had written it, the anthology became so popular that the Abu
Tammam's own creativity remained apart. About this, Khatib Tabrizi wrote, "Abu
Tammam in "Khamasa" displayed himself more as a poet than in his own poetic
creativity". Hereinafter, similar things happened with the comments of Khatib
Tabrizi. His comments, due to brevity and the clarity of exposition, became more
popular than "Khamasa".
Khatib Tabrizi returned to this theme three times. The first included short
comments on the contents of I separate verses, and the second explained separate
bits. I Finally, the third set of comments appeared, and these were the most
extensive and complete. Only his second set of comments has reached us, bringing
the scholar eternal glory.
This work was published in Europe in four large books in 1850 in Latin and
in 1828, 1873 and 1938 in Arabic. It is interesting that on his way to the place of
his teacher Abul Ala al-Maariya, Khatib went to Mosul, where one local scientist
rewrote Abu-Tamam's book.
In 1082-1083 Khatib Tabrizi, the first of Arabian scientists, wrote
comments on his teacher Abul Ala al-Maariya's book called "Sagt-az-zand" ("The
First Sparks, Beaten out from Silicon").
Already in old age, Khatib Tabrizi began his last work "Kitab al-Kafi fi-1aruz va-1-Kafavi" ("The results of science about aruz and rhyme"). The work was
devoted to a theory of Arabian poetics and soon became very popular. Many
generations of students, even up to the present, have used the book as a textbook
on the theory of poetics. Many scientists of theory of Middle East poetics refer to

58

Punishment of a book thief. Safavid Miniature. The Majalis al-Ushshaq. ca. 1560.
Bibliotheque Nationale, Paris.

59

this book. In order to simplify the text to make it easier for students to commit it to
memory, poet Ahmad Fulji (who died in 1425) rewrote the book in verses.
European scientists began to show interest in this book in the beginning of
the 19th Century. Many lists of the treatise "Al Kafi..." are now found in different
storehouses all over the world, and critical texts of this essay are prepared and
published. Azerbaijani scientist Galey Allahverdiev, who comprehensively
investigated the essay for the first time, wrote: "Kitab al-Kafi fi-1-aruz va-1Kafavi" presents the entire doctrine on the theory of literature, poetics, orator and
stylists".
The manuscripts of Khatib Tabrizi are kept in many known museums and
libraries. The most worthy of them is the manuscript of the comments on the
anthology "Mufadaliyyat" by the poet Mufadala Dabi, which is stored in Tunis'
National Library.
The Great Atabey.
Shams ad-Din Il-Deniz
Shams ad-Din Il-Deniz, a talented
commander and wise political personality, was the
founder of the Atabey's state of Azerbaijan, also
called the state of Ildenizids (Ildegezids). In the
11th Century, Oguzs and other Seljuk Turkic
tribes occupied almost all the territory of the
Arabian Caliphate, including its capital city
Baghdad. At this point, secular authority was
passed into the hands of the Seljuk Sultan, but
spiritual authority remained with the Arabian
Caliphs.
The territory of the Seljuk state was divided
into independent Sultanates, which were controlled by Seljuk crown princes. After
some time, however, Atabeys ("Ata-bey" or "the father-ruler") became the rulers of
these new state formations. Control of the state and army was also moved from the
Sultans, as all political and administrative authority passed to the Atabeys.
The Caliphs and Sultans, however, were not happy about this, and they
continuously plotted conspiracies with the purpose of regaining authority. The
Atabeys, in return, turned all their efforts toward keeping the monocracy. This
lasted for nearly 100 years.
The state of Azerbaijan arose from one of these Sultanates. A scholar
named Z. Buniyatov wrote the history of this state and the biography of its founder

60

Il-Deniz. He based his work on a large number of manuscripts that he discovered

and investigated.
In ancient times, there existed the practice of purchasing 40 slaves and then
receiving one free of charge. One merchant in Iraq received as his free slave the
ugly and rough slave named Il-Deniz. This merchant's caravan, containing goods and slaves, was traveling in the
direction of Iraq. Because of severe heat, they only traveled
at night, and the sleeping Il-Deniz fell out of the cart three
times. Twice he was picked up, but the third time his owner
decided to leave him in the road. At this point, he showed
his determined character, and to everybody's surprise, he
chased down the caravan and asked them to take him back.
After arriving in Iraq, the merchant sold his slaves to
Sultan Mahmud's (1118-1131) vizier, Sumayrami. The vizier
took all of the slaves except Il-Deniz, who cried and
eventually persuaded the vizier to accept him. The vizier
agreed and Il-Deniz soon proved his worth through his
"dexterity and gumption".
The vizier was assassinated and Il-Deniz went into
Stucco figure of a
Seljuk warrior. 12th
service for Sultan IVlahmud, who ordered the slave to be
Century.The figure
educated. Il-Deniz studied languages, divinity and other
would
originally
have been painted.
sciences, and he eagerly practiced equestrianism and
New York.
archery. He was soon nominated as the chief of the Sultan's
Metropolitan
kitchen (al-khivan salar). While Il-Deniz was serving on this
Museum of Art.
post, Sultan Mahmud died.
The new Sultan, Toghrul II (1132-1135) transferred Il-Deniz to his group of
personal warders (mamluks). Under the benevolence and good advice of the
Sultan's wife, Momine-Khatun, Il-Deniz quickly advanced in his service and soon
reached the position of emir. When the position of Atabey (tutor) for the Sultan's
young son needed to be filled, Toghrul II chose Il-Deniz.
Sultan Toghrul II died and was succeeded by Sultan Masud (1135-1152). IlDeniz married the late Toghru`s wife, Momine Khatun, and together they had three
children: two sons called Jahan Pehlevan and Qizil Arslan, and a daughter whose
name is not known.
In 1136, Sultan Masud appointed Atabey Il-Deniz to be governor of Arran.
Il-Deniz moved to the capital city Barda, where he tried to carry out independent
politics and be removed from the palace's interests. He attracted many small rulers
to his side and gradually subordinated neighboring territories.
At this time, Azerbaijan was governed by Qara-Sun-kur, Atabey of Sultan
Masud's nephew. Qara Sunkur died unexpectedly in 1140 or 1141, and the control
of Azerbaijan passed on to Il-Deniz. During these years, Il-Deniz successfully

61

helped Sultan Masud kick out all traces of feudalism. The strength of Shams adDin Il-Deniz as a statesmen and commander grew. All of Azerbaijan, as well as
Arran, Ganja and Ardebil, fell under the authority of Il-Deniz.
After the death of Sultan Masud, a
fierce struggle for authority began among
the potential successors. In the end,
Sultan Mahammed came into power.
Suddenly, with a large army of allies, he
attacked Azerbaijan.
Il-Deniz met Mahammed in the
lowlands of the Araks. The battle lasted
for a few days and ended in the defeat of
Il-Deniz, who was to give up Azerbaijan
but keep Arran. However, Sultan
Fritware dishes with underglaze painting.
Suleyman had been weakening over the
12th Century. Atabey's State of Azerbaijan.
Azerbaijani History Museum, Baku.
past few years, and Il-Deniz took possession of Azerbaijan and frightened
Suleyman. Il-Deniz and his followers proclaimed Il-Deniz's
stepson (Togh-rul II`s son), Prince Arslan Shah, to be the
successor to the throne. As a result of the plot, Suleyman was
overthrown and killed, and Prince Arslan Shah was chosen by
the conspirators as the new ruler.
In November of 1160, Atabey Il-Deniz brought Prince
Arslan Shah to the Sultanate's capital city, Hamadan. They
were accompanied by 20,000 troops. Rulers from almost all of
the Sultanate's areas and neighboring countries attended the
coronation ceremony. Arslan Shah was officially proclaimed to
be the Sultan of Iraq Sultanate, and Shams ad-Din Il-Deniz was
named "The Great Atabey". Jahan Pehlevan, his oldest son and
brother of the new Sultan, was chosen to be Emir-Hajib of the
Sultan. Il-Deniz's other son, Qizil Arslan, was appointed to be
the supreme commander-in-chief of the Sultan's army.
Shamkir
minaret. 12th
Additionally, Il-Deniz assigned all of the emirs to high
Century.
positions. Presented at the coronation, these emirs offered
Atabey's State
homage to Sultan Arslan-Shah and to the Great Atabey. Ilof Azerbaijan.
Deniz became the actual governor of the entire country. Such
centralization of authority worried the Caliph of Baghdad and other rulers of large
areas, who did not want to lose their privileges or any of their independence. The
caliph renounced Arslan Shah's coronation and began to gather together a coalition
of other disgruntled emirs, who promised to place a faithful Seljuk prince on the
throne.

62

Il-Deniz moved quickly to avoid this coalition of emirs by raiding and

crushing their troops on their territories. Il-Deniz won brilliant victories in
Hamadan, Rey and Qazwin, which frightened many rulers of other areas into
quickly recognizing the new government. The governor of Rey, Inanj, was forced to marry the
daughter of Jahan Pehlevan, the Great Atabey's son.
Bunyatov wrote: "Thus, Atabey Shams adDin Il-Deniz subordinated under his authority a
huge amount of territory, which extended from the
Caucasus to the Persian Gulf. Il-Deniz's territory
stretched from the gates of Tiflis up to Mecran. To
him belonged Azerbaijan, Arran, Shirvan, Jibal,
Hamadan, Gilyan, Mazandaran, Isfahan and Rey.
Vassals of ll-Deniz produced coins with his name
on them. They also mentioned his name in Khutba
(Friday prayers) after the names of the caliph and
the Sultan. These vassals included Atabeys from
Mosul, Germany and Fars, and governors of
Shirvan, Khuzistan, Khilat, Arzan and Maragha.
Eastern Azerbaijan, Iran. Stone
Il-Deniz stabilized the situation on the
mosque of Tark-Maineh
borders of the Sultanate rather quickly. It was,
Ilkhanid-Qajarid period (13th18th Centuries). Photo by
however, considerably difficult to cope with
Mizbani.
aggression from Georgia and Khorezm. After
several of Georgia's attacks on Ani, Dwin and Ganja in 1161, Atabey Il-Deniz
raised troops against Georgia. Governors of many areas sent troops to help him. IlDeniz collected a total of 50,000 soldiers, and in 1163, these allied forces began a
campaign against Georgia. Il-Deniz won back Dwin and presented the king of
Georgia, George III, with a crushing defeat.
One participant in this campaign wrote: "The Georgians had a very
inglorious defeat. So much plunder was taken from them that it could not be
described or counted. Among the looted goods were a manger made of silver from
the imperial stables. The cellar was also raided, and everything in it - including
large silver barrels - was taken. One of these barrels was sent to the Sultan, and it,
together with one other barrel just like it, needed a whole cart for transportation.
The second barrel was seized by Turkomans and was broken into pieces. The
Sultan sent cups made of gold and silver to Hamadan's mosque, so the people
could use them to drink water. Muslims seized a lot of booty and killed many
people. The king of Abkhazia took flight and disappeared into a dense forest.
Shah-Annan took three separate packs. One contained gold and silver
vessels. The second contained an imperial chapel with gold and silver crosses and
different precious stones, decorated with gold and jewels of invaluable cost. The

63

third contained an imperial treasury with gold, silver and jewels, whose costs could
not be estimated".
Not focusing on this huge defeat, Georgia continued its raids on cities in the
territories of the Sultanate. Il-Deniz and his troops, however, won the battles with
variable success. Only after a crushing defeat of the Georgians in 1175, conditions
on the western border were stabilized and old borders were restored. About this
battle, chronicles state, "The Abkhazians were defeated and the Muslims gained a
victory similar to none that anyone could recollect".
In the east of the Sultanate, the country's borders
were always under threat of the powerful Khorezm Shah
Il-Arslan. The core of discord was Nishapur, coterminous
with Khorezm. Il-Deniz decided to keep Nishapur in
vassal dependence, as long as its governor did not go over
to the Khorezm Shah's party. The governor of Rey, Inanj,
refused to pay the annual tribute and decided to transfer
Rey and its district to the possession of Khorezm Shah.
After learning about this, Il-Deniz went there with his
army and defeated I the joint army of Emir Inanj and
Khorezm Shah.
Inanj, hiding out in a fortress in Rey, sent negotiations to the Great Atabey via the Atabey's vizier. II-1
Deniz, however, refused to negotiate and said to his
vizier, "You believe that Inanj will offer me peace, and then you and he will live in
Rey. It will never be so! You can choose one or the other: either you will I stay
with him in strange lands, surviving but suffering losses, deprivation and poverty;
or you will help me organize the destruction of him and stay | with my son
Pehlevan and have authority over Rey, Isfahan and Azerbaijan. I will give you my
word in sacramental assurance".
The vizier accepted the latter, ordered slaves to kill Inanj, and became the
governor of Rey.
In 1175, Toghrul IPs widow and Il-Deniz's wife, Momine Khatan, died.
This great woman, who did so much to help Il-Deniz rise to power and create the
Atabey's state of Azerbaijan, is remembered in a mausoleum. Ajami ibn abu Bakr,
a great Azerbaijani architect, constructed the mausoleum over her grave. The
construction of the mausoleum was begun by the Great Atabey, who died later that
year. It was finally completed in 1186 by Il-Deniz's son Jahan Pehlevan. The Great
Atabey Shams ad-Din Il-Deniz was buried in Hamadan.
Fritware bowl with minai
decoration. Early 13th
Century. Atabeys state of
Azerbaijan.Freer Gallery
of Art. Washington DC.

64

The Founder of the Sufi Brotherhood,

One of the Most Authoritative in the
Islamic World
Shikhab ad-din Omar Suhravardi
Prominent Sufi thinker Shikhab ad-Din Abu
Hafs Omar Suhravardi was born in 1145 in the
Azerbaijani city of Suhravard, near Zanjan. He was the
founder of Suhravardiyya, one of the most authoritative
Sufism brotherhoods in the Muslim world. Many
scientists believe that the brotherhood began under his
uncle, Diya ad-Din Abu-n-Najib as-Suhra-vardi (10971168), who had a significant influence on Shikhab adDin. When he was young, Diya ad-Din as-Suhravardi
left his native Suhravard and went to Baghdad to study. After finishing his studies,
he studied at Nizamiyya, the famous university in Baghdad. Then he went - as it
was accepted in Sufism - to be a disciple (murid) of the great Sheikh Ahmad alGazali, who became his preceptor (murshid).
There he conducted the lonely life of a hermit in a Sufi cell (ribat) on the
banks of the Tigris River. His fame spread throughout the entire Middle East, and
many people wanted to become his preceptor. Among his preceptors were Sufis,
such as Abu Mahammed Ruzbikhan Bakli Shirazi (d. 1209), Ismail al-Qasri (d.
1193) and Ammar al-Bidlisi (d. 1200). His disciples became the preceptors of the
great Khorezmi Sufi Najm ad-Din Qubra, who founded the Sufi brotherhood
Qubraviyya.
Diya ad-Din as-Suhravardi wrote a manual for training Sufis called "Adab
al Muridin" ("The Adepts' Etiquette"), which became widely popular. It was one of
the earliest guides of its kind. Continuing family traditions, Shikhab ad-Din wrote a
manual for spiritual preceptors called "Awarif al Ma'arif ("Gifts of Deep
Knowledge").
Shikhab ad-Din's first school was his uncle's ribat. He received higher
education at Nizamiyya, where his uncle taught. This university differed
considerably from many similar educational establishments known during the
middle Ages. The university was established in 1067 under the initiative and
funding of Seljuk Turk hakims. It was created in honour of their great vizier
Nizami and was named after him. The university's education was funded entirely
by Seljuk hakims. On average, they spent about 600,000 dinars annually on
housing and food for the students, teachers' salaries and special uniforms for the
students and teachers.

65

The university played a noticeable role in the development of science and

culture throughout the Middle East. Its authority is difficult to estimate. The best
scientists in the East were invited here to teach subjects, such as theology, history,
logic, linguistics, astronomy and mathematics. The Seljuk hakims selected the
teachers. Many scientists believe this was the first modern university in the East,
and that teachers there were called professors. The Azerbaijani scientists who
participated in the creation of this university taught there. Nizamiyya produced a
galaxy of bright scientists from Azerbaijan. From its first days, philology was
taught at the university. Also, Khatib Tabrizi managed its rich library. Eminent
scientists, such as Abdulmanakib Zanjani, Mahmud Zanjani, Amin ad-Din Varavi,
and Abulfaz Ardabili, studied or taught there.
After finishing university, Suhravardi quickly gained wide popularity
among scientific and philosophical Sufis in the East. Shikhab ad-Din was not
ascetic and was retired from the world, but he was a great Sufi sheikh. Like most
well known scientists in those times, Suhravardi was attracted to the political and
cultural life of large and small-sized hakims. He did not become an ornament of
the palatial crown, but he was actively connected to the political life of the court.
In his scientific self awoke a great diplomat. Suhravardi took the post of adviser to
the Caliph an-Nasir li-Dinillakh (1180-1225), and he conducted a responsible
diplomatic service, remembering the responsibilities of a sheikh.
On behalf of the Caliph, he conducted diplomatic negotiations in Syria and
Egypt, in the cities of Haleb and Eyyubids. One of his contemporaries wrote about
Suhravardi's stay in Haleb, where he participated in discussions with scientists: "In
the palace of al-Malik az-Zahir, Suhravardi made a speech, which was not only
rhetorically modern, but also so impressive that the hearts of the students became
obedient, and tears appeared in their eyes".
In 1217 and 1218, Suhravardi conducted diplomatic negotiations with
Khorezm Shah Mahammed. Also, for one year, he went on a diplomatic mission to
Anatolia, to the Seljuk hakim of Konya, Al ad-Din Keykubad.
The authority of Shikhab ad-Din as a Sufi preceptor, political personality,
scientist and orator was so high that the Caliph had a special ribat constructed for
him, which was more like a palace. It contained a complex of buildings with a rich
library, a bath and a garden for the Caliph and his family. There, Shikhab ad-Din
could work, read public lectures and organise disputes.
His lectures assembled many students. People came from all over the
country to listen to his lectures. He also regularly gave public lectures at the
famous university "Abu-n-Najid". Suhravardi was distinguished by exclusive
rhetorical talent and deep philosophical thinking. For a short time, his lectures and
disputes received such popularity that there were always a large number of students, arriving from different countries and districts, who attended them.

66

During the reign of Caliph an-Nasir, a knightly order of handicraftsmen and

aristocracy operated; it was called Futuvva. The initiation into Futuvva was carried
out by putting on a belt. As envoy of the Caliph and leader of the ceremony, the
Great Murshid Shikhab ad-Din Abu Hafs Omar Suhravardi put on the belt,
representing dignity. There are records of the description of the initiation ceremony
of Sultan Izza ad-Din Qey-Qavus I and beys into the brotherhood, which was
accompanied by sacral dancing. Suhravardi, arriving at the sultan's palace as the
Caliph's ambassador, also participated in dancing with the murids, despite his
advanced age.
The English scientist J. Spencer Trimingham writes about Suhravardi: "He
was a great sheikh and teacher, and his influence was distributed not only through
his pupils, but also through his work "Avarif al-Marif, which all Sufi preceptors
have read, down to our days. Sufis from nearly the whole world came to him to
learn".
The Arabian author ibn Khallikan, a contemporary of Suhravardi, wrote:
"I met the people who listened to his lectures and stayed in his khalva,
where they exercised under his mentoring, as it is accepted among Sufis. They told
me what strange sensations they experienced when it was possible for them to
reach the ecstatic condition (akhvall). He arrived in Irbil as the envoy of authorities
from Baghdad and arranged assemblies for discussing religious questions, but it
was not possible for me to see him, as I was too young. He frequently made
pilgrimages to other countries and sometimes lived near Qaaba. Many of his
contemporary Sufi sheikhs corresponded with him, asking him for help in
decisions of difficult questions, and they looked for his advice in the form of
fatva".
Shikhab ad-Din had many followers, and the spiritual order Suhravardiyya
had many various branches. Among them, it is necessary to name the brotherhoods
of his son, Imadd ad-Din Muhammed (d. 1257), and Shiraz's Sheikh Najib ad-Din
Buzgush (d. 1279). They followed the mystical way of Suhravardi. In "Bustan", the
great Persian poet Saadi Shirazi (1208-1292) wrote:
"Here is taricat! Go invariably
On it, declining of a humble head.
Sheikh, who all night in prayer stands,
For Dervishes in the morning, a tablecloth spread.
Not Saadi, Suhravardi the learning,
That valour of person, on way of working".

Later among sheikhs, prominent people, such as Nur ad-Din Abd as-Samad
an-Natanzi, Abdarrazak al-Kashani (d. 1329), and Said ibn Abdallah al-Fargani (d.
1300), reckoned themselves among the order of Suhravardiyya. However, ranking

67

oneself in this order was not always safe. It is quite different in India, where
Suhravardiyya could openly exist as an independent school of mystical direction.
One of the founders of this school, existing in India then and now, was the famous
disciple of Suhravardi, Nur ad-Din Mubaraq Gaznavi. In Delhi, his entombment
was saved by all who honoured him. If you arc in Delhi, don't fail to visit this
entombment and pray for the Great Teacher and his disciple. Suhravardi died in
1234 or 1235 in Baghdad.
The Philosopher a Martyr
Shikhab ad-Din Suhravardi
Shikhab ad-Din Abul Fatuh Yahya ibn Khabash
Suhravardi, one of the most outstanding philosophers in
the East, founded the philosophy of Ishrakism (alishrag - irradiation). He was born in 1154 in the
Suhravard city near Zanjan. V. Gordlevsky wrote that
he belonged to Azerbaijani Turks, was in large favour
with Seljuk Sultan Qizil Arslan (he devoted a lot of his
work to Qizil Arslan), and that he was a fan of ritual
Sufi dancing. Initially, he was educated in Maragha
under the well-known philosopher and expert on
Muslim law, Jem Mejadin, and then he continued his education in Isfahan under
Zahir Farisi. Shikhab ad-Din traveled a lot in Azerbaijan, the Near and Middle
East, and he met outstanding scientific and political personalities.
He presented the simplicity of his new ideas at disputes and discussions,
and he did not always look for supporters. One time he preached his own doctrines
in Anatolia in the courts of Seljuk governor Kilich Arslan II and his son.
In 1183 Shikhab ad-Din Suhravardi went to Syria and in in the city of
Haleb, he participated in disputes held at the famous university, Khalaviyya. His
political and religious views, penetrated by the Sufi spirit, differed from most
orthodoxy, and he was eventually arrested and held in the fortress of Haleb. He
was condemned and executed by the ruler of Haleb, al-Malik al-Zahir, under the
order of Sultan Sala ad-Din, at 38 years of age. His contemporaries wrote that he
was executed because of his "deviation from faith" and "infidelity".
He came into the history of Eastern philosophy under the name of "Martyr
Philosopher" ("Al-feylasur al-mak-tul"), or more often "Martyr". Shikhab ad-Din
Suhravardi kept a rich heritage. First of all, it is necessary to note the works
devoted to the philosophy of Ishrakism: "Khayakil an-Nur" ("Statues of Light"),
"Hikmet al-Ishrag" ("Philosophy of Irradiation"), and others. There were also many
other works devoted to Sufism, logic and metaphysics: "At-Talvikhat" ("Remark"),

68

"Ruzi ba Jamaat-e Sufian" ("One Day With Sufis"), "Lugate Muran" ("Language
of Ants") and many others. His poetic writings are also known.
The philosophy of Ishrakism influenced the
development of Eastern philosophy for many centuries.
Professor Zakir Bagirov compared Shikhab ad-Din to
prominent philosophers of the East such as Aynalkuzat
Miyaneji and ibn Rushd. In the book "Three Muslim
thinkers" by Iranian philosopher Seyid Nasr, the world
outlook of Suhravardi is investigated parallel to the
ideology of world scientists such as ibn Sina and ibn alArabi. He wrote, "Thanks to the tireless efforts of
Suhravardi and ibn al-Arabi, the placid life of Muslims was
enriched by new, intelligent content, achieved at the of the
Sefevid period".
The works of Shikhab ad-Din Suhravardi were translated into many
languages and published in Baku, Istanbul and Tehran, as well as in many Western
countries. The known French researcher of Suhravardi's creativity, Korben, wrote,
"Suhravardi was not only a Sufi and a khakim simultaneously, but also a person
who comprehended the essence of perfect philosophy. As a philosopher, he had
theoretical knowledge and spiritual vision".
Some researchers of his creativity have found the influence of
Zoroastrianism in his doctrine. For example, the philosophy of Ishrakism asserts
that the entire material world consists of light and shadows, and light and darkness.
Suhravardi considers the material world, on the whole, as eternal. The reason for
movement is light. Interrelation exists between light and darkness. Shikhab ad-Din
Suhravardi wrote, "Light arises from each irradiation as movement and is prepared
by each movement for other light. Thus, the renewal of lights is proceeded by the
renewal of movements, and the renewal of movements is proceeded by the renewal
of lights".
Shikhab ad-Din Yahya Suhravardi had many followers. Among them were
Shahrazuri (d. 1250), ibn Qammuna Israili (d. 1277), Gutb ad-Din Shirazi (12361311), Vadud Tabrizi (d. 1524) and Sadr ad-Din Shiraz (d. 1640).
The King of Poets
Abul Ala Ganjavi
In the 11th and 12th Centuries, after the arrival of the Seljuk Turks in Azerbaijan, there were favorable social and economic conditions for great scientific and
cultural development, which had been saved during the entry of the country into
the Arabian Caliphate. Universities and schools, as well as private and public lib-

69

raries, opened in the cities. There were centres for manufacturing paper and copying and binding books. At this time, observatories and public hospitals were also
functioning. The cities of Shemakha, Ardebil, Tabriz and, especially, Ganja were
blossoming.
More than 500,000 people lived in Ganja,
and it was possible to hear many different
languages, such as Turkic, Arabic, Persian,
Albanian, Judaic, Georgian and Armenian. Not
without reason, Ni-zami named Ganja "My
Babylon". Merchants, scientists, poets and
handicraftsmen from many countries gathered in
Ganja.
In the middle of the 11th Century, the
outstanding Azerbaijani poet Qatran Tabrizi
became popular. In Ganja, he was invited to the
court of Shaddadids, where he soon won large
authority among palatial poets and scientists.
The successor of Qatran Tabrizi's poetic
traditions, Abul-Ala Ganjavi, was born in Ganja at
the end of the 11th Century. After ending his
studies, he went to the city of Khilat, the capital of
the Muslim state of Armenshahs, where he wrote "Verses at a court yard of
Armenshahs" under the assumption of the academician Krimskiy. Abul-Ala did not
stay there long, and he moved to Shemakha, where due to his poetic talent and high
scholarship, he soon went into service for a great patron of poets. Shirvanshah
Manuchekher I | (1120-1149).
Analysis of the poet's writing shows that Abul-Ala had versatile knowledge
in poetics, philosophy, astronomy and medical sciences. Abul-Ala's poetry differs
by academism and verbal refinement. In the palace, he surrounded himself with
clever youth and received the official title of "King of Poets" ("Malik Ashshura").
He founded the famous Shirvan School of Persian language poetry. Among his
pupils were men who became famous poets throughout the East, such as Khagani
and Feleki.
Abul-Ala played an especially large role in the fate of Khagani. He first
noticed the talented young man and entrusted him in the palace of the Shirvanshahs
to the post of courtier poet. Under the Shirvanshah's own suggestion, Abul-Ala
proposed that young Khagani replace his name with the pseudonym "Khakaiki".
The talent of Khagani had already been noticed by the Shirvanshah, who by Turkic
tradition named himself Khagan, and the acceptance of a pseudonym "Khagani" by
the poet flattered both the Shirvanshah and the poet. Abul-Ala wrote about it:

70

I prepared careful training of you.

1 opened a way to poetry to your language.
When you became a genuine poet.
I took you out to Khakan (Shirvanshah
Manuchekher).
1 have given you the nickname "Khagani".

Before this, Abul-Ala had also shown special benevolence to the poet and
astronomer Jalal ad-Din Feleki (d.1181). According to legend, Abul-Ala had even
promised his daughter in marriage to Feleki. However, after the talented beginner
made an appearance in court, the "King of Poets" changed his mind, and Khagani
received his daughter. In order to console the broken-hearted Feleki for this loss,
Abul-Ala gave him 20,000 dirkhem together with this message: "My son, for such
money you will buy 50 Turkestan girl slaves more beautiful than my daughter". In
his work about Khagani, Gafar Kandli denied the fact of the marriage of Khagani
to the daughter of Abul-Ala.
Despite all the privileges of the "King of Poets", the life of Abul-Ala in the
palace remained full of intrigue. Ill-wishers and open enemies surrounded him.
Even his favourite pupil Khagani soon passed to the camp of the enemies. An
intensive poetic skirmish between the teacher and the pupil began. During the final
period of his life, Abul-Ala wrote:
O, illustrious Allah! Fifty to me and five yet of years,
Six tens are beyond, but, as barling, I was bended from mischief.
Crooked I, as if I am changed, and the crowd, as well as in sounds
of him,
From me, except the complaints, does not hear anything now.
In the infinity of a century, the people I judged on businesses,
But have not met such, who would be both correct and direct.
Everyone envies me; I see everywhere thousands of enemies,
They build thousand of intrigues, prepare an iron fetter.
Am 1 acute - and those who envy blasted a repose
How could not acquire such scientific enemies now?

Although "Divan" of Abul-Ala's verses has still not been discovered, and
we know about the poet's creativity only from medieval readers, his name will live
in the history Azerbaijani literature as the name of a great poet and teacher, one of
the founders of the glorified Shirvan school of Persian literature.

71

The Khakan of Poetry

Khagani Shirvani
Afzaladdin Ibrahim ibn AH Khagani Shirvani, one of the greatest Eastern
poets and philosophers, was born in approximately 1126 in Shemakha, the capital
of the Shirvanshahs state, located in the north of Azerbaijan. The word "Bedil"
("The Successor") was I frequently added to his name, as many believed that he
was the successor of the Sanai class of Persian poetry.
Ibrahim's father, Ali Najar ibn Osman Shirvani,
was a carpenter, and his grandfather, Osman, was a
weaver. Osman's father was called Ibrahim. All of them
were from Shirvan. Ibrahim's uncle, Omar Kafi ad-Din,
named his own son Osman, and his brother Ali Najar
named his son Ibrahim, after Ali Najar's grandfather. The
tradition of this kind of choice of names has been preserved in Azerbaijan until now.
Speaking about his humble origin, Khagani frequently referred to the Biblical patriarch Moses (Ibrahim),
whose name he had and who was also the son of a carpenter. Ibrahim's mother, Nestorian Rabiya, was a cook.
In Shirvan she joined a group of slaves. Ibrahim respected his father, which he often wrote about. However, for
certain reasons his father left the child and the boy was
Incense burner of cast
brought up by his uncle, Omar Kafi ad-Din, who became
brass in the form of a
theatrical mask. Early
the primary figure in Khagani's life.
centuries AD. Lachin.
Omar Kafi ad-Din's reputation as a scholar spread
far beyond Azerbaijan. He knew many languages; he had a good command on
philosophy, divinity, astronomy, mathematics, medicine and pharmacology; and he
taught in a university. His merits in the development of medicine in Azerbaijan are
especially great. Omar Kafi ad-Din create near Shemakha, in the Melgam village
Medical Academy, where physicians were invited to work. At the academy,
physicians attended medical practice, produced medicines and were instructed in
the practice of medicine. Omar Kafi ad-Din was a perfect practitioner, surgeon and
pharmacologist. In order to produce an effective cure for a disease, he applied over
ten kinds of fungus. (Now fungi are used in the production of antibiotics).
The tutoring of the small Ibrahim began with studing of the Arabic
alphabet, laws penmanship and reading of the Koran. These were the typical
subjects to study at that time, as were divinity, linguistics, mathematics, astronomy
and astrology.

72

Kafi ad-din's son, Vahi ad-Din Osman, strongly supported his father in
Khagani's education. Osman had encyclopedic knowledge, and he was a good
doctor, pharmacist and surgeon. He was known as an eminent philosopher and
poet. Furthermore, he was a talented musician and
musicologist. He read theories of music and was a
master at playing the ergcnun, the predecessor of
the modern organ. It is quite possible that Osman
educated Ibrahim in music.
As a result of his uncle's tutoring, and then
his studies at the madrasah, Ibrahim acquired a deep
knowledge, which he further deepened unaided in
his uncle's large library. It is possible to recognise
his high level of scholarship in his casid "To
Byzantine Caesar", where he wrote that he knew
Christian dogmas better than any bishop and could
understand its features. He also wrote that he
Nizami and Khagani. Detail of a
understood Orthodoxy and had even penetrated into
Lacquer Cover for an Album.
the secrets of Zoroaster's religion through the ins1822. Tehran. Lacquer on
papier-mache. Inscription by
truction of Zend-Avesta.
Nastalig: By the order of the
To begin his career as a poet, Ibrahim had to
world emperor [i.e., Fath-Ali
Shah], Ahmad, a slave's son of
choose a penname (takhallus), as it was required at
the king of kings, has signed it.
that time. Ibrahim was a follower of the known poet
Sanai. Experts believe that other such followers chose the penname "Khakaiki"
("The finder of eternities"), under the influence of the book "Hadinat al-Khakaik"
("A Garden of Eternities") by Sanai.
After Kafi ad-din's death, Ibrahim obtained a new patron - Shirvanshah
Manuchehr's Court poet Abul-Ala, known as the "king of the poets". Abul-Ala
came from Ganja and moved to the palace of Shirvanshah. He noticed Ibrahim's
talent and placed him in the position of courtier poet. Under the insistence of AbulAla, and - according to some versions of the story - under the prompt of
Shirvanshah Manuchehr himself, Ibrahim, who had recently accepted the takhallus
"Hakaiki", took on the new penname "Khagani" in honor of the Shirvanshah. In
Turkic tradition, this represents the title of a potentate, "Khaqan".
Khagani was the second pupil of Abul-Ala who would become known far
beyond Shirvan. The first was Shamakhanian Jalal ad-Din Mahammed Feleki (died
in 1181), who was a poet and astronomer. He was, for the most part, in Abul-Ala's
good grace and, according to one legend, Abul-Ala even offered his daughter's
hand in marriage to Feleki. However, Khagani's poetic talent and personality
allegedly overpowered Feleki's talents, and the "king of the poets" married his
daughter to Ibrahim.

73

Abul-Ala consoled the broken-hearted Feleki by giving him 20,000 dirhem.

Abul-Ala told him, "Dear Son! For a such price you would be able to get 50
Turkestan slaves more beautiful than my
daughter!" Such a turn of events wholly
satisfied Feleki. The scholar Krimskiy
ironically writes, "After that, all of them - the
"king of the poets" Abul-Ala, his son-in-law
Khagani, and his disciple Feleki - could
amicably and safely be eulogize Manuchehr".
Further, Krimskiy noted an example of
panegyric by Khagani in loose translation:
"Your hand, Manuchehr, is opened only to
distribute generous bounteous gifts, and is
clasped barely then, when a goblet with red
wine accepts from the cupbearer. Anything
existing in creation cannot complain of your
injustice, with the exception of the written cane kalam, whose head you cut, while
it pled not guilty to you".
However, notes of protest and discontent also resounded in the poet's
verses. He wrote verses convicting the despotic spirit of the Shirvanshah's court.
Enemies used these verses, as well as Khagani's Sufi
views, to defame him in the eyes of the Shah.
Azerbaijani scientist Gafar Qandli-Kherischi
wrote "Khagani Shirvani" on the basis of careful
analysis of Khagani, his contemporaries and his
correspondence. Gafar Qandli introduced a lot of
new ideas in the traditionally known poet's
biography. Primarily, he denied that Khagani had
married the daughter of Abul-Ala, as had been
described by his biographers for almost 800 years.
Gafar Qandli supposed that Khagani had three wives.
Dispute in the Library.
Medievel Miniature.
The first of them was a rural girl from Shirvan. She
lived somewhere on the coast of Kura or Khazar, as
Khagani wrote: "In that village, the seafarer 1,000 times invoked me". In author's
opinion, Khagani married in approximately 1151-1152 and was 12 years older than
his wife.
His favourite and most unforgettable wife died after his second trip to
Mecca. They lived together for 25 years and had two daughters and two sons. His
two sons were named Rashid ad-Din Rashid and Amir Abdulmejid. Rashid died in
Shirvan at the age of 20. His father took this irreparable loss very hard and devoted
Ewer in the form of a cow suckling
her calf with a lion crouching on her
back. Work of Ali ibn Muhammad
ibn Abu al-Qasim, a decorator.
Muharram 603 |August 1206].
Shirvan. Hermitage, St. Petersburg.

74

an elegy to him. Experts consider that, in terms of the depth of mourning and
intensity of emotions, this elegy is unsurpassed by anybody since Firdowsy.
In Tabriz Khagani married a widow. After the death of this wife, Khagani
married for the third time.
It is impossible to read the lines devoted to his favorite, first wife without
excitement, as they have a modern sound:
After you I rush in different fields,
Without you. unbearable becomes the world for me.
What are for me storms of the universe and the rage of thunderstorms
In the storm of this separation and grief and tears?
Sometimes 1 plunge into my soul,
Only you I find in there, only you I recognize.
0, while it is fated to me, while I am alive Not left me! Your soul I call You said: "You can yet come to love...'1
But you know it cannot be.
Without you it is impossible to me
I would not find it in daydreams.
I would not find it in my sleep.

Manuchehr died in 1150, and Akhsitan I came to the throne. He ruled for
almost half of a century and became famous as a patron of poets, as well as "cruel
and malicious". Courtier poets exalted Akhsitan, his kinsfolk and the inhabitants of
his harem to the skies. The great Nizami devoted the poem "Leyli and Mejnun" to
Akhsitan in 1188.
During this time, Khagani's poetic skill rose
to a great height. His poetry differed by grace,
melody and sonority; moreover, in the tradition of
that time, his poetry also differed by complexity of
text, by casuistry, and by the presence of
understanding difficult scientific terminology. In a
competition among the courtier poets, he surpassed
the leaders, which strained his relations with AbulBracelet. 12th Century.
Shemakha, Shirvan. Silver.
Ala, previously recognized as the "king of the
Niello. Inscription by Kufi: Glory
poets". His success also affected his relations with
and Happiness. Hermitage,
Oriental Department. St.
other poets, all the more so that "his majesty
Petersburg
Khagan had a habit of paying for laudatory ode
with a thousand gold dinars".
The initial stages of Khagani's break with Abul-Ala occurred at
Manuchehr's court, and their quarrel grew into a poetic war at Akhsitan's court.
The tone of epigrams and satires became more and more bitter and sharp. The
language of these polemics was so crude that modern scholars frequently prefer to

75

print the verses in French only. It is clear that the poetic rivalry was the only
occasion for quarrel. The roots of the disagreements would be looked for more
deeply.
Under the influence of Khagani's enemies, Akhsitan also changed his
friendly attitude towards the poet. Life for Khagani at the court became intolerable.
He could not live in the stuffy atmosphere of platitude, hypocrisy and prying. The
following lines express how he felt:
And if a step I take in calm
Or sigh from the depth of my soul,
The enemies' noose will take this sigh.
And will deform it and denounce it to the Shah.

He survived his own usefulness in Shirvan and compared himself with last
year's calendar:
My hair plate has passed of a year,
As numbers of an old calendar;
You see, with a new year it does not coincide:
A calendar begins a new year.
And an old calendar, the whole one,
From the library is carried away from there.
And together with dust, it will give it back.
That was so now my fate,
That old calendar, o, my friend, it is I.

The idea of leaving Shirvan emerged within Khagani. At first, he was intent
on going to Khorasan, and by I 1151 he had succeeded in only reaching Rey. The
governor of Rey did not allow him to continue on his trip, and the poet returned
home. After this, Khagani went on a pilgrimage to Mecca, in order to seek the
Shah's sanction. Khagani received formal permission in 1156 and then made the
trip, keeping an appreciable trace in his mind. He visited some countries of Asia
Minor, the cities of Ardebil, Isfahan, Baghdad, Damascus, Mosul, Mecca ( and
Medina. He met scientists and statesmen and became acquainted with the public
life of these countries.
A pilgrimage to Mecca plays a significant role in the' lives of educated
Muslims. The pilgrimage frequently helps them to be lifted up to an even higher
level of creativity. Pilgrims become acquainted with new countries, meet
prominent scientists and politicians, and participate in scientific disputes among
eminent philosophers and religious personalities. Frequently, those on a pilgrimage
to Mecca have formed impromptu groups according to their interests and have had
disputes along the way. Within one or two years of the pilgrimage, the person is
able to schedule a program for their further life and creativity. The positive

76

changes in the destiny of the person after the pilgrimage could be interpreted by the
influence of celestial forces, but the founders of the pilgrimage to Mecca certainly
understood the salutary influence of such trips on the
development of society.
Khagani's pilgrimage gave him a breath of fresh
air for his creativity. Scholars of the poet even divide his
creativity into two periods - before and after his pilgrimage to Mecca.
The exact route of Khagani's pilgrimage to Mecca
is unknown, but Gafar Qandli came up with a fairly detailed estimate of his journey. He considers that Khagani
Silver dish representing a
Nereid on a hippocampus.
passed through Hamadan and came to the headquarters
2nd Century AD.
of Seljuk Sultan's hakim, Mahammed ibn Mahmud.
Shemakha, Shirvan.
Khagani wrote that at the Court of the Sultan of Mahammed, the palace composer wrote music to his poetry. In Hamadan, the poet met a
group of local scientists. In "The Gift of Two Iraqs", Khagani mentions a meeting
in Hamadan with the head of the local university.
From there, he went to Baghdad through Mosul.
Baghdad - the capital of Muslim culture - met the poet
with a warm welcome. The organizer of meetings, the
vizier of Mosul's hakim Jamalad-Din Mahammed
Isfahani. was a great admirer of Khagani's creativity. The
poet was introduced to Caliph al-Mugtafi, upon which
Khagani had an unusually warm acceptance. Only people
closest to the Caliph attended that reception. The poet
Dish. Silver. 7th Century.
was allowed to kiss the hand of the Caliph, which,
Shirvan. Hermitage, St.
Petersburg.
according to etiquette of that time, was almost never
done. Khagani was offered the honorable post of the
Caliph's secretary, which he politely refused:
1 the Sun - what for to me
Suddenly becomes a star?
Cap, taken in the debt, for me
Not honour - humiliation..

The poet was delighted with his stay in Baghdad, but he missed Shirvan and
wrote about it in his poetry. In Baghdad, Khagani wrote a famous elegy "Medain"
("Ctesiphon"), devoted to the ancient Sasanidian capital. Khagani said that the
greatness of Zoroastrian Ctesiphon was as valuable as the greatness of Muslim
Mecca. The poet described his trip from Baghdad to Mecca in the poem "KhavassiMecca".

77

From Mecca he went to Medina, where he visited the graves of Mahammed

and the first two caliphs. At the grave of Mahammed, he swore off drinking and
made a vow to constrain his emotion and greed. From there Khagani went directly
to Mosul, where he was accepted by Jamal ad-Din Mahammed, whom he would
afterwards recall a number of times in his poetry.
After he had returned back to Shemakha,
Khagani avoided the Court, explaining his absence by
his vow to not drink wine in sacred places. He
appeared in the palace only during state meetings or
official receptions. He wrote verses in which he
criticized palatial living. To continue such play with
fire is very dangerous, and Khagani left for Derbent at
the end of 1157.
There, Khagani was met by the intelligentsia
of Derbent, who were very familiar with his
creativity. He was also met by its hakim Seyf ad-Din
Fragment of a pilgrimage
certificate. 12th Century.
Arslan Muzafar, a man of great worship who gave
Mecca and Madina.
Khagani a house. Khagani had a lot of friends in
Derbent. He became acquainted with the cultural life of the city, explored the old
city and its surroundings and wrote a casid devoted to Seyf ad-Din. It is not known
how long the poet stayed in Derbent; what is known, however, is that he was in
Ganja by 1159.
In Ganja, Khagani was received by his close friend from Shemakha, Nasir
ad-Din Bakuvi. He was the head of Arran and Shirvan's Sutls and a well-known
philosopher and imam, who had been exiled to Ganja by the Shirvanshah.
Shirvanshah Manuchehr wrote a letter asking Khagani to return to
Shemakha: "In Shirvan a political heat is on the increase. Your fast arrival here,
whenever possible, is extremely necessary". In the same letter, Manuchehr told
Khagani about the deaths of two outstanding poets, one of which was Abu-1-Ala.
The poet could not return. He had already been ill for more than four months.
Khagani received help from his friend Shams ad-Din, who was a well-known
physician from Ganja.
On his way back to Shemakha, Khagani went to Barda. Evidently, he met
his cousin Vahi ad-Din, who had been exiled there. Manuchehr offered a free
pardon to both cousins and in honor of this, he sent presents to them. They returned
to Shemakha together.
On their way back to Shemakha (or perhaps afterwards), Khagani attended
the opening of the dam in Bakilani in 1159. The dam had been destroyed during a
severe flood in 1138, and, according to the odes of Khagani and Feleki Shirvani,
the Shirvanshah worked hard for its restoration and improvement. According to
Gafar Qandli-Kherischi, the Shirvanshah's son Fariburz and daughter Alchichek

78

died at this time. Khagani devoted poems and elegies to the deaths of the
Shirvanshah's children.
Upon his arrival in Kura, Khagani was accepted by Manuchehr. Towards
morning he was again invited to the Shirvanshah's court. Before his arrival to the
royal court, the poet had time to write a verse, in which he reproached, in
undertones, the high-ranking patron in all troubles. The poet returned to Shemakha
with Manuchehr in 1159. In 1160 he made trip to Khoy. Then in 1163-1164 he
went to Hamadan as the ambassador of the Shirvanshah.
In Shemakha, a conspiracy evolved against the Shirvanshah. Plans of the
conspirators included the destruction of 60 outstanding personalities of the Court;
among them were Khagani and imam Nasir ad-Din Bakuvi. Having learned about
this conspiracy, Khagani fled to Garabagh. Later, the conspiracy was discovered,
its organizers were executed and Khagani returned to Shirvan, where he conducted
the active life of a politician.
He
again
strove
eagerly to get to Khorasan,
but was imprisoned in the
castle Shabaran. There, he
wrote a number of "prison
elegies", which experts refer
to as the most interesting
works of the poet. After he
was freed, Khagani decided to
make his second pilgrimage to
Mecca. Atabey Shams ad-Din
II-Deniz won the battle
against Akhsitan, who had escaped from Shemakha it Baku; Khagani took this
opportunity to begin his journey to Mecca. His relatives and friends did not like
this idea; they correctly guessed that he would not return home. He left for Mecca
with kinsfolk, friends and servants. Among those accompanying him was his pupil
Mujir ad-Din Baylakani, who would later become l well-known Azerbaijani poet.
By 1176 Khagani had already reached Baghdad. The new Caliph, alMustadi, accepted Khagani even morel solemnly than al-Mugtafi had. Khagani left
Baghdad; and went to Mecca, and then to Medina. In Medina the poet repeatedly
visited the grave of the prophet of the Mahammed and again wrote a "vow" in
saffron, which, by tradition, he dug near the grave of the prophet. On his way back
to Baghdad, he was plundered and was even imprisoned for a few days. After that,
Khagani appealed to Amir Salch Asad ad-Din to send him one camel from
Baghdad, since he had lost ten camels. Amir Saleh immediately sent to the poet ten
camels.
Makbaratulshoara. Tabri, East Azerbaijan, ran. Khagani,
Gatran Tabrizi, Falaki Shirvani, Shahriyar and others were
buried there. Photo by Kahanali Siami.

79

Back in Baghdad, Khagani wrote some verses devoted to this city and to the
fine time he had spent there. He I also gave a sermon in a mosque in Arabic, and
scientists of Baghdad gave him the nickname "Dabiri-arab". The poet visited the
famous university Nizamiyya. He stayed in Baghdad for about a week. The
potentates of the neighboring countries and provinces were waiting for their turns
to invite the famous poet to visit their courtyards.
Khagani went to Tabriz in 1177 via Diyarbekir. By this time, Tabriz had
become a metropolitan city of the Azerbaijani state of Atabeys. Shirvanshah
Akhsitan's favorite son, whose mentor was Khagani, died, and the poet presented
his condolences to him.
Khagani spent the rest of his life in Tabriz's library, studying and teaching.
Toward the end of his life, the poet often appealed to God and to Sufism; he
traveled and met with many Sufi scientists and visits sacred places. Shirvanshah
Akhsitan sent delegates to the poet with the request to return to Shirvan. Such a
request also arrived from the king of Georgia, George III. The letter on behalf of
George III was written by Khagani's close friend Izad ad-Din, a person of high
standing at king George's Court in Tiflis. But the poet was uncompromising. He
loved Shirvan and was ready to serve it, but he would not return there again.
Afterwards, Khagani's house in Tabriz became a sort of embassy of
Shirvan. There were always a lot of people from Shirvan there, both official and
informal. Khagani carried out the orders of Akhsitan, corresponded with him and
devoted poetry to him. According to the poet, he spent about 3,000 to 4,000 dinars
on visitors during the course of a year. From his letter it is visible that the
Shirvanshah paid for these expenses. Akhsitan's aunt (Manuchehr's sister) Ismat
ad-Din stayed in Tabriz for three months on her way to Mecca at the end of 1177.
In honor of this event, Khagani wrote a casid, stating that through her, he heard
about the wife of a hakim of Ahlat, who was visiting Mecca from afar.
In Tabriz Khaqani became friends with Seyf ad-Din Bektamir. Bektamir
was a Mameluke, and due to his virile mind and fitful energy, he rose to
prominence at Atabey Qizil Arslan's court. He had a large library and in every
possible way patronized scientists and poets.
Khagani traveled throughout Azerbaijan, visited Iraq and cultural centers of
Anatolia, and went to Isfahan twice. Another attempt to go to Khorasan - where the
poet had tried to go his entire life - failed. He had hardly reached Rey when he
became ill and had to return to Tabriz. On his way back to Tabriz, Khagani reached
Zanjan and was taken in with warmth and cordiality by-Azerbaijani philosopher
Eynudovla Hakim al-Zanjavi. Later, from Tabriz, Khagani sent Eynudovla letters
and souvenirs, including a black horse and black clothes with a white bandage.
Akhsitan died in 1197-1198, and Khagani wrote an elegy in his memory.
Khagani died in 1199 and was buried in a suburb of Tabriz called Surhab in
the famous cemetery that was later named "a cemetery of the poets" ("Makh-barat

80

ash-Shuara"). After the death of the great Iranian poet Shahriyar in 1981, a
majestic mausoleum-museum was built in this cemetery. Beside Shahriyar's name,
one can read the names of Khagani and other outstanding poets and thinkers.
Medieval tazkirists wrote that Nizami wrote an elegy for Khagani, in which
he noted with mourning that he had always dreamed that Khagani would write an
elegy about his death, not the other way around. I said: Khagani will lament me,
But alas! I have to lament Khagani...
The Creator of Unique Balms
Omar ibn-Osman Kafi ad-Din
And your name will be eternal shine
In a crown of mind and as of an imperial ring a sea
Khagani
In the 13th Century, on the initiative of Vizier
of I Gazan Khan, prominent state figure, reformer and
I historian of medieval Azerbaijan Rashid ad-Din
(1247-1318), and with the participation of famous
Azerbaijan physician Mahmud ibn Ilyas, there was
established a number of "Health Houses" ("Dar-ushShafa") - in the modern meaning, a sort of clinical
centres. Only in
Azerbaijan there were 67 such
centres. Central "Health Houses", with their main
medical school were located in Tabriz, at the
"Academy", which gathered scientists from over the
Orient. Rashid ad-Din in his famous "Histories"
pointed out that in Tabriz there worked more than 500
scientists from almost of all the branches of science,
immigrants from India, Egypt, China, Arab, some
other countries, about 6000 students got education
here. In Tabriz there were arranged a library, various scientific institutions.
Contributing to the organization of public health scrvicens was organizational and
scientific talent of Mahmud ibn Ilyas. Not without reason Rashid ad-Din
responded properly to Mahmud ibn Ilyas titling him "Plato of the epoch, Aristotle
of the century". However, first such "Health house" in the Middle East set up on
the initiative of abu Sina long before it. In Shirvan, founder of such medical centre
in Melgam - Medical Academy was outstanding scientist - physician Omar ibnOsman Kafi ad-Din, uncle of not less famous in the Middle East poet Khagani
Shirvani. His experience was widely used by Mahmud ibn Ilyas
and his

81

collaborators during the establishment of "Health House" in Azerbaijan. So,

describing one of his trips, Mahmud ibn Ilyas writes: "on the way home he came in
Baghdad to see his great fellow-countryman, talk about motherland (Shirvan),
recollect edification of Kafi ad-Din; his
remembrances about Shirvan always
gladded us". Omar Kafi ad-Din was born
capital city of Shirvan, Shemakha
approximately n 1080. He was the
outstanding figure of his time and the glory
of his learning spread far beyond
Azerbaijan. Rati ad-Din was highly
educated person, had gift for languages,
knew particulars of philosophy, theology,
astronomy,
mathematics,
medicine,
chemistry, pharmacology, taught in
university (medrese). Khagani wrote about him:" no devil (shaytan) will mislead
me, for my uncle will not permit. He is a person of culture and science. As water
runs high by influence of sun, so I
due to him my rise. He was aware
of mathematics, philosophy, worthy
of Aristotle of the epoch ".
According to legend, Omar Kafi adDin , before laying the foundations
of the medical centre, ordered his
pupil to kill a lamb and hang up its
meat on trees in the suburbs of
Shemakha, so that they could not be
A pharmacist prepares his drugs. 13th
Century. Arabic version of Dioscorides'
Materia Medica.

eaten by predators. In a week Kafi

ad-Din, ahorseback, went round
these places and saw, that nearly everywhere meat had gone bad and just in one
place, named Melgam, it remained unharmed as though it had just been hung up.
Hence, Kafi ad-Din concluded, that in this place air not only was purest, but
curative as well, so he decided to build medical Academy here. Now this place is
known under the name of Melgam plain. There is another version of the origin of
this name. In Shemakha, until presently there is a legend that in its environs lived
at one time a dermatologist treated with miraculous plaster (Melgam) and, that in
his honour the village was named by local name Melgam. Kafi ad-Din invited
scientists - physicians, occupied by practising medicine, manufacture of medicines
to work here and train doctors. He was excellent doctor, surgeon and
Pharmaceutical vessels. 4th-6th Centuries. Gabala,
Caucasian Albania.

82

pharmacologist. In his hospital, like other similar establishments in the Near East,
there was a drugstore, where pharmacologists and physicians of various specialities
lived among them there were surgeons "jarrahi",
oculists
"qekhali",
trakmologists - "mujbiri", or "mujabiri".
etc. At the medical centres of that time
usually corridor system was used. At
the entrance there were reception and
procedural rooms, wards were located
on both sides of the corridor and at the
end of the clinic there was a morgue.
Near the central building there
were a little drugstore and rooms for
physicians
and
attendants.
The
drugstore looked to a garden, where
various plants for manufacturing
medicines were growing. As M.
Akhundov noted: "At the Academy
effective treatment from various
diseases were carried out by means of fungi. There were 17 or so kinds of
funguses: grain, lactic, honeyed, etc". In one of his poems, narrating about his
uncle, Khagani said: "He easily explained to me, figures "one", "two", "three",
"four", "five". "Five" is five sense-organs ; "four" - is the beginning of the world water, air, earth and fire; "three" is an inanimate nature; "two" - is a body and a
soul; "one" is God ".
Medical centres of similar sort must have been very popular in Azerbaijan.
So, in the dastan "Mehsety and Amir Ahmed", hospital (bimarkhana) in Ganja is
mentioned, where many people stood in a queue. Everyday aid to Kafi ad-Din was
rendered by his son - Vakh ad-Din Osman. Osman had encyclopedic knowledge,
was good doctor, pharmacologist, surgeon. He was known as philosopher,
theologian and poet. Besides, he was a talented musician and musicologist. He
developed a theory of music and masterly played in ergun, predecessor of modern
organ. Osman took active part in bringing Khagani up and in music Ibrahim was
taught by Osman. Omar ibn-Osman Kafi ad-Din died in 1150 and was buried with
large honous near Shemakha. Here on the mountain always illuminated by sun,
among high tree juicy grass and numerous springs even, inmate recover without
the help of physician. Subsequently, thill place became Pir - place of worship of
local inhabitants, believing in sanctity of this place. In honour of Kafi ad-Din ,
who among populace was called "Dede", this place up to our days refers to as
"Dede Gunash" (" Father of Sun").
A physician (Dioscorides) showing his pupil a
mandrake root. Illustration from a translation
of Diorides' De Materiamedica. 1229. Topkapi
Palace Library.

83

Up to our days, there is used a local idiom to wanj against poisoning by

grass Bat-bat: "you are like Dede love to play with this grass. Throw it aside. It is
poisonous".
On the occasion of the death of Kafi ad-Din, Khagani wrote an elegy:
Kafi ad-Din, you by the philosopher of the world, scientific true was.
Light doors of wisdom of the sky you for living had made open.
Your spirit has come back on a place. Heart, not cry and bless the mark!
Lived you among us, but you heard from the sky a vote, calling:" Be back!
The precious pearl of earthly's sea, entrusted to the new destiny are you.
You has grasped by hands a belt, dumped from the sky to you.
You are the composer of wonderful balms, glorified in the terrestrial world.
The ancient sky you, probably, to made had decided by his doctor.
And, be back on the high sky, going for a walk in paradisiacal garden,
Has released you from a malicious fever a quivering star.
Seven effulgent heavenly houri, wraping up in iridescent colour,
Before you had bent the knee, had kissed your trace.
Your empty house is prostrate with grief; to dissolved and dissolved in tears.
Was you for us as Jesus beneficial, as progenitor Adam.
Friday formidable.by streak of lightning , life of sage has taken away,
Friday once also great in the world a flood had beginning.
About Khagani! Over grave of the uncle burst out bloody crying,
There was he to you as the father and more dear than natives and friends.
Friday once also great in the world a flood had beginning. About Khagani!
Over grave of the uncle burst out bloody crying,
There was he to you as the father and more dear than natives and friends.

The Zenith of the Islamic Renaissance

Sheikh Nizami Ganjevi (Ganjeli)
Nizami Ganjavi, the greatest Azerbaijani poet and thinker, is well known
throughout the world for leading a new trend in poetry - the epic-romantic genre.
He lived and worked in the city of Ganja in the middle of the 12th Century.
It was a troubled time. Almost 100 years had passed I since the SeljukTurks had superseded the Arabs in Azerbaijan. With their arrival the Arabian
language lost its dominant position. At the time, northern Azerbaijan was on the
border of the Seljuk and Muslim worlds. This led to very diverse and rich language
and poetry, and the development of a school of Persian poetry, which was very rich
in structure and became famous throughout the East. At the head of this trend was,
"the King of the Poets", Nizami Ganjavi.
Poets of this school included Qatran Tabrizi. Khagani Shirvani, Mehseti
Ganjavi, Abul-Ala Ganjavi, Izza ad-Din Shirvani, Feleki Shirvani, Mujir ad-Din
Baylakani and others. Each of these poets may have glorified Azerbaijan, as well
as any big country. For modern researchers of the history and culture of

84

Azerbaijan, this phenomenon is interesting because they wrote deep philosophical

works, infused with scientific information and difficult terminology, mythology
and allegories. However, each of these poets had his own
readers. Their works were translated and learnt by heart
and spread with unusual speed for that time throughout
the Muslim East. How do we explain this phenomenon?
Where should we look for the roots of this explosion of
popular culture?
First of all, obviously, it is necessary to remember
that the destiny of the northern part of Azerbaijan was in
many respects determined by the development of its
southern counterpart, which was heavily influenced by the
Near and Middle East. Therefore, the penetration of Islam
Chirakh. 1190.
too, naturally, went from south to north. The influence of
Osman ibn-Salman
Muslim culture on the culture of Christian Georgia and
Nakhchivani.
Nakhchivan, the
Armenia also went through Azerbaijan and, to a large
Atabeg's State of
degree, directly through Azcrbaijanis rather than Persians
Azerbaijan. The
or Arabs. The influence was very strong and kept deep
Louvre. Paris,
France.
roots in the languages, literature, creativity and music of
these countries. However, they had very little influence on the culture of
Azerbaijan.
The creation of the vast Arabian Caliphate, of which Azerbaijan was a part,
promoted the strengthening of trade, economic and cultural connections between
its regions, the intensive growth of cities, the prosperity of crafts and the
development of science. The development of navigation and the caravan trade
helped to spread the knowledge of astronomy, algebra, trigonometry and geometry
throughout the Caliphate. There was a mutual enrichment of science among
Arabian, Iranian, Turkic and Greek scientific thought. During the reign of Caliph
al-Mansur (754-775), half of the vice-regents in the Caliphate were of Iranian or
Turkish origin.
In Abbasid the Caliphs al-Mansur, Harun ar-Rashid and especially the
Caliph al-Momin had a lot of Ancient Greek literature translated from either Greek
or from Syrian. They did all that was possible to spread the knowledge of antique
cultures and also the cultures of India and China.
Interpreters of antique books from many countries were invited to the
"House of Wisdom" in Baghdad. The books to be translated were collected by
special services throughout the Caliphate. Books were accepted as souvenirs from
honourable visitors instead of gold. It is thought that about 400,000 books were
collected in the library of the "House of Wisdom". The outstanding scientist
Khorezmi managed the library.

85

The diligence of al-Momin and his predecessors was not wasted. Science
flourished in the 9th Century in the Caliphate. Major and minor hakims created
libraries and had scientists and poets in their courts. The material in these libraries
included works by such great scientists, thinkers and poets as Al-Kindi, Khorezmi,
Farabi, Ibn Sina, Biruni, Kashkari, Bahmanyar and many more.
English scientist and physicist J.
Bernal wrote that while "a large part of
Europe was still suffering from the chaos
caused by the fall of the Roman
Empire...(the)
Muslim
world
was
experiencing a period of resplendent
flowering".
The centre of this renaissance in the
Caliphate was the new capital, Baghdad. Its
population soared to as much as 2 million
people in half a century, which was unheard
of at the time.
At approximately the same time,
Ganja was founded in Azerbaijan and it tried
to imitate Baghdad in everything. At the
time of Nizami over half a million people
lived there. Such a city was unknown in this
region in terms of its population and the
Nizami Reads His Work to a Prince. The
level
of development of science and culture.
Treasury of Secrets. Nizami. 1538.
Bukhara.
Not for nothing did Nizami call it my
Babylon. Schools, universities, public and
private libraries, and observatories functioned there. It is known that a large library
existed in Ganja called Dar al kutub, which was headed by Abulfazl anNakhchivani.
The city prospered along with other cities of Azerbaijan. Coins with the
inscription "Azerbaijan" and "Ar-ran" were minted. Historians mention a city in
which a large part of the population was specialized in the production of paper.
There have been a number of eminent Arabic-lingual scientists and writers
in Azerbaijan. Among them were such giants as the philosophers Abul Hasan
Bahmanyar al -Azerbaijani (died 1066), Abu Bakr Ahmed Bardiji (died 914), Abu
Said Ahmed Bardayi (died 929), Eynalguzat Miyanaji (1099-1131) and poets Musa
Shahavat (7th-8th Centuries), Ismail ibn Yassar (7th-8th Centuries), Abul-Abbas
al-Ama (died 718), Mansur Tabrizi and others.
The Seljuks, who replaced the Arabs in 11th Century, differed from them
with their tolerance and traditional Turkic nomadic democracy. This democracy
gave way to new conditions for the development and glorification of knowledge

86

that was accumulated during the last three Caliphs in the north of Azerbaijan.
These conditions led to the formation of a new school of poetry, headed by the
great Nizami. The greatest Azerbaijani poet and humanitarian, Nizami abu
Mahammed Nizam ad-Din Ilyas ibn Yusif ibn Zeki Muayyad Ganjavi was born in
August 1141. Biographical data about
Nizami in medieval chronicles is not easy to
find. Researchers have had to rely on crumbs
from the poet's works.
However, the Arabian form of the
poet's surname has been found in various
medieval sources, and so we know his place
of birth, his pseudonym and the names of his
son, father and grandfather. Nizami's real
name was llyas. His father's name was
Yusif, and his grandfather's name was
Muayyad. His son, Mahammed was from his
first and favourite wife, Afag. From his work
we know that Nizami's mother was a Kurd
of noble origin from the former hakims of
Ganja Shedaddins.
He was called Sheikh Nizami or
Khosrov and Shirin. Nizami. 1404-1409.
simply
Nizami Ganjavi, that is Nizami from
Tabriz. Freer Gallery of Art. Washington
DC.
Ganja in Farsi, or Nizami Ganjali in AzeriTurkic spelling. In the "Library of the East",
issued at the end of the 17th Century in Europe, the poet was referred to as Nizami
Genjli.
Nizami's other relatives are not mentioned anywhere except for some rather
late sources, in which Nizami's contemporary poet Qivami Muttarazi, was
proclaimed to be his brother. However, the majority of modern researchers believe
that they could not have been brothers, as Qivami died at least 25 years before the
birth of Nizami.
Nizami had a deep and extensive knowledge of all areas of science known
at that time. It is possible, therefore, to conclude that he was educated in a
privileged university (madrasa) of Ganja, in which he was taught by highly
educated scientists, and that there was an extensive library. It is also possible to say
that his parents were rather prosperous and well-educated people and, that his
family lived in Ganja. All of this can be proved by analysis of Nizami's works.
Which branches of knowledge were familiar to Nizami? It is very difficult
to know which field of knowledge Nizami was most familiar with. His encyclopedic knowledge amazed his contemporaries. In his work it is possible to find
something about all branches of knowledge and it is all written on a very

87

professional level. In addition to Azeri-Turkish, he was fluent in Arabic and

Persian.
Without knowledge of Arabic, he could not have mastered theology and
Arabian philosophy. He also needed to read the works of Farabi, Khorezmi, ibn
Bajji, Abu Ali ibn Sina, and ibn Rushda. Nizami used Arabian sources in "Leyli
and Mejnun", except for the stories and legends that were widespread in
Azerbaijan. Analysis of Nizami's work also shows that he was familiar with
ancient Greek and ancient Indian philosophies.
Aristotle and Plato exerted an
especially strong influence on Nizami. Jn
"Iskander-name"
Alexander
(Iskan-der)
discusses the problem of Creation in a circle of
ancient sages, including Aristotle, a scientist
known throughout the East as Arastun, Fales
(Valis), Plato (Aflatun), Apollonius of Tyana
(Bulunus Ruminian), Socrates, Parfiri of Tir
(Forforius)
and
Hermes
Trismegistos
(Hormus), the suppositional founder of
alchemy, magic and other magic sciences.
Nizami used this original artistic means to
discuss the origin of the Universe in this fictional elite scientific symposium.
Nizami and Thinkers. 1485.
N. Conrad wrote of this, "to me this list
Insitute of Manuscripts.
of names is presented in an amazing historical
document...He clearly has a huge intellect, and is amazingly rich in spirit. I shall
add to these names yet and Indian himnosofists. About them, you see, there is
speech. And before us, in all shining brilliance, is the Renaissance".
The astronomical and astrological questions of the origin of the Universe
played a very important role in Nizami's work. Nizami regularly used plays on
words, parables, allegories and descriptive expressions, and he constantly
described the sky and mentioned astronomical tools and astronomical tenninology.
In biography of his heroes, Nizami looked at their horoscopes, thereby
demonstrating a professional knowledge in astrology.
From his work it is evident that he was also familiar with the books
"Magister" by Ptolemy and "The Beginnings" by Euclid, as was any educated
Azerbaijani of that time.
He was not only familiar with the astronomical tools of that time, such as
the armillary, the sphere, the astrolabe, the gnomon, solar hours, water hours, and
wall quadnfl of the meridian circle, which are all mentioned in the poem, "Seven
Beauties", but he could also use ill, Nizami was obviously especially familiar with

88

the astrolabe, a compact instrument used to observe and calculi the position of
celestial bodies, as it was more often mentioned in his poems.
Nizami used the basic geocentric system of
Ptolemy in that the Earth is at the centre, surrounded
by family spheres, each of which has one of seven
planets, which corresponds to a day of the week and
colour.
The Arabs divided the path of the Moon in the
sky into 28 parts and these were called the phases of
the moon. Each phase had a name, and each day the
moon
passed a different group of stars. The
movement the planets and the Sun and the Moon
through the Zodiac constellations and their mutual
arrangement determined the ancient`s calendar. From
this it was possible to predict people's fortunes and the
course of historical events.
The Battle of Rival Clans
To understand Nizami's allegorical verses fully,
with Majnun Looking on.
Khamsa. Nizami. 1490.
the modern reader needs to be familiar with the
Behzad, Tabriz. British
elements of
the astronomical and astrological
Museum. London.
tenninology used in the East at that time. A good
example of this is the poem "Leyli and Mejnun", in
which Nizami describes the horoscope of the newborn
hero using a lot of detailed terminology. Abdulqasimova
deciphers this horoscope for us in his book "Nizami and
the Universe". "The| Newborn will amaze everybody
with his knowledge and courage, because fortune's star is
in the lion's constellation. He will shine with knowledge
and succeed in science because the Sun is in
constellation with the ram. He will be happy because
Mercury is in constellation of the twins. His courage and
shooting will win him the glory of the world as Venus is
in the constellation of temperamental Sagittarius. Also,
Khamsa (Quintet). 14941495.
Nizami.
Herat.
he will win wars because Mars is in the constellation of
British Library, London.
Libra".
From Nizami's own horoscope given in the poem I "Khosrov and Shirin",
scholars have managed to work out the year, and even a month, of the poet's birth.
The days of the spring and autumn equinoxes, the Milky Way, the Northern
and Southern Pole stars and the rings of Saturn, observed by Europe astronomers
only after five centuries, are frequently mentioned by Nizami. Nizami pays a lot of
attention to questions of the origin of the Universe and the system of the world.

89

His knowledge of Geography was also astounding. It is unlikely that any of

his contemporaries set their work in such a wide range of geographical situations;
though under no circumstances did Nizami turn his back on Ganja.
In "Khamsa", the following countries are
mentioned: Azerbaijan, China, Tibet, Kashmir, Iran,
Iraq, Syria, Lebanon, Yemen, Oman, Aden, Ethiopia
(Khabesh), Sinai, Egypt, Maghrib, Rum (Greece),
Andalusia in Spain, Mughan, Shirvan, Arran,
Abkhazia,
Armaghan
(Armenia),
Kashkar,
Maverannahr, Mazendaran, Khuzendaran, Khuzistan,
Jam, Kisir, Sarir, Hatay, Khorasan, Badashhkhan,
Gimgele, Zanzibar, Istahr, Ifranjat, Haveran,
Daghestan, Jend, Gilan, Taraz, Khi-tall, Kayravun,
Alburz, Kahhauj, Khalukh, Ark, Khaz-ran, Zing,
Mukaddas and Kemar. The poem also mentions the
Turks, Russians, Abkhazians, Armenians, French,
Nizami Addressing His Son
Mohammad
(detail).
Nubians, Sogdians, Saklabs (slavs), Jews, Berbers,
Behzad. Probably Herat.
Zinjians and others. He even mentions the North Pole.
1482. Musee d'Art et
d'Histoire. Geneva.
Nizami also mentions dozens of cities in North
Africa, southern Europe, Levant, Arabia, Iran, the
Caucasus, Central Asia and India. Among them were
Ganja (his home city), Barda, Derbent, Tiflis and
Chach (Tashkent), Buhara, Samarkand, Herat,
Khorezm,
Baghdad,
Medain,
Mecca,
Sham
(Damascus), Iskanderia, Khalluh, Medain (Ctesiphon),
Lahore, Farhar (Falgar), Qirman Shah (Karman Khan),
Alan, Balkh, Merv (Shahijan), Zanjan, Khotan, Yagma,
Rey, Isfahan, Mosul, Babylon, Jerusalem, Gazna, Fur,
Nishapur, Shahrir, Bulgar, Tus, Gurgan, Burtas,
Khazran, Buskhak, Khar, Bisra, Tamuz and others.
Modern scientists assume that the Gypsies came
Bihzad
(c.
1450-1530).
to Europe from India. In his poem "Seven Beauties",
Miniature of the Building of
Nizami describes the appearance of the Gypsies in
the Khawarnaq Castle from
Iran in connection with the name Bahram, who helped
a Copy of Nizami's Khamsa
(Quintet). 1494-1495. British
them escape from India.
Library, London.
Nizami was able to describe the processes and
changes of the Earth's surface, as if it was taken from a modern textbook of
geography. Nizami also describes rotation movement and inertia property of
bodies.
He was also familiar with decimal fractions, roots and irrational numbers.

90

Nizami's rich knowledge of painting and calligraphy and in particular music

permit us to make the assumption that these disciplines
were included in the educational program of the
university from which he graduated. From Nizami's
poems, it is possible to learn about all aspects of
musical life in Azerbaijan and, to some degree,
throughout the East. Nizami wrote about mughams,
songs, folk songs, singers, musicians, dancers and a
variety of musical tools. He used such musical terms as
melody, mood, rhythm, harmony, modulation and quaver. This is not surprising because in Azerbaijan, classical poetry and music were intimately connected. The
poet wrote verses about the love of a woman or about
love for God, which were also common among the classical mughams.
In his poems Nizami mentions many songs and
mughams. In "Khosrov and Shirin" the famous singers
Berbed and Nakisa perform 30 songs and eight
mughams. Among them were such songs as "Donated
by Wind", "Pearl's Curtain", "Sweet drink", "Revenge
for Siyavush", "Gardens of Shirin", and also the
mughams, "Rast", "Iraqi", "Novruzi", "Isfahani",
"Ushshagh", "Rahavi", "Zirefkand", "Khisari".
Information about musical instruments that were
prevalent in Azerbaijan in the 12th Century and earlier
is scattered throughout all of Nizami's poems and lyrical
verses. He mentioned not only the names of the
instruments such as the saz, ud, berbet, setar, chang,
qanon,
mushkar, organon, kamancha, rubab, tanbur,
Khosrov Spying on a
karanay, sheypur, qus, dovul, def, naghara, zandan, but
Shirk Bathing. Qalyan.
Kirman Mid-17th
also their form, the number of strings, their sound and
Century. Stonepaste
how to play them.
with polychrome
underglaze decoration.
The music of Nizami's time has reached us today,
British Museum,
although
changed, but we know almost nothing for cerLondon.
tain about the fine arts in Ganja at that time. Therefore,
all of Nizami's information about painting and sculpture is of special interest. In his
poems it is possible to find information about wall painting, sculpture, and also
about famous artists and sculptors of that time.
Above all, Nizami prized the painting of China and Rum. It is interesting to
compare Nizami's perception of these paintings to a more modern perspective.
Leyli and Majnun Faint.
Khamsa. 1491. Shiraz.
SPL.

91

Iskandar and Rovshanaks Wedding Party. Khamsa. 1578 Bukhara SPL.

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Modern researchers tend to look for iconic symbolism, whereas Nizami

looked more at the realism of the things depicted.
Nizami was also familiar with the medicine, anatomy and pharmacology of
that time, and he was familiar with the work of the medieval doctors Galen, Razi,
Iskhaq ibn Khunayn and Avicena. He loved chess and backgammon and frequently
used the terminology of these games in his poems.
Having had a very good education, Nizami continued his education in the
rich, "overflowing" libraries of Ganja.
Nizami's works are like an encyclopaedia of
Azerbaijan's ethnography of the Middle Ages. One
can find in his work the answer to almost any
question of interest to a modern ethnographer, from
the conditions of economic life and culture to
questions of marriage and family.
Bertels wrote, "We must remember that in
addition to his knowledge, he had a huge poetic
talent so it is unsurprising that if he became a court
poet, he could expect quick success. However,
Nizami did not become a court poet and lived
without leaving his place in Ganja and he even
avoided public life".
This solitude is the biggest puzzle of the
Nizami's life. The solitude of the poet, as he writes in
this verse, could be easily explained by his being a
Sufi, as he had the title "sheikh". Sheikhs, or
Shirin Bathing. Khamsa.
murshids, were to live as hermits and have
Nizami. Second half of the 18 th
Century. Iran. Opaque
followers, or murids.
watercolour and gold on paper.
Historical records do not have any
information on Nizami's murids. We do not know who Nizami's spiritual guide
was, though there is the intimation that he was a follower of the Sheikh Akhi
Farrukh Zanjani, who died more than 70 years before Nizami was born.
It is quite possible that the Sufi order to which Zanjani belonged tried not to
advertise its activity, as it was opposed to the extremely orthodox Sunni worship,
which was more common in Ganja at the time. Consequently, we know very little
about this side of Nizami's activity. However, a legend about the sanctity of Sheikh
Nizami has been saved.
Atabey Qizil Arslan, having felt a desire to enjoy the company of Sheikh,
sent for him; but he was told that this elder had moved away and that he refused
the company of potentates and the powers that be.
The Atabey desired to test him, and so he went to him. The Sheikh, having
had a vision from God that the Atabey was coining to test him, looked on him with

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disdain; and the

prince had a
vision from the
spiritual world.
Qizil Arslan saw,
among
other
things,
an
imperial throne
sprinkled
with
jewels designed
for the Sheikh,
but also a hall
where there were
100,000 slaves
and warriors and
which shined with the magnificence deserving of a king. He saw people decorated
with precious belts, viziers and distinguished men around the throne, where the
Sheikh sat as ruler. As soon as the Atabey's eyes saw the greatness and brilliance
surrounding the Sheikh, he was amazed by it and wanted to kiss the Sheikh's legs
because of his humiliation; but at that moment he returned from the spiritual world,
where he had been I transported by his vision, to this material world and noticed a
weak, thin old man sitting on a piece of felt at the cave's door with a book, ink-pot,
reedy pen, table and stick in front of him. He respectfully kissed his hand and
never again thought of testing him. His respect for the Sheikh had grown
enormously.
Most biographers of Nizami link the different stages of his personal life to
his five most famous poems, which were subsequently incorporated in "Khamsa"
or "Quintuple". Nizami wrote the first large poem, "Storehouse of Mysteries",
when he was little more than 30 years old. At that time he was already well known
in narrow circle of poets as a talented poet and the author of magnificent lyrical
verses. The poem is dedicated to the ruler of Erzinjan in Asia Minor, Fahr ad-Din
Bahramshah ibn Daud (1166-1225).
Nizami wanted to take the poem to the Bahramshah himself, but could not
do so because of military action in the region. A historian of the Seljuk-Turks
wrote that having received the poem, Bahramshah said, "If it were possible, 1
would send my whole treasury as a gift for this book, which has laid down in
verses, similar to pearls, my name which will be remembered in the world
eternally".
"Storehouse of Mysteries", had a special place in Nizami's work. The
subsequent four poems included in "Khamsa" are close to modern novels or
1. Bahram Gur and Azade. Khamsa. Nizami. Qajar Painting. Brooklyn Museum
of Art. 2.Khosrov Discovering Shirin Bathing. Khamsa. Nizami Qajar Painting.
Brooklyn Museum Museum of Art.

94

romance-poems, whereas "Storehouse of Mysteries" represents a collection of

short
sententious
stories, dedicated to
questions of morals
and of codes of
conduct. This book
excels in its depth of
philosophical
consciousness and is
more religious with
Sufi mysticism than
his
other
poems.
"Storehouse
of
Mysteries" brought a
lot of glory to the poet
and caused many
imitations in almost every country in the East. "Storehouse of Mysteries" brought a
lot of popularity to Nizami. In those days, well-known scientists and poets were
frequently invited to court and took protection under the ruler. Sometimes they
would simply give the poet a present or grant him some land. We do not know who
patronized Nizami in those years, but the result of one of such act of patronisation
made a deep mark on Nizami's life and the poet frequently recalled it. The ruler of
Derbent, Dara Muzaffar ad-Din, as a mark of his admiration for Nizami's talent,
sent him as a gift the gentle Kipchak girl Afag, a slave with an ungovernable
disposition. In approximately 1173-1174 became Nizami's wife. She was the ideal
woman for the poet. Many researchers of Nizami believe that his for Afag
introduced a new inspiration to Nizami's poetry. In the same year his son,
Mahammed, was born and Nizami was happier than ever before.
Unfortunately, his happiness was short lived. Afag died in 1180. Soon
after, Sultan Toghrul III (1177-1194) commisioned Nizami to write a poem about
love and promised a good reward for the work. Although the poet lived as a hermit
he accepted the offer. He perfectly understood what the market wanted, expressing
in modern language that love and the erotic would always be a ranking of success.
Besides that there was an opportunity to immortalise the memory of his favourite
wife, Afag, for centuries. The poet based the work on the legend of Khosrov and
Shirin, which was well-known throughout the Muslim World.
The poem was dedicated to Toghrul II. Nizami finished the commission in
about one year but was unable to deliver it as Toghrul II was involved in a war
elsewhere. There are also two other dedications in the book, to Atabey and Jahan
Pehlevan, and after his death, to Pehlevan's brother. Sultan of Azerbaijan Qizil
1. Leyli visiting Mejnun in the Desert. Khamsa. Nizami. Qajar Painting.
Brooklyn Museum of Art. 2. Quin Shirin Visiting the Sculptor Farhad.
Khamsa . Nizami Qajar painting. Brooklyn Museum of Art.

95

Arslan. The set of dedications is probably connected to Nizami's desire to pass on

the manuscript only to reliable people. Only rich people could afford to pay for a
copyist and expensive paper, but only they could bring the book to a wide audience
and save his poem for posterity.
"Khosrov and Shirin" is a poem about the
tragic love of a Sasanian prince, who went on to
become Shah Khosrov II, for an Albanian
princess, Shirin. Nizami, with great skill,
described the ideas and actions of the heroes and
tried to explain them psychologically for a more
convincing characterisation. Nizami added to the
poem a third hero, an educated builder and
architect, named Farkhad by the poet noble, as a
crystal clean young man, who would make any
sacrifice for the love of Shirin.
Bertels wrote that "Khosrov and Shirin" is one of the greatest masterpieces,
not only in Azerbaijan, but also in world literature. For the first time in the
literature of the Near East, the individuality of the person was shown in all her
riches, with all her contradictions and ups and downs. The poem was amazingly
successful.
After Nizami, a dozen of very
gifted Eastern poets used this theme.
Among them, the eminent poets,
Hindu. Amir Khosrov Dekhlevi and
Uzbeg Alisher Navoi especially stand
out. It seems that Nizami based his
story on Azerbaijani folklore. After
the poem was published this theme
became even more popular and has
been saved up to today as a popular
legend.
The Parable of Jesus Christ.
Khamsa. 1508. Shiraz. SPL.
Soon after the death of Afag.
Nizami married for the second time, but again malicious fate pursued the poet. His
second wife died in 1188. That same year Nizami received an order for a new
poem from Shirvanshah Ahsitan I. The Shirvanshah asked him to write a poem
based on the Arabian legend about the unfortunate lovers, Leyli and Mejnun.
Originally, Nizami planned to refuse the order, because he was of the
opinion that the plot was hackneyed and as dry as the sand of the Arabian Desert.
However, his son, Mahammed, persuaded him to accept the offer. After Nizami
A Meeting of Lovers in a Date-palm
Garden. 1479. Khamsa. Nizami.
Shiraz. SPL.

96

became acquainted with the written and oral legends about Leyli and Mejnun in
detail, the theme lead him on and by the end of the year the poem was ready.
The poem described a crazy love, between
pupils of a private school, Geys and Leyli, which
proceeded and grew through the years, despite all the
obstacles thrown in their way by their parents as they
grew up from children to become a young man and
woman. Because of his crazy passion, Geys received
the nickname Mejnun or madman. Love kills Leyli
and Mejnun hastens to the grave and dies soon after
Leyli. Mejnun's friends who were animals guarded
his body.
A lot of imitations of "Leyli and Mejnun"
have been written literally up to the present day.
Especially popular in the East were some poems
written on this theme by Amir Khosrov, Alisher
Navoi and by Mahammed Fizuli. Since its release, there have been imitations
written in Azeri, the earliest of which is a poem by Hagigii (1512), the only copy
of which is kept in the British Museum in London.
On July 31, 1196, at midnight
Nizami finished his fourth poem, "Seven
Beauties". The patron of the poem was a
governor
from
the
dynasty
of
Aqsonqurids Ala ad-Din Korpa Arslan
(1174-1207). Apart from him, Nizami
mentioned his sons Nasr ad-Din
Mahammad Shah and Ahmad Shah.
Around this time Nizami's health
Leyli and Mejnun Mejnun Throws Himself on
broke down, and
Leylas Tomb. Nizami.
In his fantastic poem "Seven
Beauties", Nizami described the entertaining adventures of the Sasanidan King,
Bahram Gur. The poet used this as a backdrop to portray the eternal problems of a
fair ruler.
In this poem Nizami wrote fantastic, cheerful and instructive stories about
seven beauties who became the wives of the Shah and simultaneously seven stories
about people saved from prison. He also wrote of the faithful stories about genuine
life in the country, which was ruled by the brutal vizier, and he included descriptions of tortures, massacres and murders. This puts a different slant on the poem's
title, all the more so because the poem has a mysterious ending. Bahram, whilst out
hunting, follows a sheep into a cave and disappears. When a warrior who was
Mejnun comes to Kaaba
Khamsa 1479 Shiraz SPL
Dorn

97

accompanying him approached the cave, he heard a determined a voice saying,

"Go home! The Shah is engaged in business!" The cave appears to be empty and
nobody can find the Shah. What Nizami meant by this ending remains a mystery.
As soon as he had completed "Seven Beauties", Nizami began work on a
new poem. It was called "Iskan-der-name", or "Book of Alexander". It consisted of
two volumes. The first was called "Sharaf-name", or "Boo of glory", and the
second was called "Ikbal-name", or "Book of Happiness".
Nizami's third wife died in 1200. He was at that time already almost 70. For
him the years had flown past, many of his friends and allies had died and loneliness
and a feeling of being near the end of
life inspired melancholy.
"Book of Alexander" was his
longest poem. The first book
describes the fantastic life, wars and
heroic feats of Alexander the Great.
In the second book Alexander the
Great changes from a king and
conqueror to become a king,
philosopher and prophet.
In the poem, Alexander travels
a great distance and at last reaches
somewhere in the northeast. It seems
Mausoleum of Sheikh Nizami. Ganja. 19th
Century. Published for the first time.
to be a perfect country; there are
authorities, no poor or rich, no
oppressors and no oppressed; there is no theft and no deceit; the people are not
sick, and they die only from old age.
At the end of the poem, Nizami addresses the reader and asks them to
remember him, and he promises that if the reader follows his advice they will have
a good life.
In addition to his famous "Khamsa", Nizami also wrote many other works.
Nizami also wrote "Divan", a collection of lyrical verses, consisting of 20,000
beyt or, couplets. Unfortunately, for all of us, the majority of them have been lost.
We now have only around 100 of his magnificent, philosophical verses. It is
difficult to know which women they were written to. We know, however, that there
is an unknown woman buried next to him in his grave. The academic, Arasli, wrote
that people had linked him romantically with the poet Mehseti Ganjavi. Her
passion and love for Nizami are referred to in some stories about Nizami, as well
as her wish to be buried next to him. Arasli also wrote that some gazelles confirm
the plausibility of a love story between Nizami and Mehseti.
On March 12, 1209, at the age of 68, Nizami died in Ganja. We know the
exact date of his death was established when his grave was found. The inscription

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on the tombstone states, "This is the grave of luminary Sheikh Nizami ad-Din
maula Abu Mahammed ibn llyas ibn Yusuf ibn Zeki, who died in the fourth month
of the six hundred and fifth year".
After his death, as well as on the graves of other famous Sheikhs, a
mausoleum was erected, which people came to visit as a sacred place. The
mausoleum had clearly been looked after and restored over the years. However, in
the second half of the 19th century it was in very bad repair, though the historian
Bakikhanov wrote that a khan from Garabagh, Mirza Adigezal Bey, undertook an
attempt to restore it. In 1875 a Persian prince,
Farkhad Mirza Qajar, visited the mausoleum. He
wrote of it in his book "Manual": "When we had
travelled seven versts, there was a small dome,
which was half destroyed. It was Sheikh Nizami's
grave; from it to Ganja are seven versts. I hastened
to visit the grave but guardsmen from a post
nearby had laid a lot of hay for their horses around
the dome, so it was impossible to enter". At the
beginning of the last century, what was left of the
mausoleum probably still existed, as its image is
depicted by the artist Shmerling in his journal "Molla Nasr ad-Din" in 1908.
On the 800th anniversary of the poet's death a new mausoleum, 15 metres
high, was built. After 50 years, however, it was already broken down, and so in its
place a new mausoleum was built - this time made of marble and granite rather
than limestone.
Nizami's popularity has spread far beyond the East, his work has been
translated into almost to all the languages of the world, and his work has been
studied around the world. His poetry has inspired, and continues to inspire writers,
playwrights, composers and artists, especially in the East. If in Europe in the
middle Ages the Bible was the main source of inspiration for artists or writers, for
artists in the Muslim East, Nizami's "Khamsa" filled the same role. Books, carpets
and walls in palaces and residential houses, as well as weapons and household
crockery, were all decorated with drawings based on the themes from Nizami's
poems.
All the world's great museums have at least a few miniatures and subjects of
applied art based on the themes of "Khamsa" by the most famous artists of
Baghdad, Tabriz, Herat, Qazwin, Shemakha, Bukhara, Nakhchivan, Delhi, Cairo
and others. In libraries and museums around the world, more than 900 colourfully
made out manuscripts of "Khamsa" are stored. Among them is the manuscript
completed especially for Sefevi Shah Tahmasib I in 1543 in the Court's library,
founded by Shah Ismail in Tabriz and based on Uzun Hasan's library. It was
Inscription on the Headstone of
Sheikh Nizami Ganjavi. Ganja.
12 March 1209. Azerbaijan
Atabey`s State.

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written by the most outstanding representatives of Azerbaijan's school of

calligraphy, including Shah Mahmud Nishapuri, Ustad Sultan Mahammed, Agha
Mirek, Mir Musawir, Mir Seyyid Ali and Muzaffar Ali. This manuscript is stored
in the British Museum and is considered a masterpiece of world book art.
Another very valuable manuscript of the poem "Storehouse of
Mysteries", copied in 1239 in Ganja by the calligrapher Fazlullah ibn Mahammed
ibn Omar, was found by the professor Rustam Aliyev in London's "India Office"
library. He believes that it could have been copied from Nizami's own manuscript.
Two lovers he awating in this tomb
Their resurrection from the graves dark womb
Faithful in separation true in love
One tent wil hold them in the world above
Leyli and Mejnun
The Great Lady of the
Sufi Realm
Mehseti Ganjavi
Mehseti Ganjavi, an outstanding Azerbaijani poetess of the end of the 11th
and the beginning of the 12th Centuries, is a bright representative of Azerbaijani
and Muslim Renessance, a representative of the new urban poetry, glorifying in her
verses images of inhabitants of urban craftsmen, poets, singers and mutribs.
Mehseti was first in almost everything. She was the first known Azerbaijani
poetess, the first woman chessplayer, the first famous Azerbaijani musician, and is
quite possibly the first female composer.
Her biography is surrounded by mystery and legends. The only known facts
of her life, as well as her verses, differ with extreme extravagance, at least in the
Muslims understanding of life of that time, especially if one accepts them literally
rather than figuratively.
According to these legends, she lived in the Ganja Kharabat quarter, and
spent time drinking, singing and dancing. She poeticized wine and sensual love. A
series of verses, devoted to the young craftsmen from Kharabat quarter in Ganja:
tailor, spinner, butcher, gold-digger etc., were particularly famous:
Your face, the son of a tailor, is similar to the moon,
A hundred Mesheti will want to become the slave.
As threads in your hand. I'd like you to lead my path
To you lips every day a hundred times.

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Young man knitting wool is my soul.

A gap on his chin is my prison.
God, give me his kiss.
Because these lips are my medicine.
I am in love with an ash seeder.
I cannot though reveal my secret to him.
He is searching for gold, while seeding ashes.
I am searching for him with gold in my hands

Little of Mehseti's biography is reliably established. Mehseti Khanum was

born in approximately 1089 in Ganja where she lived to a very old age. Her real
name mas Manija. The name Mehseti was her poetic pseudonym. Mehseti was
very well educated, and she had well travelled which is apparent from her work.
She visited areas such as Rum, Merv, Balkh, Nishapur, Herat, Ganja, Khorasan,
Iraq, Zuzan, Arran etc. For a while she lived in the the great Sultan Sanjars palace.
She participated in receptions and literary majlises (meetings). She spent a
significant part of her life in Ganja, where she participated in the palatial life of
Sultan Mahammed and his son Sultan Mahmud.
The basic facts of the life of the great poetess came from the Dastan of the
XIII century Mehseti and Amir Ahmed, the manuscripts of which are stored in
Baku, Istanbul and London. Recent findings of Azerbaijani scholars proved, that
the Dastan's author is an Azerbaijani poet and scientist of the XIII century,
Abdulla Jovhari Zargar Tabrizi, and that his heroes are real persons. They include a
poet Amir Ahmed, the first Shah of Ganja (Sultan Mahammed) and the second
Shah of Ganja (Sultan Mahmud). A large number of Mehseti's rubaiyats are
included in the Dastan.
The contents of the Dastan in brief are reduced to following. A daughter
was born in to a family of a theologian in Balkh city. He went to astrologers to find
out the future of his daughter. After the astrologers appealed to the stars they
predicted a great future for her, and love of people. Simultaneously they declared
that eventually she would end up in a kharabat (arabian- saloon, pub). The father
sent his daughter to school, which she graduated in eighteen years with honors.
Following that, the father took her to experts and asked them to teach her twelve
mugams and their twenty four sections. He also asked musicians to teach her to
play the chang, ud and berbed. His friends were surprised: "How come first you
educate your daughter, teach her Koran, and then prepare her for a professional
dancer career, unless you want to make her a whore?" His answer was, that if she
was going to end up in Kharabat, she should be prepared. After the death of her
father Mehseti moved to Ganja and settled in Kharabat's quarter.
It is known from the same Dastan that by twenty years of age Mehseti
gained acceptance and love in many countries of the Muslim world through her

101

102

accomplishments, beauty, fine voice and poetic talent. Both nobles and merchants
came to Kharabat in Ganja to listen to her sing. Even the ruler of Ganja, who was
called Shah Ganja in the Dastan, could not stay away.
Khatib (ecclesiastic) of Ganja finally had a son after many years. He named
him Amir Ahmed. A boy was educated by wet nurses, and at four years of age he
was sent to school. Amir Ahmed proved himself as a very skillful and talented
young man and the glory about his gifts was spread far beyond Ganja, though he
spent all his time studying and not leaving the school. Once Amir Ahmed had a
dream. He dreamt that he entered Paradise, where met a houri with a cup of wine in
her hands. Amir Ahmed drank the wine and got drunk with the beauty of the houri.
The following morning Amir's father found him very sad. To dispel the boy's grief,
his father allowed Amir Ahmed to take a walk through Ganja with 400 horsemen
accompanying him. In one of the city quarters Amir Ahmed heard a beautiful
singing and learned, that this quarter was known as Kharabat. There, in one of the
taverns he found a beauty, lying on four pillows. It was Mehseti Ganjavi. Amir
immediately recognized his houri. The young couple fell in love and started
exchanging rubaiyat (quatrain).
Hatib was very surprised to find his son reading rubaiyat instead of Koran
before sleep. He was worried by his son's behavior, which started after his trip to
Kharabat. Hatib even sent him to doctors, and they promised to espouse him. But
all efforts were in vein. Amir Ahmed, however, was determined and went to visit
Mehseti in Kharabat without servants. Once Mehseti's mother learned about the
boy's family, she asked Mehseti to send him home away from troubles. The young
couple did not listen to her. Hatib tried return his son and even complained to the
Shah of Ganja, but his son was firm. Then he sent several people to catch and
imprison his son. On the third day lengthy conversations about morals and
peccadillo, Amir Ahmed agreed that his father was right and got his freedom. The
father was so excited that he started dancing and gave a big party to celebrate the
joyful event. When the party was over and the visitors went home, Amir Ahmed
left as well in the expected direction of Kharabat.
There he found Mehseti surrounded by 40 girls. They played on ney, chang,
and daf, danced and sang. Mehseti was giving a music lesson. Here he saw
Mehseti in a new light. Not only did she write poems, sing, and play on many
instruments, but she also was a teacher.
To better understand the musical sphere of tin time, one of the Shah's
receptions in Mehseti's honor would be very descriptive. Music was played on the
following instruments: chang, ud, barbat, abrishami, ney and tanbur.
It was also mentioned later in the Dastan that Mehseti was the strongest
chess player in Ganja. A match between her and the Shah of Ganja at a party was
described. In another match Shah of Ganja bet thousand dinars with Amir Ahmed.
Amir Ahmed won and Shah of Ganja had to pay with gold coins.

103

The headstrong Shah demanded that the lovers part and Mehseti to remain
in his palace. Mehseti offered Amir Ahmed to run to the city of Balkh. Mehseti got
there first. The entire Khorasan and the poets of Balkh gathered in her honor. A
poetic competition began. Mehseti offered a poetic riddle. Nobody could find the
answer. Suddenly a wanderer entered the competition and answered Mehseti in a
graceful verse. Everybody guessed that this was Amir Ahmed. At the end of the
Dastan - Mehseti and Amir Ahmed the lovers came back to Ganja, were officially
married and had two children.
After the death of his father, Amir Ahmed became the Hatib of Ganja.
Mehseti survived her husband by two years. She lamented over his death so much
that by the end of her life she lost her sight. It is emphasized in the Dastan that she
was buried near Nizami Ganjavi. Indeed, when in 1923 the grave of Nizami was
dug up, to move him to the honorable cemetery of Shah Abbas mosque, there was
a woman's grave. Hamid Arasli does not exclude the possibility that the two
outstanding persons met, although the times of their lives are difficult to connect.
The Dastan is written very well and is interesting to read although it is
paraphrased. However, it is difficult to believe in all of this. The reader is left with
a feeling of reticence. There is an impression that the author hid facts of her
biography, as he used a number of allegories clear only to a reader of his time.
Indeed it is very difficult to believe that a respectable theologian in those
times could send his very talented daughter to study music and dance, in order for
her to prepare for a Kharabat (tavern). The same is with Hatib's son Amir Ahmed,
who after receiving a magnificent theological education went to Kharabat to follow
Mehseti. It is yet difficult to believe that the poetess who was accepted to a court of
the Sultan numerously declared her love to young handicraftsmen: a spinner of a
wool, baker, tailor, butcher, jeweler and many others. Riddles, riddles and riddles.
However, everything becomes extremely clear and logical, if only to
assume, that Mehseti was a member of a secret Sufi Order and that her biography
was written with allegories, accepted by Sufies in order to defend themselves from
the orthodox Muslims. Sufies considered that a prime goal of person's life is love
to God. The ecstatic condition of Sufi was considered intoxication by wine (mast,
mey), and a place of gathering of Sufies was identified with a tavern (Kharabat,
Meykhana), and so on. Instead of a mosque, some Sufi attended the assemblies,
where the reading of hadises was replaced with the reading of verses, singing and
dancing in Sufic tenement - Kharabat. Doctor Javad Nurbahsh, the head of Sufi,
Order Nematullahi in London translates "Kharabat" in English as the "Tavern of
Ruins", meaning Sufi tenement. He writes that Sufi after passing all purifying
stages, becomes an Accomplished Person and reaches a threshold of True
(Hagigat): "This last trip in Hagigat could be associated with studying Truth in a
Divine University, in "Tavern among Ravages" (Kharabat). There are no
professors in this true center of unsurpassed education, and the only preceptor is

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the Absolute Sanctity and Perfect Love. The only teacher is Love, instead of the
textbooks there is Love and the Accomplished is also Love". This was the
Kharabat where the theologian sent his daughter Mehseti. And, indeed,
interpretation of the Dastan, using of the Sufies allegory will make the biography
of Mehseti look much more plausible.
Shall we begin with the birthplace of the poetess, which was specially
transferred to the north cast of Iran - the center of early Sufis? This was the
birthplace of one of the first sacred Sufi Abu Said ibn-Abi-l-Khayr and the scientist
and poet Omar Khayyam, who had done so much to spread the rubaiyat genre out.
A famous Sufi poet Jalal ad-Din Rumi and many others came from here.
A reader is literally warned that the creativity of Mehseti is related to the
circle of Sufi poets and while reading the Dastan the amendments on Sufi parables
should be made. I.e., the pious theologian, when he found out about his daughter's
unusual poetic gift and musical abilities, decided to send her to follow his own
path. He addressed an astrologer for an advise, who one predicted for the girl a
bright future in the Sufi brotherhood. The fortune-teller certainly had his wisdom,
as women in those days could only feel relatively free among Sufies. As wrote J.
Spencer Trimingham "the mysticism was the only religious sphere where a woman
could manifest herself. There were many Sufi women among which the most
known was Rabiya al-Adaviya". The fact that the author of the Dastan referred to
the gathering of Sufies comes from the following verses of Mehseti:
The moon has risen above Kharabat:
She stretched a tent in a heavenly hut.
And suddenly a voice came from nowhere:
''This World is not worth a straw".
Don't come to Kharabat without a desire,
If you don't know the symbols of Dervish,
do not come.
The path here belongs to the brave ones.
Do not come if you can not sacrifice yourself.
Kharabat is a place for brave men,
There is no place for low souls in here,
Pay respect to this path you've chosen
As this is not a place for sly souls.

The fact that the Kharabat quarter was represented by craftsmen and that
Mehseti expressed love to a number of them: tailor, jeweler, wool spinner, etc. in
stead of Yar (God), may mean that she belonged to some group of craftsmen and
used special symbols accepted by them.

105

Such a corporation could have been the Turkic organization Akhi, similar to
Sufi, to which Nizami belonged as well. Members of this group were young men of
different trades. It becomes completely clear that the verses dedicated to young
craftsmen were written specifically for performances at the Sufi gatherings and are
not love lyrics as we understood them. It is interesting that the arrival of Amir
Ahmed just, like Mehseti, to the Kharabat was predetermined from above. To him
the prediction was passed through an angel and her fortune was predicted by an
astrologer. It would also be impossible to explain another episode without a
reference to a prediction. In his dispute with his father, Amir Ahmed said he would
close his eyes and asked to be tied up to a mule. If a mule would carry him to a
mosque, he would never go to the Kharabat. If, however, the mule would take him
to the Kharabat, Hatib would have to sell the mule and with the money he and
Mehseti would organize a Sufi mejlis. The mule of course came to the Kharabat
and the money went to singers and musicians at the next gathering of the Sufis
with singing and dancing. This episode described an eternal dispute between Sufies
and Muslim Orthodox as to where a faithful Muslim should direct his feet to a
Mosque or to a Kharabat. Fizuli wrote: I will not go to a Mosque and I shall not
listen to those preaching. Better move your boots to a Kharabat-Meykhana - you
will find a winery there. A sight is radiant and wine is effulgent)).
Another Azerbaijani poet Khabibi, who fancied philosophy of Sufi, called
Kharabat his "Friend". Another episode from the Dastan proves once again that
Kharabat is not a tavern or a quarter of craftsmen, but it is the gathering of Sufies.
A pious uncle of Amir Ahmed, Pir Osman, undertook to rescue him from the
Kharabat. Amir Ahmed agreed to leave the Kharabat upon one condition, that Pir
Osman would drink a glass of wine. The old man could not stop after only one
drink and left the Kharabat completely drunk. It was impossible to recognize Pir
Osman after that episode. He became a habitue of Kharabat. Without a doubt, this
episode described the eye-opening of Pir Osman, and intoxication stood for
religious ecstasy.
Old men and preceptors in Sufi were called "Pir" and "Sheikh" ("Murshid").
Amir Ahmed's uncle Osman apparently became a "Pir" once he passed all stages of
spiritual perfection in Kharabat required by Sufi and became a spiritual preceptor.
In Mehseti's poems there are many verses, in which the poetess expresses
her deep feelings to the beloved without anv symbolizm:
I am your lover, O son of Khatib.
Believe that I shall be faithful to you until I die.
There are many men ready t o die for me,
But 1 wish to bum in the flames of my love to you.

106

Her love to Amir Ahmed was a highest profane Love. This Love poetess
took to measure profane passion. But there is another even higher love, and that is
love to God, hidden behind symbols and under names such as friend, yar, old man,
dervish, beggar, butcher or a members of Akhi's Order - young craftsmen. As the
poetess wrote, this love could be "two thousand times stronger than her love to the
Khatib's son" and "especially under the influence of wine (in ecstasy)" when she
could come close to God. The end of the Dastan is typical for Sufi. Mehseti lost
her sight from tears and was buried near a man of great worship, a huge authority
among Sufies, famous poet and great Sheikh Nizami Ganjavi. The rubaiyat of
Mehseti Ganjavi are close to Azerbaijani folk tales and carry deep philosophical
meaning. They left a deep trace in the poetry of Azerbaijan and the entire Middle
East. Many scholars consider her poetry close to the rubaiyat by Omar Khayyam,
however the majority of modern critics are inclined to connect them with the
Azerbaijani poetry school, founded by Qatran Tabrizi and Iza ad-Din Shirvani.
The Sheikh of Engineers
Ajami Nakhchivani
The 11th and 12th Centuries were marked by a
blossoming forth of Azerbaijan. Towns grew; palaces and
mosques were built; defensive and memorial installations
rose; and crafts, science and poetry prospered. This epoch
saw the emergence of prominent figures such as Qatran
Tabrizi, Bahmanyar al-Azerbaijani, Khatib Tabrizi, Nizami
Ganjavi, Khagani Shir-vani, Omar Kafi ad-Din, Abu Bakr
Ganjavi and Mehseti Ganjavi.
Starring among them was Ajami Nakhchivani, an
outstanding architect of medieval Azerbaijan, recognized
not only in the Orient, but in the Western world as well.
Avrora Salamzade wrote: "The influence of his
Mausoleum of Yusif
masterpieces on the architects of the Middle East is easily
ibn-Kuseyir. 1162.
traced in their works. His masterpieces, even centuries later,
Architect Ajami.
manifest the strength and immortal freshness of his creating
Nakhchivani.
Nakhchivan.
genius and stir up the highest aesthetic rapture. His works
Atabey's State of
are an eloquent testimony to the fact that the Ajami heritage
Azerbaijan.
forms a part of the world cultural treasury. It was no mere
coincidence that sources of the 13th Century titled him the "sheikh-ul-muhandisi''
("sheik of engineers").
The author of numerous architectural masterpieces. Ajami sprang up as an
artist glowing with brilliant creative genius, and as a giant of artistic and

107

A big mosque. 12th Century. Architect Ajami Nakhchivani. Nakhchivan, Atabey`s State of
Azerbaijan.

Atabey`s square. Tomb of Momine Khatyn and portal. 12th Century. Architect Ajami
Nakhchivani. Nakhchivan, Atabey`s State of Azerbaijan.

Ruins of a mosque from the cult complex in

the village of Kirna, Nakhchivan.

108

Red Dome Tower, Maragha. 1147.

Photo by Mizba.

engineering thought. Ajami burst into the life of the Atabeys of Azerbaijan with
their capital in Nakhchivan and with their ruler the Great Atabey Shams ad-Din II
Deniz, and later his son Nasr ad-Din Mahammed Jahan Pehlevan. History has
preserved nothing of Ajami's lifetime, except for his inimitable works. Fearing that
he would be consigned to oblivion, the architect inscribed on his mausoleum:
We are temporal. The world is eternal.
We shall leave the world will remain.
We shall die and remain in memory.
Oh, God, an evil eye keep far away!
And the memory of Ajami survived.

In the Muslim East there are outstanding architectural ensembles, including

those in Samarkand, Isfahan and the Taj-Mahal. Noteworthy is the fact that long
before these ensembles, Ajami Nakhchivani had created a structure that was less
majestic in the oldest town of that world -Nakhchivan. On a vast area of irregular
form there were memorial monuments, the majestic
palace of the il-Denizes, the Juma mosque, madrasah,
caravanserai and other governmental buildings.
Unfortunately, just two mausoleums out of the mention
structures have survived to the present.
An anonymous author of the 13 th Century
wrote in his "Gimmicks of the world" ("Ajaib
Addunya"), "Nakhchivan is a town in Azerbaijan,
located on high place and fortified. There are palaces,
castles, kushks, state buildings, a fortress made stone
and madrese. A greater part of kushks have three or
four storeys, like fortresses. The river Arax crosse the
town. In Augus Nakhchivan is particularly
magnificent. There are also governmental buildings
(Dovlat khana)".
Tomb of Momine Khatun.
According to a chronicle of the reviewed
12th Century. Ajami
period,
a quarter of million people lived ir Nakhchivan
Nakhchivani. Nakhchivan.
Atabey's State of
in the epoch of Ajami. Among the earliest monuments
Azerbaijan.
of the area is the mausoleum of Yusuf Ibn Kuseir,
known in the broader strata of the population as Atababa Gyumbezi. The
mausoleum is composed of an underground crypt and a surface tower in the form
of an octahedral pavilion. External parts of the mausoleum are decorated with
ornaments made of brick blocks. Above the entrance to the mausoleum, there is a
Kufik inscription that says, "This is a shrine of Haji, born Rais, beauty of Islam,
head of Sheikhs, Yusif ibn Kuseir. In the time of Shaval, the year seventh and
fiftieth and five hundredth (557/1162)". On the top of the mausoleum there is a

109

decorative quific inscription from the Koran. To the left of the entrance there is
name of the architect, Ajami ibn Abubekr Nakhchivani.
Another mausoleum, the largest and nicest in Azerbaijan, is the one of
Momine-Khatun, known as Atabey Gyumbazi. Momine-Khatun was the first wife
of Shams ad-Din II-Deniz and greatly contributed to the creation and strengthening
of the state of Atabeys of Azerbaijan. Momine-Khatun died in 1175. Soon after, IlDeniz died and her son Jahan Pehlevan built the mausoleum, which was completed
only in April 1186. This mausoleum consists of an underground crypt and an
aboveground memorial part. All ten sides, except for the facade, arc identical and
contain niches decorated with ornaments. Above the
mausoleum there is a frieze with a qufic inscription
from the Koran. The inscription with a height of nearly
a meter is made of enameled bricks. Despite its great
height and monumentality, the mausoleum is harmonic
and graceful to emphasize its relation to the woman.
It is difficult to explain it better than the Russian
scholar V. Alpatov. He said that the Nakhchivan mausoleum is imbued with humanity like the best works of
classical literature of the East, like the immortal poem
"Shah-nama" by Firdovsi or "Leyli and Mejnun" by
Nizami. As Salamzade noted, tower mausoleums in the
East, in connection with the Islamic prohibition on
sculptural images of breathers, played a role in the
sculptural monuments of Western Europe. The burial
Eastern Azerbaijan, Iran.
chambers of these mausoleums were located underBlue Dome- Maraghe.
ground, while the surface pan rose above 30 meters.
Photo by N. Mizbani.
This was to immortalize the memory of the buried
person. The third of these structures located in this area was a portal with
two minarets of colossal construction. This edifice was demolished in the 19th
Century, but some drawings and descriptions survived.
Up to its demolition, the inscription read: "Work by architect Ajami; the
mausoleum of Momine Khatun". Experts assert that Ajami offered such a
composition - two minarets and a portal for the first time. Subsequently, it was
recurrent in several countries of the Muslim world.
A general complex of Ajami`s structures includes the huge Juma-mosque.
The French travellers Tavernye and Delafrua presented its description and
drawings. The newspaper "Caucasus" wrote: "It is a huge building with arches
from polished stone. Inside, there are perfect relief ornaments. Part of the building
is already destroyed, and another part is under the threat of destruction. It is quite
possible that from the mosque up to the gates, there were medreses or
caravanserais".

110

It should be noted that the inscription on the mausoleum of Yusif ibn Kuseir
is so imperceptible that many researchers did not detect it. Twenty-five years later,
the inscription on the mausoleum of Momine Khatun became much more
appreciable. It was located over the entrance to the top chamber.
For many centuries. Ajami's creativity served as a source of inscription and
imitation for many architects of Azerbaijan and other countries. After nearly 300
years, researchers traced back the influence of Ajami even in the works of the great
Turkish architect Sina.
Let today's architects remember Ajami's motto: "We shall die - it will
remain in memory", and this will be the best monument to the great architect.
The King Renowned for His
Herculean Strength
Jahan Pehlevan
On the foundation of the Seljuk Iraqi Sultanat
in the middle of the twelfth century the state of the
Atabeys of Azerbaijan was formed. In 1175 Nasr
ad-Din Mahammed Jahan Pehlevan, a son of IlDeniz, became the second ruler of the Ildegiz
(Ildeniz) dynasty over Azerbaijan. Under his reign,
the state developed and got general recognition; the
power of the Atabeys grew.
Jahan Pehlevan was a son of the founder of
the dynasty, Shams Ad-din Il-Deniz and Momina
The image of the inthroned
Seljuq prince on the minai
Khatun, a widow of the Seljuk Sultan Toghrul II. As
bowl. 13th Century.
a youth, he participated in numerous battles and
Gulbenkian Foundation
Museum. London.
military trips and learned the military art as well as
diplomacy and the art of state management. Since his
childhood he was famous for his strength. Even up to now the legend that he won
all tournaments organized by his father during Novruz celebrations is well spread
on the territory of Azerbaijan. He is said to have been able to fold four brass trays
put on top of each other, rumble a couple of horse-shoes, knock a house down with
a punch and throw a bull-calf over a fence. For his unusual strength and athletic
might he was called Jahan Pehlevan, which means the Hercules of the (entire)
Universe, or maybe in the contemporary interpretation - the World Champion.
His son Nasr ad-Din abu Bakr was also famous for his athletic
achievements and strength. He was a winner of all tournaments. According to an
ancient legend, at one of the tournaments in Tabriz he was defeated by a poor man

111

Varga wa Gulshah. 1225. Khoy. Abd al-Momin al-Khoi.

Atabeys' State of Azerbaijan, Topkapi Saray Library. Istanbul.

112

called Qara Malik. The audience was so amazed that one of the blocks in Tabriz
was later named after him, and he himself turned into a tale character.
When in 1160 ll-Deniz became the Great Atabey, Jahan Pehlevan, who was
not even eight at that time was appointed the emirkhajib of the Sultan, and in a year he got married to a
daughter of the ruler of Rev, Inanj - Inanj Khatun.
Jahan Pehlevan had four sons and a number of
daughters. With his first wife, the daughter of the
ruler of Rey, Inanj Khatun, he had two sons, Kutluq
Inanj Mahmud and Amir Amiran Umar. With the
Turkish Kutayb Khatun he had a son Nasr ad-Din
Abu-Bakr and with a concubine - a son - Uzbek. The
mother of his daughter Jalaliyya was Zahida Khatun.
She owned the Alinja castle, where the treasury of
the Atabeys was kept.
Having heard about the death of his father,
A Pehlevan's Initiation
Ceremony. India, Mughal,
Jahan Pehlevan from the capital of the state,
ca. 1720. Margin designs
Khamadan went to Nakhchivan and seized the slate
attributed to MohammadBaqer. Iran. Mid-18th
treasury. The Seljuk Sultan Arslan Shah, incited by
Century. Opaque watercolor
the Iraqi emirs, started off to Azerbaijan to fight
and gold on paper.
against Jahan Pehlevan, leading big joint troops.
However due to a disease he had to come back not
having reached Azerbaijan.
Soon after his return to Khamadan, the Sultan
married a daughter of the city rais (major) and having
called Jahan Pehlevan to his court, made peace with
him and appointed him his Atabey. Having given the
power to the Atabey, the Sultan soon after died.
Imad ad-Din al-Isfahani writes on the death of
Arslan Shah the following: "They say, that Pehlevan
had the Shah poisoned as he did not believe his further
Painted ceramic dish. 12th13th Centuries AD. Oren
existence would be useful for the state". Some scholars,
Qala (Baylakan). Atabeys'
however, find it doubtful that Sultan Arslan Shah was
State of Azerbaijan.
Hermitage. St. Petersburg.
poisoned by the order of the Atabey.
After the death of the Sultan, the Atabey Jahan
Pehlevan, put the Shah's seven-year-old son Toghrul III on the throne and
proclaimed himself his Atabey. Jahan Pehlevan also appointed his brother Qizil
Arslan the ruler of Azerbaijan and Aran and his general. The discipline and education of Jahan Pehlevan's son Abu Bakr was also entrusted to him.
The south of the country was attacked by the Georgians. Troops led by Qizil
Arslan were sent to fight against them. The Georgians were defeated and a lot of

113

trophies were captured, after which a peace agreement was signed. At that time
Jahan Pehlevan had to suppress the ruler of Khuzistan, Ay-Toqdi Shimla, who had
territorial claims and the uncle of Sultan Toghrul III, Prince Mahammed who lived
in Khuzistan and wanted to get on the thrown. Shimla was defeated first - he was
killed in a battle, while Prince Mahammed was imprisoned. The military talent of
Pehlevan became apparent in the fight against the prince. When Pehlevan got the
news that Mahammed with his army entered Isfahan, he immediately attacked the
troops and on the fifth day the soldiers of Mahammed were defeated. After that,
according to historical sources of the time, for Jahan Pehlevan, the country
"became free from rivals and he got on the thrown of the state". In 1175 Jahan
Pehlevan added Tabriz to his domain.
Ziya Bunyatov states: "Order was established in all
sections of the state authorities due to the administrative
skills and exactingncss of Atabey Jahan Pehlevan. During
the ten years of his reign, the state was not even once
attacked. It was under his rule that the Georgians singed
the piece treaty and agreed with his terms". The state of
Jahan Pehlevan occupied a vast territory. He divided it
among his sons. Qizil Arslan's disciple, Abu Bakr was
appointed the heir of Jahan Pehlevan. The rule over
Azerbaijan and Arran was entrusted to Abu Bakr, while
Kutluq Mahmud and Amir Miran became the rulers of
Rey and Isfahan. Uzbek got Khamadan.
Soon after the power of the Atabey was strengthened, friendship established between him and Khorezm
Shah Tekish. Four amicable letters of Khoresm Shah
Tekish addressed to "the Great Atabey Shams ad-Daula
va-d-Din, the Pehlevan of Iraq" survived to our times. In
one of them, for example, it is said that the gyrfal-con was sent to the Atabey and
that Tekish is sorry that the number of embassies of "his excellency, the great pad
Shah" (janab-i Humayun) had to be increased. In another letter, Khoresm Shah
asks Jahan to accept the gifts as they are "given from the sincere heart" and hopes
that "the paths of joy will be always opened between them and that those of distrust
will be also blocked".
On the western borders of the state by the end of Jahan Pehlevan's reign the
ruler of Egypt and Syria, the founder of the Ayyubid dynasty, the famous hero in
the fight against the crusaders, Salakh ad-Din Yusuf became very active. Due to
his excellent diplomatic skills, Jahan Pehlevan managed to avoid serious conflicts
with Salakh ad-Din and preserve the western borders of his Sultanate.
Jug with handle. Glazed
clay with lustre painting.
Early 13th Century.
Atabey`s State of
Azerbaijan. Freer Gallery
of Art. Washington DC.

114

During the military trip to

Khilat to protect it from Salakh
ad-Din, the Atabey got ill and
despite the efforts of the best
doctors died in March 1186 in
Khamadan. His body was
transported to the Zahida Khatun
residence - the castle of Alinja
where he was buried.
Jahan Pehlevan patronized
men of science and culture.
Scientists,
poets,
doctors,
architects, etc. were gathered at
his court from the entire Middle
East. The great Azeri poet
Khagani ran to his court from Tabriz for refuge. Another outstanding Azeri poet
Nizami Ganjavi dedicated Toghrul, but basically Jahan Pehlevan his poem
"Khosrov and Shiirin". Under Jahan Pehlevan such cities as Nakhchivan, Ganja
and Tabriz continued to develop.
The Alinja Castle. Nakhchivan, Azerbaijan Atabeys'
State. The treasures of the Atabevs were stored in this
castle. The governor of the castle was the wife of Jahan
Pahlavan, Zahida Khanum. Jahan Pahlavan was
buried here in 1186.

The Sultan of Azerbaijan

Gizil Arslan
The state of Atabeys of Azerbaijan was founded
by Shams ad-Din Il-Deniz. He was followed by his son
Jahan Pehlevan who ruled for ten years. He had four
sons and several daughters.
Having distributed various lands of his Sultanate
between numerous family representatives, Jahan Pehlevan bequeathed them to obey their uncle Gizil Arslan
and be faithful to titular head of Sultanat Toghrul, subordinate to Caliph, his spiritual lord.
Atabek with court.
Pehlevan's son Abu Bakr was nominated governor
Baylakan. Begining of
the 13th Century.
of Azerbaijan and Arran, while Pehlevan's brother Gizil
Atabeys' State of
Arslan became his preceptor. Jahan Pehlevan granted
Azerbaijan. Hermitage.
St. Petersburg.
Hamadan to Uzbek; Rey, Isfahan and a part of Iraq to his
sons Inanj Mahmud and Amir Amiran Umar. In doing
so, Pehlevan pursued an aim to consolidate the country, preserve order and stability
in his domains. As a result of intestine wars Pehlevan had to replace rebellious

115

emirs by Mamelukes. Note that after his death the latter ascended to power and
became uncontrollable. Ziya Buniyatov told the story of Ibn Isfendiyar: "Shortly
before his death, Atabey Jahan Pehlevan arrived in Rey and
during a conversation with his dignitary suddenly heard
cries of falcons. Atabey inquired about a visitor and was
told that his mamluk Sirai ad-Din Gaymaz, vicegerent of
Atabey to Rey had arrived. Then Jahan Pehlevan said:
"Gaymaz has been successful so much that affords to have
his own falcons", and, addressing his dignitary, asked:
"What can you tell me about my slaves and liberties they
Qizil Arslan (11861191). Atabeys'
are taking?" The answer came as follows: "May Great
State of Azerbaijan.
Atabey live for ever! You have extolled your slaves up
Dirham. Copper.
heights, so they won't obey your sons after you, and no one
person will bow to another and while these slaves are alive, Iraq won't live in peace
and calmness". These words moved Atabey to tears, so he said: "You are right!
What should 1 do now?" His companion replied as
follows: "So let it be will of Allah!"
The dignitary's words proved to be prophetic.
Moribund Jahan Pehlevan was taken to the remote fortress
Tabarik where his family was waiting him. Taking
occasion, his wife Inanj Khatun and her entourage
contrived for several months to conceal his death from
legatees in the hope of bringing one of her sons to the
throne. However, according to the will of the deceased,
most emirs backed a nominee of Pehlevan's elder son Abu
Bakr. Note that Aby Bakr, brought up by Gizil Arslan,
interceded Sultan Toghrul III for appointment of Gizil
Arslan as commander-in-chief of the army. Sultan had to
recognize Gizil Arslan as Atabey and, even better, invited
him to visit the capital of Sultanate - Hamadan to take up
Stucco figure of atabey
the government. Gizil Arslan was received very solemnly
attendant or palace
guard, Lifesize 12 th
at the court. At the first sight, there seemed to be nothing
Century. Atabeys State
to threaten him. In fact, neither Sultan, nor vigorous wiof Azerbaijan.
Metropolitan Museum
dow Inanj Khatun thought of giving up their intentions.
of Art. New York.
First of all, Inanj Khatun could not imagine her sons
Qutlug Inanj Mahmud and Amir Amiran Umar being deprived of power, while
their brother from the concubine being brought to Atabey's status. In an attempt to
combat Gizil Arslan, Inanj Khatun tried to enlist the support of her husband's
former mamluks. She addressed them as writing:
How can you put up with the fact that the son of the concubine has flown
higher than my son (Qutlug Inanj)? I dispose of huge money, treasures, dinars and

116

dirkhems to keep you for years. I want you to have my sons seated on horses and
delivered to me. I'll arrange everything for you and your supporters, and spend
money enough to accomplish the goal and unite the army of your governor Atabey
Jahan Pehlevan. Mamelukes responded to the widow's appeal and pulled their
troops together to Rey in anticipation of being backed by Sultan. Meanwhile, Inanj
Khatun and her sons arrived in the place. Sultan got to know about it, and at once
made a march to Rey.
The insurgents retreated in confusion. While the
visitors were celebrating their triumph, Inanj Khatun
tried to persuade Toghrul to get away. For fear that
Atabey would get to know about his participation in the
conspiracy, Toghrul agreed with the proposal, so they
joined troops escaping Rey. Emirs enlisted Toghrul's
promise that Inanj Khatun's son Qutlug Inanj would
hold Atabey position. Realizing the seriousness of the
situation, Gizil Arslan did haste to act, instead, he tried
Dish. 1187. Kashan,
to win over new supporters. In the meanwhile, Toghrul
Atabeys' State of
decided to move to Hamadan in spring 1187. Not far
Azerbaijan. Metropolitan
from the town, the two armies joined battle, and as a
Museum of Art. New York.
result, Gizil Arslan had to retreat and seek refuge in
Azerbaijan. To fight Sultan, Atabey decided to enlist the support of Caliph anKasir in Baghdad. He promised Caliph that event of his victory over Sultan, he
would Caliph's power in Iraq. Caliph welcomed Atabey's decision, and in spring
1188 he entrusted Grand Vizier to recruit an army to later join Gizil Arslan's army
under Hamadan. However, Vizier did not wait Atabey and started combat actions.
Toghrul routed Vizier's army, and the latter was captured. However, Toghrul took
mercy on him and, even better, sent him to Baghdad with gifts for Caliph. Caliph
declined from reconciling and put Vizier to death; then he recruited a new army
and sent it to Hamadan. Sultan proved to be unready for such turn of affairs and
had to flee to Isfahan. Meanwhile, caliph entered Hamadan, so did Gizil Arslan.
Caliph handed the command over to Gizil Arslan, delivering him a message which
proclaimed him a vicegerent of Caliph. Ziya Bunyatov wrote that it was
recognition of Gizil Arslan in the rank of independent king (in place of Sultan's
vassal).
Gizil Arslan was arrayed in honorable clothes gifted by caliph, and even
seated himself near the Sultan knelt down to kiss earth at his feet. In other words,
Gizil Arslan became a governor of the new indepent Azerbaijan state - Sultanate.
Following his nomination, Gizil Arslan led his army to Isfahan where Toghrul was
hiding himself, and after a short siege he entered the town. Leaving the town,
Toghrul III made his way for Azerbaijan and in avenge for the defeat by Gizil
Arslan, he destroyed on his way all towns and villages of this once blossoming

117

land. Closely watching these developments. Inanj Khatun changed her tactics. She
convinced her sons to abandon Toghrul and join the victor. Even better, availing of
her congenital charm, she urged the severe warrior or marry his brother widow.
Remaining face to face with Gizil Arslan, Toghrul had to give himself up to
Caliph. The sovereign
received Toghrul, though
declined
to
render
military support. Even,
worse, Caliph denied him
asylum as well. Toghrul
did his best to enter into
allience with a powerful
ally but failed. During the
battle of Hamadan, one of
Gizil Arslan's emirs cut a
rack of the tent he was
. Bakou. 9. . - La vieille muraille.
under, and this decided
the outcome of the conformation: Toghrul was taken prisoner. He was put into a
fortress Kakhram close to Nakhchivan. After some hesitation, Gizil Arslan, with
the benediction of Caliph, declined an idea to offer Sultan's throne to anybody else,
and ascended the throne himself. Coins came to be minted on behalf of Gizil
Arslan. Gizil Arslan reached the top of the power. Suffice it to say that he
completely helds way over Azerbaijan, Arran, Hamadan, Isfahan, Rey. Furthermore, scores of neighboring areas became his vassals. However, he failed to use
privileges granted by undivided power. He spent his time in feasts, empty talks,
revelry, ignoring state administration and affairs. Emirs' dissatisfaction
increasingly intensified. They profited by Inanj Khatun's discontent that positions
in the palace were distributed unfairly to infringe upon her sons' interests, while
Gizil Arslan's nephew she hated so much, played the first fiddle.
She invited faithful Viziers and addressed them as saying: We fought
against Sultan Toghrul, and we were unfair to him. Now nobody believes us. We
must do away with him, Sultan of the Universe Gizil Arslan before he puts an end
to us. He has begun nominating slaves to take positions owned by our people.
As a result of the plot hatched earlier autumn 1191, Gizil Arslan was
murdered in his own bed.
Following the Gizil Arslan's murder, there broke out the intestine war for
power between Abu Bakr who invaded Azerbaijan and became its governor, sons
of Inanj Khatun - Qutlug Inanj and Amir Amiran Umar who seized the power in
Hamadan and its environs, and Toghrul who fled from the prison and recruited an
army to proceed with his raid. Each of them was capable of gaining victory in the
struggle for the throne, so long and bloody war was expected to take place. But this

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extraordinary woman and affectionate mother turned up again. She wrote a letter to
Toghrul which assured him of her eternal love and devotion. Things went so far
that she proposed him to marry her. In return, she promised him much money he
needed to combat Abu Bakr. Toghrul agreed and married the Atabey's widow,
twice older that he was. However, soon after Sultan was told that she did not
renounce to enthrone her son. She prepared a poisonous drink for Toghrul,
however, omniscient Sultan forced his wife to drink it. She did and died. Her
unforgettable son Qutlug Inanj Mahmud had to move to Azerbaijan, so the struggle
for power recommenced.
The King of The Kingdom
of Science
Nasir ad-Din Tusi

In Baghdad, near the grave of imam Musa ibn

Kazim, there is a gravestone that reads in calligraphic
inscription: "the Assistant of religion and people, the
Shah of the Country of Science. Such a son has never
before been born". A great son of Azerbaijan - the outstanding scientist Mahammed ibn Hasan Nasir ad-Din
Tusi - is buried here. Our ancestors knew how to
express their ideas figuratively. For more than 700
Fragmentary dish with
signs of the zodiac.
Azerbaijan. 1563-1564.
Abd al Vahid. Stonepaste
ware with blue underglaze
decoration. Staatliche
Museen zu Berlin.
Islamisches Museum.

years after his death, hundreds of papers about his life

and creativity were written, and none could better and
voluminously describe him this - "Shah of the Country
of Science". Really, one of the greatest scientists and
thinkers of the Medieval East, Nasir ad-Din Tusi,
battling in the fields of mathematics, astronomy,
philosophy and history, has won a place on the throne

of Potentate of Science.
Tusi lived and worked in an epoch of change in Azerbaijan. Taking over the
Arabs at first were the Seljuks and then the Mongols. Despite huge destruction
caused by these invasions, the flowering of science and culture in the country,
which had begun in the Caliphate, continued. In the process of interchanging
achievements of Arabian, Iranian, Turkic and Greek scientific ideas, Mongolia was
connected, and through it, China.
Mahammed Nasir ad-Din Tusi was born on February 18, 1201 in the city of
Hamadan. He was initially educated by his father, and then in Hamadan Tusi

119

continued training with the most outstanding scientists of that time - disciples of
ibn Sina (Avicenna) and Bahmanyar. Early in his life, Tusi was not restricted to
just one scientific school.
The well-rounded and deep knowledge acquired by Mahammed made him
popular among scientists. At an early age, he had already attracted the attention of
a number of governors.
At the age of 30, Nasir ad-Din Mohtasham,
the leader, of a religious terrorist group called
Assassins, invited Tusi to visit their place. He asked
Tusi to translate a book about morals written by an
Arabian scholar from Arabic to Persian. Nasir ad-Din
refused this offer and promised to write his own work
on this theme. In 1235 Nasir ad-Din Tusi finished the
book, which brought him worldwide glory, and which
was later translated into many languages. He named it
"Ahlagi Nasiri" ("Moral of Nasiri"). To the governor,
however, the book of the freedom-loving author
seemed seditious, and Tusi was arrested and sent to
the
fortress of the Assassins, Alamut, in the
Hulagu Khan's feast. Jami
at- Tawarikh, by Rashid admountains.
Din. 1528/29. Sankt
In the fortress Alamut, the exiled Tusi lived
Petersburg. SPL.
without rights of departure. For more than 20 years,
Nasir ad-Din stayed at the Assassins' fortress under difficult conditions. and he
created many new works. He wrote about it in 1242 at the end of his famous work
"Shahrul-Isharat" (comment on the philosophical treatise of Abu Ali ibn Sina
"Isharat" ("Instructions"): "I have written the majority of the chapters of this book
in such extremely heavy conditions, which could not have been heavier, during
such intimate confusion, that there was no heart more impatient".
In 1253, grandson of Chingiz Khan, Hulagu Khan, began a campaign
against the Middle East and the Caucasus. Hulagu's troops seized the
considerably impregnable fortress Alamut and released Nasir ad-Din and other
scientists. Nasir ad-Din became Hulagu Khan's personal adviser. During his first
days on this post, Nasir ad-Din had the responsibility of advising Hulagu Khan in
an important political decision. For a long time, Hulagu Khan had not risked
storming the Muslim sanctity - Baghdad - from fear of heavenly punishment. Only
the scientific arguments of Nasir ad-Din helped him take the chance. After 500
years, the Abbasid government had ended.
After the conquest of Baghdad in 1260, Hulagu Khan made Azerbaijan in
the centre of his huge state. Rulers of the new state had the title llkhan (People's
Khans, in Azerbaijani), and the state was named the State of Ilkhans. In the

120

beginning, Hulagu Khan established as the capital of the state one of the ancient
and cultural centres of Azerbaijan, Maragha, and then Tabriz. During this time
Nasir ad-Din began the construction of the Maragha observatory.
Like many scientists of that time, Nasir ad-Din Tusi was a scientist of wide
accomplishment. To him belonged over 100 solid scientific works on astronomy,
mathematics, physics, medicine, philosophy, etiquette, logic, and so on. About 20
of his works were devoted to astronomy and mathematics. He wrote all of his
works on mathematics in Arabic, and all of his
works on astronomy in Arabic and in Persian.
His most known works on mathematics
are "A Treatise About Complete Quadrangle",
"A Brief Treatise on the Common Art of
Calculation by the Help (Panel And Dust) of
Computing Boards", "Measurement of a Circle",
"Summary
of Euclid's "Beginnings" (Tahrir
Eglidis)", and others. His works on astronomy
included "Ilkhan's Astronomical Tables", which
consists of four books.
The majority of modern researchers of the
creativity of Nasir ad-Din consider that he was,
first of all, a mathematician. His works played a
large role in the development of geometry and
Nasir ad-Din Tusi in the Maragha
trigonometry,
not only throughout the East, but
Observatory. Medieval
also in Europe. The publication in 1594 in Rome
miniature.
of his "Summary of Euclid's "Beginnings"
("Tahrir Eglidis") in Arabic, and then in 1657 in Latin, played a large role in the
distribution of his ideas throughout Europe. Tusi's work "Shaklul Gita" ("A
Treatise About Complete Quadrangle") played an equally significant role in the
development of trigonometry in Europe. This work consisted of five books in
which, for the first time in the world of science, trigonometry was submitted as an
independent science. This work was translated into English, Russian and French.
In his works on arithmetic, Nasir ad-Din offers the modern scientist a
method of extraction of roots of any degree and binomial formula.
There are many known works by Nasir ad-Din that are devoted to history,
physics, mineralogy, medicine, music, economy, geography and astronomy.
Among them, it is necessary to point out "A History of Baghdad", "The Treatise
About Reflection and Deflection of Light", "Euclid's Optics", "The Treatise about
the Study of a Rainbow", "The Book About Precious Stones", "The Laws of
Medicine", "The Treatise About Public Finances" and "Choice of Happy Days".
Professor G. Mammedbeyli, who examined Nasir ad-Din Tusi's works thoroughly,

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A celestial sphere from the Maragha Observatory. Azerbaijan. 1279. Mahammad Ordi. Dresden,
Mathematics-Physical Salon.

122

came up with a list of what he believed were 76 authentic works of the scientist.
An Iranian scientist, Ruzevi, included 113 works on his list.
Many of Nasir ad-Din 's works are still waiting
to be researched. The manuscripts of his works are
scattered all over the world - in Baku, Tehran, Paris,
Berlin, Vienna, Oxford, Cambridge, Leipzig, Munich,
Florence, Cairo, Istanbul, Moscow, St. Petersburg and
Qazan.
In the East he achieved wide popularity as the
author of a book about ethics, "Ahlagi Nasiri", and as
the founder of the Maragha observatory. However, as
was mentioned above, Nasir ad-Din's scientific
achievements were most significant in the field of
mathematics.
Illustrations from the Book
Nasir ad-Din had the idea of the construction
of Fixed Stars. 11th Century.
of the observatory for a long time; after the capture of
Oxford. Bodleian Library.
Baghdad, under the sanction of Hulagu Khan, he
began working with the design of the observatory. In
less than a year, he chose a place for the observatory,
developed astronomical devices, brought books for the
observatory's library from different cities, and invited
scientists from several countries. In "Ziji Ilkhani",
Nasir ad-Din wrote: "Hulagu Khan has required for
himself scientists from different vilayats (regions) who
are aware of astronomical observations: Muvayi adDin Ordi from Damascus, Fahr ad-Din Maraghi from
Mosul, Fahr ad-Din Ihlati from Tiflis and Najim adDin Debirani from Qazwin". From other sources it is
visible that among the scientific employees of the Maragha observatory, there were
such outstanding scientists as Kutb ad-Din Shirazi, Shams ad-Din Shirvani, Jamal
ad-Din iz-Zeydi Bukhari and Fao Mun-chi.
Furthermore, eminent statesman and historian Rashid ad-Din stated in the
Annals that at approximately the same time, the construction of the observatory in
Pekin was entrusted to Jamal ad-Din Bukhari. He, however, could not manage this
problem, and he sent for advice from the Maragha observatory, together with
Chinese scientist Fao Mun-chi. Only upon his return to Pekin with the drawings of
Maragha was the construction of the observatory successfully completed.
The creation of the observatory required a large amount of money, and
Hulagu Khan expressed doubt in the expediency of the costs. According to one
legend: When Hoja Nasir wanted to begin construction of the astronomical
observatory in Maragha and announced the prospective charges, Hulagu, who

123

Second half of the 16th Century. An Ottoman manuscript. The instrument is a giant armillary sphere,
supported by a wooden frame set up on the ground, apparently in the open air. The five graduated rings
correspond to the five fundamental circles of the heavens.

124

questioned the feasibility of such charges, asked, "Is the science about stars so
useful that it is necessary to spend a huge sum on the observatory?" Nasir
answered, "Allow this to happen: in complete secret someone will rise on this
mountain and cast down a large empty caldron". So they did.
When the caldron came tumbling down, it produced a terrible noise and
caused a panic among the army of Hulagu Khan. Nasir ad-Din and Hulagu
observed all of this and remained quiet. Then the scientist addressed Hulagu with
the following words: "We know the reason for this noise, and the army do not
know; we are quiet, and they worry. As we know the reason for this heavenly
phenomenon, we shall be quiet on the ground".
Nasir ad-Din 's arguments appeared as if so
convincing that Hulagu Khan agreed to construction of
the observatory, and he allocated 20,000 dinars for this
purpose. Hereinafter, he paid the constant salary for the
employees of the observatory, the number of which was
more than 100. Under Nasir ad-Din's initiative, the
money for the payment of these salaries was received
from the taxation of the grounds granted to him.
Clever and educated, Hulagu Khan fully realised
Bronze astrolabe.
Shukrullah Mukhlis
the purpose of constructing the observatory. Thus, the
Shirvani. 1486.
story with the caldron must be an invention of later
Private collection of
Harari.
Persian historians that were traing to portrat Turkic Mongols as ignorant nomands.
The construction of the observatory began in 1259 on the top of a hill
located in the west of Maragha. Nasir ad-Din personally participated in designing
the observatory's buildings and developing the astronomical tools. With the
outstanding astronomer and designer, Muvayi ad-Din Ordi, Nasir ad-Din invented,
made and installed in the observatory five astronomical devices of a new design
and five of an old design. Also in the Maragha observatory, earthly and heavenly
globes were produced and used for educational purposes and for the decisions of a
number of problems of spherical astronomy.
It is necessary to tell about the main engineer of the Maragha observatory,
Muvayi ad-Din Ordi, and his son, Mahammed, separately. The primary role in the
construction of the observatory and equipment belonged to Muvayi ad-Din Ordi.
Biographical details of Ordi are not actually known. Only two manuscripts of his
work "The Treatise About Astronomical Tools of the Maragha Observatory",
written in Arabic, are known. One of them is stored in the Paris National Library,
and the other in Tehran. A teacher of a special school of Eastern language in Paris
named Jurden discovered the first manuscript in the beginning of the 19th Century.
He translated it into French. The book went through two editions in Paris - in 1809
and in 1810. Then it was translated into German in 1811.

125

The book contains detailed descriptions of 10 complex astronomical tools,

which were developed by Muvayi ad-Din Ordi under the management of Nasir adDin Tusi. Analysis of these descriptions has allowed a number of researchers to
come to the conclusion that the tools of the Maragha observatory surpassed devices
of all other known observatories of that time in accuracy of measurement. A
number of tools invented by Muvayi ad-Din Ordi himself were used in many
observatories around the world. The trainees and employees of the Maragha
observatory who came from different countries played a large role in the
distribution of Ordi's ideas. D. Mammedbeyli wrote, "Tools developed by
Ordirendered a huge influence on the development of astronomical tools in the
observatory of Ulughbey, Tycho Brahe, and the observatory in Jaypur in India".
Muvayi ad-Din 's son, Mahammed Bey Muvayi ad-Din Ordi, also worked in
the Maragha observatory. He followed in his father's tracks in the development of
astronomical devices. The star globe of his design was kept and is stored in the
famous Dresden Mathematics-Physical Salon. It is the most ancient of all the
globes there. From the situation of the stars on the globe, it was possible to define
the date of its manufacturing - 1279. Several European scientists have studied the
description of this globe. Made from bronze and encrusted in gold and silver, the
globe is a sample of high art of the 13th Century Azerbaijani decorative art.
At the observatory, there was a library with 400,000 books and a school for
training the scientific staff of the observatory. It is interesting that among the
employees of the observatory, in addition to Muslims, were Christians, Buddhists,
Nestorians and Jews, among which there were Turks, Persians, Arabs, Mongols,
Chinese, Georgians and Tartars.
The observatory surpassed in size all known astronomical observatories in
the East. The scientific activities and astronomical observations of the Maragha observatory employees resulted in the creation of famous collective works, "Ilkhan's
Astronomical Tables". They were completed in 1284, after the death of Nasir adDin . These tables consisted of four books. The first book contained descriptions of
Greek, Persian, Jewish, Arabian and Turkic calendars, and ways of transition from
one calendar to another were specified.
The second book was devoted to the movement of stars and finding their
ecliptic coordinates. The tables of sine and tangent, as well as latitude and
longitude, of 256 inhabited localities were given. Nasir ad-Din began the
longitudes 34-35 degrees west of Greenwich and carried them out through the
eastern part of South America. On this basis, professor G. Mammedbeyli put
forward the hypothesis that the geographers and astronomers of that time - long
before Columbus - had information about the existence of continents in the
Western hemisphere, afterwards named America. The third and fourth books of the
Tables were devoted to questions of astrology.

126

The Maragha observatory played a huge role in the development of

practical astronomy; the experience of this observatory was directly used in the
construction of the Pekinese observatory and the observatory of Ulughbey.
Drawings of astronomical tools were brought to Pekin, as was already mentioned,
by Jamal ad-Din Bukhari and Fao Mun-chi, and to Samarkand by Jamshid Kashani
- a distinguished mathematician and astronomer of the East.
Among the classes of nations, the Arabs are distinguished for their
speech, their eloquence and their ingenuity, but they are also noted for harsh
nature and powerful appetite. The Persians, on the other hand, are
distinguished by intelligence, quickness, cleanliness and sagacity, albeit noted
for cunning and greed. The Byzantines are distinguished for loyalty,
trustworthiness, affection and competence, but noted for stinginess and
meanness Indians are distinguished for strength of feeling, and of intuition
and understanding, but noted for conceit, malevolence, guile and a tendency
to fabrication. The Turks are distinguished by courage, worthy service and
fine appearance, but noted for treachery, hardness of heart and indelicacy.
Nasir ad-Din Tusi
Nasir ad-Din Tusi died on June 25, 1274 in
Baghdad and was buried there in the Jame mosque.
Three sons survived Nasir ad-Din: Asil ad-Din Hasan,
Fahr ad-Din Ahmed and Sadr ad-Din Ali. After the
death of Nasir ad-Din , his third son Sadr ad-Din Ali
supervised the observatory for a long time. The
descendants of Nasir ad-Din occupied high state posts in
the state of Sefevi. In the 14th Century, many of them
moved from Maragha to Ordubad. Presently, many
direct descendents of Nasir ad-Din live in Azerbaijan
and Iran.
To finish the biography of the great scientist, it is
necessary to include an extract from "Of a General
History", by a Syrian historian of the 13th Century
The gravestone of Tusi in
named
Bar-Ebrey, who went to Maragha specifically to
the Jalil Mosque in
work with manuscripts there. He wrote, "Due to favorBaghdad.
able opportunities, the Library of Maragha city of
Azerbaijan was accessible to me, including a large number of books in Syrian,
Arabian and also Persian". Further, he wrote about Tusi: "That year (1274) Mister
Nasir [al-din Tusi] - Persian philosopher, famous person, aware and excellent in all
areas of science, insatiable in mathematical doctrines - passed away. He made

127

[astronomical] tools for observation, large compasses from copper, which were
unusually bigger than [similar tools] of Ptolemy.
He set off to Alexandria, where he observed and recorded the movement of
planets. In Maragha city of Azerbaijan, many sages from various countries assembled. From them he received a salary for the teachers and pupils who were at his
observatory. At this time, when he set off to Baghdad to check on places there, he
died. The people learned that he was poisoned.
He made numerous writings, as well as translations from Logic and natural
and divine sciences. He also interpreted Euclid... He wrote a work on Ethics in
Persian. In it he collected sayings of Plato and Aristotle about practical philosophy.
He knew the ancient philosophers, but referred to them hostilely in his works".
Today, the memory of Nasir ad-Din Tusi is highly-revered and honoured in
the Republic of Azerbaijan. Many institutions have been named after him,
including the national Pedagogical Institute in Baku and the observatory at
Shemakha.
The Greatest of the Grand Viziers
Fazlullah Rashid ad-Din

During a gurultay (tribal council) held

on the river Onona in 1206, Temuchin, one of
the steppe chiefs, was proclaimed Great Khan
of Mongolia under the name of Chingiz Khan.
Commonplace for steppe residents, this event
was of paramount importance for the destinies
of Asian and European peoples. Chingiz Khan
was successful in creating a mighty centralized state and starting subsequent military
campaigns westwards.
The first raid of the Turkic-Mongols
(note that the Golden Horde was primarily
made of Turks while Mongols prevailed in
command) against Azerbaijan was made as far back as 1220. However, it was
Chingiz Khan's favourite grandson Hulagu Khan that succeeded in finally settling
down in the region and creating an independent ulus. In 1257, Hulagu Khan
managed to subdue Azerbaijan and some neighboring countries. The ancient
Azerbaijani towns of Maragha, then Tabriz were alternately capitals of the new
state under Hulagu Khan.

128

In 1258, Hulagu Khan seized Baghdad and put to death the last Caliph
Mutasim, following which the caliphate ceased to exist. It should be remembered
that prior to his seizure of
Baghdad,
Hulagu
Khan
succeeded in routing the State
of Ismailites, which had once
inspired terror in the countries
of the Near East, through
bloody actions of its Shii sect of
the Assassins. In European
languages, the word "assassin"
became synonymous with the
word "murderer". Moreover,
Hulagu Khan destroyed the
impregnable fortress Alamut, the
residence of the head of the sect.
Besides Azerbaijan, the Empire of Hulagu Khan (1258-1265) included Arabian
Iraq, Iraqi Ajam, Kerman, Georgia, Armenia, Asia Minor (Rum), Kurdistan, Fars,
Khuzistan, Khorasan, and other small state formations. Rulers of the new state
were called Ilkhans (khans of people in Azeri), and the state proper was called the
State of Ilkhans (Hulaguides). It is noteworthy that the State of Ilkhans and the
ruling dynasty of Hulaguides were officially, though formally to a greater extent,
recognized as an integral part of the great Turkic-Mongol Empire with the capital
in Khan Baligh (Beijing/Peking). The Great Khan and head of the new Great
Empire, Khubilay Khan, founder of the Chinese dynasty Yuang, closely watched
the developments in the west of the Empire. Thousands of stone-hurlers, flamethrowers, bridge builders, physicians, pharmacists, artisans and painters were sent
to the region. The latter brought with them new technologies of paper, dyes,
lacquers and Indian ink production.
The court of the Ilkhanids, double-page frontispiece from
Compendium of Chronicles by Rashid ad-Din. Tabriz.
Early 14th Century. Berlin. Staatsbibliothek.

The Franks (Europeans) speak twenty-five languages, and no people

understands the language of any other. All they have in common is their
calendar, script and numbers.
Rashid ad-Din
The Turkic-Mongol elite under Hulagu Khan was utterly heterogeneous.
Traditionally, they professed shamanism. Under the influence of Turks-Uighurs
who were at a higher stage of development, a part of them, prior to arriving in
Azerbaijan, began professing Buddhism, as well as Christianity of the Nestorian
trend. Wives of many Turkic-Mongolian rulers were Nestorians. Also, most rulers
were notable for their creed tolerance. Hulagu Khan's mother and primary wife

129

The Capture of Baghdad by the Turkic-Mongols. Miniature from Compendium of Chronicles by Rashid
ad-Din. Tabriz. Early 14th Century. Berlin. Staatsbibliothek.

130

were Christians from the tribe of Keramites. Persian Shams ad-Din Mahammed
Juveyni, who headed the civil affairs department, was Muslim. A personal doctor
was Chinese. The vizier and nearest councilor of Gazan Khan, and then Oljaytu
and Abu Sayid, as referred to in the fragment, native of Azerbaijan Rashid ad-Din
Fazlullah was probably of Jewish origin. A Byzantine princess from Trapezund
was the wife of Abaka Khan. Note that Oljaytu Khan was baptized a Christian
(Nicholas) and then adopted Buddhism in his early youth. Later on, he became a
Sunni Muslim under the name of Mahammed Hudabende. Finally in 1309/10, he
converted to Shiism in an attempt to make it the state religion of the country (this
was finalized under Gazan Khan). Of interest was the fact that the Turkic written
language formed the basis of the Mongolian written language. It was not surprising
that many documents and inscriptions on coins were drawn up in Uighur.
Opposite Spain and in the middle of the ocean there are two islands.
One of them is Iberniya [Ireland], and it is a peculiarity of the soil of the
country, that venomous vermin die. In that country no mice are born. The
men there are long lived, red-faced, tall, powerful of build and courageous.
There is a spring of flowing water, such that if a piece of wood is left in it,
within a week its surface is turned to stone.
The name of the second, bigger island is Anglater [England]. It contains
many mountains and numberless mines of gold, silver, copper, tin and iron, as
well as great variety of fruits. One of the wonders of that land is a tree which
grows a bird as its fruit It happens in this way at blossom time a pouch,
looking like an apple, emerges, with the shape of a bird inside it. As it grows,
it comes to life and comes out of the pouch. They eat the fruit and keep the
bird until it reaches the size of a large duck. The meat of the inhabitants of
that country comes chiefly from this bird It is reported that among the
Christians who eat no meat on fast days, there is disagreement as to whether
this bird may be eaten. Some consider it a plant because it grows on a tree,
others as an animal because blood comes from it In both islands they have
ewes from the wool of which woolen cloth and scarlet are made.
Rashid ad-Din
Science and culture thrived under the Ilkhans in Azerbaijan. Important
figures included outstanding scholars and public figures Hindushah Nakhchivani
and Mahammed Nakhchivani, great musician and musicologist Safi ad-Din
Urmavi, founder of the Sufi order Safaviyya Safi ad-Din Adrebeli, philosopher and
poet Shams ad-Din Tabrizi, and prominent physician Mahmud ibn Ilyas. In
accordance with the instructions of Hulagu Khan, distinguished Azerbaijani
scientist and philosopher Nasiraddin Tusi built an observatory in the town of
Maragha. It was one of the first Azerbaijani designers Muvayieddin Ordi who
developed unique astronomical instruments for the Maragha observatory.

131

Mausoleum of Oljeytu, Sultaniya. 1313-1314. Azerbaijan. A band of Kufic seal at the base of the
dome reads Allah, Mahammad, Ali.

132

The capital of Ilkhans, Tabriz, which had grown to compete with Baghdad,
became the largest cultural and commercial centre of the Near and Middle East.
Following the downfall of the caliphate, the process of Turkization of Azerbaijani
culture sharply accelerated, and the Arab and, to an extent, Persian,languages came
to be forced out by
Turkic-Azeri.
The
state
of
Ilkhans culminated under
Gazan Khan who carried
out several effective
economic reforms. It was
Gazan Khan's Grand
Vizier Rashid ad-Din
Fazlullah who executed
most
novelties
and
designs for the welfare of
the country. A famous
scientist and medical
The ruins of the lkhanids` palace in Takht-i Suleyman. East
man
of his epoch, Rashid
Azerbaijan, Iran.
ad-Din
created
14
scientific treatises on medicine, botany, history, theology and agriculture. Of
particular interest are his works "Jami at-Tawarikh" ("Collected Stories"), "AzRisaliyat as-Sultaniya", "Zataifal-Khagaig", "Tovzigat" and "Bayanul-Khagaig".
Following Rashid ad-Din's instructions, a work titled "Tansugnameh" was
translated from Chinese into Arab.
Rashid ad-Din was born in Khamadan in 1247. He spent his life in Tabriz,
the capital of Azerbaijan; he died there on 18 July 1318. His full name was Rashid
ad-Din Fazlullah ibn Abu-1-Khayr Khamadani (nicknamed at-Tabib-doctor). He
joined the court of Ilkhans under Abaka Khan (1265-1282). From 1298 to 1318, he
served as vizier of Gazan Khan, Oljaytu and Abu Sayid. He had broad and
universal knowledge and was engaged in medical treatment. He took an active part
in the state management and development of science, particularly medical science,
culture and arts. He wrote scientific treatises and books on universal history and
partook in the construction of towns and immense irrigation canals.
Specifically, in the centre of Tabriz, Rashid ad-Din built a vast housing
quarter named after himself, "Rubi'i Rushidi". The quarter numbered upwards of
100.000 residents, 24 caravanserais, 150 shops, and scores of workshops for the
manufactureand processing of paper, fabric, arms, etc. The quarter was famous for
its university attended by more than 7,000 students from several Muslim countries.
At this university, 450 teachers and scholars, both local and invited, taught various

133

branches of science. The total number of students in Rubi'i Rashidi comprised

1.000. At that time, this was the biggest university in the Near and Middle East. It
even surpassed the famous Baghdad University, Nazariyya.
Along with theological sciences, the university taught such secular
sciences as philosophy, medicine, history, astronomy and astrology. Medical
students studied for five years and had probationary courses within a year in a sort
of Medical Academy (Dar-ush-Shafa). Approximately 50 highly qualified medical
experts, invited from
China, India, Egypt
and Syria, worked at
the academy. Dar-arShifa was located in
Rashid Garden (Baghi
Rashidabad), in the
area called Kuche
Mualijun (Street of
Curers). Next to the
hospital, there were
dwelling houses of
physicians and the staff
A Mosque (Arc). 1316-1335. Tabriz. The Mosque was built by Taj alad Din Ali Shah of Tabriz, a famous vizier of Gazan Khan Ilkhan.
ofattendants. Medicinal
Photo bv Mizbani.
herbs were cultivated
in a special garden called Falhabad; also, there was a pharmacy. Note that there
were 67 small Health Houses in various regions of the State of Ilkhans,
subordinated under the central Tabriz House.
There was a library in Rubi'i Rashidi with 60,000 books. Readers could
cither look through them in the library or take them home on a certain security.
Students lived in a special quarter. Board and accommodation charges, as well as
the maintenance of hospitals and pharmacy costs, were paid at the expense of
revenues from Rashid ad-Din's lands and buildings. In addition, Rashid ad-Din
paid for library and related artistic workshop maintenance costs.
Rashid ad-Din may be regarded as the biggest ever patron of arts and
literature in the history of Azerbaijan. It should be noted that patronage of arts and
literature was widely spread among educated Turkic rulers of the Azerbaijani states
of Gara Goyunly, Agh Goyunlu Safavids and Qajars and surrounding nobility.
Gazan Khan came into history as the creator of the fundamental work on the
world history "Jami at-Tawarikh" (collected stories). It was Rashid ad-Din who led
the tremendous project, and he coped with it excellently. "Jami at-Tawarikh"
became not only a remarkable event in the Muslim historiography, but also a
brilliant work of Azerbaijani painting in the first quarter of the 14th Century. The
point is that calligraphers, painters and binders from all over the country were

134

invited to a special atelier under the court library (kitabkhane) in Tabriz to write
the text and decorate the manuscript with miniatures. Note that the traditions of the
library survived in Tabriz until the end of the 16th Century.
While creating "Jami at-Tawarikh", Rashid ad-Din held consultations with
Gazan Khan himself. Prominent expert in Mongolian history Pulad used numerous
documents of Mongolian rulers and the official Mongolian chronicle "Altyn
depter". Contributors to the creation of the Chinese history included two Chinese
historians Li Ta Chi and Maksuna. Other contributors to the work were Iranian
historians, an Indian, Buddhist monk Kamalashri from Kashmir and a catholic
missionary. Rashid ad-Din's world history referred to historical events of all the
peoples and states of the reviewed period: Judas, India, China, Western Europe,
and not only Muslim, as was accepted.
Of the tremendous number of manuscripts dating back to Rashid ad-Din's
lifetime, there survived just two incomplete Edinburgh and London copies. They
included historical works by Juveyni. Tabari and Biruni, "Tarih al-Vamini" by alUtbi (for the creation of Seldjuk history), and "Shah-name" epos. Later records of
this immense work have also survived.
It should be noted that Gazan Khan's reforms, carried out by Rashid ad-Din,
prevented the disintegration of the huge and heterogeneous Empire of Hulaguides.
Gazan Khan's reforms covered the monetary system, taxation and the distribution
of land plots, and it imposed restriction on the authorities of Turkic-Mongol
military-nomadic nobility. It should be recalled that due to Rashid-ad-Din, Gazan
Khan's reforms were in progress under Oljavtu (Mahammed Hudabende, 13041316), brother and successor to Gazan Khan.
However, under Oljaytu's heir, his 13-year old son Abu Sayid Bahadur
Khan (1317-1335), the disintegration process sped up immeasurably. It started
straight after Oldjaitu's death in 1318, when Abu Sayid put Rashid ad-Din and his
son Ibrahim to death. The reason for these executions was second Vizier Tadj adDin Alishah's accusation against Rashid ad-Din and his son Ibrahim of poisoning
Oldjaitu. Rashid ad-Din's property was confiscated, and Rubi'i Rashidi was
squandered and destroyed.
Rashid ad-Din was very rich; all of the country's wealth had been in his
hands. This circumstance may have played a role in the decision to execute him.
He owned 70,000 to 80,000 hectares of arable land, 39,000 date palms, numerous
vineyards and gardens (1,200 slaves were engaged in just two of them), 30,000
horses, 10,000 camels, 250,000 sheep, 20,000 hens, 20,000 geese and ducks, not to
mention the revenues he had obtained from lands distributed during his lifetime
between 14 sons and 5 daughters. Equal to princes, Rashid ad-Din's sons were
vicegerents of vast regions.
Subsequently, Abu Sayid nominated one of Rashid ad-Din's sons. Giyas adDin Mahammed Rashidi, as Vizier to take the place of Alishah who died in 1327.

135

Furthermore, he turned over to Giyas ad-Din his previously confiscated property.

The new Vizier did his utmost to carry on with his father's cause but he failed to
impede the country's dissolution. In due course, the structure of the state
administration prior to Gazan Khan and Rashid ad-Din's reign was restored. It was
again the Turkic-Mongol military-nomadic nobility that seized power in the
country, which resulted in uninterrupted internal wars and the final downfall of the
state in 1353.
It should be added that Giyas ad-Din tried in every way possible to
encourage arts and sciences. On Fridays, he arranged meetings of scholars,
philosophers and clergy to carry on scientific and theological disputes. It was no
mere coincidence that in his historical treatise "Tarih-i-Guzideh", dedicated to
Giyas ad-Din, Qazwini highly appreciated his political and cultural activity.

The Founder of the Gizilbash

Mystic Path
Safi ad-Din Iskhak Ardebili
Sheikh Safi ad-Din Iskhak Ardebili was the
founder of the well-known all over the East Sufis
Darvish order Sefaviyya. Order's activity in
Azerbaijan and Iran resulted in forming Sufism as an
indcpended order titled Gizilbash (Redheaded) after
on colour of headdress of the members of the order.
Sufism, and in particularly, Sufism in Gizilbash
interpretation, played its historical role in
thepolitical and cultural life of Azerbaijan, had appreciable influence on the development of religious philosophical ideology in many Muslim countries.
Whithout understanding the ideology of Sufism, it is
impossible realiz motivations of the most political
events, occurring in the Muslim world in the Middle
Ages, likewise it is impossible to realize the
phenomend of cultural life, we should say, literature
A Tomb Complex. 14th-17th
Centuries. Ardebil.
of that time, when adjusted for its Sufi background.
Before starting with the biography of great sheikh
Safi, it is necessary to say a few words about the essence of Sufism-Muslim
mysticism. As I. Petrushevskiy wrote, "Under mistics or mysticism, is usually
meant a special religious ideology, providing for an opportunity to conduct

136

individual dialogue (or even coupling) between a person and God by means of the
so-called "irradiation", "internal experience", "ecstasy", "trans", etc.
The religious and philosophical currents, going back to mysticism, are
typical for all world religions, created by mankind (Buddhism, Hinduism, Judaism,
Christianity). In Islam, the mystical movement is titled as Sufism. The term come
from "sufis", wearing rough woolen clothes - suf (wool) or from a word "saf"
(cleanliness). Though Sufism
has for many centuries been
spread all over Muslim world,
the experts could not properly
identify this very complex and
versatile doctrine. Therefore,
they prefer under this term to
unite all Muslim teachings
aimed at developing theoretical
base and practical methods of
maintaining
direct dialogue betSheikh Zahid Gilani's mausoleum. Lahijan, Iran.
ween individual and God. Sufis
termed this process through cognition of Truth (Haqiqah). Truth means when Sufi
gets free from earthly desires in the state of ecstasy (fuddle of divine love), he is
capable of establishing intimate dialogue with God. Under Sufi was meant
everyone who trusts in direct dialogue with God and does his best to achieve it.
According to Sufis terminology, "Sufi-is passionate in Truth , who by means of
Love and Devotion moves towards Truth and Perfection'". Movement towards
Truth with the help of Love and Devotion God is called Tarikat, or Way to God.
Since the Middle Ages, Sufi brotherhoods orders were notable for their own
way of mystical cognition, movement towards True. In these Sufi brotherhoods, a
beginner, disciple (myurid) should overcome the entire path to Truth under
preceptor's (murshid) guidance.
As writes J. Spencer Trimingham, "Preceptors asserted that potentialities of
clearing from own "I" and contacting with God are laid in each person, but they are
in a latent, drowse state and cannot be disengaged without instructions of the
teacher, except where God confers anybody with ability of special endowment".
Myurids daily confessed in their sins to myurshids and performed various spiritual
exercises-"zikr "(for example, by repeating incessantly a phrase " There is no God,
except Allah" - " La Illah il Allah") for complete renunciation. To achieve of a
mystical ecstasy, Sufis meet together in Sema- sufi meeting at which under the
accompaniment of rhythmic music they listened a singer or reciter of gazelles of
Sufistic or love contents, made certain recurrent movements or dance . Sometimes
drinks were used to achieve ecstasy. Jalal ad-Din Rumi, great Turkish poet and

137

Sufi, so explains the purpose and essence of Sema: "Darvishs will run into ecstasy
that raise desires and thirst for God, reinforce love to him, enhance love to faith,
dispel love in hearts to world with
Sema".
Sufism came in Azerbaijan
almost concurrently with Islam.
However, only Safi ad-Din Iskhak
Ardebili succeeded in raising its
authority so that it finally became
ideology of ruling circles of the
country.
Safi ad-Din was born in 1252,
in the city of Ardebil in AzerbaijaniTurkic prosperous and religious
family. About his Turkic origin a large
material was collected by M. Abbasli.
Thus, he showed that in the work of medieval author Tavvakul ibn Bazz
"Safvat as-Safi", finished in 1357, and in the works of later authors there are
mentionings like: "Ey Pir-e Turk" adressed to Safi as Turk.
("Hey, Turkish Saint".), "Turkish Young
Man", "the Son of Turk" and so on.
In Sufi's circles it was considered that Safi by
origin in 21 generations went back to the seventh
Shiite imam Musa Qazim.
Fatherless since early ages, Safi was initially
educated in the ambience of his father's religious
followers. He felt at home in Persian, Gilani, Arabic
and Mongol.
Safi continued his education in Shiraz where
he made his way at the age of twenty for wellknown theologians Rukn ad-Din Beyzavi and Amir
Abdullah, others. There, he, at last, decided to
choose a preceptor. On the advice of Amir Abdullah,
Ardebil. Three Gonbads of
he chose well-known sheikh from Gilan Hajji adShah Ismail, Allah Allah
Din Zahidi, who was a wandering Darvish, related to
and Harmhaneh".
Azerbaijan Sufi order of Suhravardiyya. His genuine
name was Taj ad-Din Ibrahim Bey Rovshan. He came from a little village of
Halayagiran (Heqlakaran), located near Lenkoran. In his honour, the village was as
far back as in the Middle Ages renamed into Sheykhakeran. In the same village he
was buried.
OPPOSITE: The Ardabil carpet. Tabriz. 15391540. Measuring 10.97m x 5.34m. A cartouche
bears the legend: Except for thy heaven there is no
refuge for me in this world; other than here there is
no place for my head. Work of the slave of the court,
Maqsud of Kashan. 1539-1540. Victoria and Albert
Museum. London.

138

Safi spent a lot of time for his search. In four years only he discovered
sheikh Zahid in the mountains of Gilan. Soon Safi married to doughter of preceptor
- Bibi Fatma (their son Sadr ad-Din subsequently succeded to shaykh Safi) and
their friendship got stronger.
For 25 years they preached jointly their ideas, and just in 1294, after the
death of Zahid Gilani, Safi ad-Din took his place as leader of the order, named in
honour of Safi - Safaviyya .
The authority of sheykh Gilani was so high that many researchers are
inclined to consider him as valid founder of order Safaviyya. However, it was not
so. The authority of shaykh Safi was not inferious to that of his, and the wellknown ideological base of the order arose after the death of Gilani.
Among disciples of Safi ad-Din
there were such famous figures, as Vizier
of Ilkhan, Rashid ad-Din, his son Giyas
ad-Din Mahammed Rashidi and even
Ilkhan, Abu Said. In the end of shaykh's
life, most Ardebil inhabitants were his
pupils. He had myurids in Western Iran as
well (Isfahan , Shiraz, etc).
Especially
strong
religious
influence the order of Safaviyya, as
The Memorial Complex of Ardebil. Janat
Sara and Mausoleum of Shah Ismail. East
powerful Turkic order, had in Asia Minor,
Azerbaijan, Iran.
populated by Turks. The population of
these regions, for example, actively backed Shah Ismail in the initial period of his
ascent of power.
Sheikh Safi ad-Din, like his teacher Zahidi, was reputed to be sacred,
working many miracles. Therefore, they were supported financially in every
possible way by people. If in the beginning of order's organization sheikh Safi adDin owned a small plot at the end of his life he owned more than 20 settlements,
donated to him by different feudals. Note that Safi ad-Din and the order received
many donations.
The letter of the Rashid ad-Din's Vizier which informed shaykh that he, in
connection with the Muslim holiday sent him following donations - wheat more
than 40 tons, rice about 80 tons, butter more than a ton, honey about two tons,
orgut half a ton, sugar of lump more than 300 kg, bulls 30 heads, sheep 130 heads,
geese 190, hens 600, rose water 30 flasks, money 10 thousands dinars.
Sheikh Safi ad-Din died and was buried in Ardebil in 1334. Over his grave
there was erected a mausoleum, with mosques, caravanserais, madrasahs and
residential houses around it. There shaped a large worship centre. Here rest in
peace most Safavi shaykhs, including Shah Ismail. The centre is still being repaired

139

and reconstructed. Its final form shaped in the 16 century, during the reign of Shah
Tahmasib I (1524-1576).
Mausoleum of shaykh Safi ad-Din and the adjucent mosque arc a
masterpiece of the architecture of Azerbaijan. Very colourful are tiles of different
colours. The development of Ardebil was in many respects predetermined by large
popularity of the complex of Safi ad-Dina among scores of pilgrims.
The first successors of shaykh Safi ad-Din in the position of Safaviyya order
shaykhs in Ardebil were his direct descendants Sadr ad-Din Musa (1334-1392/3),
shaykh Haji Ali (1392/3-1429). Since the epoch of great-grandson of Safi ad-Din,
Ibrahim Sheikh Shah (1429-1447), Ardebil shaykhs come to the secular power.
Sheikh Ibrahim Sheikh Shah became a governor of Ardebil, and sheikh Ismail
(1486-1524) was founder of Shah Dinasty of Safavids of the new Gizilbash state,
first in Azerbaijan, and then in Iran.
The Sun that Will Never Set Again
Death And Resurrection of The Poet Shams Tabrizi
Shams ad-Din Muhammad ibn Ali ibn Malikdad Tabrizi, a well-known
Azerbaijan poet and thinker, one of the most prominent Muslim mystics was born
in Tabriz, the capital of Azerbaijan. There is not much biographical information on
Shams Tabrizi, and all that is known is obscured by Myth. It is evident from his
works and Sufi activity that he was an all-round educated person. Due to high
erudition and talent of the teacher. Shams, though young, deserved the name of
"Murshidcamil" - "Most perfect murshid" (murshid -preceptor). He was noted for
his physical beauty and spiritual purity. Shams had many desciple-murids. He
wore a black felt garb on. Tabrizi travelled much with stop-overs mostly in
caravanserais.
Simply, Two People Met Each Other
On November 26, 1244 in a Turkish city of Konya, staying at the
"Ricemongers" Caravanserai, Shams met with the subsequently famous poet Jalal
ad-Din Rumi and they became friends. The place of their meeting was named by
our contemporaries the Meeting of two Seas - Marj Al-Bahrain. As Fish writes it
was "a usual autumn day. No great armies committed to battle on that day to settle
the destiny of empires, nor did any founder of a dynasty, that would rule over
millions, mounted the throne. Neither was a new continent nor a new kind of
energy discovered. Nothing, that would shock the imagination and oblige people to
remember this date, happened. Simply two people met each other. But, the further
this date recedes in the darkness of the centuries the more exceptional the

140

consequences appear. The meeting of two individuals who discovered each other,
who understood and loved each other is always a miracle, and, maybe, the most
surprising of all miracles. But the day of their meeting remains great only for these
two individuals. But, in this case
two people meeting in Konya more
than seven hundred years ago,
represents a specific moment in the
history of mankind. Had this
meeting not taken place, tens of
millions of people from Central
Asia in the north down to Arabia in
the south, from Indonesia in the
east up to Northern Africa in the
west would have felt and thought
differently..."
Dervishes dancing in Istanbul. 18th Century. Painted
by a European artist.
One Of The Prominent
Poets Of The Earth
On this day one of the greatest poets on the Earth - Jalal ad-Din Rumi came
into the world, embodying in his beliefs, feelings and traditions of the peoples of a
vast region and expressed in it the greatness of human spirit in its striving for
perfection.
A few words about Rumi. Jalal ad-Din
headed a University (medrese). He was well-to-do,
was married and made a study of the theory of
sufism. When the famous Seyid Burhan ad-Din
Mukhakiki Termezi moved to Konya, Rumi chose
him as a spiritual guide. After a while Rumi left for
Damascus lo study. Having completed his studies
he came back to Konya and again followed his
guide. Soon the guide passed away and Rumi
himself started to produce.
And one with face as Sun-Shams
At this time Rumi met Shams ad-Din
Tabrizi. This acquaintance became a crucial point
A cow bowed down to the
in the biography of Rumi and played the deciding
ground at the sight of Baha
role in the formation of his world view. The
Walad (father of Rumi). Turkish
manuscript. 16th Century.
appearance of Shams, his human qualities, his deep
devotion to the ideas of sufism inspired Rumi. He
was carried away by love and respect to Shams ad-Din. Rumi chose him as his new
spiritual guide quit the scientific occupations, and gave up the post in medrese. All
their spare time together with other followers of Shams they held musical Sufi

141

sessions and sacred dervish dances. Shams' presence helped Rumi in his aspiration
to dialogue with God. Rumi was so impressed that he began to write poetry, much
of which was devoted to Shams.
I, as Mercury used to have a weakness for the book-case,
I in front of scribes sat down.
But have got drunk, catching sight of your face.
And cane pen has broken unawares.
By tears of zeal and work performing my ablutions,
Your person 1 have made the Quibble for petitions.
If 1 survive without you, Cinder, cinder me wholly.
And off with my head,
If the brain in it be not yours.
I pray to you in church and mosque in Kaaba.
You - my ambition there, in heaven, and here, on the ground.
Taste from your bread and I am tilled, as never was before.
Partake, swallow of you water, and water is suffice there fore.
Whom you deify, is your price too.
As I am happy, happy, deifying you.

A gold-beater repenting in
front of the Sufi Rumi, from
the Majalis al-Ushshaq by
Husein Bayqara.
1552.
Bodleian Library. Oxford.

The Rumi's relatives and especially his murids

who did not receive much of his attention got
overanxious and tried to separate the spiritual brothers
by any means. On February 15, 1246 Shams was
forced to leave Konya secretly from Rumi. He settled
down in Damascus and tried not to think about Rumi.
Sham's leave did not save the situation. Rumi could
not stand the separation and started shunning the
society. The separation's grief strengthened his
poetry. At last Rumi found out the residence of
Shams. The news returned him back to life. As the
poet's friends saw that, they decided to send Rumi's
son, Sultan Valid, to Damascus after Shams ad-Din
Tabrizi. Rumi sent with Sultan Valid a letter to Shams
asking him to return and Shams agreed to come back.

O, go there quickly and find him,

Bring favourite friend home for long.
Lure the Moonfaced to us
By sweet address and golden song.
His word is powerful and mature
He can turn back rivers.
By his promises and postponements
Do not deceive yourselves.
If only the best of the bunch

142

He come back and on the door has knocked.

And then you will see such,
That never God saw...

In Konya, Shams ad-Din was met with honours, and festivities were
arranged in his honour. The friendly relations between Shams and Rumi were
restored. Rumi followed Shams not letting him stay alone. Shams ad-Din Tabrizi
married Rumi's daughter, Qimiye. But the enemies again put public opinion against
Shams. Once more he was to leave Konya and this time for ever. He disappeared
as mysteriously as he came. It was obvious that Shams was assassinated by the
Rumi's murids and it was not known whether he had been thrown into a well or
buried beside his father.
Death And Resurrection Of The Poet Shams Tabrizi
Next morning Rumi did not find anyone in the medrese. He looked for
Shams in vain for a long time. But the Sun (Persian - Shams) had set on him for
ever. The mental shock was terrible but a miracle occured. Rumi found enough
forces for the resurrection of his guide so that he would remain to live for
centuries.
He created one of the most striking poems of love lyrics in the world,
written on behalf of his spiritual preceptor - "Divan of Shams Tabrizi". The young
scholar ceased the sufistic surveys and took the name Shams ad-Din Tabrizi. M.
Zand wrote that creation of "Divan" and each poem written not on his own behalf
but under the name of Shams ad-Din was not a literal trick neither was it a call for
the memory of his missed friend. Rumi just found his guide within himself, who
would dictate him songs and Rumi considered himself as just a transmitterrawi.
But they are his own songs as well, since they were born in his soul. Thus, Jalal adDin is at the same time identical and non-identical to proclaimed by his hand
Shams ad-Din. Therefore, Shams, being the subject, author and lyrical hero of the
verses, simultaneously acted as the object. Communion with Shams allowed Rumi
to find a new way of mystical understanding (Sufi order). However, finally, the
order was established only after the death of Rumi. It was called after Rumi,
Mavlaviyya, taking his title Maviana "our teacher". The works of Rumi and the
order Mavlaviyya had a direct influence on the "development of the religiousphilosophical and the poetic thinking of the people of the East". Besides, the order
became famous of its whirling dances. In Europe the dancing dervishes of the order
were called "whirling dervishes".
The disciples of Shams Tabrizi have collected all his works in a book called
"Megalets".

143

Mausoleum of Jalaladdin Rumi. Konya, Turkey

144

The Head of the Musical System

School
Safi ad-din Urmavi
Safi ad-Din Abdulmomin ibn Yusif ibn Fahir Urmavi, one of the greatest
musicians and musicologists in the East, was born in 1216 in the ancient cultural
centre of Azerbaijan in the city of Urmiya. Initially, he was educated in his native
land. There, he mastered the elements of music and
learned to play the ud. Then he moved to the capital
city of the Arabian Caliphate, Baghdad, the scientific
and cultural center of the Near and Middle East. There,
he continued his education at one of the best
universities of that time, Mustansariyya.
His first wave of popularity was not from his
music, but from his magnificent calligraphy. He was
invited to the palace of Caliph al-Mustasim, the last
representative of Abbasid's dynasty. At this palace in
Baghdad, he became one of the Caliph's servitors and
was eventually nominated to be the primary
calligrapher and chief of the palatial library.
Copying books and managing the library,
Qajar Painting. 19th
Century. Oil on canvas.
however, did not prevent Safi ad-Din from continuing
his musical education in this rich library. He often
demonstrated his skill in playing the ud at palatial receptions. A few legends exist
about his mastery over the ud. According to one legend, a camel that had been
without water for 40 days went to a watering-place, where Safi ad-Din began to
play his ud. Upon hearing the sounds, the camel stopped drinking. When the
sounds of the ud died away, the camel started drinking again, but he became
transfixed when Safi ad-Din started playing again. This happened three times, and
then tears appeared in the camel's eyes.
According to another legend, Safi ad-Din was in one of the famous gardens
of Baghdad, playing his ud for some students. His perfect music attracted a
nightingale that was flying in the garden. It sat on the nearest tree branch and
listened to the magical music of Safi ad-Din's ud. The nightingale was so excited
from the music that it flew closer to Safi ad-Din, began to flap its wings in step
with the music and, finally, it sat without fear among the people and began to sing.
In 1252, Safi ad-Din - still in service at the palace - finished one of his
musical treatises, called "Kitab-al-Advar". The book was written in Arabic and
consisted of 15 parts. The book considered questions on the theory of music, which

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are still discussed today. The modern reader would especially be interested in the
ninth chapter, which speaks about mughams. It mentions the names of 12
mughams, all of which are still known today in Azerbaijan - Ushshag, Nava, Abu
Salic ("Busalic"), Rast, Iraqi, Isfahani, Zirefkand, Buzurg, Zangule, Rahavi,
Huseini and Hijaz.
Safi ad-Din devoted the 11th and 12th chapters to his favourite instrument,
the ud. The 15th chapter is about the recording of music, and it was especially
important to subsequent generations of musicians and musicologists. According to
his system, music is recorded in an alphanumeric way. The letters of the Arabian
system "abjad" indicated the conditional height of a sound, as well as its duration.
For example, to designate intervals less than one-half of a tone, he used the letters
T, J, B, etc. The figures also described the mood, tune and meter of a melody.
The modern Western system of notation does not allow the recording of
intervals of less than one-half of a tone. Consequently, it is not suitable for the
reproduction of all the subtleties of mugham sounds and Eastern music in general.
Urmavi's system was used in the East until almost the end of the 19th Century.
Two European musicologists, R.Erlanju and J.Fermcr, independently from
each other recorded one rubayi notated by Urmavi into modern notation. After
being silent for nearly 700 years, the melody began to sound anew.
Safi ad-Din displayed himself as a talented teacher; he educated a number
of musicologists who became popular in the entire East. Abdulgadir Maraghi, an
Azerbaijani musicologist during the 13th and 14th Centuries, wrote in his essay
entitled "Magasidul-Alkhan" that Safi ad-Din Urmavi was the teacher of many
outstanding people. Among them were the famous musicologists Shams ad-Din
Suh-ravardi, Ali Sitan, Hasan Zafer and Khusam ad-Din Gutlug Bugha.
Safi ad-Din created two new musical instruments - the nuzkha and the
mugni. The nuzkha resembled the modern harp and had 81 strings. Its body was
tetragonal and made of willow, cypress or boxwood. The mugni had 33 strings.
Externally, it resembled the modern rubab, but its body was larger and made from
apricot tree.
Safi ad-Din Urmavi was also a composer, and there are legends that
illustrate his talent. A famous singer named Lizakh-Khan lived in Baghdad and frequently met with Safi ad-Din. They sang and played together, anil Sail ad-Din gave
him lessons in music. Once, Lizakh Khan sang a beautiful song at a palatial
reception. Everyone liked the song, and the Caliph wanted to know the name of the
composer. When he learned that Safi ad-Din had written the song, he invited him
to a reception and everyone admired his skill at playing the ud.
In 1258, the Turko-Mongol army of Hulagu Khan, grandson of Chingiz
Khan, seized Baghdad. The Caliph and his family were executed, and after more
than 600 years of existence, the Arabian Caliphate came to an end.

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As a servitor of the Caliph, Safi ad-Din's life was threatened. Historian

Hasan Erbeleny personally knew Safi ad-Din and described the events of those
days. Hulagu Khan's troops surrounded Safi ad-Din's quarter, threatening the lives
of Safi ad-Din and the others living in
the quarter. One of Hulagu Khan's
commanders and a group of 30 soldiers
went to break down the doors at the
house where Safi ad-Din lived. The
owner of the house met the soldiers
politely and invited them into the
house. Safi ad-Din soon came to an
understanding with the "visitors".
The Ud, or short-necked lute. This drawing is
Eventually, the commander had mercy
from Safi ad-Din's treatise. The Ud is shown
with frets and five double strings, whose names
on the inhabitants of the quarter and
are given.
Urmavi was led to the palace and
presented to Hulagu Khan. Safi ad-Din asked for an ud to be brought to him, and
he played whole-heartedly a melancholy melody, and a singer named Ziya began
to sing. Everyone was in awe of Safi ad-Din's skill. Hulagu Khan invited him to
serve in the palace, and he pardoned the quarter's inhabitants.
Safi ad-Din was taken under the protection of the important dignitary
(vizier) of Hulagu Khan, Shams ad-Din Juveyni, the brother of Iranian historian Al
ad-Din Juveyni. Shams ad-Din trusted to Safi ad-Din the education of his sons,
Bakhi ad-Din and Sharaf ad-Din. Safi ad-Din tried to give them a well-rounded
education, but naturally, he gave special attention to music. Sharaf ad-Din
eventually met great success in the study of music, and he devoted his famous
musical treatise "Risaliya Sharafi" to Urmavi. He wrote the essay in Tabriz and it
consisted of five parts.
After the Juveyni family fell into disfavour, Safi ad-Din lived in poverty
and ended his life in 1294 in Baghdad's debtors' prison. The manuscripts of Safi
ad-Din Urmavi's works are kept in museums in London, Istanbul, St.Petersburg,
New York and other cities. His works attracted the attention of outstanding
musicians and musicologists of subsequent generations. Many of them felt that it
was their duty to state Urmavi's attitude toward creativity. There are many books
that comment on Urmavi's writings by authors such as Gutb ad-Din Shirazi (13th
Century), Abdul-gadir Maraghi (14th Century), Mahammed al-Jurjani (14th
Century), Abd ur-Rahman Jami (15th Century), and many others.
In the 15th Century, Turkish musician Shukurallah Ahmedoghlu translated
"Kitab-al-Advar" into Turkish. The book was later translated into French. In
Azerbaijan, Afrasiyab Badalbeyli, A. Begdeli, T. Buniatov and others studied the
creativity of Safi ad-Din Urmavi. English scientist Henry George Fermer wrote

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Khosrov Listens to Barbad's Music. Mir AH. Khamse by Nizami. 1539-1543. British Museum. London

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that Safi ad-Din Urmavi was the founder of the system school and that after him,
all Arabic-Persian-Turkic authors were his successors.
The Interpreter of Sufi Mysteries
Mahmud Shabustari
Saad ad-Din Mahmud ibn Abdul Kerim ibn Yahya Shabustari Tabrizi was
born near Tabriz in the village of Shabustar in 1287 to a family of theologians.
Mahmud Shabustari, an eminent scientist and philosopher, was one of the greatest
theorists of Sufism in Azerbaijan.
Like many educated people of medieval
Azerbaijan, Shabustari had great knowledge.
Analysis of his work shows that he was well
educated in theology, philosophy, astronomy,
medicine, philology and other branches of study.
In those times, it was accepted as a continuation of education to depart on long trips to
different countries and cities, to the centres of
science and theology, which were frequently at the
graves of esteemed saints. Shabustari was not an
exception, and during his brief life he had time to
go to Egypt, Khijaz, Shams, Iraq and other
countries, where he met many scientists and hereinafter kept correspondence with
them.
Based on information from Mahammed Ali Tarbiyat, one of the Shirvans
among the travellers wrote that Shabustari was in Girman. There he married and
there he had children and grandsons. Among them were famous scientists and
literary people. His son was a poet and wrote comments on the famous "FlowerGarden of the Mysteries", written by his father.
In his book "Saadatnama" ("The Book about Happiness"), Shabustari wrote
the following about his trips:
A large part of my life
Conducted in the study of sciences and theology,
1 travelled in Egypt, Syria and Khijaz, and
Much went and skipped in the afternoon and at night.
Year and month similar to the universe rotated.
From country to country, from city to city went.
Sat at the light of a lamp,
Ate away the smoke of a lamp.
In each country I met
With many scientists and connoisseurs of theology.

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Collected a set of interesting words,

Made interesting compositions...

Shabustari understood well ancient Greek philosophy, Zoroastrianism,

idolatry, Christianity and, certainly, Islam and all of its possible mystical and
philosophical currents.
Shabustari died in 1320 and was buried at his birthplace in the village of
Shabustar in the cemetery Gulshan, where his teacher Bakha ad-Din Yaqub Tabrizi
was buried. Now this grave is a
place of pilgrimage. In the 19th
Century, it was restored three
times. The first restoration was
carried out by Haji Mirza Aghasi
in 1850-1851. On his tomb, a
memorial panel made from
marble was attached, with the
following inscription: "Great
sheikh in 720 Hejira (1320) at
the age of 33 years left this
perishable world to that eternal
Mosque of Tassuj. Shabustar, East Azerbaijan, Iran.
Photo by Khanali Siami.
world". The second restoration
was carried out in 1880 by Mirza
Husein Khan, and the third time - rather recently - was done by Hasan Mugaddam.
Shabustari, as it is pointed out in "Essay on the History of Azerbaijani
Philosophy", kept a rich literary inheritance. To his pen belongs: "Saadat-nama"
("The Book of Happiness"), "Kanzul-Khananaik" ("A Treasury of Truth"), "Khak
ul-Yagin fi Marifati Rebbu Alamin"("Authentic Truth in the Knowledge of the
Creator of the World"), "Mir'at ul-Mukhakkikin" ("Mirror of Looking for Truth)"
and "Gulshani Raz" ("Flower-Garden of the Mysteries"). However, now
researchers of Shabustari, including the outstanding connoisseur of his creativity,
Shaiq Ismailov, believe that "Kanzul-Khananaik" was not Shabustari's work.
Shabustari also wrote the poem "Shahid-nama" ("The Book of Clairvoyance"), but
it was not found in the stacks.
Shabustari translated some books from Arabic to Persian. He translated to
Persian the work of the philosopher Imam Gazali called "Minkhajul Abidin" ("A
Way of Pilgrims"). Three is also a record of correspondence between Shabustari
and Khorasan thinker Huscini Saadat.
Shabustari wrote his first philosophical works in prose, and only toward the
end of his life did he begin to write in verse. In his first poetical work (after which
he only wrote one more) Shabustari gained world recognition. The poem,
"Gulshani Raz" ("Flower-Garden of the Mysteries"), was written in 1317-1318.

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Shabustari described the history of the creation of this poem in a section called "A
History of the Creation of the Book":
"In December 1317, an envoy came to me with a letter from one of the most
educated people of that time, Khorasan philosopher Mir Huseini Saadat, with a
request to answer some questions of philosophical character. Shabustari described
this event in the beginning of "Gulshani Raz":
Seventeen years had passed since the 700th year of Khijra.
Unexpectedly in the month of Shavval,
One envoy with thousands of items of benefaction and respects
Arrived from the inhabitants of Khorasan.
There is one known and great person
Of talent similar to a source of Light.
All inhabitants of Khorasan from young and old
Have said that he is the best thinker of centuries.
He wrote a letter concerning his ideas
And sent it to a person who understands his ideas.
There are a number of difficult places from reasoning,
From difficulties of the people of "Isharat".
Creating verses, he asked about each question.
And asked to answer this world of ideas in brief words.
As soon as the envoy had read this letter.
Talk spread about this circumstance.
Many respectable people were present in that company.
The eyes of each of them were on Shabustari.
One of them, who was more experienced
And a hundred times has heard from us these ideas.
Said to me: reply here,
That the people of the world by it used.

Shabustari at first refused to write the answer, his refusal motivated by the
reference in his early works, in which it is possible to find the answers to the
delivered questions. Then he assented to the applicant, on behalf of his teacher
Amin ad-Din Tabrizi, according to Ismailov, and he wrote the answers to the
Khorasan scientist's questions in poetical form. After some time, the applicant
again addressed Shabustari. Only after this did Shabustari agree to answer the
questions of the sheikh Huseini. Shabustari answered briefly and precisely and
without special preparation:
I said to him that there is no need for it,
As 1 wrote about it repeatedly in my works.
He said, 'Yes, but according to my request
We shall receive from you the desired poem.'
After their urgent request I began
To write the answers to the letter in brief words.
Among the noble people, in one instant
1 made these words without reflection and recurrence.
So, in answer to the letter, at once

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I wrote one, not more and not less.

The envoy, having received the answers to the letter.
With gratitude returned by the same way they had come.

The questions of Huseini Saadat consisted of 22 beyt (couplet, distich);

Shabustari's answers consisted of 49 beyt. From them, 35 were direct answers to
delivered questions, and others were entered into the introduction and the
conclusion of the letter. After some time sheikh Huseini again asked Shabustari to
answer a number of questions, which arose after his perusal of the letters.
Shabustari again returned detailed answers. This time he grouped all of the
questions from the first and second letters into 15 questions, and he presented the
answers in a kind of poem by the name of "Gulshani Raz":
Another time my dear preceptor
Said to me, 'Append something to the to letter.
Those ideas that you stated make it plain,
With the help of science displace in presentation.'
In those times I did not have leisure,
To begin this with enjoyment and by mood.
So that to describe this condition by words is impossible.
And only the expert knows what this mood is.
However, I listened to the words of a godly Person, and
Did not reject the request of the applicant of religion.
But that the secret were much more illuminated,
I have given will to eloquence.
With the benediction and help of God.
1 have stated all at some hours.
When the heart asked God to name the letters,
The answer to the heart came that it is our flower bed.

It was the first large poem

of Shabustari and he complained
about the difficulty of an
exposition of philosophical ideas in
poetical form. This process, he
believed, was similar to an attempt
to store the sea in a limited vessel.
In 1426, Azerbaijani poet Shirazi
translated "Gulshani Raz" into
Azerbaijani. In 1944, Abdulqadir
Tomb of sheikh Mahmud of Shabustari (d. 1320).
Kelpinarli translated the poem into
Photo by Khanali Siami.
Turkish. Since the 19th Century,
"Gulshani Raz" has been translated into many European languages by various
authors and has been through several editions. At once after its issue, "Gulshani
Raz" gained large popularity in the East among followers of Sufism.

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In Shaig Ismailov's book, which focused on Shabustari's philosophy, were

the names of 18 authors who commented on the contents of poems in Persian from
the 14th to the 18th Centuries. Among them, the comments of Azerbaijani
philosopher Shams ad-Din Lahiji, "Matafatikh-ul-Ejaz" ("The Keys to Miracles"),
written in 1472, have had the most popularity, even up to the present.
In 1319-1320 Shabustari wrote his second philosophical poem,
"Saadatnama". It greatly exceeded the previous poem in volume. It contained about
3,000 beyt and consisted of eight sections, broken into chapters and paragraphs. In
"Saadatnama", Shabustari gave information on his own life and activities and trips,
and he wrote about his teachers and his favourite books.
The creativity of Shabustari takes an outstanding place in the history of
medieval philosophy of Azerbaijan. His works were published in many countries
of Europe and Asia. Modern followers of Sufi philosophy recognize Shabustari's
great authority and frequently refer to his works.

The Author of an Outstanding

13th Century Medical Science Book
Mahmud ibn Ilyas Shirvani
One of the prominent scientists - physicians of Azerbaijan was Mahmud ibn
Ilyas Shirvani, who lived in the 13th Century. No detailed information about the
course of life of Mahmud ibn Ilyas is available. It
was Efendiyev who collected information about
Mahmud ibn Ilyas, analysed his works. Mahmud
ibn Ilyas is the author of the famous "Medical
Scientific Book", which first appeared in 1260.
The book is written on the basis of the analysis of
century-long experience of the eastern medicine
and author's personal scientific and medical
practice. He learned much from meetings with
physicians of different countries during his
numerous trips. Describing one of such trips, he
A saxifrage. Illustration from
Dioscorides` treatise on herbs.
wrote, that as a result of the trip he "much
perceived and much reconsidered" and "on the way back he met in Baghdad a great
fellow-countryman to talk about his native land, recollect edifications of Kafi adDin; memoirs about Shirvan always gladden us ". "It is paradox, 1 live in Shiraz,
loving native land of my father - Shirvan". "Medical scientific book" by Mahmud
ibn Ilyas consists of four sections, devoted to theoretical medical science, practical
medical science, medicines and complex (compound) medicines. The first section

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is divided into 17, second into 59 chapters. In the third section, medicines are listed
alphabetically. The fourth section details about complex (compound) medicines,
and is divided into 22 chapters. As Efendiyev pointed out, "distinctive feature of
the work as compared with all previous popular - medical and scientific -medical
literatures is his aspiration to transform medical science into the system of
scientific edifice both in theory, and practice".
The author of the "Medical Scientific Book"
expressed his view as follows: "under the
medical science is meant a science, by which we
study the state of human organism, make a
diagnosis, and if his health is bad, with help of
this science we restore substances lost by the
organism and do not allow decline of his
health... The medical science is divided into two
parts: first - theoretical medicine, second practical medicine". "The theoretical medicine
studies natural and unnatural in actions, their
reasons and regularities. The practical medicine
studies by application of useful and abstention
from harmful things, how to protect health and,
remove various diseases".
Medical Treasury. 17 th Century.
Iran.
Mahmud ibn Ilyas is prone to think that
the reason of disease can be cold, grubbiness,
fever, poisoning with non-standard production and dirty air, smoke, excessive
work (exhaustion), surfeit in meal, laziness and idleness ("volumetric illnesses
"),etc. The technique of diagnostics of diseases, offered and used by Mahmud ibn
Ilyas includes external examination, pulse test, inspection of temperature of the
body, conditions of eyeballs tongue, humidity and smell, external analysis of urine,
sputum, motion and blood.
Much attention is paid to the pulse. He writes like "the pulse is not that
others, created by vasculars of heart, its reduction and relaxation. Each pulse rate is
made of two movements and two pauses: movement of relaxation, pause,
movement of reduction, pause". He considers a great variety of pulses,
systematizes them. Among them he distingnished frequent, languid and average,
equal and eratical, systematic and desultory pulses, etc. Under initiative of Vizier
of, Gazan Khan, prominent reformer and historian of medieval Azerbaijan and, at
the same time, physician Rashid ad-Din and with the participation of Mahmud ibn
llyas there were built "Health Houses" ("Dar-ush-Shafa"). In Azerbaijan there were
such centers. Central "Health House" with main medical school was located in
Tabriz, a sort of the Academy of Sciences, which attracted scientists from all the
Orient. In honour of its founder it was named after "Rabi Rashidi" or "Rashidiya".

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There worked about 500 scientists and teachers in nearly all the branches of
science, people arriving here from India, Egypt, China, Arab, other countries,
about 6000 students attended the central house. Education, meal, accommodation
and even clothes of the students were free of charge. Tuition fees were paid from
incomes of Rashid ad-Din. Under "Rashidiya" - mosques, universities, a large
library, numbering about 600,000 books, an
observatory, a hospital, workshops on the
manufacture of paper and caravanserais were
operative. In the organization of health sendees,
development of medical science and training of
medical staff, a decisive role was assigned to the
management and scientific talent of Mahmud ibn
Ilyas. It was no mere coincidence that Rashid adDin referred to Mahmud ibn Ilyas as "Plato of
epoch, Aristotle of century". First "Health
Homes" in the Near East were arranged on the
initiative of abu Sina. The plan of the
construction of health centers of Mahmud ibn
Ilyas, as Efendiyev maintains, was richer and
purposeful than those of abu Sina. Just as in
modern clinics, Mahmud ibn Ilyas's provided for
The Old Man and the Physician.
Mughal School. 17th Century.
passage system of wards. At the entrance there
Abol-Hasan.
were located reception and procedural rooms,
wards were located on both sides of the corridor, at the end of the clinic there was a
morgue. The basic building had improved ventilation of accommodation which
enabled where appropriate to expand the number of wards. Near the central
building there were a small drugstore and rooms of physicians and attendants . The
drugstore looked to the garden, where various plants for manufacturing medicines
were cultivated Health Centres, as viewed by Mahmud ibn Ilyas, should have been
constructed on the outskirts of towns. There a drugstore and houses of pharmacists
and doctors of various specialities should be placed. Here the beginners should be
trained, qualification of doctors improved. With this purpose, Mahmud ibn Ilyas
through Rashid ad-Din assistance invited competent specialists from abroad to
train doctors of various profile including sur geons - "Jerrahi", oculists "Khekhali", traumatologists - "Mujbiri" (or "Mujabiri"), Mahmud ibn Ilyas in his
book lists main charges of the clinic:
1.Allowance (for staff):
Doctors (common), ophthalmologists, bone-setters, attendants (hospital
attendants), other servants.
2.Costs of equipment:

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Accessories, cloths, ceramic utensils, stove-couches, tools, etc.

3. Means (medical - "mazurat"):
medical drinks, drug mixtures, plasters, ophthalmic ointments, rice porridge
and liver.
4. Additional (means): Carpets, fabrics, oils, perfumes.
5. Ceremonial costs: Dressing of deceased.
Central "Health House" in the township of "Rashiddiya" owned to Rashid
ad-Din personally and was in charge of other 67 Dar-ush-Shafa, located in various
areas of country. Of interest is the Garden of Rashid ("Baghi Rashidabad") in the
region, called "Kuche Mualijun" ("Street of Treating"); there, beside the clinic, was
located residential houses of doctors and attendant.
The drugstore was located in other garden -"Fatkhabad", where various
plants for production of medicines were cultivated. Mahmud ibn Ilyas was the
courtier doctor to run medical sendee of the state.
In order not to get ill, try not to get tired. It is achievable even if you
work a lot. Have short breaks while working. Avoid getting tired, do not let
tiredness continue from day to day. Set up your working place in a nice and
comfortable manner, try to abide in a good mood while working.
Mahmud ibn Ilyas
The Medieval Physician Who Treated Stress
Abdul Majid Tabib
One of the most remarkable physicians of the 13th Century in Azerbaijan
was Abdul Mejid. He lived and worked in the Maragha observatory - Vlaragha's
centre of science that was created by the great astronomer and mathematician,
Nasir ad-Din Tusi.
Abdul Mejid Tabib was the author of a work on medicine called "Qitab ulTibb" ("The Medical Book"), which was a medical manual known widely
throughout the East. "Qitab ul-Tibb" is devoted to the Mongol governor. Organ
Khan, consists of 49 parts and covers almost all questions of diagnostics. It also
covers the treatment of dozens of diseases, including asthma, ophthalmic illnesses
and poisoning.
Because of the name, arrangement of material and, partially, its
interpretation, the book is reminiscent of "The Medical Scientific Book", written
by one of Mejid Tabib's contemporaries named Mahmud ibn Ilyas, who was a
prominent physician. However, the similarity between the two books is only at first
sight. Abdul Mejid Tabib's book contains a lot of original ideas about diagnostics
and about the treatment of a number of illnesses, especially concerning mental conditions. Despite this, Abdul Mejid might well have been influenced by Mahmud

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ibn-llyas, and he could have even been familiar with him. Abdul Mejid wrote
"Qitab ul-Tibb" in approximately 1275 to 1280, shortly before the death of
Mahmud ibn Ilyas; consequently, is quite possible that they had met.
Perhaps for the first time among medieval authors of medical books, Abdul
Mejid touched upon questions of obstetrics, in particular pregnancy, to which he
devoted a special chapter. He also gave special attention to questions of psychiatry.
He wrote about madness, ghosts (qabusi), head pain, various fears and absentmindedness.
I. Efendiev wrote, "Abdul Mejid considers that the centre of a person's
mental activity is the brain. People connect with their environment through their
senses. By means of the senses, impressions will be formed. The impressions are
positive and negative. The first creates good cheer, the second depression. The
doctor must protect the patient from negative impressions, as their final sum results
in indifference to oppression. As a consequence of these negative impressions
systematically building up, the process of depression amplifies and results in
madness".
Abdul Mejid's idea about "raving madness" is also original. He considered
that each negative impression acts in one of two ways: it can cause either complete
depression or madness. Madness comes when the negative impressions are
deformed or "jumbled" while being transmitted by the senses to the brain, and the
person is unable to govern them. According to Abdul Mejid, "The mind cannot be
contained in the head and the person loses his ability to be his own man". As it is
visible from this citation, Abdul Mejid realized long before modern medics the
negative impact that negative stress can have on the mentality of a person.
Abdul Mejid had several original ideas and his creativity awaited modern
researchers.

The Author of the First Persian-Azerbaijani Dictionary

Fahr ad-Din Hindushah Nakhchivani
Eminent scientist, political figure and interpreter Fahr ad-Din Hindushah
ibn Sanjar ibn Abdullah Nakhchivani was born at the end of the 13th Century (d.
1328) in the city of Gilan (modern Khara-bagilan). The family gave birth to many
Azerbaijan prominent figures, and all of them to emphasize their origin from
Nakhchivan, were named "Nakhchivani".
Hindushah Nakhchivani attended one of the famous universities of Baghdad
Mustansariyya . Here he studied theology, mathematics, medicine, astronomy,
other sciences, had good command of Persian and Arabic. For great services to the
state he was conferred a honorary rank "Fakhr ad-Dovla". At the same time,

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Hindushah Nakhchivani studied history, linguistics and poetry. He was the author
of the famous historical work "Tajarib us-Salaf " ("Experience of the
Predcessors1'), devoted to the economic and political life of Azerbaijan, some
adjacent countries, anthology "Mavaridul-Arab", written on Arabic in 1307/8,
lexicographical work "As-Sikhakh-ul-Ajamiya", a number of verses in Persian.
The "Tajarib us-salaf Hindushah was dedicated to Atabey of Luristan,Yusif
Shah (1296-1330). There is an opinion that this work is a translation of "Tavarikh
al-Khulafa val Vuzara " ("History of Caliphs and Viziers ") by Arabian historian
Mahammcd Ali Tagtagha into on Persian.
This translation is one of the first samples of prose in magnificent Persian.
Hindushah noticeably recasted and supplemented the translated book, enlarged its
volume nearly three times.
A special emphasis in the creativity of Hindushah Nakhchivani is land on
the Persian-Azeri dictionary is well-known "As-Cikhakhu-1-Ajamiya". This first
Persian-Azeri dictionary known in the science to be reputed as one of earliest
Persian dictionary.
About 5,000 worlds and Persian grammar written on Arabic included in the
dictionary. Besides, there are phraseological turns and separate phrases. Hindushah
Nakhchivani noted, that the principle of the dictionary-design was borrowed by
him from Arabian lexicographer of the 10 century Ismail al-Jovhari.
For a long time this dictionary was very popular among scientists and those
studying Persian and Arabic. An eloquent estimony is a plenty of servived
manuscripts of the dictionary, scattered in many libraries of the world. The latest
copies go back to the end of the 19th Century, earliest to the beginning of 16th
Century.
The dictionary consists of three parts - introduction, dictionary and Persian
grammar. The introduction and the grammar are written in Arabic, and the
dictionary in Persian and Azeri. In the introduction he pointed out, that the book
was intended for those studying Persian, not Persians (for Azerbaijanians).
"As-Sikhakh-ul-Ajam" of Hindushah is an invaluable monument of Azeri
lexicography and irreplaceable source of study of the dictionary and grammar of
Persian and Azeri of the 13th-14th Centuries. The dictionary played a grate role in
the development of lexicography in the East and even the design of the dictionary
was borrowed by the majority of the authors of the Persian -Turkic dictionaries,
down to the end of the 16th Century on Hindushah Nakhchivani.

158

The Encyclopaedia of the

Economic and Political Life of
Azerbaijan in the Epoch of II Khans
Mahammed ibn Hindushah Nakhchivani
Farman. East Azerbaijan, Iran. 1292. Ink on paper.

The famous scientific and political figure Mahammed

Hindushah Nakhchivani, son of the well-known linguist
Hindushah Nakhchivani, lived at the end of the 13th - beginning
of the 14th centuries.
With good education, he, like his father, had great
command of Azeri, Arabian and Persian. After he wrote some
scientific works, he in 20-th of the 14th Century was invited in
Tabriz to II Khan's court, where he for long time hold a position of
the secretary - Munshi, basically, for state finances. Taking into
account his large services and scientific authority, a tittle of
"Shams-i Munshi an-Nakhchivani" was conferred to him ("Similar
to Sun Munshi an-Nakhchivani").
At the court he associated with Vizier of II Khan, Abu Said (1316-1335),
and then with Arpa Khan (1335-1336), son of the famous political figure, reformer
and historian Fazlullah Rashid ad-Din Giyas ad-Din Rashidi. To him he devoted,
his explanatory dictionary of Persian "Sikhakhu-1 furs", written in 1327/28.
After this, under recommendation of Giyas adDin, Abu Said, issued a special farman (decree), to
entrust Mahammed Nakhchivani to write a book to
describe structure and control system of llkhanid state.
The order proved to be very serious and the work was
posted. The book was finished by Mahammed in
1360, however, dissatisfied by the results, author after
this six years edited and supplemented the book, partly
due to changes in the political life of the state.
A brass kasa. Yusif Ibn
Ahmad Tabrizi. 1319.
On April 6, 1366 he, at last, finished his capital
Victoria and Albert
work, "Dastur al-Katib fi Tayin al Maratib" ("Manual
Museum. London.
for Penman when defining Degrees"). The book was
dedicated to Sheikh Uveys (1356-1374), Jalairid, to replace Ilkhans in Azerbaijan.
The medieval scientific and state figures highly estimated this work and the
authority of Mahammed Nakhchivani much more rise.
Now this work is in one line with recognized all over the world works
"Siyasatname" by Nizami al-Mulk and "Jame at-Tabarikh" by Rashid ad-Din. The

159

work of Mahammed Nakhchivani "Dastur al-Katib fi Tayin al Maratib" is a unique

encyclopedic source of economic and political life of Azerbaijan and state system
of II Khans epoch, reflecting the economic-juridical norms of taxation, ownership
of land and other property, court and legal proceedings, money circulation.
Besides, it is possible to find answers to questions, connected with religion,
relation between religion and state, philosophy and philosophical trends, culture,
trade, handicrafts and art, and even the description of the precept to use accessories
of penmen and calligraphers.
The book was translated and published in many languages. In Baku, it was
published and commented by the Alizadc,
contributing to research and popularization
of
the
creativity,
of
Mahammed
Nakhchivani. Of great scientific value is the
explanatory dictionary of the Persian
language by Mahammed Nakhchivani
"Sikhakhul
Furs", though for different reasons
Casket. Brass, inlaid with silver.
Azerbaijan. Second half of the 14th
it has not until recently attracted attention of
Century.
scientists. Now the authorship of the dictionary exactly established and its significance in the history of Persian
lexicography. Some researchers came to the conclusion that in the 11th-13th
Centuries leading scientists in Persian linguistics, were basically, sons of
Azerbaijan.
Modern scientists, by capacity, scope of the material and its originality
raised the dictionary by Nakhchivani in one level with the famous explanatory dictionary by Qatran Tabrizi. In the "Dictionary", the reader can find information on
phonetics, grammar, toponymy of the Persian language. There are verses of poets,
names of whom are lacking in medieval chronicles and reading-books. The
manuscripts of Mahammcd Nakhchiwani are kept at many libraries of the world,
and to many works of the scientists from Europe and East are devoted to their
study.
The Inventor of a Divine Script
Mir Ali Tabrizi
Haji Mir Ali Ibn Ilyas Tabrizi was one of the most famous calligraphers
(khattat) in the Orient. Before beginning the story of his life and creation, it is
essential to specify the role of calligraphers and calligraphy in the spiritual life of
the Muslim world and Azerbaijan, in particular. Owing to the prohibition on

160

representation of living creatures by Islam and distinctive features of drawings in

Arabs script, calligraphy turned into supreme art in the Islamic world. Since Koran
- Word of God - was written in Arab script, religious leaders in every possible way
backed the cult of calligraphy art,
stressed its sacramental nature. It
should be noted that calligraphic
inscriptions on books, palaces,
mosques, decorative and applied
artifacts made of ceramic, metal,
wood and fabric were often accompanied by decorative design. So the
calligraphy became independent and
major sphere of graphic art in the
Islamic world. Skill in calligraphy became a criterion of the educational level.
There are many examples when public figures, poyets, painters and scholars were
excellent calligraphers .
Azerbaijan scholar of the 15th Century Mahammed
Bey Hindushah Nakhchivani wrote: "first of all, children
should be trained to the art of calligraphy and trips ...
Quoting Prophet Mahammed, Arabs used to say:
"A writing is half of knowledge". Unity of beauty of letter
and profound content of the text was required.
As a result of long search of many generations of
calligraphers there were formed 6 major classes of Arab
script to meet practical and aesthetic needs of they time:
suls, naskh, mukhaggat, reyhani, tougy and rega.
The art of calligraphy in Azerbaijan started with
works of Mubarek-Shah Zarrin-Qalem Tabrizi. He was
one of 6 peoples of prominent Arab calligraphers of the
13th Century Jamal ad-Din Mustasimi. Among the famous
calligraphers there was famous Azerbaijani sheikh Ahmed
Persian poem penned
Suhravardi.
It should be noted that Mubarek Tabrizi was
in nastaliq script,
siqned by Mir'Ali. ca.
skillful in all 6 scripts and had a ureal number of followers.
1500-1520
To all appearances, the calligraphy reached its perfection
and nothing new could have been appeared. Nevertheless, a famous khattat sprang
up in the Islamic word in the 14th Century Azerbaijan. It was Haji Mir Ali Ibn
Ilyas Tabrizi (1330-1405). Most scholars, biographers and authors of treatises on
calligraphy consider Mir Ali Tabrizi as inventor of nastaliq script which in a short
period of time replaced classical 6 scripts and gained popularity all over the Orient.
Ibn Muqla's systen for proportional calligraphy.

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One on medieval authors wrote: Haji Mir Ali is inventor of small-sized

naskh and talik". According to the legend Haji Mir Ali Tabrizi, passionately
desiring to create and original scrip, saw a dream. The first Shia Imam Murtuz Ali
told him in the dream: "Oh, God's slave! Look at the duck! Throw a glance on it
and create a new script. Look at the duck's beak, eyes and neck and create a new
script!"
Under Emir Timur, Mir Ali was already known as founder of nastaliq
script, one of the most esteemed calligrapher in the Empire. Today, manuscripts,
transcribed by Mir Ali Tabrizi, are kept in London, Tehran, St.Petersburg.
Son of Mir Ali - Mir Abdulla followed his father's footsteps and became
famous as great calligrapher in many countries of the orient under the nickname
Shekerin Qalem (Sweet Pen). Among the pupils of Mir Abdullah there was
eminent calligrapher of Azerbaijan of the 15th Century Jaffar Tabrizi. The latter
did much for the perfection of nastaliq and it was not surprising that he was
reputed as the second originator of the script (Mukhtara us-Sani). For sometime he
as the head of court calligraphers of Baysungur Mirza in Herat.
Mir Abdullah, Jafar Tabrizi, other disciples of Mir Ali developed their
teacher's ideas and extolled his skill to the skies.
The Philosopher Who was Executed
and Buried in Nakhchivan
Fazlullah Naimi
Naimi Shah Fazlullah ibn abu Mahammed
Tabrizi (Fazl) is the founder of khurufism, a heretical
philosophical religious movement, and one of the
greatest Sufis in Azerbaijan. Khurufism was
proclaimed by Fazl in Azerbaijan at the end of the
15th century and later disseminated throughout the
territory of Turkey, Iran, Iraq, Syria and other
countries of the Muslim East. His teaching became
particularly popular among Turcik tribes. Shams adDin Mahammed ibn Abu ur-Rakhman Sokhavi (the
15th century) in his book "Bright Rays Among People of the 9th Century" writes:
"Nizami abu al-Fazl Astrabadi Ajemi, also called abu ur-Rakhman, was a very
educated person well-versed in poetry and prose, an active participants of mejlis
(meetings) specially organized for him in the cities of Gilan, Samarkand and
others. Khurifits were ascetics and wore white felt hats. This widely spread sect
had a big number of followers, mostly chagataytzs and other non-Arabic nations,
poisoned with its heresy."

162

Khurufits ("letterers" from the Arabic word "khuruf letter), according to E.

A. Akhmedov, considered that "the universe and man are a result of graduate emanations of the deity of the Universal Reason, the Universal Soul, the Originalmother, Space and Time. The divine beginning that penetrated the entire universe
is especially reflected in human beings that were created in the very image of God.
The life of the Universe the history of the mankind is a cycle gear. Each cycle that
consists of seven rings begins with the appearance of Adam and finishes with "the
Day of Judgment". The letters of the Arabic alphabet, calculations based on their
numeric value were considered by
Khurufits to be the mystical symbols of
the universal cycle. They considered
words, letters, numbers to be the
foundation, the beginning of existence
that became the substance of the world,
having been stated by Allah in Koran
and through it. The khurufi idea of the
reflection of God in human beings
through the word of God in Koran in
rooted
in this belief.
Naimy's mausoleum. Nakhchivan. Photo by
Unfortunately, Naimi belongs to
Nazim Bababeyli.
the cohort of Azerbaijani scholars, of
whom little is known. Researchers find most full and trustworthy information
about Naimi in his works and the works of some of his followers.
Shah Fazlullah was born in 1339/40. Though he received good education,
Fazl could not determine his place in life for quite a long time. There was even a
period in his life, when he had to earn his living by making hats. However, his love
for science prevailed and according to a tradition of his time, he started off traveling in search for knowledge.
It is known that in 1369 he visited Isfahan, later Mecca, Nishapur,
Khorasan, Iraq, Azerbaijan and Central Asia. In Shirvan Naimi was put into prison,
where he wrote his famous "Javidan-name" (The Book on Eternity) or "Javidan-e
Kabir" (The Great Eternity), revered by his followers as Koran of Khurufism.
A lot of biographical data is contained in his work "Naum-name". In it
Naimi described his endless travel around the countries of the Muslim East from
Syria to Central Asia, mentioned the names of people he met along his life-way, as
well as the names of the cities of Baku, Nishapur, Togchi, Jazir, Burjerd,
Vlazendaran, Khorezm, Damagan, Sufiyan, Baghi Sufian, etc. In this work Fazl
mainly described dreams he had seen for the last thirty years of his life. The
content of the dreams was to serve the proof of the holiness of Naimi. Referring to
his prophetic dreams, he called his follows to rebel: "...in my hand I saw a sword

163

on which some astronomer according to his science carved that there would be
several uprisings. After the word "uprisings" "Fazl of Astrabad" was repeated a
number of times". The prophetic dream called Khurufits to struggle even when
Fazl was demised by Timur. He called his followers to consider him eternally
alive: "In the month of djuma-di-al-ula, on Wednesday, at night in the city of
Brujerd I saw a dream: a lame person sent another one to bring me to him to be
killed... I saw myself being brought and executed, but I also saw that I was alive.
Truly. Truly".
Fazl also described the story of his "awakening" and the story of the
proclamation of his teaching. A dying dervish called Fazl to himself and informed
him that the time had come to proclaim his teaching to the world. Following the
urge of the pilgrim, Fazl gathered nine disciples and revealed to them the hidden
mysteries. Four of his disciples were most close to him.
Their names are mentioned in Mahammed Ali Tarbiyyat's book
"Danishmandaneh-Azerbaijan":
Among his friends to whom the mysteries were revealed are
Mejid, Makhmud, Kamal Khashemi;
Bu-I-Hasan is the forth one. if you ever meet him,
Since to them the Book was entrusted.

Most medieval authors share the opinion that Fazl developed his teaching in
the capital of Azerbaijan -Tabriz, approximately in 1386. Khurufits call Azerbaijan
"Sarzamin-e-restakhiz" ("The Place of Awaking"). One of the most faithful
followers of Fazl's teaching, Ali ul-Ala in his book "Kursi-nameh" wrote the
following of the role of Azerbaijan in the formation of khurufism:
Since the Sun of the unity of our beloved Fazl
Was first born in Azerbaijan,
She (Azerbaijan) is one of the most blessed countries,
Since the Sun of Reason first began shining in her,
This country" is blessed by God,
She is the altar of prophets and saints.

Initially Naimi was keen on Sufism and was lower of the famous Sufi
Sheikh Shibli. Baku, the center of Khurufism, played a special part in the life of
Naimi. According to Ali ul-Ala's work "Giyamatnameh", even after Fazl's
departure, the headquarters of the movement remained in Baku.
A cry came over from Baku.
Raise and rejoice
Baku is the place of our beloved's dwelling
Though he left, his place remained there.

164

165

Fazl wrote his main works including "Javidan name" (The Book on
Eternity) or "Javidan-e Kabir" (The Great Eternity), "Vasiyyet-name" (Will) in
Azerbaijan. Among his greatest works are "Mahabbat-name" (The Book on Love),
"Art-name" (The Book on Throne), "Iskender-name" (The Book on Iskender), etc.
The last work of Naimi "Vasiyyat-name" was also written in Azerbaijan.
One of Naimi's contemporaries wrote: "Fazlullah ibn Mahammed Tabrizi is
a heretic that established an ascetic sect and based on his false teaching formed a
party known as Khurufit. He wanted to involve Timur in his heresy, but the later
refused and ordered to execute Naimi. Fazl was executed by Miranshah, the son of
Timur".
Naimi was killed in 1401 in Alinja castle in Nakhchivan. According to
some scholars, Timur chose the castle as the place of Naimi's execution because it
was known as a place of severe opposition to Timurids and constant anti-timurid
uprisings. Naimi was buried there. His grave and gravestone have remained to our
days.
The Man,Who spent His life Looking
For Monuments and Miracles
Of the world
Abdrashid Saleh ibn-Nuri al-Bakuvi
Abdrashid Saleh ibn Nuri al-Bakuvi, the
famous traveller, geographer, climatplogist and
cosmographer, lived in the second half of the 14th
and the first third of the 15th Centuries. Abdrashid's
father was born in Baku and was well-educated
person. Bakuvi wrote that Baku - "is motherland of
my parent, imam. scholar Saleh ibn Nuri, who was
the focus of dignity... and died in 1403/4 at the age of
seventy seven".
N. Keremov considers that Bakuvi was born
between 1335-1360 in Baku and died between 1425The Great Atlas of al-Idrisi.
1154. It places South at the
1430 in Cairo. Eybali Mehraliyev, on the basis of the
top.
analysis of routes of trips of Bakuvi came to the
conclusion that a large part of his life he spent in trips, and his permanent places of
residence were Baku and Mecca (or vicinity of Mecca within the limits of 80-100
kms.) The biographic data about Bakuvi are practically lacking. He was the author
of numerous works, however, just one book, survived the manuscript of which is
kept at funds of the National Library in Paris, where it get in 1683. The book
"Kitab Talkhis al-Asrar va Ajaib al-Malik al-Kakhar" (Abridalment of [Book]

166

About "Monuments" and Miracles of Powerful King ), bringing glory to Abdrashid

Bakuvi, was written in Arabic and described of countries and peoples, known in
that time in the East. Most researchers believe that the book
was written in the first decade of the 15 century, and the said
manuscript was copied in the city al-Laziki in 1614. Known
are other manuscripts of this book and its translations into
Persian, kept at various libraries.
The analysis of the work shows that its author was
well-educated person and while writing the book of Irips. in
adition to his observations included here information on
geography, philosophy and medicine, provided by many of
his predecessors.
Main source, used by Bakuvi, was the work "Asr-alBilad" ("Monuments of the Country") by one of the most
famous geographers of the time Zakariya al-Qazwini.
Moreover, he refered to a large number of works of the
A woman from
Baku. Drawing by
prominent philosophers, scientists, poets, physicians,
Gagarin. 19th
including Ikhtari, Masudi, Biruni, Ibn-Sina,Yagut, Hamdullah
Century
Qazwini, others. In 1789, the book was translated by de Gine
from Arabic into French. Then it was translated into many other European
languages. Into Russian, the work was translated and published in Moscow by Ziya
Bunyatov. A brief retelling of the Bakuvi's book in Russian and Azeri was made by
prominent geographer N.Keremov. In the foreword, Bakuvi focuses on purposes of
the work. Then he saw in "mentioning all surprising creatures of Allah and miracle
of His wisdom, in countries, located on His vast ground and similar to each other".
And further: " I shall tell you about facts, known to me from personal observations
or analysis of circumstances".
As Keremov wrote, the attention of Bakuvi during his trips mostly
concentrated on towns. This accounts for his special attention to the process of
their formation. For their construction, Bakuvi noted in the foreword, chose the
best area in the country "on the coasts, mountains, in places, protected against
northern winds". In the fortifications, erected around towns, numerous gates
opened ", so that people did not gather at entrances and exits". Bakuvi wrote that
the best places in city borders for palaces and for places of concourses, for
mosques, common and cathedral, for markets, caravanserais and bath-houses were
allocated". Remaining vacant space was allocated under residency of the towndwellers. Further, there are two small sections. The first section was named On
Reproduction, the second On Division into Climates. In the first section, Bakuvi
deals with minerals, plants and animals. Bakuvi's information being frequently
naive or simply fantastic for modern readers, however is valuable to get an idea of
that time's level of knowledge . Suffice is to read a small fragment from the

167

foreword. "As to minerals, the gold is fonned in sandy soils only and friable
mountains, and silver, copper and iron - in stones, mixed with soft soil, sulphur - in
volcanic soil, mercury - in soils, saturated with water... As to
plants, dates and bananas grow in hot countries only. Nuts,
almonds and pistachios grow in cold countries only, and caneon river banks... Carnation grow on islands al-Hind, coconuts
, pepper, ginger -in al-Hind, teak, ebony tree - in Yemen... As
to animals, the elephants are born on islands of the Southern
seas only. In al-Hind, they live longer than in other countries,
and tusks of those are not rather great, as those elephants in alHind; giraffes are found in al-Habash; buffalo - in hot
countries near rivers; sables, squirrels and kabarga - in
northeast countries; falcons and eagles incubate nestlings only
on tops of high mountains; ostriches and kata-in deserts;
waterfowls - river banks, bogs and marshs; turtle-doves and
sparrows - in populated area; nigthin-gales and larks - in
A man from Baku.
Drawing by
gardens. These are the most widespread kinds ".
Gagarin. 19th
In the second section of his foreword Bakuvi, as
Century
Keremov wrote, "was one of the first in the history of
geography to have devided the earth into zones". Bakuvi wrote: "Be aware that a
circle of celestial equator divides earth into two halves, one of which is named
south, other - north. And if we shall assume that a circle passes on both poles of
equator and crosses the earth, then the globe will be made of four quarters: two
southern quarters and two northern quarters". The whole earth is divided on seven
zones (climates) and he explains reason of such a division. The main part of the
book was devoted to the geographical characteristics of these zones". Each of
seven chapters dealt accordingly with specific zones from Canary islands in the
West up to China in the East and from number of countries of Africa in South up to
Ireland and Russia in North. The information on countries, cities, populated areas
of this zone were given in alphabetic order. In each specific case, coordinates of
geographical points, historical information on them are given and attempt is made
to explain the origin of geographical names; describe natural conditions,
architectonic monuments; information on etnography, culture and subjects of trade
is provided. Abdrashid Bakuvi gave many many original information about
Azerbaijan and, especially, Baku. He attributed Azerbaijan to the fourth and fifth
climatic zones: "Azerbaijan-extensivly populated area between Kukhistan, Arran
and Armenia. There are many towns, settlements, mountains and rivers ". Speaking
about river Araks (Uvays), he wrote: "it flows by many countries, until reaches the
bridge Diya al-Mulk, near Nakjuvan (Nakhchivan ). It is constructed from stone
and one of the miracles of the world. "Bakuvi paid much attention to Tabriz: " This
city is full of boon, rich in fruits; its inhabitants are wealthy and know crafts. Near

168

Naphtha men. A burning naphtha was used to set ships and towns on fire. Mamluk miniature. 15th
Century.

169

to the town there are bath-houses, with surprising useful properties ". Bakuvi
admires with sights of Tabriz: "there are mosques, madrasahs, palaces and amazing
buildings, unamenable to count But he wrote about Baku (Bakuya).This "city,
was built of stone on the coast of the sea, al-Khazar... . The towns walls are sea-

Hudafarin bridges (15 arches, 1000-1157 and 10 arches, 1491-1722) across the River Araxes. 12th17th Centuries. Photo by Khanali Siami.

washed, many of towers are flushed and the sea approaches the mosque... The
majority of houses are constructed on rocks. Air is good, water flows, from wells,
drilled in rocks, and the spring water is extremely pleasant. In this area, usually
there is poor harvest of grain, and a large part of it is brought from Shirvan and
Mughan. There are many figs, pomegranates and grapes. The gardens are far from
the town, and most town-dwellers go there for summer, and then come back. And
so they do annually ". From here it follows that the tradition of departure of
Bakuians in summer time to summer cottage exists from olden times. Bakuvi as
eyewitness very colourfuily depicts winds in Baku:" the wind blows high in night
and afternoon, so sometimes at strong wind it is impossible to a man to make
against winds, and, horses and sheeps in winter time are blown away into the sea,
and they cannot stand on one's feet". Further he wrote about "deposits of pitch and
sources of petroleum, the daily production of which exceeded 200 camel bales",
and "close to sources there is a hard soil of yellow colour, which bums like candle.
From it, they are broken away into pieces and carried to the town for heating of
houses and baths". For modern scientist, of special interest is the description of
island Pir Allahi, from ancient times associated with the cult of fire and water: "

170

Town there is an inhabited island, where they hunt for water dogs [seals]. They
skinned and melted; a fat used as oil for lamps. From the skin, they manufacture
sacks, which are filled with petroleum and transported on ships to other countries.
There is a lot of gazelles similar to whom nothing is available. Now and then there
is a large fire and tongues of flame are visible with a distance of one day way and
even more. This fire burns for long time, and then dies away". Many medieval
travellers and even ancient Roman geographer of the 1 century, Pomponi Mel
reckoned the island among holy places. Bakuvi wrote that the island is noted for
fertility, fresh water, rich in vegetables and fruits, and is one of the "holy places".
Bakuvi finished his book with a verse:
O, you, who began to watch what 1 write,
And started to discuss written by me.
I call you, in the name of Allah:
If you will find an error of me, Forgive it to me, since as wise is he, who forgives!

The work of the great geographer Abdrashid Bakuvi will for long time be
arresting attention of scientists, everyone, who shows interest in geography,
history, culture and ethnography of oriental countries.
The Great Poet, Theorist and Propagandist of Khurufizm
Imad ad-Din Nasimi
Seid Ali Imad ad-Din Nasimi, an outstanding
thinker and great poet of Azerbaijan and the Middle East,
was born in 1370 in Shirvan. Some scholars believe that
he was born in Baku, but others believe that he was born
in Shemakha, the capital of the State of Shirvanshahs. The
poet's father was a well-known person in Shirvan.
Nasimi's only known brother was a poet under the pen
name Shah Khandan. Shah Khandan was buried in
Shemakha at the cemetery that was later named in honour of him Shah Khandan
cemetery.
Shemakha had become one of the cultural centres of the Caliphate after
Islam had finally been accepted in Shirvan. There were many schools, universities
(medrese), rich general and private libraries, observatories and the famous
medicine "Academy" ("Dar Ush-Shura"). This academy was founded by Omar
Kafi ad-Din , a famous physician and scientist who was the great poet Khagani's
uncle. Shemakha was famed for its constellation of famous scientists and poets,
such as Khagani, Feleki, Kafi ad-Din and others.

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It is clear from Nasimi's works that he was well educated. He knew much
about Eastern and ancient Greek classical literature and philosophy, Islamic and
Christian theology, medicine, astronomy, astrology, mathematics and logic. He
wrote poetry equally well in Turkish-Azeri, Persian and Arabic. His Turkish was
very rich, and while it was close to the spoken language, it was also enriched by
proverbs and sayings. In his poetry, Nasimi mentioned the names of great poets
and scientists of Azerbaijan, Shirvan and other Eastern countries. These names
included Ali ibn Sina, Khagani, Nizami, Feleki, Khallaj Mansur, Fazlullah Naimi,
Sheikh Mahmud Shabustari, Ovhad, and many others.
Nasimi lived and wrote at the turn of the 14th and 15th Centuries. This was
a rather hard time. The poet's homeland had been ravaged by Timurids from the
South and by Mongols from the North. The heretic-philosophical teaching
Khurufism flourished during that time in Azerbaijan. Its origin was, to a certain
degree, a protest against the Timurids. Nasimi became a furious and outstanding
advocate and theorist of this teaching.
Khurufism's name came from the Arabic word "Khuruf, a letter of the
alphabet. The followers of this teaching deified the Arabic alphabet, declaring that
without them, God, man and things could not become known. The philosophical
and social meaning of Khurufism, however, is wider and more considerable.
The founder of Khurufism was a famous philosopher and poet Fazlullakh
(Fazl) Naimi Tabrizi. Fazl created his teaching in Tabriz, the capital of Azerbaijan,
in about 1386. Baku played a significant role in Naimi's life; this is where he
originated the center of the Khurufism movement. In Baku, he wrote his main
work "Javidan-nama" ("The Book of Eternity"). Naimi actively propagated his
teaching, and soon it disseminated not only in Azerbaijan but also in many other
countries of the Middle East and Central Asia. Naimi even tried to attract Timur to
his side but was arrested, and in 1394 he was executed and buried in the fortress
Alinja-cala near Nakhchivan. Fazlullakh foresaw such a death, and he wrote his
last work "Vasiyyat-name" before his death as a program to his followers for their
further struggle after his death. Following the instructions of Naimi, outstanding
Khurufists left their native places and began to spread the ideas of their great
teacher all over the East. Nasimi also visited Turkey, Syria, Egypt and other Arabic
countries, and he actively spread the ideas of Khurufism. As it is seen from his
works, Nasimi went to Baku, Baghdad, Bursa, Shemakha, Haleb (Aleppo) and
other places. In Bursa, Turkey he met with the well-known poet Sheikhi, who was
the first translator of Nizami's poem "Khosrow and Shirin" into Turkish. He also
met with the head of the famous dervish's Order Bektashiyya, Haji Vali Bektashi.
Nasimi became very popular among Anatolia's people. Wandering around
the countries of the Middle East, however, the poet was continuously persecuted
and even imprisoned, but it did not stop him. The impassioned poetry of the poetphilosopher had a broad audience. His poetry was rewritten, learnt by heart, and

172

read and sung in market squares. According to a widespread legend, it was namely
for that reason that the poet was executed in the Syrian town of Haleb.
One of Nasimi's young pupils, surrounded by a crowd in a market, was
reciting Persian gazals of his teacher: "O to see my face you need an eye that can
perceive the True God. How can the eye that is short-sighted see the face of God?"
He was arrested and in order to save Nasimi's life, he said that he was the author of
the verses. He was sentenced to death by hanging. The news reached Nasimi when
he was having his shoes mended at the shoemaker's shop. The poet went to the
place of the execution, saying that he was the author of the gazals, and he was
executed.
The Arabic manuscript
"Cunuz-uz-zahab" contains a
detailed story of this execution,
which took place in 1447 in the
town of Haleb. "Apostate Ali
Nasimi was executed at the time
of Yashbey. During that time at
the "Par-ul-Adle" ("The Palace of
Justice"), the case of Ali alThe execution of the Sufi al-Hallaj. Kitab al-Ahtar alBaqiyya (Chronology of Ancient Nations). Tabriz, ca.
Nasimi was considered in the
1307. Edinburgh University Library.
presence of sheikh ibn Khatib an
Nasiri, a deputy of the higher rank cadi sheikh lzza ad-Din Shamu ad-Din ibn
Amin un-Dowle, the higher ranking cadi Fath ad-Din al-Maliki and the higher
ranking cadi Shikhab ad-Din al-Khanbali.
A certain ibn al-Shangash al-Khanadan said to the officers and to the
divines of the town that Nasimi had led astray some madmen and that they had
obeyed him. The judge said to him, "If you can prove what you are saying about
Nasimi, I will not execute you". Nasimi said a "Kalme-i-shahadat" (a prayer that
would once tell the truth), swore and rejected everything they said about him. At
that time, sheikh Shikhab ud-Din ibn Khilal appeared and, having an honorable
seat in the majlis, he asserted that Nasimi was a godless man and must be executed
even if he had wanted to confess his sins. The sheikh asked, "Why don't you
execute him?" Al-Malik answered him, "Will you write the sentence with your
own hand?" He answered that he would and he wrote the sentence. Everybody in
the majlis read it and they didn't agree to it.
Al-Maliki said to him, "The officers and divines don't agree with you. Flow
can I execute him just on the base of your words?" Yashbey replied, "I don't know
him, but the Sultan entrusted me to tell him the case. Let's wait for the Sultan's
order".
So the majlis stopped his work, and Nasimi remained in jail. Nasimi's case
was reported to Sultan Muayyad, who ordered to strip the skin off Nasimi and

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mount his body for general observation at the town of Haleb for seven days. He
further ordered to cut off Nasimi's legs and hands and to send them to Alibey ibn
Zulgadar, his brother Nasr ad-Din and Osman Qarayoluk, whom Nasimi had also
led astray. So they did.
Many legends about Nasimi's courage and fortitude during his execution
were told among the people. Until his last breath, the poet pleaded "not guilty" and
repeated, "Analkhah" ("1 am the truth, I am God"), and at the same time mocked
the stupid executioners. According to legend, one of the Muslim divines present at
the execution cried, "This man is worse than Satan, it is a cursed place where his
blood will fall, and this place must be burned and cut off by sword". At the same
time, as if by-magic, a drop of the poet's blood fell on his finger. The crowd,
excited with such a sign, demanded to cut off the
finger of the divine. Defending himself, he
referred to the Koran: "There is nothing about it
in the Koran. 1 said it by my way". Nasimi's
answer to that was a couplet, which became a
proverb afterwards.
According to another legend, after another
cry of "Analkhah", he was asked, "What God are
you if you are growing pale losing blood?" The
poet answered, "O fool, you can't understand that
I am the sun of love in the sky of eternity. And
before the sun sets it always becomes pale".
Nasimis mausoleum in Haleb, Syria.
Nasimi was buried in Haleb at the family
pantheon, which is believed to be a sanctuary.
The pilgrims who visited this holy place were presented with the honorable name
"Nasimi".
The poetry of the poet-philosopher became popular among people of
Central Asia, Turkey, Persia and Armenia in a short time. His name as the name of
Khallaj Mansur became the symbol of unusual courage and faithfulness to his
ideas. His poetry was translated into many languages, and many poets and thinkers
of these countries followed him. Many people were executed as they recited and
advocated the ideas of Khurufism.
At the beginning of his creative activity, he and his teacher and friend
Naimi advocated Sufi ideas, and they were both followers of the famous Sufi
sheikh Shibli. During his Sufism period, the poet used the pen-names "Huseini",
"Seyid Huseini" and "Seyid". Nasimi studied the teaching of the famous Persian
Sufi and poet of the 10th Century, Husein Khallaj Mansur, who was the first to say
the slogan: "I am God". Because of these heretic words, Khallaj Mansur was
always persecuted and he was eventualy executed. Nasimi admired Mansur,
praised him in his poetry and was also ready for such a sacrifice.

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Nasimi did not change his attitude toward Sufism after he received the
teaching of Khurufism. Zumrud Khanum Culi-zade wrote, "God, beautiful and
beloved, who exalted man, lighting him up, is in the center of Nasimi's creative
activity. By way of renunciation (self-denial) and moral improvement, man comes
nearer to God, and higher bliss for man is meeting with him, blending with him,
dissolving in him. The poet wrote that in spite of someone's words that love is sin,
he would always keep the way of love, for only this way led to truth - God".
Khurufism gradually substituted Sufism in Nasimi's outlook. First of all, it
told about the change of the pantheistical conception of the poet, on the basis of
which there is not love and dizziness, but rather, reason. However, Khurufism
advocated by Nasimi is not a simple repetition of Naimi's teaching. Nasimi took
the philosophy created by Naimi and propagated its main statement. Nasimi
advocated and propagated the fundamental statements of Khurufism.
The central place in Nasimi's poetry is the focus on the identity of man to
God and the definition of man. A very popular and remarkable verse expressed this
idea in poetic form:
Both worlds within my compass come, but this world cannot compass me.
An omnipresent pearl as I, and both worlds compass me.
Because in me both earth and heaven and Creation's ''BE!" were found,
Be silent! For there is not commentary that can compass me.
Both worlds are my inauguration. In your essence I begin.
So know me by this token, though a token cannot compass me.
Through doubt and surmise no one came to be a friend of God and Truth.
The man who honours God knows doubt and surmise compass me.
Pay due regard to form, acknowledge content in the form, because
Body and I am, but soul and body cannot compass me.
I am both shell and pearl, the Doomsday scales, the bridge to Paradise.
With such a wealth of wares, this worldly counter compass me.

About this, Dr Vagif Aslanov wrote: 'Thus Nasimi, whose poems praise
truthfulness in man and the nobility and beauty of human heart and soul, took his
place in history as a hero who sacrificed his life for his fellow man and for triumph
of justice.
In his poems Nasimi summoned man to know himself and his own divine
nature. He believed that only man could grasp all the secrets of Creation. In
Oriental mythology, the legendary Iranian ruler Jamshid, or Jam, had a cup which,
when full of wine, showed all that was happening in the word. Nasimi often called
human reason the cup of Jamshid. "The essence of God is hidden in man, and the
wine in the chalice of Jam is man. Knowledge and reason are the greatest riches,
and knowledge gives man strength: 0 you who thirst for pearls and gold, for
knowledge strive! For is not this a gold and pearl - the knowledge of man?" And
again: "He who masters knowledge, O man, is strong. The man of reason who is

175

aware of his divine majesty is the most precious being in all of Creation: O you
who call a stone and earth a precious pearl, is not man who is so far and gentle also
a pearl?"
Addressing his readers, Nasimi declared, "Call me a man who has immortal
life, for 1 immortal am ever alive".
We rejoice that Nasimi's wonderful poetry has come down to us from a past
age, poetry which shall forever live like the boundless, restless and seething ocean
rich in pearls.
Unique in his Time, Unequalled
in Musical Art
Abdulgadir Maraghi
Music always plays a peculiar role in all spheres of Azerbaijani life.
Abdulgadir ibn Geybi Al-Hafiz Al-Maraghi was born in one of the cultural and
scientific centres of Azerbaijan, Maragha, in the middle of the 14th Century. Like
many Azerbaijani scientists of the Middle Ages, Maraghi was well educated in
many fields. He had a deep knowledge of the theory of Eastern music, and he was
a magnificent singer, musician, composer, painter, calligrapher and poet. Maraghi
wrote poetry in Azeri, Persian and Arabic. He wrote a
large part of his verses in meter that matched well with
mughams Segah, Ushshag and Nava, who were known
throughout Azerbaijan, as well as Turkomans of Iraq.
Maraghi's father Movlana Heybi was a wellknown musician. In his work "Magasid al-Alkhan",
Abdulgadir wrote about his father: "My father Heybi
was very skillful in various sciences, particularly in
music. He largely influenced my education, especially
in music". Maraghi's sons and grandsons also became
famous musicologists. His youngest son, Abdulaziz,
wrote a book on the theory of music called "Niga va
Tuladvar", which is now stored in the Turkish library
"Nuri Osmaniyya". His grandson Mahammed's book "Magasuduladvar" is also
stored there.
When Abdulgadir was four years old, he could already recite the Koran by
heart. By the age of 10, he had mastered the basis of a musical education and studied grammar, rhetoric and stylistics. In addition, he had been frequently invited
with his father to the majlises of scientists and sheikhs, where he sang the Koran
and complicated musical compositions.

176

Maraghi studied music theory from works by scientists such as Farabi, ibn
Sina, Safi ad-Din Urmavi, Gutb ad-Din Shirazi and Abu Ali. He acquired a
reputation among musicians as a connoisseur of music theory. Soon his glory went
beyond the city, and he was invited to Tabriz to the majlise at the Sultan's palace,
where famous singers and poets participated, including Sultan Uveys Jalair, who
was not a bad poet and musician himself. Sultan Uveys issued a special "Finnan"
("Decree"), which glorified the young musician. In the decree, Abdulgadir was
called "Unique of epoch, unequalled in musical art".
After Sultan Uveys' death, Abdulgadir remained at his son Sultan Husein's
court. This new Sultan looked upon Abdulgadir with even more favor than his
father had.
In 1377, Maraghi wrote "Alkhani Sigana" ("Thirty Songs"). He wrote this
composition in connection with the following episode in his life. Sultan Husein
asked Maraghi to write one musical composition for each day of the month of
Ramadan; Maraghi agreed. Then one of Azerbaijan's most illustrious musicians of
that time (and Maraghi's future father-in-law), Rizvanshah Tabrizi, bet 100,000
gold dinars against Maraghi. He bet that Maraghi could not carry out the condition
of setting verses to music, if the mughans, rhythms, structure and poetics were
specified to him just a day in advance. Eminent poets of the majlise, including
Sultan Husein, wrote poetry in Arabic and Persian. Husein asked that the verses be
written according to his mood. Although Maraghi was confronted by demands
within narrow bounds, he overcame the difficult conditions and wrote 30
marvelous songs in time. Rizvanshah admired Maraghi's talent and sent him not
only the gambled money, but also his daughter for marriage.
Maraghi devoted to Sultan Husein the musical composition "Rhythm of
Spring", which he wrote impromptu in the palace garden in Tabriz. The new
governor of Azerbaijan, Sultan Ahmed ibn Uveys, who came to authority in 1380,
also gave back to the talent of the scholar-musician. In his honour, Maraghi wrote
"Dovr Shahi", which consisted of 30 separate parts.
After Timur's invasion of Azerbaijan, many artists were removed to
Samarkand. In 1397, Maraghi was among them, but he managed to escape Timur's
ordered execution. Nevertheless, within a year, Timur named Maraghi "Padishah"
of all connoisseurs of music in an official order.
In 1399, Abdulgadir went back to Tabriz to the court of Timur's son
Miranshah. His happiness in breathing his native air of Tabriz lasted a short while.
Two years later Timur again sent him to the scaffold, this time because he served
on the court of Miranshah, who had been convicted of treason. Again all came off
satisfactorily, and Abdulgadir succeeded in escaping capital punishment. While the
first time his reference to the Ruler of Universe on the Turkic rescued him, this
time he softened Timur's anger with his gallant singing of the sura from the Koran.

177

Abdulgadir again went to Samarkand to Timur's court, where he wrote

many new musical compositions and musical treatises. In his treatise entitled
"Qandz al-alkhan" ("Treasury of Melodies"), he recorded melodies using Urmavi's
alphanumeric method. The letters indicated the pitch of the sounds; the figures
indicated the duration, mood and size, and determined the harmony and rhythm of
a melody. English musicologist J. Fermer analysed this essay and arrived at the
idea that some melodies written by Maraghi now exist among Turkmen under the
names "Giyar" or "Kiyar".
In 1405 Maraghi began his theoretical work "Jame al-alkhan" ("Aggregate
of Melodies"), which he finished in 1413. Then he wrote the musical treatises
"Magasid al-Alkhan" ("Function of Melodies"), "Lakhiiye" ("Music"), "Sharh aladvar" ("Comment on Circles") and "Favand-i ashara" ("Ten Profits"). His last
works differ by increased complexity, and they are clearly destined for prepared
professional musicians, theorists and performers. Ella Zonis wrote that "Jame alalkhan" listed several examples of the first voluminous notions in Persian music.
A large portion of Maraghi's creative work was focused on the theory of
mughams and other musical forms and genres of that time's professional music of
oral tradition. Regarding mughams he wrote, "The sounds of mughams are
disposed on the principle of improvement and the fondness of sounding. They are
eight or ten in number". He also wrote, "Turkic people prefer to compose in the
mood of mughams Ushshag, Nava and Busalik, but some other mughams also
enter into their compositions". From these statements it is clear that under the term
"mugham" he aimed one of the main moods, constituting the basis of various
musical compositions.
The majority of the musical treatises that Maraghi wrote in verse were
written in Persian and Azeri-Turkic. In one of the poems written in Azeri, Maraghi
described an episode from his life. Somehow he lapsed into a nasty illness and the
best doctors who drew round his bed could not even help him. Then he took his ud
in his hands and under its accompaniment chanted, "O, doctors, do not be surprised
if Abdulgadir finds his cure in the ud, since the best medicine for himself he
considers to be music".
Maraghi devoted significant attention to the music of Turkic people,
particularly to Ashug's music. In his works he marked out nine main Turkic
melodies and melodies common among all people of the East, especially those
frequently used in Turkic music (Ushshag, Nava, Busalik, Nekhoft and BayatiNovruz). Maraghi wrote that Mongol musicians used Turkic melodies.
There is a lot of interesting information in Maraghi's works about tools used
during his time, which he described in various musical treatises. He described
string instruments, such as the kamancha, gijak, nay-tan-bur, rubab, rudkhanii and
others. He also described wind instruments, such as the ag ney, gara ney, neybalaban, zurna, burgu and others. It is interesting that one of the described

178

instruments was referred to as the Tabriz-Shirvan tambur. It confirms that there

was already an available generality of musical culture in Tabriz and Shirvan, and
that they were original, as he described another instrument, named by him as the
Turkic or Mongol tambur, which was observably different from the first. Maraghi
played a significant role in the development of musical science in the countries of
the Near and Middle East. The works of two Azerbaijani titans of musical science,
Safi ad-Din Urmavi and Abdulgadir Maraghi, underlie almost all of the medieval
musical treatises: al-Lazina (15th Century), Abd ur-Rahman Jami (15th Century),
Mahmud Chelebi (16th Century), Dervish Ali and Mirza Bey (17th Century), and
others.
Maraghi lived the last years of his life in Herat. He died in 1436 and was
buried in Heart.
An Outstanding Physician
from Lenkoran
Ramazan ibn Sheykh Ali Lenkorani
The information about Ramazan ibn Sheykh All Lenkorani, as well as
several other outstanding physicians, was collected and published by I.Efendiyev.
Ramazan ibn Sheykh Ali Lenkorani is the author of medical treatise
"Farrukhna-me-Jemali", abounds in original medical ideas. The work was written
in Arabic in 1409. Later, the well-known doctor from Lenkoran Mekhub Ali ibn
Ahmed Lengerkerani in 1594 translated "Farrukhna-me-Jemali" in Persian. The
manuscript of the work was kept by Ali Nagi, well-known interpreter .
The work, mainly deals with effect of organic and
inorganic substances on organism, used in medical practice,
gives brief recommendations on diagnostics. As I. Efendiyev
wrote "in the first chapter Ramazan Sheykh Ali Lenkorani
recommends organotherapy, demonstrates medical effect of
milk, brains, stomachs, kidneys, livers, etc, and differentiates
between bodies of various animals and birds, believes that
their action is not identical; in the second chapter - medicinal
plants are listed; here, in fact, there was nothing of the kind,
except that the author pays greater importance the roots of
wild grasses (as decoction); the third chapter refers to the
results of mineral treatment meant. Using this work as
translator, and commentator, Mekhub Ali ibn Ahmed Lengerkerani had for the first
time applied auripigment (zirnikh), as a remedy for depilate hair, called later in the
medical literature as "Azerbaijan mud" (vajibi), and also renovated forgotten cure,
the so-called Azerbaijan soap -gilabi. Both these remedies had long time been

179

items of export and brought great profits. It is necessary to point out that
auripigment was known as far back in Atropatena and even earlier, but was used
only by leather-dressing, and gilabi was natural soap and was of sanitary
importance".
A Medieval Linguist
from Garabagh
Sadallakh al-Bardai
The famous linguist and poet of medieval East Saadin Sadallakh al-Bardai
was born in the town of Barda, situated on the teritory of modern Garabagh. Many
famous scientists of the Middle East came from this town, capital of Caucasian
Albania, since 5 century, cultural and trade centre of Azerbaijan. The biographical
facts about Bardai is so scanty that even his lifetime had not
exactly been established. The scientists approximately link
the time of Al-Bardai to the end of the 14th Century
beginning of the 15th Century, according to the manuscripts
of later period. Known are two works of Al-Bardai: these are
comments to the works of outstanding linguist Izza ad-Din
az-Zanjani "Attasrif', titan of linguistics of all times azZamakhchari
"Al-Anmyzaj
fi-n-nakhv"
('"Perfect
grammar"). Comments of Sadallakh Al-Bardai to the works
of az-Zamakhchari titled "Khadaik addanai fi charkhi risalt
al-lamatal-khanaik", brought fame to Al-Bardai . Bardai
himself in the beginning of his comments wrote: "Having
seen the famous treatise titled "al-Anmuzadj" for glorification of which any
statementsare powerless and there was nothing formed like these in no part of the
earth. I would like to raise the veil, to discover the soul and mistcrics, included in
it, to point out jewelry, hidden in its treasure to explain the slight hints, put into it,
to make accessible his great exploit. Linguist N. A. Agaeva in her work, dedicated
to the creativity of Al-Bardai, wrote: "His comments occupy an exceptional place
by its theoretical meaning, principles and purposes. As for commenting, he based
on the main dogmas of such sciences as logics, study of literature, sematics, lexic
(vocabulary). And that is the explanation of unusually great popularity of
comments of Al-Bardai for many centuries all over the East.

180

The Shah of the Great Shirvan

Shirvanshah brahim
The reign of Shirvanshah Ibrahim ibn Sultan Mahammed ibn Qeyqubad fell
on hard times in the Azerbaijan history - times of the campaigns of Sheikh Timur
against Middle East and Caucasus. In one of the little villages of Sheki region with
his father and relatives there lived
impoverished feudal lord Sheikh
Ibrahim. He was a distant relative of
Shirvanshah (son of paternal uncle)
and as all Shirvanshahs considered
himself to be a descendant of
Sasanid King Khosrov I Anushirvan,
but did not advertise his origin. After
the death in 1352 of Shirvanshah
Khusheng ibn Qavus, the nobility of
Shirvan recalled Sheikh Ibrahim
Shirvanshah Firidun ibn-Firiburz.
15th Century. Abdul Bagi Bakuvi. Shamakha, the
(born in 1352) in Shemakha and
State of the Shirvanshahs. British Museum, London.
proclaimed King of Shirvan. As
noted ancient chronicles, "having seized such attributes of imperial power as king
horses and retinue, they moved to Ibrahim and saw, that he is tired, and fell asleep
under the tree at a strip of broken ground. They
pitched a tent over him and stationed at some distance
like imperial retinue, awaiting his awakening. When
he woke up, they welcomed him and had swore an
oath of allegiance. They carried him to the city
[Shemakha], seated him on the takht [throne], and he
became to counquer countries and create justice
among his own citizens, conciliating their hearts and
displaying his generosity. His position was
strengthened and he became widely known and
famous". Sheikh Ibrahim founded of dinasty the
Shirvanshahs Derbenti. In that restless time Shirvan
was threatened from the south by Sultan Ahmed
Jalairid and Timur, from the north, Golden Horde
Khan, Tokhtamish. Routes of Timur and Tokhtamish
campaigns
passed
through Shirvan. Independence of the country was constantly under threat. Sheikh
Ibrahim, having shown his worth as wise ruler and flexible diplomat, could,
sometimes to his detriment come to understanding with Timur and save the throne
Helmet of Shirvanshah
Sultan Farrukh Yasar
(1464-1500). The State of
the Shirvanshahs. Military
Museum, Istanbul.

181

and statehood of Shirvan. In 1386, Timur planned a campaign against Tokhtamish.

The way passed through Shirvan. Sheikh Ibrahim was advised to run away to the
mountains. He not only declined from fleeing, but collecting a large retinue,
regardless of danger, went to the encampment of Timur in Garabagh. Sheikh
Ibrahim presented to Timur expensive gifts and in every possible way tried to
express obedience to him. Turks had a practice to make presents consisting of nine
pieces of each kind. Sheikh Ibrahim gave everything according to the established
tradition, but presented only eight out of nine of slaves, having declared: "I am
ninth". Timur was so pleased that he officially announced Ibrahim the King of
Shirvan and Shemakha. Gradually the relations between Ibrahim I and Sheikh Timur had grown into friendship. In 1385/6, ninety thousand strong army of
Tokhtamish invaded Azerbaijan and, reaching Tabriz, came back to the Horde
through Derbent. In a year, Tokhtamish again invaded Shirvan. However, this time
Shirvanshah supported by Timur stopped him. When in 1395 Timur moved
through Derbent against Tokhtamish, Sheikh Ibrahim with his army joined him.
The allies gained Victory over
Tokhtamish. Every time when
Timur moved through Shirvan to
Georgia or northward to Derbent,
Sheikh Ibrahim accompanied him
in campaigns together with his
army. Timur ordered Derbent
walls to be restored. He was
Iron arm guard and glove. Agh Goyunlu State.
interested in good relations with
Second half of the 15th Century. Military Museum,
Istanbul.
Ibrahim I, as he protected
the
northern borders from Horde. In
this connection, Ibrahim I, actually, did not pay tribute to Timur, and was
contented by magnificent repastes during the movement of Timur through the
territory of Shirvan and presenting jewelery, beautiful slaves and boys, gold armors
and belts, expensive brocaded fabrics, weapon and thousands horses to him.
Thanks to the wise policy of Ibrahim I, even in these hard times Shirvan again
prospered. Shirvanshah Ibrahim I participated in Timur's campaign of 13991405 in Rum (Asia Minor) against Ottoman Sultan, Bayazid. Sheikh Ibrahim
accompanied Sheikh till borders of Syria, then came back to Shirvan. Timur
frequently encamped in Garabagh. Here he restored Beylagan destroyed by
Mongols and built an irrigative canal on the river Araks. In 1405 Timur died.
Sheikh Ibrahim, taking advantage of internecine struggle for succession, tried to
get released from Timurids, expand his own possessions and unite all Azerbaijan.
Sheikh Ibrahim with army crossed the Kura river and seized Ganja and a large part
of Garabagh. Many of local rulers joined his army. The Georgian King also entered

182

into this union. The friendship between Ibrahim and Timur's grandson, son of
Miranshah, Mirza Umar grew into enmity, however, no battle broke out, though
the army of Ibrahim and allies and the troops of Mirza Umar confronted near
Barda, ready to fight.
In spring 1406, in Tabriz there arose revolt against
Timurids. Heading it, Sheikh Akhi Gassab, which was
urban tamgachi (main tax collector - tamga). Emir Bestam
Jagir, having learned about the revolt, moved army to
Tabriz. Same did the army of Sheikh Ibrahim.
Bestam entered Tabriz in April 1406, not waiting till
Ibrahims arrival. Their relations become worse.
Approaching Sheikh Ibrahim in Tabriz, Bestam leaved the
city and went to Ardebil. Shirvanshah, however, did not
stay long in Tabriz. He came back to Shiran when superior
Helmet of Shirvanshah
forces of Jalairid Sultan Ahmed and his supporters
Sultan Farrukh Yasar
approached Tabriz. Sultan Ahmed entered Tabriz in 1406,
(1464-1500). The State
of the Shirvanshahs.
but he did not remain here long and the city passed into the
Military Museum,
hands of an other son of Miranshah, Abu Bakr.
Istanbul.
In two years, Gara Yusif Gara Goyunlu during the
fierce battle routed troops of Miranshah.
Miranshah perished in battle, and Gara Yusif came in Tabriz, invited there
Sultan Ahmed. After Gara Yusif, launching the next campaign in turn, left the city.
Sultan Ahmed, having called to the aid of Sheikh Ibrahim, besieged Tabriz.
However, Gara Yusif, having learned about events in Tabriz, had time enough to
arrive there earlier than the son of Shirvanshah, Qayumars and on August 30, 1410
in the suburb of the city he routed Ahmed troops.
Ahmed fell in action, state of Jalairids ceased to exist existence and in its
place the state of Gara Goyunlu, headed by Gara Yusif was formed. He made
Tabriz the capital of the state.
Qayumars, son of Ibrahim, with his army approached Tabriz when Sultan
Ahmed had as already been defeated. At night, he was attacked by Gara Yusif's army and defeated and taken prisoner. Gara Yusif released Qayumars without
repayment and any conditions, having handed him a message to Shirvanshah with
his demand to submit.
Shirvanshah, not expecting such a mercy from severe Gara Yusif, suspected
his son of high treason and put him to death. As a reply, Gara Yusif broke into
Garabagh. From here he sent to Sheikh Ibrahim a messenger with the offer to
submit. Ibrahim was ready to fight to the end for the sake of independence. He
mustered in Shirvan a large army, again in alliance with ruler of Sheki, Seyid
Ahmed and King of Georgia, Constantine II, and moved against Gara Yusif. The
battle took place on the bank of Kura in 1412. It lasted a few days and, despite

183

heroic struggle of Shirvanshah's troops and his allies, the battle was won by
considerably superior forces of Qara Yusuf `s army. Ibrahim I, King of Georgia
Constantine, sons of Sheikh Ibrahim Gazanfar, Asadulla, Khalilulla, Manuchekhr,
Abdurrahman, Nasratulla and Hashim, Ibrahim's brother Sheikh Bahlul, many
notables of Shirvan, as well as physicians, astronomers, "jarchi", other cortiers
were taken prisoner. Gara Yusif released ordinary soldiers of Shirvan without
ransom, but ordered to put to death Georgian
prisoners.
Arrogant King Constantine was killed by
Gara Yusif and his son, Pirbudagh. Ibrahim with
sons and retinue were put into Tabriz prison.
Gara Yusif detained Sheikh Ibrahim to get huge
ransom in 1200 Iraqi tumans and a little bit
smaller sums for members of his retinue. Such
Mail shirt that belonged to Sultan
ransom
Shirvanshah could pay by deplenishing
Keygubat I, Shirvanshah (1317his treasury only. Fortunately, the treasury
1344). The State of the
Shirvanshahs. Military Museum,
remained safe. Tabriz merchants and craft
Istanbul.
foremen led by already mentioned Sheikh Akhi
Gassab, offered to gave the ransom for Shirvanshah, if Gara Yusif would agree to
accept goods instead of money. Gara Yusif accepted this offer and after releasing
Ibrahim had him seated near himself during the feast. Shirvanshah acknowledged
the suzerainity of Gara Yusif and continued to govern Shirvan. In spring 1413 all
captives came back to Shirvan, and the army of Gara Yusif left it.
Shirvanshah Ibrahim died in 1417. Due to outstanding diplomatic abilities
and military talent, Sheikh Ibrahim during thirty five years of his reign preserved
independence of Shirvan and strengthened its authority. Moreover, the boundaries
of Shirvanshah's State were visibly extended.
The Power and Glory
Shirvanshah Halilullah I
Shirvanshah's state, including nearly the whole territory of the Azerbaijan
Republic, at the end of 14th Century due to wise policy of Shirvanshah Ibrahim I,
turned into the strong independent state. After death of Sheikh Ibrahim in 1417,
Halilullah I, his senior son, ascended the throne.
While in Azerbaijan a fierce struggle for power between successors of great
Sheikh Timur and Padishahs of Gara Goyunlu` s state was waged, there appeared

184

new contenders, rulers from the family Agh Goyunlu and descendants of known
Ardebil Sheikh Safi ad-Din.
After comine to nower. Halilullah. as well as his
choice of ally proved to be successful. In 1420 during the
war with Shahruh, Timur's son, King of Gara Goyunlu,
state Gara Yusif unexpectedly died.
His army fled in panic and son of Gara Yusif,
Jahan Shah (known to us under the name of poet Hagigi
also), after he fell under the authority of Shahruh, ceded a
city Sultaniya to him. Shahruh came in Tabriz, and from
here moved to winter in Garabagh. There Halilullah with
Helmet. 16th-l7th
brother Manuchehr arrived. The ruler of Central Asia.
Centuries. Shirvan.
Iran and larger part of Azerbaijan favourably received
young Shirvanshah, notable for his bravery and courage, gave him valuable
presents, and took his brother, emir Manuchehr, into his service. In the Shahruh's
encampment there was a widow of Gara Yusif, a daughter of Mirza abu Bakr, son
of Miran Shah and grandson of Timur. During the where her grandfather, Miran
Shah perishsed, she was taken prisoner by Gara Yusif, and he married her. The son
of Gara Yusif, Gara Goyunlu Iskander, which had time
to consolidate his position and muster army, was
naturally, dissatisfied by this alliance and evcrytime
tried to attack Shirvan. Once or twice, Shirvan and
Shemakha was devastated by him. In turn Shirvanshah
in every possible way supported Shahruh in his
struggle against Iskander, through taking part in his
campaigns.
Mail shirts that belonged to
Shirvanshah Halilullah I
Thus, Halilullah in 1429 participated in the
(1418-1464). The State of
battle under Nalmas in Azerbaijan, where Iskander
the Shirvanshahs. Military
Museum, Istanbul.
suffered defeat. After that, authority of Shahruh in
Gara Goyunlu's state passed to his brother abu Said,
who recognized the suzerainty of Timurids. Soon, however, Iskander killed abu
Said and again got out of Shahruh control. In 1432, the son of Iskander Yar Ali,
broke off with his father and had fled with 2,000 equestrians to Shirvan and joined
Halilullah. Latter refused to return the son to Iskander and set him out for Shahruh
with an army on ships.
In reply, Iskander led his army to Shirvan, defeated the main forces of
Halilullah and devastated the country.
Halilullah had recourse to Shahruh. As Sara Khanum Ashurbeyli wrote:
"Halilullah departed from Baku by sea to Rey to Shahruh together with qadi and
divines and informed him about Iskander's crimes in Shirvan. At the general
meeting of Fakikhs-Muslim lawyers, Shahruh condemned actions of Iskandcr, and

185

they brought in verdict of his guilty. "Shahruh, together with troops of Shirvanshah, moved to Azerbaijan. Iskander suffered a complete defeat, lied in citadel
Alinja near Nakhchivan, where in 1436/7 perished from hand of his son. Shahruh
entered Tabriz, and then moved to Garabagh to wintering.
While continued to rule in Shirvan, there was a
peace. This time grew opposition of Jahan Shah Gara
Goyunlu to Uzun Hasan Agh Goyunlu rose. Activities of
the rulers of Ardebil intensified. Afraid of growing popularity of Sheikh Juneyd Sefevi, grandfather of Shah Ismail,
Jahan Shah deported him in Diyarbakir. In four years,
Sheikh Juneyd returned to Ardebil where he enlisted Uzun
Hasan Agh Goyunlu's (Sheikh Juneyd was married to
sister of Uzun Hasan, Khadija) support, he led his troops to
Shirvan. The plans of the conquest of Shirvan Sheikh
concealed under the pretext of religious war against with
Circassians. Shirvanshah Halilullah, suspecting Sheikh
Mail shirts that
belonged to
Juneyd's intentions, moved against him. The battle took
Shirvanshah
place in 1460 on the left bank of the river Samur near
Halilullah I (14181464). The State of the
village Kipchak. During the battle Shirvanshah Halilullah
Shirvanshahs.
had been supported by Jahan Shah Gara Goyunlu. The
Millitary Museum,
Istanbul
army of Sheikh Juneyd was broken, and he perished.
Under one version, Juneyd was taken prisoner and put to
death, on other - fell in battle, pierced by arrow. According to chroniclers, his body
was transfered from the left bank of Samur to right and was buried in the village of
Gulkhan (at present, villages Khazra Guba region). A mausoleum, constructed over
his grave, servived to our days, though remains of Sheikh were carried by the Shah
Ismail to Ardebil.
Halilullah died after nearly fifty years of reign in 1465, in Baku and was
buried in a specially built mausoleum on the territory of palace ensemble of Shirvanshahs.
Under Shirvanshah Halilullah who chose Baku as his residence, the city
grow up and got stronger economically. Main buildings of Shirvanshah's palace
ensemble were constructed. At the Court of Shirvanshahs. scientists, poets,
musicians and philosophers had served. Among them, it is necessary especially to
single out the well known in the Orient scientist and philosophe-sufi Seyid Yahya
al-Bakuvi.

186

The mausoleum and Divan Khana on the territory of the Shirvanshah`s Palace. Icheri Sheher, Baku.

Helmets of Shirvanshah Sultan Farrukh Yasar (1464-1500).

The State of the Shirvanshahs. Military Museum, Istanbul.

187

Mail shirt that belonged to

Shirvanshah Keygubat
(1317-1344). The State of
the Shirvanshahs. Military
Museum, Istanbul.

The President of the First Chess Club

Hajji Ali Tabrizi al-Shatranji
Haji Ali Tabrizi al-Shatranji was an outstanding chess player of the end of
the 14th - beginning of the 15th centuries. He was born in Tabriz. The dates of his
birth and death are unknown.
The game of chess has been popular in Azerbaijan since ancient times, and
according to the 12th century historian Ravandin, in the 6-7th centuries the game
was already widespread.
After Islam was adopted in Azerbaijan and the state joined the Arab Caliphate, the cities of Ganja, Nakhchivan,
Shemakha, Ardebil and Tabriz began to
grow rapidly. Science, arts and crafts in
those cities were developing. Draughts,
chess and nards were increasingly popular are professional chess-players in the
contemporary meaning of the word appeared. According to several sources, the
first among the chess players was Jalal
A Muslim and a Christian playing chess. 13th
Century. Madrid. Bibliotheca del Monasterio
ad-Din Nakhchivani, widely popular in
de el Escorial.
the twelfth century in the Middle East.
The outstanding Azeri poets, Mehseti Ganjavi, Khagani, Nizami, Fizuli, Nasimi
and many others were fond of playing the game and were quite good players.
In medieval bibliography chronics (tazkira) along with the mastery of an
outstanding person in poetry, calligraphy or let's say, art, his ability to play chess
was very often mentioned. The tazkira of the famous Azeri miniaturist and poet,
Sadiq Bey Afshar "Majme-ul-Khavas" mentionsthat his teacher, talented artist
Muzaffar Ali played big and small chess both perfectly well even with his eyes
closed. In his book "Eminent People of Azerbaijan", the famous Iranian scientist
Mahammedali Tarbiyat, draws a number of facts taken from the medieval chronics.
In the life description of the sixteenth century poet Abdi Shirvani it is said that
though he was an outstanding master of word, he usually lost in chess, however the
biography of his contemporary, eminent scientist and poet Chelebibey, among all
his other talents underlines his ability to play chess.
In his work "Khabib-us-Siyar", the famous historian of the sixteenth
century, Khandemir, gives the most detailed information on the life of Haji Ali
Tabrizi. According to Khandemir, he was the best chess player of the huge empire
of Timur and was known as an outstanding master of chess, defeating everybody
he played with even not looking at the board. He could play wilh four players

188

simultaneously not seeing the boards. (There is an opinion, that the practice to play
chess and nards not following the game with one's eyes appeared during long
camel caravan trips).
HajiAli had a phenomenal memory. He
knew by heart the entire Koran and a number of
big poetic works. After getting to the court of
Teymur, HajiAli got the pseudonym of alShatranji and under the name entered the history
of chess. By the way, the great general and
statesman Timur did a lot to develop the game of
chess.
The well-known historian of chess, G.
Murray in his book "History of chess", that came
out in 1913, writes: "At that time, Teymur's chess
partner was a famous Iranian chess-player and
A father's Discourse on Love
composer of chess problems, Ali Shatranji. Ali
(detail), Chess Players. Mirza Ali.
Shatranji helped Timur to compose chess
Haft Awrang. Jami. 1565. Freer
Gallery of Art.
problems. Another chess partner of Timur was Al
ad-Din Tabrizi, master of blitz. "Historians report
that Ali Tabrizi at court always defeated his very strong rival, the famous Arab
geographer and historian, Shikhab ad-Din al-Khvafiya. According to Khandemir,
Ali Tabrizi organized and led a group of chess-fans, called "Shakhmalbaz dastasi".
Famous at that time chess players HajiAbdulvakhab Tabrizi, HajiYusif Najar and
Shams ad-Din Kazaruni were among its members. It obviously was one of the first
chess clubs mentioned in the history of chess.
Data on the life and creative work of the outstanding Azeri chess player
HajiAli Tabrizi Al-Shartranji was cal-lected and published by the Azeri scientist
Shahriyar Guliev. He was the first one to mention that HajiAli wrote a chess
treatise.
A Shah and Poet
Muzaffar ad-Din Jahan Shah (Hagigi)
The great state figure, poet and outstanding representative of Khurufism
philosophy Muzaffar ad-Din Jahan Shah (Hagigi) was born in a small VILlage
located near the city of Khoy in 1397. Jahan Shah was the third son of the founder
of Azerbaijan state of Gara Goyunlu (Qara Qoyunlu), Gara Yusif .
After deadly struggle with Ti-murids and Jalairids, Gara Yusif created a
powerful state, including besides Azerbaijan - Armenia. East Georgia, Iraq Arabian
and Iraq Persian, other small-sized possessions.

189

During the military campaigns of Gara Yusif, from his early age his son,
Jahan Shah took part in them. Despite this, he had time to become a well educated
person, even one of the most educated rulers of the time.
After the death of Gara Yusif in 1420, began an
internecine struggle for power and the country was about
to disintegrate. Taking advantage of this, sons of Timur.
Shahruh and Baysonqur, repeatedly invaded in
Azerbaijan. When one of the sons of Gara Yusif, Iskander
seized the power in Azerbaijan and rushed on Shirvan.
Shahruh came to the aid of Shirvanshah Halilulla I.
Jahan Shah also acted against his brother, and Iskander
could not resist an assault of joint armies any longer, and
fled from Shirvan. Shahruh after Iskander's defeat in 1435
transfer Azerbaijan to the possession of Jahan Shah.
Iskander tried to restore his power in Azerbaijan and
wanted to seize Tabriz, but the joint forces of Jahan Shah and emirs of Shirvan
routed his army. He fled to the citadel Alinja, near Nakhchivan, where met a
violent death. Jahan Shah from this moment actually became an independent ruler
of Azerbaijan. In 1440/41, he made a successful raid upon Georgia, and in some
years encroached in Arabian Iraq and captured Baghdad. His young son,
Mahammed Mirza was nominated a ruler of Iraq. The city of Mosul was granted to
the sons of Iskander, Alvend, Rustam, Tarkhan and Mahmud. Carrying out the
politicy of friendship with Timurid, Shahruh, with neighbouring Osman Sultan
Murad 1 (1360-1389), unlike Iskander, who had constantly been at war with them,
Jahan Shah not only restored the state of
Gara Goyunlu within its former borders,
but also expanded the territory.
Between Jahan Shah and Shahruh
there established fairly close relations, and
eventually Shahruh's wife Goushad Beyim
adopted Jahan Shah. Despite this, the state
of Gara Goyunlu remained in some degree
dependent from Timurid's Sultans.
Complete independence of the state of Gara Goyunlu, governed by Jahan
Shah, fellen 1447 after the death of Shahruh in Khorasan. Taking advantage of
anarchy Jahan Shah seized Sultaniya, Qazwin, Hamadan, and the same year he
again made a campaign in Georgia.
This time, the ruler of Mosul, Alvend Mirza, son of Iskander, revolted
against Jahan Shah and after seizing adjacent territories, announced his own
independence. In reply, Jahan Shah came back to Tabriz and led his army against
Alvend Mirza. Alvend suffered defeat and fled to King of the state of Agh

190

191

Goyunlu (Aq Qoyunlu), Jahangir. Jahan Shah had to direct his army against
Jahangir. The Jahangir's army was broken, and a part of his territory passed to
Jahan Shah .
Jahan Shah had five sons: Pirbudagh, Hasanali,
Hasimbey, Mahammed Mirza and Yusif Mirza. They in
every possible way helped their father to struggle for
power, at the same time they repeatedly tried to separate
from him. In 1452, Jahan Shah submitted Persian Iraq and a
part of Fars region. He nominated his son, Pirbudagh as
ruler of Isfahan, who moved to Fars and seized Shiraz and
Tenga. 1446. Tabriz.
Silver. State of Gara
Girman.
Goyunlu.
At the end of 1453 Jahan Shah nominated
Pirbudagh a governor of Fars and came back to Tabriz. In 1457, Jahan Shah moved
troops to Khorasan. Next year he seized the capital of Timurids state, Herat and
took up his own residence in the famous Shahruh Palace. This time, his son Hasan
Ali crowned himself Sultan and seized Tabriz. Jahan Shah came back to
Azerbaijan and severely punished insurgents.
Deported by Jahan Shah,
Hasan Ali went to the encampment,
warring with Uzun Hasan Agh
Goyunlu, and therefrom to Shiraz to
his brother, Pirbudagh. The brothers
announced about insubordination to
Jahan Shah.
Having learned about it,
Jahan Shah in 1462/63 year
beleaguered and seized Shiraz. The
interference of mother again rescued
brothers. After that Jahan Shah distributed the power between his sons. Baghdad he
entrusted to Pirbudagh, Phars to Mirza Yusif, Girman to Gasimbey.
Pirbudagh again arose against his father and announced himself as Sultan.
In 1466, Jahan Shah has besieged Baghdad - capital city of the newly created Sultanate and this time he executed his son. The same year, the state of Agh Goyunlu,
headed by great commander and political figure Uzun Hasan was formed. In 1458,
he made a foray on Georgia. Simultaneously intensified activity of Ardebil rulers.
Jahan Shah, afraid of the growing popularity of Ardebil Sheikh Juneyd Sefevi,
grandfather of Shah Ismail, departed him from Ardebilin to Diyarbakir. In four
years Sheikh came back to Ardebil and soon fell in action against Shirvanshah
Khalilulla. In the meantime, Uzun Hasan made one more attack on Georgia and
seized Arzrum.

192

Jahan Shah, faced with growing aggressiveness of Uzun Hasan and incited
by Osman Sultan, took drastic measures. He mustered army and moved from
Tabriz towards the capital of the state of Agh Govunlu, Diyarbakir.
However, following his servitors'
advices, he postponed a battle, and sent an
army on wintering. Taking advantage, Uzun
Hasan in spring 1467 suddenly attacked
Jahan Shah in the south of Armenian plateau,
Mush and won a decisive victory. Some time
later Uzun Hasan again unexpectedly
attacked Jahan Shah , who with several
servitors had a banquet in the village of
(Sanjar) Chubugjur. Here Jahan Shah was
killed by a warrior called Iskander.
It took place on 4th October, 1467. A
body of Jahan Shah was brought in Tabriz
and buried in the famous "Blue Mosque",
constructed by Jahan Shah himself. On the
death of Jahan Shah some poets wrote
elegies. So had finished fifty eight years of existence of Gara Govunlu state and
unexpectedly been broken the life of the greatest person in the history of
Azerbaijan. The person who personified the best qualities of prominent public and
political figure, outstanding diplomat, great commander and brilliant poet.
Jahan Shah had done much for the development of trade, craft, science,
culture and art. During his raign such cities as Nakhchivan, Ganja and especially
Tabriz blossomed. Under his order, in 1456 in Tabriz there was constructed one of
the most famous building of Azerbaijan, "Gey Masjidi" ("Light-blue Mosque"),
many other buildings. The prodigious marble building of "Blue Mosque" decorated
by unusually beautiful and bright polychromatic tiles, had no analogues in
Azerbaijan architecture and was the first among such buildings in the Middle East
and Central Asia. Jahan Shah played a tremendous part in shaping the Azerbaijan
poetry. Jahan Shah came in the history of the Azerbaijan literature under name of
"Hagigi", as one of the first poets, who wrote in native Azeri. Having perfect
education, Hagigi wrote in Azeri and Persian gazals, mesnevi and rubaiyat.
He was well-versed in poetry of the East and considered himself as Nasimi
follower. Hagigi was in friendly terms with great Persian poet Abd ur-Rahman
Jami, who highly evaluated the poetic and spiritual properties of Hagigi's "Divan".
This "Divan" was termed by Jami in one of his verses as "treasury".
The history of the "Divan" 's manuscript is not less intriguing than the life
of its author. Long time, the scholars regarded this manuscript lost and just in 1961
the manuscript's secret was revealed. Hagigi's "Divan" had for long time been kept

193

at the library of the Turkish Sultans in Istanbul. However, under Sultan Abdul
Gamid the manuscript disappeared from the library. Some time, it later came to
light in Egypt - the library of Alexandria. Then again disappeared and after
wandering in all the parts of the world appeared London. Here with "Divan" wellknown oric talist Minorsky acquainted. However, tirony is that the manuscript did
not stay long. From here it got in New York in the collect on of a certain Arutyun
Gazaryan. He, together with other numerous manuscripts from his collection, left it
by testament to Irevan University. "Divan" was found out and publisher by Latif
Huseynzade.
Hagigi knew well the oriental philosophy. Though Hagigi was Shah, he
accepted Nasimi and Naimi Khurufism, became its active missionary:
Unify with him I know as unity with Fazl,
For me, poor such desire of unity is necessary.

As connoisseur of Khurufism in Azerbaijan, Zumrud Guluzade wrote, " The

poetry of Hagigi by its form is especially Khurufistic. He repeatedly writes about
incarnation of letters in all creatures and, first of all, in man and his face. The man
and his face impersonate Koran and ayats of Koran.
Ayat sab-ul masani in features of your person.
The letters of lovhi-mahvuz in happiness
of meeting with you.
" The Book of Destiny"".

Despite obvious Khurufit nature of Jahan Shah's poetic creation, he

executed 500 Khurufists in Tabriz headed by Naimi's daughter. It is possible to
make a conclusion that Khurufism attracted Hagigi by form convenient to him, or
by antitimuridy trend of some followers of Khurufism.
The Creator of a Unique
Bronze Cauldron
Abd al-Aziz Tabrizi
In 1931, the Second International Congress of Persian Art was held in
London at the Academy of Fine Arts, Berlington Palace. The Congress decided
that the next meeting should be held in the Hermitage, Leningrad. The Congress
was opened in September 1935, when this magnificent city was in a sorry plight.
As Jozef Orbeli, Director of Hermitage, wrote, everything was done to gain
"the Communist Party's confidence, which regulated the life of the country".

194

Memorable postage stamps, medals, badges and later the proceedings of the
Congress were issued.
As part of the current practice, sacred Muslim
worship objects from the mosque - mausoleum of the
greatest Turkic sufi Ahmad al-Yasevi (died in 1166)
were requested "by the Communist decree",with a
promise to return them after the end of the Congress.
Unfortunately, "the highly educated" Soviet scholars
did not keep their promise and till these days all the
objects remained in the Hermitage. Only after the disintegration of the Soviet Union, the Republics of Central Asia and Kazakhstan
receive their relics back. Among the objects brought to the Congress was a ritual
cauldron for water from the city of Turkestan, which became the main decoration
of an exhibition opened in the Hermitage. An inscription on the vessel stated that it
was made in 1399 on behest of Timur by ustad (master, expert) Abd al-Aziz
Tabrizi, the son of ustad Sharaf ad-Din.
The Azerbaijanian poets, painterminiaturists, musicians and architects
were always popular in Central Asia. So
one of medieval manuscripts reads: "I
have immediately ordered to bring to
Samarkand engineers and architects from
Arabian and Persian areas of Iraq, Phars,
Azerbaijan, Diyarbakir and Khorasan and
told them to draw the plan".
In the famous Shah-e-Zind group of mausoleums, the mausoleum of the
spouse of Timur, Turkan-aqa-Mafra, was created by an Azerbaijan architect, Zayi
ad-Din Tabrizi. There are many similar examples to be cited.
The cauldron is remarkable from the decorative point of view as well as its
unique casting techniques. Dr. M. Heydarov writes that large vessels of this type
were in wide use in Azerbaijan.
Another cauldron of the 12-14th centuries, with four handles, was found
north of Baku, near the village of Altiaghaj. A similar cauldron, dated
approximately to the same period was found near Shemakha. The casting mould
for this type of handles and ready cast handles made for such vessels were found
during the archeological excavations at Oren-kala.
The famous expert in the arts of the Middle East and Azerbaijan B.
Weymarn writes: "The large cauldron from the mausoleum-mosque Haji Ahmed
Yasevi remains an unsurpassed masterpiece. It has no analogue in the practice of
casting art in the medieval age. Two-ton bronze vessel, which can contain more
than three thousand litres of waters... The vessel is deservedly considered to be a

195

miracle of casting of the 14th century. The creation of the cauldron was connected
with solving many extremely complex and difficult technical problems of the
period. A huge sphereconic cup (dia. 242.4 cm) smoothly grows into the refined
foundation, the base of which stands on a massive plate (total height: 158.3 cm).
The cauldron patterns impress with well-considered scales and detailing of
elements. The top part is decorated with bands of ornamental inscriptions, serving
as a background for ten large decorative handles, alternating with large convex
medallions. A continuous strip passes under the ledge's corolla, which is inscribed
by spectacular naskh, containing Timur's command to manufacture the cauldron in
the 801 year of Hegira. It is followed by verse from Koran, to please God granting
water for pilgrims. The space between the handles and medallions is filled with a
recurrent benevolent inscription and the '"signature" of the author - ustad Abd alAziz, son of master-ustads Sharaf ad-Din at-Tabrizi. The last decorative band
consists of continuously repeating traditional kufic script "Authority belongs to
Allah". The smoothness of the vessel's base contrasts with the characteristic trefoil
decor, called "modekhil", which is placed in a chess order. The cauldron impresses
with its immense size, monumenlality of design and highly artistic execution. The
perfection of its forms, refinement of proportional silhouette and its grace are
indicative of the great talent and high professionalism of the artist ".
A Prominent Medieval Calligrapher of Azerbaijan
Jafar Tabrizi
In medieval Azerbaijan, for any educated
person, regardless of who he was-governor of the
country, astrologer, doctor or philosopher, one of
criterion of all-round education was his ability to
compose verses and master art of calligraphy.
Therefore in that period it was very difficult to
become famous among poets and calligraphers,
especially calligraphers (khattats), as there was a
large number of libraries and workshops, where
professionals of high-class, khattats rewrote the books,
Jafar Tabrizis handwriting.
Mehr and Mustary by Assar
made inscriptions for headstone, religious and civil
Tabrizi, 1419.
buildings. As Koran was written in Arabian script,
many people attributed divine origin to calligraphers. A large number of art scripts
is known, but from the 14 Century the most widespread was the nastaliq script. A
pleiad of calligraphers, writing in nastaliq script, began from Haji Mir Ali ibn Ilyas
at-Tabrizi (1330-1405), a famous inventor of this handwriting.

196

Jafar Tabrizi, one of the best Azerbaijan calligraphers of 15th Century is

attributed to this school. To master nastaliq script, he was trained by famous Azerbaijani calligrapher Mir Abdulla Tabrizi nicknamed Shekerin Qalem (Sweet Pen),
which used wide popularity in Khorasan and Turkestan too. Jafar 's life fell on the
period , when Middle East and Caucasus were invaded by Timur. In Tabriz Jafar
Tabrizi worked under the court of governor of Azerbaijan Miranshah, son of
Timur. However, soon he, together with group of artists, calligraphers and foremen
set off in Herat to serve anuther son of Timur, Shahruh. There he had always been
under the protection of his son, prince Baysonqur, which was large lover and
patron of the art. In this connection, Jafar was named Baysonquri. As is seen from
medieval sources under the court of Baysonqur Mirza he headed library-atelier,
where 40 calligraphers worked over creation of manuscripts. Moreover,
miniaturists, gilders, restorers, bookbinders and other worked there. Among them
there was a great number of Tabrizians: Ayni Tabrizi, Ibrahim Shaffar Tabrizi,
Ibrahim Tabrizi, Haji Ali Musavvir etc.
Jafar Tabrizi turned out a very good teacher and organizer. He did much to
improve the library. He regularly presened reports to Baysonqur Mirza about the
library. One of such reports (June 1427 ) is kept now at the Museum of Palace
Topgapi in Istanbul. Besides description of library activity, information about 18
miniaturists, calligraphers, bookbinders, gilders and interpreters, etc. was provided.
Of interest is fact that in 1484 the library was headed by greatest painter, Behzad,
who after capturing Herat by Shah Ismail set off together with some painters and
calligraphers to Tabriz and headed Shah Ismail's library. Exchanges of the persons
of shining talents between two famous libraries led to the integration of Tabriz and
Herat's book art schools and their further growth. After the death of Baysonqur,
Jafar worked at the library of his brother Ala ed-Dowle. As researcher of his
creativity A. Kaziev wrote: " He made much for perfection of new nastaliq script.
One of Jafar 's disciples, Azkhar Tabrizi named him as second inventor of this
handwriting (Mukhtara us Sani), as in this style, he left behind his teacher". Jafar
Tabrizi, besides nastaliq, had a good handwriting in all classical six scripts and
talig. He was taught suls script by Shams ad-Dina Mashrigidan, and his son and
pupil Abu ur-Rahim Khalvati.
Analysis of dating of artist's works makes it possible to make a conclusion
that the period of the most active activity of Jafar fell on 1413-1452. The experts
consider that he wrote worse in nastaliq, than in classical scripts, though he
became famous as master of this script.
Nastaliq at that period was, small- and large-sized. In large-sized script
were written so-called, Qita. The Qita was glued on a sheet of paper on which a
poetical text of secular contents, enframed by ornament was written. In small-sized
and average-sized nastaliq were written poetic manuscripts.

197

The small-sized nastaliq script reached perfection in Herat in the second

half of the 15th Century. Herat's foremen created a special style of small-sized
nastaliq, which was titled gerati script. Jafar Tabrizi is considered to be progenitor
of gerati script. Among disciples of Jafar Tabrizi in nastaliq script there were
Azkhar Tabrizi and Shah Mahmud Zarrin-Kalem Khafines, who became famous
later by their high skill. He had disciples, scilful in classical handwriting. There are
manuscripts of Jafar Tabrizi, copied by him personally during his stay at the court
of prince Baysanqur. He copied in nastaliq script, "Shah-nama" Firdowsi (1430),
"Gulistan" Saadi (1427), "Khamsa" by Nizami Ganjavi (1431) etc. They are kept at
libraries and museums of Paris, Dublin, Teheran, Istanbul and St. Petersburg. Jafar
Tabrizi was known as poet too. He wrote marsiya (elegy) on the death of
Baysanqur, verses, in which he described his own high position under courts of
Shahruh and his sons - princes Baysanqur and Ala ed-Dowle. The prominent
master died in the city of Herat in 1480 at the age of sixty five.
The Emperor and Empire
Hasan bay Bayandur Uzun Hasan
In the 15th Century there were two states on the territory of Azerbaijan.
Their tribal symbols were images of sheep. These symbols were depicted on the
flags of the states. In accordance to the
colors of the sheep one of the states was
called Agh Goyunlu (Aq Qoyunlu) (of
White Sheep) and the other - Gara
Goyunlu (of
Black Sheep). They
struggled with each other for dominion
over Azerbaijan and Central Asia. Turkic Osmans and Timurids were also
involved in the struggle.
At the beginning of the 15th
Tughra of Uzun Hasan
century, when the state of Agh Goyunlu
was only being established by Hasan Bey Bayandur (Uzun Hasan), the state of
Gara Goyunlu had already reached its height. The territory of the state covered
Azerbaijan, Iraq, Kurdistan, Western Iran, Armenia and many other surrounding
countries. The capital of Gara Goyunlu State's was Tabriz. However the disposition
of power was rapidly changing.
The outstanding political leader, a talented general and a wise diplomat,
the ruler of the state of Agh Goyunlu, Uzun Hasan Bayandur was born in 1423/24
in the city of Diarbakir.

198

Being extremely tall Hasan Bey was called Uzun Hasan, which means Long
Hasan in Azeri. He was married to a daughter of Trapezund Emperor John IV,
Despina Khatun (Theodora). He had seven sons: Ughurlu
Mahammed, Magsud Bey, Zeynal Bey, Sultan Khalil, Mirza
Yagub, Yusif Mirza and Masih Mirza. Three of them,
Ughurlu Mahammed, Magsud Bey and Zeynal Bey died
when Uzun Hasan was still alive.
We learn a lot about Azerbaijan and Uzun Hasan
from travel notes of Ambrozio Kontarini, a Venetian
diplomat and ambassador at Uzun Hasan's court. He wrote:
"Uzun Hasan eats and drinks a lot. He is constantly
surrounded by a big number of singers and dancers ready to
implement his orders. In general he seems to be a good
natured man, he is tall, read-faced and has something Tatar
in his features".
Little is known about the childhood and youth of
Uzun Hasan. We can only guess, that he received a good
education and was an active participant in military campaigns for the establishment of the young state of Agh Goyunlu.
The name of Uzun Hasan appears in history when he manages to unit Agh
Goyunlu tribes and establish a small dominion in the upper reaches of the Tigris
and the Euphrates with the capital in Diyarbakir.
Surrounded by enemies, the ruler of the small state
hoped to enter into alliance with his western neighbors, that
were frightened by the possibility of mighty Osman Empire
penetrating Europe. Uzun Hasan carried out successful
negotiations with a number of European countries on
Mail shirt that
belonged to Uzun
Hasan Agh
Goyunlu. 15th
Century. Military
Museum, Istanbul.

Tenga.
Tabriz.
Silver. State of
Agh Goyunlu.

providing assistance in the form of weapons and advisors. The

assistance was supposed to come by the Black or
Mediterranean Sea through Agh Goyunlu's trade partner, the
allied Greek state of Trapezund and its western neighbor, the

state of Garaman.
Osmans tried to prevent the implementation of this agreement and after the
seize of Constantinople in 1453 by Mehmed II, they decided to destroy the state of
Trapezund. Uzun Hasan tried to stop them but had to ask for peace after Turks
invaded his country. To the camp of Osmans at Yassichemen, he sent a delegation
led by his mother Sara Khatun, a skilful diplomat, who was famous for her
diplomatic talent far outside the state. She managed to conclude a peace treaty

199

according to which Uzun Hasan was not to prevent Osmans from seizing
Trapezund and Turks were to leave the territory of his state.
To neutralize Uzun Hasan, Mehmed II took Agh Goyunlu's delegation and
Uzun Hasan's mother to the assault of Trapezund. On October 26, 1461 Trapezund
was seized. Sara Khatun managed to persuade the Sultan that a portion of
Trapezund's treasury should go to her daughter-in-law, Despina Khatun, and
brought quite a big portion of Osman trophies back home.
The state of Agh Goyunlu lost its traditional trade partner and access to the
Black Sea. Later when Turks seized the state of Garaman, the state of Agh
Goyunlu also lost access to the Mediterranean Sea. The tension between Osman
Turkey and Agh Goyounlu grew stronger. Osmans constantly incited Jahan Shah
Gara Goyunlu and Timurid Abu Sayid to fight against Uzun Hasan.
As a result in 1467 Jahan Bey Gara Goyunlu led his troops from Tabriz
towards Diyarbakir. Mehmed II promised to send his son Bayazid to support him.
However, Uzun Hasan, having been informed of their plans, met Jahan Shah's
army in Musha valley. Jahan Bey was defeated and had to retreat with his army.
Uzun Hasan followed him and after surprise attack at his military camp in
Erzinjan, totally defeated the army of
Gara Goyunlu. Jahan Shah died. In a
while, in the battle at Khoy Uzun
Hasan totally defeated the troops of
Jahan Shah's son Hasanali, aspiring to
restore the state of Gara Goyunlu.
Uzun Hasan sent the head of Jahan
Shah to his ally - Abu Sayid, and the
head of his son to Mehmed II.
After the defeat of Gara
Goyunlu,
Timurid Abu-Sayid began
The ruler talks to countiers. Tabriz. Agh
preparing for a military campaign
Goyunlu State, Turkoman style. The height
against Azerbaijan under pretense of
and constitution of the ruler`s body
his ally's protection. Sara Khatun who
correspond to the appearance of Emperor
was sent to conclude a peace treaty
Uzun Hasan described by contemporaries.
Thus, it can be supposed that Uzun Hasan
couldn't dissuade him. Hoping to get
himself was engraved in this miniature.
Shirvanshah's support and assistance,
Abu Sayid headed towards Shirvan.
However, Farrukh Yasar together with the ruler of Ardebil, Sheikh Heydar had
joined Uzun Hasan, and the army of Abu Sayid was blockaded. Hunger started out
in the troops of Abu Sayid. Uzun Hasan did not agree to the suggestion of Abu
Sayid to start negotiations and having attacked Abu Sayid's army, totally defeated

200

War mask. 15th Century. Steel and iron, engraved. Agh Goyunlu State, Azerbaijan.

201

it. This battle is known in history as the battle at Mahmudabad. Hasanali was
captured by Uzun Hasan's son, Ughurlu Mahammed and put to death.
The state of Gara Goyunlu stopped existing
and the state of the Timurids was seriously
weakened. Uzun Hasan established an immense state
covering Western Iran, Iraq, Armenia, Kurdistan,
Diyarbakir, Eastern Georgia and other small
formations. The capital of the state was in Tabriz.
A new stage in the history of the state of Agh
Goyunlu was achieved. The country had only one,
nevertheless, very strong adversary Osman Turkey.
Old methods were not applicable in the fight against
it. It was necessary to strengthen the country economically, reorganize the army and find new strong allies.
The Suicide of Shirin' from
Uzun Hasan began implementing these objectives
the royal Turkoman's
fully understanding their importance.
Khamsa by Nizami. Tabriz,
ca. 1505. Opaque
First of all, in order to stimulate the economic
watercolour, gold and ink on
development
of the country, Uzun Hasan
paper. Keir Collection.
implemented a number of reforms that were reflected
in the code of laws called "Ganun-nama". Later it became known as "The Laws of
Hasan Padishah". As a result of the implementation of these laws, tax-collecting
system was legitimatised, handicraft and trade revived. New sums were constantly
added to Uzun Hasan's treasury and a mighty centralized state was established on
the territory of Azerbaijan.
Religious tolerance of Uzun Hasan favored the stabilization of the country,
which was composed of various tribes. Being Sunni, Uzun Hasan, however, fully
supported Shiites and Christians. He was married to a daughter of Trapezund's
emperor, John IV (1429-1458), Despina Khatun, his sister was married to Shah
Ismail's grandfather, Juneyd Sheikh who was a Shiite and his daughter married
Sheikh Heydar, the son of Sheikh Juneyd.
Uzun Hasan invited European specialists to modernize his army. His key
goal was to establish a regular army. Specialists from Venice and other countries
helped the state to develop the production of fire-weapons. Cannons and cannonballs were now produced in the country, however the amount produced was not
sufficient. In addition, by various reasons, shipments of cannons from Western
counties regularly failed.
During the reign of Uzun Hasan, construction works were underway all
over the country. A covered market called Geysariyya, a mosque with a university
Nasriyya and many other public buildings were constructed in Tabriz. A big
number of scholars worked at the court in Uzun Hasan's rich library. The best
caihgraphers and miniature - artists of that time worked in numerous workshops of

202

the library. Later the library was expanded and enriched by the Safavid Shahs
Ismail and Tahmasib. A ansemble of saz-players consisting of 98 ashugs (bards)
was established at the court.
After numerous splendid victories of Uzun
Hasan. the authority of the state greatly increased.
The military successes of the state of Agh Goyunlu
amazed everybody. The names of Uzun Hasan and
his generals Mahammed Bakir Mirza, Mirza Yusif
Khan, Ughurlu Mahammed, Zeynal Bey and many
others were famous far outside Azerbaijan. Uzun
Hasan was compared with Alexander the Great and
Timur. According to Uzun Hasan's contemporary,
Fazlullah ibn Ruzbikhan Khunji, "Khakan al-afak,
sakhib-kiran, muin al-khilafa vas-saltan abu Nasr
Hasan Bahadir Khan... left no room for the domain of
Gara Goyunlu, that were only weeds on the field of
the world-constructors. He gave a death drink to
Jahan Shah's son, Hasanali, who lit his candle of
leadership at the fire of his father's treasury. At the
battle of Garabagh he turned into "a black garden" the
jasmine garden of Sultan Abu Sa'id Timurid, who came from far-away Otrar and
Qashgar with 100,000 soldiers wonderfully armored. Thus, in a short period of
time he managed to expand the borders of his state from the Euphrates to the
Amur-Darya and from Rum to the islands
of Osman. Several times his horses
trampled down the ground of unfaithful
Georgians. He has carried his flag to the
borders of
Rum and Syria. He has
protected his land and roads, giving a new
life to the symbols of Islam. He has been
generous and has constructed 400 places
for
worship".
Iron graves. Agh goyunlu. 15th Century.
Europe placed big expectations on
Uzun Hasan. He was the only one to stop Osmans from further invasion of Europe.
According to the work of professor Yagub Mahmudov the state of Agh Goyunlu at
that time had diplomatic links with the Venetian Republic, the Great Moscow
County, the Golden Horde, Poland, Austria. Hungary, Czech, Germany, Burgundy
Naples, Rodos, Cyprus, Cerman, Egypt, India and other countries.
A big number of materials on the relationships between the state of Agh
Goyunlu and the Venetian Republic have remained to our days. This republic had a
Iron arm guard. Agh
Goyunlu State. Second half
of the 15th Century.

203

regular embassy at the court of Uzun Hasan. Katerino Zeno, Barbaro and
Ambrozio Kontarini served as ambassadors at different times. The Venetian Senate
regularly discussed a question of Uzun Hasan's involvement in the fight against the
Osman Empire.
Uzun Hasan was ready to fight for access either to the Black or
Mediterranean Sea but under condition that he would be provided with fire
weapons and that the two states would start military actions simultaneously. Based
on an agreement with Venice, fire weapons were supposed to be shipped to the
territory of the Garaman state. However, Sultan Mehmed II conquered the
remaining territory of this state and by doing so, cut Uzun Hasan from his
European allies. In reply, in the spring 1472 Uzun
Hasan led his army to Garaman. As result, after a
number of brilliant victories, the famous cavalry of
Uzun Hasan delivered Garaman from Turks and got
access to the Mediterranean Sea. Unfortunately,
Uzun Hasan's efforts were useless. His allies did not
only restrained from opening a second front; they
did not supply the promised weapons.
Being cut from the home front the army of
Agh Goyunlu. led by Mirza Yusif Khan,
experienced great difficulties in their fight against a
big army sent to Garaman by Mehmed II. In the
battle at Beyshchir. the army of Agh Goyunlu was
defeated and Garaman was regained by Osmans.
Having concluded an agreement with Venice
Khamse by Nizami. 1491. Tabriz.
on
the
shipment of weapons, in the middle of 1473
Agh Goyunlu State.
Uzun Hasan again led his troops towards th
Mediterranean Sea. This time. Mehmed II himself headed Osman troops. Trying to
entice the Osman army to a place where his army would have a privileged position.
Uzun Hasan moved deep inside the territory of the country. Turks carefully
followed him. The Osman troops were moving to south along the right bank of the
Euphrates while Uzun Hasan with his army along the left one. For a long time
nobody had the courage to cross the river. Finally on August 1, 1473 not far from
Malatiya, a long awaited battle took place. This severe battle lasted for more than
three hours and ended by Uzun Hasan's total victory. More than 50 thousand Turks
died in the battle, 150 officers and 35 high ranking generals were captured. Right
after the battle Mehmed II asked for truce, however Uzun Hasan decided to
continue the campaign. Turks were not totally defeated and retreated along the
right bank of the river.
In nine days after the battle Uzun Hasan's general decided to cross the river
and give Turks a final battle. An attempt to encircle the Osman army and prevent

204

them from using artillery seemed successful at the beginning. Turks were encircled
and about to surrender. However, after an artful maneuver, Turks cut through and
thanks to their artillery won the battle that lasted for almost eight hours. This battle
is know as the battle at Orlugbeli. The victory cost the Turkish army a lot Mehmed II decided to go back to Istanbul, and laid no territorial claims to Agh
Goyunlu.
Once again Uzun Hasan received no weapons that had been promised to
him to rearm his soldiers. The problem of lack of arms could be sold neither by his
sons nor his grandson Shah Ismail. The superiority of Turkish artillery was the
main reason of Shah Ismail's defeat in the Chaldiran battle.
Ambrosio Kontarini, a Venetian ambassador wrote the following: "The
armor of Uzun Hasan's soldiers consists of a bow, a sword and a small silk-lined or
wire shield. They do not use pears. High ranking officials wear quite good helmets
and armors. Their horses are beautiful and of great endurance".
Uzun Hasan realized that it would be difficult to defeat a well armed
Turkish army and to create conditions under which his famous cavalry would play
a leading part. Nevertheless, the great military talent of Uzun Hasan and his ability
to manage his reserves, allowed him to win a number of splendid victories though
experiencing lack of fire-arms and not having finished the reorganization of the
army. After his defeat, Uzun Hasan resumed his diplomatic efforts of the
establishment of anti-Turkish coalition. There were a lot of diplomats from
numerous European countries at his court again. He promised to continue his
military campaign against Osmans and demanded his allies to do the same. In 1477
Uzun Hasan made his last intrusion to Georgia. From Georgia he returned with rich
trophies and 5 thousand captives whom he gave to his retainers. At that time his
son Ughurlu Mahammed, a talented general and a participant of the most brilliant
victories held by Uzun Hasan, rebelled against his father. Pursued by his brother
Sultan Khalil, he fled to Turkey. In Turkey he was accepted with a great honor by
Mehmed II and married his daughter, Gebkharkhan Sultan. Ughurlu Mahammed
continued his fight against his father, however soon he was captured and executed.
Soon after that, on January 5, 1478 Uzun Hasan died. He was buried in Tabriz in
the mosque of the Nasriyya complex which was later called "the Mosque of
Padishah Hasan".
Uzun Hasan's descendants did not manage to retain the might of the great
empire established by him. Internal fights weakened the state and in 1499 it was
divided into two parts. Azerbaijan and Armenia were ruled over by Alvend Mirza
Agh Goyunlu, and Murad Padishah Agh Goyunlu became the ruler of Iran and
Pars. In 1501 Shah Ismail defeated the army of Alvend Mirza, and later in 1503 the
troops of Murad Padishah. Thus, the state of Agh Goyunlu stopped existing.

205

A new state of the Safavids established by Shah Ismail was "a heir" of the
Azeri-Turkic states of Gara Goyunlu and Agh Goyunlu and played a big role in the
future development of Azeri literature, culture and art.
A World Famous Sufi from Bakuvi
Seyid Yahya Bakuvi
In the 15th Century,on the territory of Azerbaijan there existed independent states of Gara Goyunlu
and Agh Goyunlu, grounds for the formation of new
Safavi state. Under Shirvanshahs, Ibrahim I and
Halilullah,Shirvan prospered.Cities, trade and workmanship flourished. This century- was very rich in
outstanding scientists, physicians, poets and
philosophers. Suffice it to mention names of: Jahan
Shah Hagigi, Khalili, Nematullah Kishvari, Shukrulla
Shirvani, Ali ul-Ala, Sheikh Ibrahim Gulshani,
Qasim Anvar, Shams Maghribi,Yusif Miskuri. The
said period of in the history is characterized by the
development of opposition-anti orthodox philosophy
The Poor Man and the Prince,
and further development of philosophy of Sufizm.
ca. 1582. Sheikh Mahammed.
Eminent representative of the philosophy of
the Sufizm and one of the founders of the Sufi order Khalvatiya was Seyid Yahya
Bakuvi. He was born in Shemakha in the prosperous family, died in Baku in 1457
and buried on the territory of a a Shirwanshah's Palace. Over his grave there was
erected a mausoleum, which survived to our days. Full name of scholar was Seyid
Yahya ibn as-Seyid Bakha ad-Din the ash-Shirvani ash-Shama-khi al-Bakuvi. In
youth, Seyid Yahya was a follower of sheikh of Ardebil, Sadr ad-Din al-Khalvati,
who headed Shirwan's branch of Sufi order Khalvatiyya. People say that healthy
and imposing Seyid Yahya went in for game of chovghan. During a game, murid
of Sheikh Khalvati, Sheikh Pirzade got acquainied with him. The future
philosopher had a favourable impression on him, and his daughter married him.
Being acquainted with the young man closer, sheikh adopted him as disaple. When
sheikh died, Seyid Yahya, after unsuccessful attempt to head a sect, moved in
Baku. In Baku, Seyid Yahya headed a mosque and university under it .
Subsequently, he was invited to the court of Shirvanshah Halilullah, where
he up to the end of his life used large authority as philosopher, scientist and mentor
of princes. Seyid Yahya Bakuvi was the author of a number of widely known in
East works on philosophy of Sufism, the most important of which were "Asrar atTalibin" (The Secret of Selectors of True" ) and "Sharh-i Gulshan-i Raz" ("The

206

Drunk Sufis. Timurid Miniature. 1490.

207

Comments to "Gulshan-i Raz""). The last

book is a commentary to famous works of one of
theoreticians
of
sufism,
Azerbaijanian
philosopher Mahmud Shabustari. Besides, Seyid
Yahya Bakuvi wrote a number of works on
astronomy and history.
Seyid Yahya Bakuvi had numerous
followers of his doctrine. Among them there was
his disciple Sadr ad-Din Ardebili, the well known
theoretician of Sufism, Yusif Miskuri, who
together with son of Sheikh Mahammed Amin
preached Sufism doctrines in Guba. From
different countries many followers came to
Bakuvi, a common number of which exceeded
ten thousand person. Many followers of Bakuvi
The Baku Citadel.The Shirvanshah's
lived in the countries of the Middle East. Abbas
palace group. Seyid Yahya Bakuvi's
mausoleum. 15th Century.
Gulu Agha Bakikhanov in his "Gulistani Irem"
wrote: " Seyid Yahya from Baku in the 8th
Centuary of Higira was the main spiritual master on this territory, his name is
known in many mysterious sciences..." As wrote Zumrud Khanum Guluzade:
"Seyid Yahya was one of ideologists and chiefs of Sufi sects Khalvatiya, scored of
supporters in Azerbaijan and, in
particular, in Shirvan. Origin of
Khalvatiyya goes back to order
Suhravardiyya, set up and
headed in the 11th-12th Centuries by Azerbaijanian thinker
Abu-i-Najib
as-Suh-ravardi
(1097-1168) and his nephew
Shihab ad-Din Abu Khafs
Omar Suhravardi (1145-1234 ).
It is characteristic that after
sheikh Abu Abdullah Khalvati,
the name of whom was given to order, up to Bakuvi the order was headed by many
representatives of Akhi (Akhi Mahammed, Akhi Izz ad-Din and other). This makes
us to judge about social status of the order". As ancient chronicles noted in the end
of his life Seyid Yahya Bakuvi during six months declined from food and finally
passed away.

208

The Great Sheikh, Distinguished

General, Eminent Statesman
and Notable Poet
Shah Ismail
To understand the events of the background of the life of Shah Ismail Safavi
- the great sheikh, distinguished general, eminent statesman, notable poet and
generous patron of art - the narration should begin from beginning of the 14th
Century. This is when Ismail's distant ancestor, sheikh
Safi ad-Din (1252-1334) founded the Sufi order
Safaviyya in his native Ardebil and declared himself the
descendant of the seventh prophet Musa Kazim.
When the order was founded, its members were
mainly Sunnites. Gradually, the order became only Shiites, and military activity began from Ismail's grandfather, sheikh Juneyd. The fame of the order and its military success grew step by step.
Jade jug. Azerbaijan.
Shah Ismail's father Heydar received a revelation
First quarter of the
16th Century. Inscribed
in a dream to introduce into practice for his followers a
with the name Shah
cap with a turban put round it with 12 creases
Ismail (ca. 1501-1524).
Nephrite, inlaid with
symbolizing 12 prophets. In this connection, members of
gold. Topkapi Saray
the order Safaviyya were named "Gizilbash", which
Museum. Istanbul.
means "redheads" in Azeri. In the narrow sense of the
Ashrefi. Gold. Tabriz.
Sefevids. Ismail I.
word, Gizilbash was comprehended as the name of Azerbaijani-Turkic tribes, which formed the backbone of the order. Safavids,
descendants of Sheikh Sefi-ad-Din, strove hard to come to power in Azerbaijan
under the Shines' slogans.
A well-known expert in Islam Petrushevskiy wrote about the order
Safaviyya: "The order Safaviyya in the 15th Century turned into a military
confraternity of Turk nomads as a kind of clergy-knight order. The political
interests of sheikhs Juneyd and Geidar have alwaj predominating over the
religious".
By that time, the spheres of influence of the Safavids had extended. The
descendants of the Great Sheikh were bent on the consolidation of Azerbaijan.
However, the rulers of the new Azerbaijani states Agh Goyunlu and Gara Goyunlu
stood in their way. The founder of Agh Goyunlu State, a wise politician and great
general, Emperor Hasan Bey (Uzun Hasan) Agh Goyunlu, wanted to create further
consolidation of the realm after its union with the Safavids. At first he married his
sister Khadija Beyim to the sheikh Juneyd; then he married his daughter Marta
(Alemshah Beyim), granddaughter of Emperor Trapezund, to the Sheikh Heydar.

209

In the reign of Uzun Hasan, the Agh Goyunlu state was converted into a powerful
country. Safavids were temporarily compelled to put off the struggle for
Azerbaijan and sent their warriors to the north ef Shirvan,
which was populated mainly by Moslems-Sunnites.
Ismail's grandfather, sheikh Juneyd, and father,
Sheikh Heydar, were killed in the crusade against Daghestan
and Shirvan in the battles against the Shirvanshahs. Uzun
Hasan was frightened by the further strengthening of the
Safavids and sent the detachment of his son Sultan Yakub
Ashrefi Gold. Tabriz.
Agh Goyunlu to support the Shirvanshahs in the last battle.
Sefevids. Ismail I
After the death of the Sheikh Heydar, Ismail's uncle
(on his mother's side), Sultan Yagub Agh Goyunlu, seized Ardebil and took the
sheikh's sons, Sultan Ali, Ibrahim and Ismail, and their sister, Alemshah Beyim, as
prisoners. At that time, Ismail was not yet two years old (Ismail was born on 17
July 1487 in Ardebil). In 1490, Sultan Yagub's son, Baysonkur, came to power, but
one year later his cousin, Rustam Padishah Agh Goyunlu, overthrew him. Looking
for help, Baysonkur fled to Shirvanshah Farrukh Yasar, who was his father-in-law.
Rustam Padishah released Sheikh Heydar's sons and asked Sultan Ali to
help him in the war against Baysonkur. He brought Sultan Ali back to Ardebil,
where he became the sheikh of the Safaviyya order. With the help of his murids
(disciples) from the tribes of Qajar, Qaramanlu and Shamlu, Sultan Ali took part in
the battle against Baysonkur. One
medieval historian wrote, "Sultan Ali
showed wonders of courage and
bravery. Rustam Bey was frightened
and appalled by the perfection of
bravery and fortitude of Sultan Ali, so
he decided to eradicate him. He sent
Sultan Qajar and Husein Bey Ashkhani
to Ardebil to seize Sultan Ali and his
brothers. In the fight with them, Sultan Ali entered into battle and tasted the
beverage of tormented death".
In the summer of 1495, Sultan Ali encountered the forces of Agh Goyunlu
in a battle near the small town of Shamasi. Against a total of 700 Gizilbashes in the
battle were 4,000 warriors of Agh Goyunlu.
Shortly before his death, Sultan Ali appointed Ismail as the successor of the
order's sheikh. Thanks to the Gizilbashes devoted to him, the seven-year-old Ismail
succeeded in hiding. First, Ismail was in concealment in Ardebil. But when the
mass raids searching for the brothers began there, Ismail was removed to Resht,
and then to the palace of Gilyan ruler Karkiy Mirza Ali. Here he stayed for about 6
Shah Ismail's pierced iron belt section, inlaid with
gold.Tabriz. 1507/8.. Topkapi Saray Museum,
Istanbul.

210

years, continuing his lay, non-civil and religious education under the guidance of
well-known emirs and scientists.
When Ismail came of age (13
years old), he could start unaided
political and religious activity. Ismail
left Gilyan "with the hope for reign".
He spent the winter with his
detachments in Astara. Then he went
to Erzinjan through Chukhursaad (a
region around Irevan). Local sufis
joined him on the way, and almost
7,000 riders were under his banners
when he arrived in Erzinjan. At the
meeting
of
the
Gizilbashes'
commanders, an offer was accepted that the first campaign of the young sheikh
should be aimed at Shirvan. By the end of 1500, Ismail had passed over the Kura
river without meeting resistance anywhere in Shirvan, and entered Shemakha. Shirvanshah joined battle with Ismail beside the village of Jabani, near the fortress
Gulistan. His army contained nearly 25,000 men, of whom 20,000 were horse
troops.
The most devoted and talented
commanders of the Gizilbashes' tribes were at
the head of Ismail's army. Most of them had
taken part in the removal of Ismail from
Ardebil and his education and stayed with him
up to the end of his life. No problem was
solved in the country without their
participation. They are mentioned in the
The Wooden Sarcophagus. The
mausoleum of Sheikh Juneyd Sefevi.
historical chronicles as "pillars of state".
16th Century. Khizry village near
Among the "pillars of state" who took part in
Baku.
the battle near Jabani were Piri Bey Qajar,
Abdin Bey Tavachu Shamlu, Husein Bey Lele Shamlu, Mahammed Bey Ustajlu,
Ahmed Bey Sufioglu Ustajlu, Bayram Bey Qaramanlu, Kilij Bey Qaramanlu,
Garaja Ilyas Bayburtlu, Ilyas Bey Khunuslu, Soltanshah Bey Afshar, Dana Bey
Afshar, Khalil Bey Mukhrdar Afshar, Husein Bey Sufrechi Afshar, Piri Bey
Parvanachi Afshar, Lele Mahammed Tekeli, Bekr Bey Jajirlu, Salman Bey Khazin
Zulkadarlu.
In this battle near Jabani, Ismail's small army won a decisive victory,
capturing many prisoners and plentiful treasures. Shirvanshah Farrukh Yasar was
killed, and the remains of the shirvanshahs' army hid in the fortress Gulistan.
Ardebil. 1683. Drawing by Kemphfer.

211

Portret of Shah Ismail. Uffizi, Florence.

212

Afterwards, Shah Ismail won many battles glorifying him as a great general.
However, for his self-assertion from the military, political and religious points of
view, the battle near Jabani was very important for Ismail. It is just what
motivated Azerbaijani miniaturise of that time to continually return to the theme o
battle.
Ismail besieged the Gulistan fortress, seized
Baku and returned to Gulistan. Here he learned thai
Azerbaijani ruler Alvend Mirza Agh Goyunlu had
prepared a campaign against him. Ismail summoned
his "pillars of state" and asked them, "What do you
want: the throne of Azerbaijan or the fortress
Gulistan?" They answered unanimously: "Azerbaijan.
Tabriz must be won back from the 'heretics-Sunnites.'"
With an immense amount of loot, including the
Shirvanshah's treasury seized in Shirvan, Ismail's army
moved to Nakhchivan, where Alvend Mirza was. In
the middle of 1501, Alvend Mirza and his army of
30,000 met Ismail's army of 7,000 horsemen on the
plain of Sharur, near Nakhchivan. Here Ismail again
A battle of Shah Ismail I and
Shirvanshah Farruh Yasar.
achieved a brilliant victory with a small army. In order
1541. Tabriz. British Museum,
to preventa stampede, Alvend Mirza protected his
London.
army by a cat of camels chained to each other. But it was little help. Ismail showed
extraordinary and outstanding general abilities and bravery in the fight. He himself
killed one of the leading emirs of Agh Goyunlu, Kargichai Bey, with a sword.
Other famous generals were also killed, and their heads were put on the spears of
the Gizilbash riders, so as to frighten the enemies.
Ismail again won large spoils of war, and the way to Tabriz had opened. In
the autumn of 1501, Ismail marched into Tabriz and announced himself Shah and
began to mint coins with his name and a Shiitc's faith symbol: "No god besides
Allah, Mahammed - messenger of Allah, Ali - a friend of Allah".
Shiism was declared the state religion and Azeri-Turkish became the
language of the new Gizilbashes' state. In the period of flourishing of the Safavid's
state, the large territory that stretched from Gerat to Baghdad spoke Turkish.
One year later. Shah Ismail levied war against Murad Padishah Agh
Goyunlu, the owner of Persian Iraq and Farse, trying to restore the Agh Goyunlu
state. In the summer of 1503, Shah Ismail encountered the main forces of Murad
Padishah in a battle near the town of Khamadan. Shah Ismail was placed in the
center with his bodyguard. In the flanks, there were detachments of the "pillars of
state". Kulafa Bey and Mansur Bey Kipchahi were in the vanguard. Qarapiri Bey
Qajar and his detachment of nearly 1,500 horsemen were in reserve. The ruler of
Qum Islamish Bey was in the vanguard of Murad Padishah's army. When the

213

armies met, Islamish Bey broke into the center of Ismail's army. At that time,
Qarapiri Bey Qajar attacked him from the ambush and Shah Ismail personally led
his horse regiment into attack.
Islamish Bey's army was completely
smashed, and he himself was taken prisoner.
The result of this skirmish had an effect on the
fate of the entire battle. The army of Agh
Goyunlu was completely defeated and the Agh
Goyunlu's state came to an end. Nothing else
was left to Shah Ismail but to strengthen his
positions in the conquered regions.
That same year, Shah Ismail pursued
Murad and seized Shiraz, Isfahan, Kashan and
Qum. By 1508, Shah Ismail had taken
possession of Arabian Iraq with Baghdad,
Diyarbakir, Armenia and other regions and
cities of the Middle East and Central Asia. In a
Five Youths in a Landscape. Divan
short time, Shah Ismail created a great state
{Collected Poems) by Khatai. Tabriz.
1515-1520. Opaque watercolour and
stretching from the Uzbek state of Sheybani
ink on paper. Arthur M. Sadder
Khan to the frontiers of the Osman's empire.
Gallery,
Smithsonian
Institution,
Washington DC.
Sheybani Khan conquered Khorasan,
which had strategic importance for Ismail's
government. After this, Sheybani Khan proposed to seize Iran and Azerbaijan. In
his letter to Shah Ismail, he wrote, "I'll gather the armies to the frontiers of Iran and
Azerbaijan, and after they are seized, the time will arrive for capturing Arabian
Iraq and Hijaz". As a reply, Shah Ismail went to Khorasan with a large army.
The enemy army hid in the fortress Merv, but Shah Ismail devised a plan
for drawing Sheybani Khan out of the fortress. His trick served its purpose. When
the Uzbeks saw their enemies retiring, they came out of the fortress. On 2
December 1510, near the village of Mahmudi, the armies of Shah Ismail and
Sheybani went into battle. The cruel battle that continued all day ended in a
decisive victory for Shah Ismail. Sheybani Khan tried to run and was killed by
Ismail's soldiers. Sheybani Khan's head was cut off and presented to Shah Ismail.
Afterwards, this skull was gilded and used to make a wine cup.
After this battle, Shah Ismail became the owner of the cities of Gerat, Merv
and Balkh. Also, all of Khorasan became his possession. The Safavids' state ranked
as the strongest and richest state in this region. Its territory totaled about 2.8
million square meters. The strengthening of the power of the Shiites' and
Gizilbashes' state caused uneasiness among the Sunnites' of Turkey. Additionally,
Shah Ismail carried out active Shiite agitation in Anatolia and the neighboring
regions of the Osmans' empire.

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Turkish Sultan Selim I, who mounted the throne in 1512, began

preparations for war against Shah Ismail. He executed more than 40,000 Shiites
living on Turkish territory, gathered and sent 200,000 troops to the Azerbaijan
frontiers and declared a sacred war against the Safavids - enemies of the Moslem
religion. The battle took place on 26 August 1514 in the small town of Chaldiran.
It went on with variable success for Shah Ismail, but the Osmans outnumbered
Shah Ismail's forces and were greatly superior in quality. Shah Ismail had
practically no artillery, whereas Sultan Selim had more than 300 guns.
As always, Ismail showed wonders of courage. He defeated the well-known
Ali Bey Malkug-oghlu. Shah Ismail struck a blow of such force that his sword split

Babur kissing the Hand of Shah Ismail I. ali Qulu Bey Jahadar. Commissioned by Shah Abbas II. ca.
1665. Album. Opaque watercolour and gold on paper.

Ali Bey's helmet and head in two parts and reached his breast. At the height of the
battle, Ismail forced his way to the artillery with a small detachment. At that time,
his horse lost balance and fell down. The Osmans attacked him, but Soltanali
Mirza Afshar, who bore a great resemblance to Shah Ismail, rescued him at this
critical moment. He attracted the attention of the Osmans away from Shah Ismail
by crying, "I am Shah". Shah Ismail got a horse and joined the battle, which went
on for three days. The Turks won the battle.
Chasing the wounded Ismail, Sultan Selim 1 seized Khoy, Marand and
Tabriz. However, Sultan Selim I could not consolidate his position in Tabriz and
retreated with a large amount of booty, including the throne and treasures of Shah
Ismail and Shirvanshah's treasure. Furthermore, Selim I captured many remarkable

215

men of art, craftsmen and handicraftsmen. In the future, they played a significant
role in the development of craftsmanship in Turkey.
One of the world's richest museums Istanbul's Top-Gapi and Military has
exhibited unique articles of Azerbaijani applied art, which were seized during the
Chaldiran battle. Such exhibits could not be found in Tabriz, Tehran or Baku.
Among the prisoners were the wives of Shah
Ismail, Behruza Khanum and Tajli Khanum, who were
armored. Many armored women's corpses, as historians
have reported, were found in the battlefield. Azerbaijani
women admired the courage and patriotism of Selim I,
who spared the fate of their husbands and ordered them
to be buried with military honors.
In 1515 a truce with Osman's Turkey
was established. West Anatolia was passed
into the hands of Turkey forever. For nearly
100 years, only the incredible efforts of the
Safavids could deter the Osmans from
sequential occupations. In fact, in the entire
near and Middle East, only Azerbaijanis, as
brave fighters as Turk-Osmans, succeeded in
Sandalwood and ivory sarcophagus
resisting expansion and keeping independence
of Shah Ismail. Ardebil. ca. 1524.
from the Osmans.
After the Chaldiran battle, Shah Ismail did not carry out any other military
operations, with the exception of the campaigns against Shirvan and Georgia. He
devoted himself wholly to the process of strengthening and developing his vast
empire. Shah Ismail died in 1524. He was buried in Ardebil in the burial vault of
the Safavids (Darul-Irshad).
Shah Ismail had five sons: Rustam Mirza, who died young, Shah Tahmasib,
Sam Mirza, Algas Mirza and Bahman Mirza. He also had five daughters: KhanumKhanum, Parikhan Khanum, Makhinbanu, Firangiz Khanum and Shahzeinab
Khanum.
Shah Ismail was a remarkable person. However, it is not known to
everybody that the ruler of the Safavids' state, the Great Sheikh of the Sufi order of
Safaviyya and one of the most gifted poets of his times, who wrote in Azeri under
the pen-name Khatai, was also devoted to races and hunting, had a fancy for
painting and calligraphy, played barbat and had a good voice. Remarkable
scientists, astronomers, astrologers, historians, poets, artists, calligraphers,
musicians and musicologists gathered in the palace of Shah Ismail.
Shah Ismail began a new library on the base of the famous library that was
founded by Uzun Hasan Agh Goyunlu in Tabriz. Scientists of Azerbaijan and
neighboring countries made free use of this library. An atelier attached to this

216

library was a sort of Academy of Arts. The best artists, calligraphers and masters
from all parts of the empire gathered here. They worked in this special atelier,
where paper, cardboard, ink and dyes for painters were made. Here books were
rewritten by calligraphers (khatatts), illustrated by painters (musavvirs), decorated
by ornamentalists (nakkashes) and gilders (muzakhibs), and bounded by binders
made from specialty cardboard (sakhafavims) and skin (mujelids).
Talented youth, members of the Shah's family, and
nobility who qualified took a training course in art in the
library. The greatest Eastern artist and miniaturist, Kamal
ad-Din Behzad, became one of the library's head. In the
times of Shah Ismail, and then of Shah Tahmasib,
distinguished calligraphers and miniaturists, including
Mahmud Nishapuri, Agha Mirek, Sultan Mahammed, Mir
Ali Khattat, Sadiq Bey Afshar and Mir Seyid Ali
Musavvir, worked in the library. The worldwide
Azerbaijani miniature school (Tabriz school and Safavi
school) was formed here.
Ismail created another famous library in Ardebil in the memorial complex
of Sheikh Safi ad-Din. This library was enriched by gifts of pilgrims, as well as by
copies of the rare books in their atelier. The library was enriched until 1828, when
it was confiscated as a contribution after the Russian-Persian war.
Shah Ismail paid great attention to music, and he looked after musicians,
singers and musicologists in every way, continuing the traditions of the Tabriz
ruler Agh Goyunlu (about 100 musicians and musicologists worked in the palace
of Uzun Hasan).
In Shah Ismail's palace, there were famous poets such as Hagigi. Shakhi,
Sururi, Tufeyli and so on. They participated in the literature majlis (meeting,
assembly), founded by Shah Ismail, who was one of the first poet-agitators. His
poems were declared and sung by wandering dervishes and ashugs, spreading the
political and religious views of Shah Ismail all over the world. Under the influence
of Sheikh Ismail, the poet Khatai wrote poems rich in ideas, as well as very
musical and rhythmical verses, which Shah Ismail used for his political purposes.
Khatai was an outstanding lyric poet. His poem "Deh-name", written in fine
Azeri, occupies a special place in Azerbaijani poetry. The verses devoted to the
spring awakening of nature find their way to all modern readers of Azerbaijani
poetry:
Winter's shaken off, and spring arrives!
Rosebuds waken, garden plot revives,
Birds all trill in aching harmony.
Love's a thrilling flame, disturbing me.
Earth is dressed in furry, downy green.

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Whispers press the silence once serene,

Water rills lap at the cypress root,
And turtle-doves coo plaintive notes that flute.
Nature's budding smiles on meadow-grass
Flash through dew-drop miles like beads of glass.
Seaward rain clouds... rare as precious stones,
Wings a crane and circles azure zones
Taloned falcon brings it down to earth.
To silken blossom, apple-trees give birth;
Playful, flees the Moon from clouds in vain,
April showers drench the earth with rain.
Nightingales in trilling song repine,
Tulip petals hoard the dew's sweet wine.
Steppe-quails deep and bookish thoughts pursue.
Turtledoves keep cooing, loo-a-loo...
Drunk a mite are violets, unaware.

One Venetian merchant mentioned in his journey notes meetings with Shah
Ismail in Tabriz. Devoted to the person of Shah Ismail, the notes are very
impressive:
"He is 31 now. He is of medium height, very handsome and brave. He
shaves his beard but he has a mustache. One can be fond of him as of a girl. He is
left-handed and stronger than all his own emirs.
As a rule, music plays during the training in bow shooting, and dancing
girls loudly stamp their feet and sing songs devoted to Ismail. Every day he comes
to Meydan (the central square of the town) for the competition in bow shooting
among emirs, and he gives out presents to the winners. At that time, everybody
plays, sings and dances in honour of Shah Ismail. This sufi is loved and respected
like a god, especially by his warriors. Most of them go to battle without armor and
rely on Shah Ismail, who will protect them".
There is a legend about Shah Ismail's extraordinary strength. The Turkish
Sultan heard that Shah Ismail cut enemies' cannon muzzles with his unusual sabre.
The Sultan took interest in this sabre and asked Ismail to send it to him. The Sultan
received the sabre but he didn't succeed in cutting the cannon muzzle, and he
reproached Ismail for substituting the sabre. In reply to the Sultan's letter, Shah
Ismail convinced him that the sabre was the same but that unfortunately the arm
was not.
Shah Ismail was devoted to hunting and fishing until the end of his life. He
took pleasure in the battle with beasts of prey. When he was 12, he scored a victory
over a big bear that was frightening all neighboring inhabitants. At the age of 19,
he killed a lion in the region of Baghdad. He was fond of big hunts too. That is
why, apparently, they were often shown in the miniatures made in the atelier of his
library. Ismail's final hunting spree took place in the region of Belocan during his
stay in Sheki, where he fell ill. Then he arrived in Tabriz, being at death's door.

218

Shah Ismail was popular among the people for ages. Legends were
composed about him, mugams and tasnifs were called by his name, and his heroic
deeds were described in Azerbaijani fairy-tales, novels, dramatic works and operas.
The manuscripts of Ismail's verses are kept in many museums and libraries around
the world. The oldest of them is "Divan", which was copied by the famous
calligraphist Shah Mahmud Nishapuri in Shah Tahmasib I's palace 11 years after
the poet's death. It is kept in Tashkent. Nearly 500 years after seizing Baku, Shah
Ismail returned there once again in June 1993 as a sculpture. He succeeded in
coming only to the slums of the working suburb of Baku called by his name, but
that time without horse.
Son of the Great Shah Ismail
and Father of Shah Abbas
the Great
Shah Tahmasib
History is illustrative that most medieval rulers of big states failed, for some
reason or other, to remain in power for a long span of time. A brilliant exception to
the rule proved to be the reign of Shah Ismail Safavi's elder son Shah Tahmasib,
who ruled for 53 years.
The future Shah was born in Tabriz in 1506. When he was 10, Shah Ismail
dispatched the boy to Herat to serve as governor of Khorasan. The young prince's
tutor was Turkic Emir Khan Mausillu. Prior to 1506, Herat was the capital of
Timurid, a state that was notable for its high artistic traditions. This played a
formative role in the development of Tahmasib's taste. Of decisive importance
there was his acquaintance with the richest Timurid court library or its remains
(note that Herat was conquered by Shah Ismail in 1510), which kept a huge
quantity of finely illustrated books. He probably studied calligraphy and painting in
the studio under the library, which may have been headed by the famous Behzad.
He moved to Tabriz in 1521 and taught Tahmasib the elements of art.
Following Emir Khan Mausillu's dismissal in 1522, Tahmasib returned to
Tabriz, where he proceeded with his education. He studied artistic mastery and
calligraphy in the studios under the famous Shah library, which was headed by the
outstanding Azerbaijani miniaturist Sultan Mahammed. Shah Ismail had appointed
Behzad to head the library (Kitabdar). Following the death of the founder of the
Safavid dynasty, the new Shah Tahmasib I reappointed his teacher Sultan
Mahammed as kitablar. A manuscript that has survived is of "A Ball and a Stick"
by Arifi, rewritten by Tahmasib I, who had an excellent hand himself.

219

Since the young prince was just 10 years old when Shah Ismail died in
1524, it was emirs of various Gizilbash tribes that seized power through regency.
Having lost some of their privileges under Shah Ismail, Gizilbash emirs now tried
to restore them under the young Shah. Div Sultan, chief of the Rumlu tribe, became the first regent of the Shah with the consent of the chiefs of the Takallu and
Dulkadar tribes. However, did not last long, and the tribe of Ustajlu entered into I
struggle for regency. An internal war began in 152
which ended in the defeat of Ustajlu. The next year
chiefs of the same tribes made an unsuccessful attemp
to come to power. As a result, the power shifted over
Div Sultan from the tribe of Rumlu and his rival
Chukha Sultan from the tribe of Takallu.
However, Div Sultan failed to remain a regent,
Chukha Sultan Takallu persuaded Shah Tahmasib
Div Sultan was guilty of splitting the Gizilbash trib
As a result, the 13-year-old Shah shot an arrow into
the chest of Div Sultan, who had just entered the
assembly hall, and ordered to execute him
immediately. Chukha Sultan took a position of single
regent and thus assumed extraordinary power,
especially in the beginning of his reign.
Shah Tahmasib. 1520-1530.
Shah Tahmasib spent the subsequent years in
Agha Mirek.
military campaigns against Baghdad and Herat and
succeeded in raising his authority. Meanwhile, Chukha Sultans authority
increasingly decreased, especially as emirs of his tribe Takallu betrayed cowardice
during their march against Herat and on the battlefield. Chukha Sultan was gravely
concerned about it, so he decided to seize power but failed and was killed.
Shah's brother Sam Mirza's tutor, Husein Khan Shamlu, had distinguished
himself in action against the Uzbeks. He was directly privy to overthrowing the regent and replaced him. However, court intrigues had come to no end. Emirs were
dissatisfied with the growing independence of Shah Tahmasib; therefore, they
hatched plots against him. In 1533/34, Husein Khan Shamlu was charged with an
attempt to poison Tahmasib and for maintaining ties with Turks, with the purpose
of replacing the Shah with Sam Mirza, Husein Khan's former pupil.
Shah 1 Hussein Khan's younger brother (on his father's side) was accused of
collision with the Turks, who had invaded Azerbaijan in 1533/34. In response to
this, Shah Tahmasib nominated Persian dignitary (not Gizilbash emir) Kadi Jahan
as regent, while his brother Bahram Mirza took the leadership of the Shamlu tribe's
army. In doing so, Shah Tahmasib made it clear that the period of Gizilbash
regency was over and that the almost mature monarch was at the head of absolute
power.

220

While Shah Tahmasib was struggling for power against his internal enemies
and the tribe of Takallu in Azerbaijan (Ulam Bey Takallu), who plundered Tabriz
in 1531, Uzbeks headed by Ubeid Khan had invaded Khorasan five times (1514,
1525/26, twice in 1528 and 1531/32). The struggle for Herat ceased only after the
death of Ubeid Khan in 1559. While at Herat in 1534, the Shah was informed that a
strong army of 100,000, headed by Ottoman Sultan Suleyman and assisted by
Ulam Bey Takallu, had invaded and seized Tabriz and were moving toward
Baghdad. At forced march, Shah Tahmasib moved from Khorasan via Iran to face
the Turks.
Of interest was the fact that Shah Tahmasib tried in every possible way to
drag out the confrontation with the Turks. By doing so, he created favourable
conditions for his soldiers to rest and pull themselves together to thus avoid
unnecessary casualties. In early November 1534, not far from the former capital of
llkhans, Sultaniya, the army of Sultan Suleyman was caught in a terrible snowstorm, lost their provisions and ammunition and had to retreat without action.
By 1535, all the occupied territories had been fully returned. Shah
Tahmasib declined from pursuing the Turks, which gave many historians occasion
to put the blame on him for subsequent developments. The question is that Sultan
Suleyman, having wintered in Baghdad, again attacked Tabriz. Using the so-called
tactics of scorched earth, when all residents of Tabriz and its environs were
evacuated deep in the heart of the country, their crops and water sources were
destroyed. Shah Tahmasib had to retreat to Sultaniya. The Turks were forced to
abandon Azerbaijan under the onslaught of Tahmasib' army.
During the incessant passive and defensive wars against the Uzbeks and
Turks, Shah Tahmasib proved his worth as a brave and physically sturdy warrior,
capable of leading troops and inspiring fear on the enemy. He also proved a
prudent tactician and strategist, well versed with the unfortunate experience of the
Chaldiran battle of Shah Ismail. Now that the Turks had gone, the time was ripe for
launching activity, and like his father, he began with Shirvan.
I will not follow my father. This enemy (Ottoman Sultan) is very strong.
I will not stand face to face to him but I will act like Hasan Padishah (Uzun
Hasan Bayandur Agh Goyunlu) versus Abu Said when he was whirling
around him and did not let people from that army out and into it. I will this
way.
Shah Tahmasib
Concurrently with the advent of Tahmasib to powf the activity of
Shirvanshah Halilullah II (1524-1535) began in Safavid-subordinated Shirvan.
Both maintained good relations. Of no small importance in this matter was the role
of Shah Tahmasib's sister Peri Khanum, wife of Shirvanshah Halilullah.

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However, in Halilullah died with no heir to succeed to his power. The Shirvan
nobility elevated his near relative, young Sheikhshah Shahruh to the throne (15351538) and actually exercised power in the country. It was the arbitrariness of
Shirvan emirs that spread discord in the country, and Shah Tahmasib availed
himself of the situation. Historical chronicles drop hints that according to the
Shah's secret instructions, his sister Peri Khanum instigated troublemakers.
In 1538/39, he sent an army headed by
native brother Algas Mirza to conquer Shirvan.
In several months. Algas Mirza succeeded in
seizing all of Shirvan. The last stronghold of the
Shirvanians - the fortress of Gulistan, which was
to be surrendered at the discretion of the winner was surrendered to Shah Tahmasib personally
after the four-month siege. The latter arrived at
the fortress from Merand and handed it over to
Shirvanshah Shahruh, who in a year was secretly
executed in Tabriz.
During the short span of Safavid rule, a
huge treasury of Shirvanshahs had for the second
time been brought to Tabriz. Shah Tahmasib
appointed Algas Mirza as senior ruler The Shah's Hunt. Tabriz. Early
Beylarbey
of Shirvan, so the state of Shirvanshahs
16th Century St. Petersburg. SPL.
Dorn.
ceased to exist independently and turned into an
ordinary Beylarbey of Safavid state. Next came
Shirvan's neighbour Georgia. In 1540/41, Shah Tahmasib made his first march to
Georgia. Tahmasib's army returned from Georgia with rich captured materials and
a lot of captives - men, women and children.
In 1546/47, Beylarbey of Shirvan Algas Mirza made an attempt to announce
Shirvan an independent state. Shah Tahmasib immediately mustered troops to
advance northward to keep down his brother's strength. The frightened Algas
Mirza sent his mother Khanbeyim Khanum and elder son Ahmad to ask for the
Shah's pardon. Having taken his brother on trust, the Shah marched toward
Georgia; however, he soon after learnt that Algas Mirza, despite his assertions,
began minting coins on his behalf as independent ruler of Shirvan. Shah Tahmasib
at once sent troops, headed by Ibrahim Khan Zulkadar, Gekcha Sultan Qajar and
Shahverdi Khan Ziyad-oghlu Qajar, to the region. The prince sustained a defeat
and had to flee to Istanbul via Crimea to ask Sultan Suleyman for military support
to deal with his brother.
Meanwhile, Shah Tahmasib nominated his young son Ismail Mirza as
Beylarbey of Shirvan, and Gekcha Sultan Qajar as his tutor. In the spring of 1548,
Turkish troops headed by Algas Mirza invaded Azerbaijan and seized and ravaged

222

Tabriz. However, they had to retreat because of lack of provisions and water. It
was the so-called scorched earth tactics that enabled Shah Tahmasib to accomplish
his goal. Meanwhile, Algas Mirza laid siege to Khamadan, holding the wives and
children of his younger brother Bahram Mirza as hostages. Note that Algas Mirza
failed to enlist support both in the country and abroad (Turks); soon after he was
caught and executed. Following the results of confrontation, Shah Tahmasib
decided to transfer the capital of the state to Qazwin, a little farther from the
militant Turks.
In 1551, Shah Tahmasib took the field against Georgia and again returned
with rich spoils. Concurrently, he annexed the Sheki region and appointed Toygun
Bey Qajar as ruler of the region.
Two years later, the Turks
invaded the boundaries of the
Safavid Empire, this time towards
the Caucasus. Again the scorched
earth tactics yielded its results:
weakened by hard marches via
lifeless territories, the Turks were
defeated by Tahmasib's second son
Ismail Mirza and had to retreat
towards Erzerum.
Immediately
after
that,
Chihil Satun. The Royal Pavilion. Part of Shah
Sultan Suleyman at the head of big
Tahmasib's new palace complex. 1556. Qazwin. Iran.
army marched toward Garabagh.
This time, the Turkish army reached Nakhchivan absolutely wasted and finally had
to turn to Erzerum. The war came to an end with no peace treaty concluded.
Considering the superior forces and equipment of the Ottoman army, the peace
treaty entered into between Turkey and Shah Tahmasib on 29 May 1555 in
Amasiye proved very advantageous for the Safavid Shah, especially as the treaty
was complied with up to the final days of Shah Tahmasib and Sultan Suleyman.
Following the conclusion of the peace treaty, Shah Tahmasib move the
Safavid capital to Qazwin and gradually lost his test for battle. It was no mere
coincidence that the Shah took no part in suppressing the Turkmen in 1554 and
1556, the Gilyans in 1567-1571 and the ever-restless Uzbeks. From now on, the
Shah was engaged in complying with behavior standards as forth in Shiism. During
his Georgian campaigns, he banned attending taverns,
gambling dens and
brothels. Furthermore, he declined from using alcoholic drinks and prohibited
depicting living thing. The famous artistic studio of Shah Tahmasib with its
glorious manuscript masterpieces, such as "Shahnama" by Firdousi and "Khamsa"
by Nizami, which had been created by outstanding painters Sultan Mahammed,
Agha Mirek, Mir Seyid Ali, Mirza Ali and Muzaffar Ali, ceased to operate.

223

The Shah focused on his family matters. Beginning in 1555, seven sons
from six wives were born, not to mention daughters. By the end of his life, he had
nine sons: Mahammed Mirza, Ismail Mirza (Shah Ismail II), Suleyman Mirza,
Mahmud Mirza, Ahmad Mirza. Imam Gulu Mirza, Mustafa Mirza and Ali Mirza.
Shah Tahmasib died during the 54th year of his reign in 1576. He was a
gifted and highly educated person. Abbas Gulu Bakikhanov wrote, "He was a
strong willed person, who liked justice". Guided by state interests, HE could be
cruel and merciless even to his own people From this standpoint, his relations with
native brothers and sons-successors were of interest. As has been noted above, his
brother on his father's side, Algas Mirza, revolted against him and was executed.
Another brother on his father's side, Sam Mirza, also disobeyed the Shah but was
pardoned, departed from policy and lived about 10 years in literary work.
Subsequently, in 1561/62 Sam Mirza was again involved in political intrigues and
as a result, he was shut up, under the Shah's order, in the fortress Kakhkakha where
died in 1566/67.
Tahmasib's brother Bahram Mirza was absolutely faithful to the Shah and
enjoyed his support and love. Shah Tahmasib appointed Bahrain Mirza ruler of
Khorasan, Khamadan and Lahijan, and entrusted him with carrying on important
military campaigns. What is more, he married one of his daughters to Bahram's
son. Moreover, they had much in common regarding the arts, especially in regards
to the collection of works of art. Both patronized painters, calligraphers, poets and
musicians.
Tahmasib's elder son, half-blind Mahammed Hudabende, was first ruler of
Khorasan, then of Shiraz. Despite Hudabende's loyalty, one of his sons was kept in
Qazwin as hostage. Another one of the Shah's son, Ismail (future Shah Ismail II),
who replaced Algas Mirza in Shirvan, held out for just six years, after which he
was imprisoned in the said fortress of Kakhkakh. Notable for his talent as
commander, Ismail won several brilliant victories. Gekcha Sultan Qajar was his
educator and tutor. The prince started his political career when he was 14 years old.
As has been stated above, he was appointed Beylarbey of Shirvan in 1548 to
substitute the rebellious Alkas Mirza. It was in Shirvan that he first proved his
worth as warrior and commander. He was also skilful in combating Turks at a
mature age. His unexpected tactical decisions and bold sorties inspired fear in the
Turks, who named him "Dali Ismail". His exploits were legendary and frequently
exaggerated; yet, his popularity among Gizilbash nobility increasingly rose.
All of these facts put Tahmasib out. Not without reason, Tahmasib was
apprehensive of Ismail Mirza's temptation to seize the Shah's throne, especially as
the legitimate successor to the throne, his elder son, half-blind Mahammed Mirza,
was not able to compete with Ismail because of his serious physical defect. In the
end, Ismail Mirza was imprisoned in the unassailable fortress of Kakhkakh

224

between Tabriz and Ardebil, on Mt. Savalan. He stayed there for 19 years, losing
faith in humanity and justice.
Many biographers are prone to think that Shah Tahmasib did not execute
Ismail Mirza, as he believed him to be the most deserved and adequate pretender to
the Shah's throne. However, his hopes did not come true. A person embittered by
everything came out of the fortress. Besides Ismail Mirza, there was another pretender to the throne, Heydar Mirza, born of a Georgian concubine and Shah
Tahmasib's right-hand man during his last years.
However, Ismail Mirza's supporters seized the Shah's palace on the day of
the Shah's death, 14 May 1576. These supporters were headed by the Shah's
daughter from a Circassian woman, Peri Khanum, Husein Gulu Khalife from the
tribe of Rumlu, and other Circassians. They put to death Heydar Mirza and his
supporters, mainly from the tribe of Ustajlu. They also executed Georgian Guards,
as well as the Shah's doctor, charging him with poisoning Shah Tahmasib. The
prince was crowned under the name Shah Ismail II on 22 August 1576.
Like the Light of the Sun
Ustad Sultan Mahammad

A Camel. Sultan Mahammed (?). 16th Century.

Most of the world's famous

museums, libraries and private
collections preserve manuscripts
executed at the royal library's
atelier instituted by Shah Ismail, the
first Safavi Shah in the capital of
Azerbaijan,
Tabriz.
These
manuscripts were copied and
illustrated
by
outstanding
Azerbaijani
calligraphers
and
miniaturists. The majority of these
miniatures are known not only to
experts, but also to a wide range of

painting lovers.
The Safavi School of Miniature, which is frequently defined as the Tabriz
School (the Tabriz School was based much earlier), brought immortal glory to
Azerbaijani art. This school of miniature exerted an appreciable influence on the
development of miniatures in Turkey and India, as well as some methods of
coloring used by French impressionists. The Tabriz School of Miniature was
headed by its founder and most outstanding representative, Ustad Sultan
Mahammed, who was a native of Tabriz. The entire period of the development of

225

Near East painting was connected with his name, just as it was with the name of
Behzad. While both prominent artists embodied the highest achievements in
Oriental painting of the 16th Century, Sultan Mahammed personalized all art
tendencies of the Tabriz School, during the epoch of its utmost flowering.
As is the case with several outstanding
representatives of science and art of the East, the
biographical data about Sultan Mahammed is scant. He
was born in approximately 1490 and died in the middle
of the 16th century. Kerim Kerimov, a well-known
connoisseur of Sultan Mahammed's work, focuses on
the scanty information about medieval authors. Among
the manuscripts he found was "Khalat-e Hunarvaran",
written by Dust Mahammed in 1544.
Further, the author quotes "Gulistani honar dar
khalat-i khatatan ve nakkashan", written by Gazi
Ahmed in 1596:
"Ustad Mahammed came from the capital city of
Tabriz. When Ustad Behzad arrived in Iraq from Herat,
Ustad Sultan Mahammed was in the Shah's Kitabkhane
Portrait of Shah Tahmasib
(library), whose tenement was paradise, and whose
I with a Falcon. Sultan
abode was paradisiacal gardens. Ustad Sultan MahamMahammed. 16th Century.
med represented Gizilbashes better than others. Death
caught him in the capital city of Tabriz".
Iskender Munshi, a well-known historian of the beginning of the 17th
Century, said, "His majesty Shah Tahmasib was a pupil of the famous painter
Ustad Sultan Mahammed". He then noted: "He (Shah Tahmasib) settled
incomparable experts in art in the well equipped library. Among them were such
masters as Ustad Behzad and Sultan Mahammed, who reached their top and gained
wide popularity for the delicacy of their brush". It is possible to find out
considerably more about Sultan Mahammed, or rather about his artistic ingenuity,
from the analysis of his rich creativity.
The magnificent court library, as referred to above, was similar to a modern
art academy. The library was continuously filled not only with books from special
buyers, but also with ones manufactured directly to the librariy's atelier. For this
reason, the best calligraphers, miniaturists, experts in manufacturing, decorating
and binding, manufacturers of inks and paints and experts in the preparation of
paper were invited. The art of making the manuscripts, as A.Qaziev pointed out,
was usually connected with the creation of calligraphers, miniaturists and
bookbinders. Their activity was interconnected and complied with the aims of the
manuscript and the status of the customer. Apart from this, the library was a good

226

Hunting. The left side of the miniature is from Golden Chain by Jami.
Sultan Mahammed. 1549. SPL, St. Petersburg.

227

school, where young painters, calligraphers and masters of various specialties

trained.
After Shah Ismail destroyed the power of Uzbeg ruler Shebbany Khan, he
captured Herat in 1510 and many painters moved to Tabriz. Later, as Beisil Gray
assumed, in 1521 the great Behzad came from Herat, having been invited by Shah
Ismail. Masters from Isfahan, Qazwin and other cities of
Iran worked there. At that time, Sultan Mahammed had
already become the head of the library's atelier. He was
the chief painter of this library and he taught painting to
Prince Tahmasib. Within a year of Behzad's arrival in
Tabriz, Shah Ismail nominated him as Kitabdar (curator
of books) and chief inspector of arts by a special decree.
However, after the death of Shah Ismail, his son Shah
Tahmasib nominated Sultan Mahammed to hold the post.
Budagh Qazwini (1530-1556) wrote that wellknown calligraphers and miniaturists had been working
on the famous manuscript of "Shah-nama" at the palace
atelier for 30 years. Thus, many manuscripts executed
during Shah Tahmasib's reign dated back to Shah Ismail,
before Behzad's arrival in Tabriz. In addition to
A Youth Reading a Book.
miniatures with which the manuscripts were illustrated,
Sultan Mahammed. 16th
Sultan Mahammed created a number of portraits and
Century.
compositions on separate sheets.
During the reviewed period, the court atelier was engaged not only in
creating manuscripts, but also in manufacturing wares from ceramics and metals,
carpets and silk fabrics. Rasim Effendy, a prominent expert in Azerbaijani decorative and applied arts, said that Sultan Mahammed could have been the author of
drawings that are included in some artistically outstanding exhibits kept at some of
the world's museums. Sultan Mahammed's miniatures, illustrating various manuscripts as well as miniatures on separate sheets, are kept at the best museums in the
world and private collections. At present, the best drawings of the master are kept
at museums such as the Metropolitan Museum in New-York ("Shah-nama", 1573),
the British Museum in London ("Hamsa" by Nizami, 1539-1543), and the Fogg Art
Museum in Cambridge ("Divan" by Hafiz).
"Khamsa" by Nizami, which was specially created for Shah Tahmasib I, is
now considered by experts to be a supreme achievement in the history of book art.
Sultan Mahammed shared the glory of the creation of such a masterpiece with the
outstanding calligrapher Shah Mahmud Nishapuri and miniature-painters of the
same atelier, Aqa Miraq, Mir Musavvir, Mir Seyid Ali, Mirza Ali and Muzaffar
Ali.

228

Sultan Sanjar and an Old Woman. Khamsa, by Nizami.

1539-1543. Painted by Sultan Mahammed.Tabriz. British Museum. London.

229

There are no more than four miniatures of Sultan Mahammed: "Khosrov

Watching Shirin Bathing", "Buhram Gur Hunting the Lion", "Ascension of a
Prophet" and "Sultan Sunjar and the Old Woman". However, they are enough to
immortalize this manuscript.
In contrast to Sultan Mahammed's time,
many art critics from various countries are
presently examining his creation. All scholars
recognize Sultan Mahammed as the head of the
Tabriz School of Miniature, as an outstanding
miniaturist of the East and as the founder of the
new trend in miniature painting of the 16th
Century. Some of them regard Sultan Mahammed
as an even more famous painter than Behzad. All
three
manuscripts
illustrated
by Sultan
Mahammed - "Divan" by Khafiz, "Shah-nama" by
Firdowsi and "Hamsa" by Nizami Ganjavi - were
welcomed by them as masterpieces of medieval
book art. Among these art critics are F. Martin, F.
Shults, K. Keri-mov, A. Qaziev, G. Marteo.
A.Vever, E. Qunel, 1. Schukin, B. Robinson and
B. Vaimern.
TahmuresDefeats the Divs (detail).
Shahnama, by Firdowsi. Sultan
Sultan Mahammed, creator of Tabriz's
Mahammed.
1520-1530.
The
miniature-painting
school of the 16th Century,
Metropolitan Museum of Art. New
York.
naturally had many pupils and followers.
Therefore, he was named "Ustad". Among Sultan
Mahammed's numerous pupils were his sons Mirza Ali and Mahammedi Bey, his
nephews Mir Zeynal abd-Din and Mir Seyid Ali, Muzaffar Ali and ShahMahammed. Each of the mentioned painters was, to a certain degree, great and
made a valuable contribution to the further development of Azerbaijani miniature.
Sultan Mahammed's pupils and painters of his school spread the tradition of the
Tabriz Miniature School throughout the East. Some of these painters left for
Turkey and India. Among them, Tabriz miniaturist Shah Qulu deserves special
attention. He played a noticeable role in the development of miniature art in
Turkey. Also, Mir Seyid Ali should be recognized, as he worked for a long time at
the court of the Great Mughal Emperors of Humayun and Aqbar and left an
appreciable vestige in the art of book miniature of India.

230

The Cavalier Lifting Clouds of Dust

Garapiri bey Qajar
Garapiri Bey Qajar was one of the most talented commanders of Shah
Ismail. For his courage, resoluteness and lightning reaction, Garapiri Bey Qajar
was nicknamed "Toz Goparan", which in Azeri literally means "The Cavalier
Lifting Clouds Of Dust". Garapiri Bey played an appreciable role in founding the
Safavi Empire. Shah Ismail's father Heydar had three sons, Sultan Ali, Ibrahim and
Ismail. All his life Garapiri Bey mingled with these
brothers. At first, he patronized and educated them; then
he served them faithfully.
In the 15th Century, the persistent struggle for
power between the successors of Timur and the
Padishahs of the Agh Goyunlu and Gara Goyunlu states
was waged in Azerbaijan. During this struggle, one of
the most influential rulers of Agh Goyunlu's state, Uzun
Hasan, asked for support from the governor of Ardebil
and the head of the militarized Sufi order Safaviyya, Sheikh Juneyd.
He gave his sister, Khadija Beyim, in marriage to him. Then his daughter,
Teodora-Alimshah Beyim (Tra-pezund Emperor Qomnen's granddaughter),
married Sheikh Juneyd's son, Sheikh Heydar. After the premature death of Sheikh
Heydar during the Shirvan campaign, an increased military power and the spiritual
authority of the Safavids frightened Uzun Hasan's succsessor and son, Yagub Bey
Agh Goyunlu. He therefore seized Ardebil and captured Sheikh Heydar's children.
In 1490, Uzun Hasan's son Baysonqur came to power, but within in a year
his cousin, Rustam Agh Goyunlu, overthrew him. Baysonqur, who was married to
one of Shirvanshah Farruh Yassar's daughter, fled to Shirvan.
After seizing power, Rustam released Sheikh Heydar's children. He gave
Ardebil to them and asked the oldest son, Sultan Ali, to become Sheikh of the
order Safaviyya to help him combat Baysonqur and Shirvanshah.
Sultan Ali agreed to partake in the campaign and the name Garapiri Bey is
first mentioned as a commander in connection with the battle of Rustam Agh
Goyunlu against Baysonqur, in Shirvan. Rustam Agh Goyunlu joined Sultan Ali's
troops to his army. The commander of one such group of Sultan Ali was Garapiri
Bey Qajar.
Sultan Ali and his troops demonstrated unusual daring and bravery.
Baysonqur suffered a defeat. Sultan Ali displayed his versatile mind, courage and
talent of commander, and there he signed his own death sentence.
In 1494, Sultan Ali fell in action against Rustam. Before Sultan Ali's death,
he had time to name his younger brother, Ismail, Sheikh of the order Safaviyya.

231

Before attaining his majority, Ismail had to be sheltered from Rustam Shah
by numerous trustees and supporters. Garapiri was beside him the entire time. At
thirteen, Ismail began tireless activity. Garapiri Bey, as well as his other trustees,
supported him in every possible way.
The first military campaign was decided to be led against Shirvanshah
Farruh Yassar in Shirvan. There, in an attempt to subdue Shirvan, Ismail's father
and grandfather perished; the young Sheikh saw this as further pretext for his
campaign.
At the end of 1500, near the citadel of
Gulistan, a famous battle took place that
determined Ismail's fate and the future of the
Safavid Empire. The leaders of the Gizilbash
tribes participated in the battle. They were
faithful to Ismail and were hereinafter
nicknamed the "Columns of Powe". Among
the "Columns of Power" was Garapiri Bey,
who did everything to raise Ismail as a
warrior and ruler, and who applied
maximum effort for Ismail's victory in the
battle. The considerably superior forces of
Shirvanshah suffered a shattering defeat in
the battle with a commander who was under
14.
Iskandar captures a demon in the battle
Shirvanians who survived were
against the Russians. 1525. British
Museum.
locked in the citadel of Gulistan. Ismail
beleaguered Gulistan after a successful raid
on Baku. This time he received disturbing news from Tabriz and invoked his
"Columns of Power", including Garapiri Bey, for council. He asked them only one
question: "What do you want, the throne of Azerbaijan or the citadel of Gulistan?"
The answer was unanimous: "Azerbaijan". Tabriz was to be purged from the
heretics of Agh Goyunlu.
This time Alvend Mirza Agh Goyunlu, ruler of Azerbaijan, directed his
army towards Ismail and arrived in Nakhchivan. Garapiri Bey and llyas Bey
Khalvagi-oghlu acted as an advance guard of Ismail's army and moved in on
Nakhchivan. They overwhelmed the troops, sent for Ismail and opened a way to
Nakhchivan.
In mid-1501 Alvend and his army of 30,000 troops met 7,000 troops of
Ismail on the plains of Sharur. Ismail took his place in the centre of the army, and
Garapiri Bey Qajar was placed on one of its flanks. Ismail's victory was complete;
then he entered Tabriz with flying colours and was crowned on the Shah's throne
of Azerbaijan.

232

That year Ismail moved his army to conquer Iraq. Shah Ismail's army and
the ruler of Iraq, Sultan Murad, met in Hamadan on June 21, 1503. Garapiri Bey
was kept in reserve with 1,500 soldiers. The governor of Qum, Islamish Bey, was
in the advance guard of Sultan Murad's army. He stopped Gizilbash`s attack and
rushed into the centre of their army, where Shah Ismail was.
Shah Ismail's life and the fate of the battle were under threat. Garapiri Bey
entered into battle in an ambush, and the troops of Ismail Bey were completely
defeated, and taken into captivity. Demoralized as a result of this attack, Sultan
Murad's army was completely annihilated and Shah Ismail invaded Persian Iraq
and Phars.
Even the brief information about the commander and warrior Garapiri Bey
Qajar, nicknamed "Toz Goparan", is an eloquent testimony to his prominent
abilities and his great role in the fate of Shah Ismail and in the formation of the
Safavid Empire.
The Titan of all
Turkic Poetry
Mahammad Fizuli
Fizuli is one of the most outstanding poets and thinkers of Azerbaijan. He
wrote his poetic and philosophical works in Azerbaijani, Persian and Arabic, which
have made them extremely popular with the nations of
the Near and Middle East.
Fizuli's numerous gazals and his famous poem
"Leyli and Mejnun" take a special place in the life of
the people of Azerbaijan. For many centuries, Fizuli's
deep, thought provoking and poetically rhythmical
gazals have been the foundation of the repertoire of
khananda, singers of classical Azerbaijani mughams.
Many Azerbaijanis love such gazals as "Who loves his
soul for the sake of his beloved, believe me, does love
her", "I am richer than Mejnun with my passionate
love", and "I weep like a delicate reed, and passionate
Portrait of Fizuli. Azim
is my cry...", even before going to school.
Azimzade. Begining of the
Mahammed ibn Suleyman Fizuli came from the
20th Century. Baku.
famous Azeri-Turkic family of Bayat and was born in
Museum of Fine Art. Baku.
approximately 1493/94. The date of the poet's death is
more exact, as it is known that he died during the bubonic plague in Baghdad in
1555/56. In many tazkira, Fizuli is mentioned under the name of Baghdadi. How-

233

ever, he was not born in Baghdad itself, but in the nearby town of Karbala, the
burial place of the son of Iman Husein ibn Ali, revered by Shiite Muslims.
After Iraq was conquered by the
Seljuks in the 11th Century, and later by
Mongols and Timurids, the number of
Turks in Baghdad rapidly increased. The
process continued afterwards. In 1509
Shah Ismail annexed Baghdad to
Azerbaijan, having triumphantly entered
the city. Later in 1534 the city became part
of the Osman Empire.
According to some sources,
Mahammed's father Suleyman moved to
Iraq from the area of Arash in the territory
of Azerbaijan. Later, Fizuli's son Fazli
returned to Arash, where he stayed with
his close relatives. His knowledge made
him famous there. Based on the fact that
Fazli was well educated, it is possible to
assume that his father was well to do. The
"Benq and Bade". Qasan-pasha. 1599-1600.
fact that he lived in the centers of the
Baghdad. Dresden State Library.
Muslim pilgrimage - Khilla and Kerbala
points to his possible involvement in religious service. In fact, it is believed that
Fizuli's father was a mufti in the town of Khilla.
Fizuli completed his primary education in Kerbala, and he later continued
his studies in one of the medreses (university) in Baghdad. In the introduction to
his "Divan", the poet describes his school years as follows: "School was a horizon
of the new-born bright-shining star of my happiness, where the most beautiful
women, slender like cedars, whispered to my soul heavenly joyful news... at times
my love for poetry took over my other studies and then the beauties with faces
resembling the face of Leyli would gather around me to hark to my poems like
Mejnun. My calling to become a poet has been realized, I have become one. The
entire world has been filled with the sounds of my poetry and I have climbed to the
top of fame".
As we can see, Fizuli had already realized that he was called to become a
poet and a singer of love when he was at school. Fizuli's love lyrics became the
crown of his creative life. The unusual poetic symbols, delicate lyrical feelings and
emotional experiences of his poetry fascinate the reader. His gazals are quite
different from those of his contemporaries.

234

Divan. Fizuli. 1628. Institute of Manuscripts. Baku.

235

However, Fizuli realized that love lyrics not based on deep scientific and
philosophical knowledge were shortlived, so he constantly deepened his scientific
knowledge.
At that time Baghdad was a big center of
science and culture. There were many schools,
universities and public and private libraries in the
city. Scientists from different parts of the East
came to Baghdad to work in its universities and to
participate in various scientific disputes and
discussions. A lot of famous Persian, Turkic,
Hindu and even Chinese scientists and poets lived
and worked in the city. Excellent conditions for
science were created in Baghdad. In the
introduction to his Persian "Divan" the poet wrote:
"the decorator of my logics insisted on the beauty
of my poetry to shine on the bosom of the beauty
of enlightenment. The jeweler of my talent did not
agree to the beads of my poems becoming the
A portrait of Fizuli. A manuscript
necklace of the entire world without the pearl of
of the 17th Century. State
Library. Krakow.
science in it. For poetry without science is like a
wall without foundation, it will not stand.
Considering sinful the lack of scientific beauty in poetry, despising poetry without
scientific knowledge, like a body without a soul, I have spent the treasures of my
life on the study of theoretical and applied sciences. I have invested my life in the
study of logics and geometry. Gradually, I have minted artistic laals, in order to
enrich my poetry".
The years Fizuli spent on obtaining knowledge were very fruitful. He won
fame as the most "educated master of poetry of his epoch", and just like Jalal adDin Rumi, his contemporaries called him "Movlan" ("Our lord"). Doubtlessly,
Fizuli was one of the most highly educated men of his time. His works testify to
the fact that besides languages, Fizuli knew theology, philosophy, poetry,
mathematics, medicine, history, astronomy and astrology, as well as the theory of
music.
Fizuli was familiar with literature of the entire Muslim world. In the introduction to the same "Divan", the poet himself stated with pride that he was
informed about all sciences and languages.
The names of Abu Nuvas, Hasan, Khagani, Nizami, Alisher Navoi, Jalili,
Salman Savaji, Kamal Khojendi, Ahmedi, Sheikhi and many other poets are
mentioned in his works.

236

Mejnun in the Steppe. Fizuli. Divan. 1628. Institute of Manuscripts. Baku.

237

Though Fizuli's works were very popular throughout the entire Middle East,
the poet suffered hardship most of his life. First of all, this had to do with the fact
that the poet tried to be independent of the court, convinced that "he could not bear
the burden of thankfulness to the Shahs". According to some scholars, Fizuli
worked as a schoolteacher in his youth and for some time served at the tomb of
Imam Ali in the town of Najef. He was entitled to a certain salary, but due to corruption
and bribery in the country, he never
received the money. Dwelling on the
matter. Fizuli wrote a brilliant satire called
"Shikayat nama" (The Book of Complaints).
Fizuli never left Iraq. This could
have been because of the material hardship
he suffered. Fizuli, however, denied this
assumption: "I was born in Arabic Iraq and
when it becomes known that I have not
travelled outside its borders, let it not be
considered to be an indication of my lack of
credibility".
Fizuli's creative life is usually
divided into two periods- Safavi and
Osman. By 1534, when Baghdad joined the
Osman Empire, the poet had written his best
Expulsion from Paradise. The Garden of
gazals,
gassids, imams' biographies,
Happiness. Fizuli. Paris National Library.
allegorical poems and novels, such as "Bang
va Bada" ("Hashish and Wine"), dedicated to Shah Ismail and "Sehbet-ul-Ismar"
("The Talk of Trees"). During the same period he worked on the prosaic religious
novel "Khadiket-us-Suada" ("The Garden of the Happy"), which he later dedicated
to the Turkish Sultan Suleyman (1520-1566).
In 1537 the poet finished his famous poem "Leyli and Mejnun". Fizuli
continued writing his gazals and kasids in three languages. Later, Fizuli primarily
wrote philosophical works, among which are "Haft jam" ("Seven Cups"), "Anio ul
kalb" ("The Affection of the Heat"), "Sihhat va maraz" ("Health and Ailment"),
"Rind-u-Zahid" ("Tramp and Ascet"), as well as "Matla-ul-etikad" ("Ascent of
Convictions"), a philosophical treatise composed in Arabic.
During that period Fizuli wrote his Persian Divan, kasids and his Azeri
"Divan". Fizuli composed an Azeri-Persian dictionary in poems. He wrote the
poetic charades "Muamma" ("Treatise on Charades") in Azeri and Persian. He also
translated "Forty Khadises" by Abd ur-Rahman Jami into Azeri.

238

The treatise "Ascent of Convictions" takes a special place in the creative life
of Fizuli. It is an encyclopedia on the history of philosophy of Ancient Greece and
the Medieval East. The outstanding poet was the first among numerous Azeri
scholars to write a book on the history of philosophy. Fizuli wrote the treatise
either as a textbook for his students and followers or as a tool to promote
philosophical knowledge in general. The treatise allows researchers of Fizuli's
creative life to define the foundations of the deep
philosophical reasoning of Fizuli. The volume of
his knowledge of philosophical and theological
teachings popular in the Muslim East and
philosophical teachings of Ancient Greece is
evident.
The ideology of Sufism influenced the
framework and creativity of Fizuli. In the 1920s
Keprulzade wrote: "As sensitivity and intellectual
upbringing harmonically blended, being free from
dogmatic concepts, the perception of the absolute
love (which was put by many Sufi poets in the
frames of dry lifeless forms) obtained a new form
full of life in Fizuli's works".
Mahammads Fizulis Mausoleum.
Fizuli is considered to be the founder of
Kerbala, Iraq.
Azeri artistic prose. His scientific treatise
"Metleul-etikad", introductions to divans, "Rind-u-Zahid". "Health and Ailment"
and "Shikayatnama" were written in prose. His translation of "Khidiket-us-suada"
by the Persian writer Husein Kashifi is considered to be the first prosaic translation
into the Azeri language.
Though Fizuli wrote in almost all poetic genres of his time, he is famous in
Azeri literature as the greatest lyric poet. According to the famous literary critic,
Rustam Aliyev, "The key theme of Fizuli's lyrics is the description of the suffering
experienced by a man in love, his tortures when his beloved is not near, his
thoughts and dreams, the caprices and cruelty of his beloved, her mercy and
responsiveness... Fizuli's poetic images are original and emotionally influential.
These images impress the reader with their depth, vividness and unexpectedness;
they become rooted in our memory and create a visual impression".
My pain and sorrow none. I fear me, can dispel;
That you have cast me off I know, my love, too well.
And yet I am, in truth, reluctant to complain.
For though you flee from me, you flee, my love, in vain.
I feel that you are near no matter where you are;

239

Your lovely image sears my spirit from afar.

And should I early die of love, of love and grief.
At least, sweet love, my life would have been full if brief.
That 'tis for love alone, as 1 have wished, I live.
My warm and humble thanks to Heaven do I give.
My love for you is fierce; it turns my heart to flame;
1 fear lest all of me the fires of passion claim.
One wish was ever mine - to love you unto death;
If this be not the truth, embrace my soul, o death!
The heart of Fisuli would long have burnt away
Had not the tears he shed kept love's hot flames at bay.

A number of Fizuli's gazals are written in the form of reply to gazals by

outstanding classic poets of the East, such as Khafiz, Saadi, Nizami, Nasimi and
Navoi. The creative life of the great Azeri poet Mahammed Fizuli is the greatest
achievement of humanistic thought of the first half of the 16th Century, and it
played an import role in the development of all Turkic literature.
In a Moscow University textbook on literature of the East in the Middle
Ages, the creative life of Fizuli is summarized as follows: "Having synthesized and
processed the artistic experiences of his great predecessors in the Near and Middle
East, Fizuli set a path for the future development of the poetic culture in
Azerbaijan, Turkey and Central Asia. Being a lyrical and epical poet, an
outstanding master of all literary genres known to him, who wrote his works in
three languages, Fizuli is indeed a titan of the Renaissance".
Husein Ali Makhfuz, a well-known Iraqi writer, a famous Arabic scientist
and a scholar of London, Teheran and Cairo Academies, said the following: "When
speaking about the poetry of the East, three names remain sacred to me: the Iranian
poet Saadi, the Arabic poet Mutanabbi and the Azeri poet Mahammed Fizuli...
Back home, Fizuli bears the following three titles: the best poet of the East, the
greatest master and the head of poets... The works of the great poet have existed for
four centuries. They have not been eroded by time: the works of his genius are
imperishable. I was in Karbala, where Fizuli is buried. More than 1 million people
visit the poet's mausoleum annually. I saw crowds of people coming to his tomb to
bow down before the creator of immortal lines".
The famous Iranian literary critic, M. Kh. Faridani wrote, "It is difficult to
find a person in Iran who would not know Fizuli's poems. His brilliant works are
the spiritual wealth of our Iranian nation".

240

The author of a Medical

Treatise Written in Verse
Yusif Mahammad ibn Yusif Tabib
Information about a famous scientist and physician of the late 15th and
early 16th Centuries,Yusif Mahammed ibn Yusif Tabib, is reflected in a book by
the first researcher of the history of medicine in
Azerbaijan, I.Efendiyev. There was no biographical
data about Yusif Tabib, so the author confined himself
to the analysis of his work. Just a few works on
medicine by Yusif Mahammed ibn Yusif Tabib have
survived. The earliest of them is "Jame ul-Fevaid",
written in 1513 and dedicated to Shah Ismail Safavi.
This work was written in verse. Hence, it is possible
to assume that it was designed for students of
numerous medical educational centres.
The book consists of 11 chapters. The first
chapter deals with questions of the symptomatology
of diseases, the means of eliminating diseases and the
methods of preparation of these medical drugs. The second chapter discusses the
utility of various foodstuffs of vegetative and animal nature. The third chapter
sheds light on the rules of individual hygiene, the question of salutary rest and
movement.
The fourth chapter focuses on the norm of behaviour in society, and the fifth
chapter quotes the contents of the well-known philosophical treatise "Tekhfet ulMuluk". The sixth chapter examines the curative properties of mafirfin, and the
seventh chapter analyses the rules of writing prescriptions.
The eighth chapter considers the effect of some medical drugs, and the ninth
chapter focuses on the regulation of personal hygiene. The tenth chapter covers
harmful habits and methods of avoiding them, and finally, the eleventh chapter
deals with the state of a person depending on the arrangement of stars.
Yusif Mahammed established the principle of opposite effect in the
treatment process: "Each disease may be removed by antipodes". He also focused
on the principle of the prophylaxis of diseases: "First of all, it is necessary to
explain to everybody how to preserve their health; this is the main thing". Thus, for
the prevention of illnesses, he considered it necessary to watch air, meals,
movement and rest, sleep and rest, vomit and the excretory abilities of an
organism.
Tables of medicaments compiled by Tabib enjoyed wide popularity. Each
table consisted of five columns and included the names of medical remedies, their

241

properties, whether they were healthy or destructive, and the methods of removing
the destructive effect. He wrote: "Useful medicine is a substance, the destructive
nature of which could be easily removed, and the best is innocuous medicine. You
see, water, earth, sun and air are useful in one place, but harmful in another".
Yusif Tabib paid great attention to the collateral effect of medicine. The
tables are very clear and easy to use. For a long time, they served as visual aids
when training students.
The author of the
Best Histories
Hasan bey Rumlu
Eminent historian of the 16th Century and author of the famous multivolume work "Akhsatan at-Tavarikh" ("The Best of Histories"), Hasan Bey Rumlu
was born in the city of Qum in 1530/31. At an early age he lost his father, of whom
we have no information.
Hasan Bey was brought up by his grandfather, Amir Sultan Rumlu, who he
frequently refers to in his works. For example, he wrote that when in 1536/37 the
younger brother of Shah Tahmasib I came to Qazwin, he lived at Amir Sultan's
place with his mother. She made him presents, among which were "tents, money,
thoroughbred horses and dear things". It is evident that Rumlu was brought up in a
rich and gentle family and had a good education.
In 1539/40, his favourite grandfather died and his quiet life was over. It was
necessary to ensure his own future and he joined the equestrian guards of the Shah.
The young man then participated in all of the Shah's campaigns and became
closely acquainted with court life.
During the campaigns, Hasan Bey showed his worth as a courageous and
quick-witted warrior. He joined the campaigns of 1546/47 in Georgia and of
1550/51 in Kurdistan. Hasan Bey's participation in court receptions was confirmed
by Azerbaijani historian Iskender Munshi, who wrote about his presence at the
state reception in the Palace during the presentation of gifts to Shah Tahmasib from
Shah Humayun of the dynasty of the Great Mughals.
In his works Hasan Bey mentioned that he continued his education with the
help of well-known scientists of that time, Abdulhasan and Mahmud Shirazi. After
the death of Shah Tahmasib I in 1576/77, Hasan Bey came back to his native Qum
and wrote the last book of his work, which was devoted to one of the most ferocious Safavi Shahs, Shah Ismail II. He wrote this despite his not being a direct
participant in the events. After the death of Shah Ismail II, Hasan Bey returned to
the palace at Shah Mahammed Khudabande's invitation.

242

Of the 12 books of "Akhsatan at-tavarikh" just two books survived. They

were devoted to the history of Iran and Azerbaijan during the reign of Shahs
Tahmasib 1 and Ismail II. Modern historians who study the history of Iran and
Azerbaijan think that this work is the most complete source of the reviewed period.
In these books, Hasan Bey presented political events in these countries, as
well as the biographies of feudal rulers, scholars, theologians and poets. Moreover,
this work described events that took place in the neighbouring states of Timur, Agh
Goyunlu and Shirvanshahs.
As well-known historian Oktay Efendiyev pointed out, "No historian of that
time had ever described in detail the half-century period of Shah Tahmasib's reign,
as Hasan Bey Rumlu did".
The Leading the Great Architect of the Great Mughals
Agha Mirek Mirza Ghiyas
In India in the beginning of the 16th Century, the eminent political
personality and scientist Babur, a descendant of the great Timur, created a new
state that was later named the Empire of Great Mughals. Unable to cope with the
powerful Uzbek rulers, the Sheybanids and the governor of the Fergana region,
Babur fled to Kabul without weapons and with
200 relatives and devoted people. Having seized
Kabul and having created an army, Babur moved
to India instead of Fergana, where the Sheybanids
were waiting for him.
In 1526, after a complete victory over the
local Sultan, Babur captured Delhi and made it the
capital city of the new state - the Empire of Great
Mughals (Baburids). Having strengthened his
authority, Babur carried out a number of martial
and economic reforms. To continue the traditions
of Timur, he did a lot for the development of
science and culture. In every possible way, he
encouraged the flowering of poetry, literature, painting and architecture. Babur was
the author of many writings in the Old Uzbeg (Jaghatay) language.
After him, his son Humayun ruled. In 1544, Humayun suffered a defeat in
the struggle against the Afghan governor, Shir Khan. He fled with his wife and
close people to Safavi Shah Tahmasib, who received him very solemnly on his
approach to Tabriz. Humayun presented Tahmasib with extraordinary and valuable
souvenirs, including a huge diamond, "whose equal was not held by the eye of
fortune for centuries and centuries, and which was unlike any that the ear of time

243

had ever heard about". In turn, Tahmasib gave a reception in honour of Humayun
and presented him with souvenirs.
Humayun asked Tahmasib to help him in his struggle for authority. For
several years, Shah Tahmasib had been collecting an army, which consisted of
12,000 Gizilbashes led by the talented commander Budagh Khan Qajar. This army
made its way to India. Shir Khan suffered a defeat and Humayun was placed on the
throne of Great Mughals.
While
in
Tabriz,
Humayun became acquainted
with the art of miniaturists,
calligraphers and architects of
Azerbaijan, and he became a
devout admirer of them. After
returning to power, Humayun
invited a great number of
Azerbaijani foremen to Delhi.
Among them was miniaturist
Mir Said Ali Tabrizi.
In what would end in a
twist of fate, Humayun chose
Humayun's tomb. 1562-1571. Agha Mirek Mirza Ghiyas.
a
small
pavilion
for
Delhi.
astronomical observation of
the sky (Humayun showed a great interest in astrology). This pavilion was built by
Shir Khah and was called Shir Mandal. There, he kept a library of his valuable
collection of manuscripts.
On Friday, 24 January 1565, Humayun was waiting for Venus to rise. He
came out onto the roof of the library and blessed the people who were assembled at
the nearby mosque. With the approach of dusk, Humayun decided to go down.
When he was on the second step of the staircase, he heard the muezzin's call and
wanted to bow. His foot caught his robe and he fell headfirst down the steps,
receiving a mortal blow. Three days later, Humayun died.
Humayun became a great admirer of Safavid architecture after his return
from Azerbaijan. Therefore, when his senior widow, Hamida Bano Beyim,
returned that same year from a pilgrimage to Mecca, she brought with her an
architect from Azerbaijan named Agha Mirek Mirza Ghiyas. He was entrusted with
the construction of a mausoleum for the late Emperor Humayun.
The mausoleum was completed in 1573, after eight years of construction.
Agha Mirek demonstrated that his significant efforts were not made in vain. Art
critics in India point out that this mausoleum became a turning point in the
construction of such buildings in India. It was the first garden mausoleum that the
Great Mughals built. This series culminated in the masterpiece of world archi-

244

tecture - the Taj-Mahal in Agra (1630-1652, by Turkish architect Mahammed Isa

Efendi).
While Agha Mirek preserved the monumental spatial structure of similar
Safavid, Central Asian and Turkish buildings, he also added a lot of Indian aspects
to Humayun's mausoleum. Instead of bright colour tiles, which Safavid and Central
Asian architects used for the ornamentation of mosques, palaces and mausoleums,
Agha Mirek applied a combination of white marble with stones of different hues.
The mausoleum was designed as a square building (52 x 52 sq. m.). Four small
chambers were adjoined to the central octagonal hall.
Agha Mirek laid out a garden according to the best Safavid traditions. The
mausoleum was placed in the centre of the garden at the intersection of two wide
pathways. Such palatial gardens were known in Tabriz, Qazwin and Ardebil under
the name of Chakharbag (Four Garden). In the same garden there was the
octagonal mausoleum of Isa Khan (1547). The mausoleums of such form had been
spread earlier in India. They strongly resembled the octagonal Diwan-Khane of the
Shirvanshahs' Palace.
Agha Mirek's name is well known in India, and the mausoleum constructed
by him remains one of the most famous monuments of architecture in the country.
In Indian history, tragic events of the struggle for independence and the last days of
the Dynasty of Great Mughals are connected with this monument. In 1857, the
great poet King Bahadir Shah Zafar from the Dynasty of Great Mughals headed
Muslim and Hinduid mutineers against the British. When the revolt was subsided
and the English seized control over the situation, Bahadir Shah took refuge with his
family in Humayun's mausoleum. On September 22, 1857 the English charged into
the garden, captured two young sons and one grandson and assassinated them.
Bahadir Shah was exiled to Rangun in Birma, where the last of Timur's
descendants died.
The name of the prominent architect Agha Mirek Mirza Ghiyas, the
architect of Emperor Humayun's mausoleum, will forever survive in the history of
Indian culture. At the same time, the name of Emperor Humayun will forever
remain in the culture of Azerbaijan in the name of one of six main mughams.
Mugham "Humayun" was formed during Humayun's stay in Tabriz under the
Court of Shah Tahmasib.

245

The Faithful Son of

Three Countries
Mir Seyid Ali
"The eye of time has never seen anything similar to this!" - Nishapuri
The British Museum in London houses the manuscript of "Khamsa" by
Nizami, which was performed at the Shah Library for Shah Tahmasib I in 15391543. Experts consider that this book is one of the most remarkable manuscripts of
all times and peoples - a masterpiece of book art of the Orient.
The manuscript has richly decorated title pages. Wide margins on each page
of the manuscript are decorated with traditional silhouette drawings and executed
in gold.
The book was decorated with a large format miniature by famous
Azerbaijani painters of the 16th Century': Sultan Mahammed, Agha Mirek, Mir
Musavvir, Mirza Ali, Mir Seyid Ali and Muzaffar Ali. On one of the pages of the
manuscript, khattat, copyist Shah Mahmud Nishapuri left an inscription, the
accuracy of which has survived to the present: "The eye of time has never seen
anything similar to this!"
One of the best miniatures of this manuscript, "Majnun at the tent of Leyli",
was completed by the magnificent painter from the school of Sultan Mahammed,
Mir Seyid Ali. Highly artistic miniatures of this painter, such as "Matchmaking of
Leyli", "Musical Majlis" and "Bahrain Gur and Choban", are kept at the best
museums of the world.
Mir Seyid Ali was born at the beginning of the 16th Century to the family
of a well-known painter and miniaturist named Mir Musavvir. He was well
educated and wrote verses under the pseudonym Judai (from word separation), and
he enjoyed popularity among his contemporaries. His first teacher was his father;
then he continued his studies at the Shah's library.
Prominent masters, such as Behzad, Sultan Mahammed and Agha Mirek,
worked during the reviewed period, so Mir Seyid passed through a good school.
He started his work in the early thirties of the 16th Century. An illustration for the
manuscript of "Khamsa" by Nizami is attributed to him. Well-known Azerbaijani
painter, art critic, poet and tazkirist Sadiq Bey Afshar wrote the following about
him:
"Mir Seyid Ali was the son of Mir Musavvir, an excellent master and a
library employee of the deceased Shah Tahmasib. Mir Musavvir was also a very
skilled ornamentalist (nagkash) and painter (musavvir). Because of grievances he
left Azerbaijan, migrated to India and attained high honours in Jalal ad-Din Agpar's
service.

246

Little is known about the creative activity of his father, Mir Musavvir.
Today, only one of his miniatures is known. The superintendent of court ceremony,
Sirkhan Bey Sufrachi, is represented on this miniature. From sources of that time,
it is known that Mir-Musavvir was among the teachers of Shah Tahmasib, who
showed great interest in painting and calligraphy.
Indian Emperor Humayun from the
Dynasty of Great Mughals was expelled from
India and lived at Shah Tahmasib's court in
Tabriz from 1540 to 1549. After having been
acquainted with the palatial library and art
atelier, Humayun wanted to return to India to
create something similar. While in Tabriz, Mir
Seyid Ali came within sight of Humayun, who
entrusted him to illustrate a dastan "Amir
Khamza".
After coming to power, Humayun invited
Mir Seyid Ali and other masters to Delhi. In
India, Mir Seyid Ali and Samed Shirazi from
Tabriz created a well-known work. It was a
panel titled "Timur's House", on which portraits
of representatives of Timurid's Dynasty were
Nomadic Encampment. Mir Seyid Ali.
depicted.
The 1440s. Harvard University
Museum. Cambridge.
For this picture, Humayun gave Mir Seyid
Ali the title "Nadir ul Mulk Humayun Shahi"
("Rarity of the Empire of Shah Humayun"). He also entrusted him with the general
guidance over the illustration of the unique edition of the dastan "Amir Khamza",
which consisted of 16 large books with 2,400 pictures. Each book was kept in a
specially designed art chest.
The size of sheets in the books reached nearly one metre. Under Mir Seyid
Airs guidance, 30 artists worked on this edition. Despite these efforts, when Mir
Seyid Ali left for his pilgrimage to Mecca in 1570, just four books were ready.
Mir Seyid Ali's name has since remained in the history of art in Azerbaijan,
Iran and India. His creative activity and the Tabriz school of miniature painting.
which he represented, significantly influenced the Mughal school of miniature
painting in India, just as the development of Turkish miniature influenced Tabriz
artists, such as Shah Gulu Tabrizi, Velijan and Kamal Tabrizi.

247

A Prominent King
Of Garabagh
Sultan Imam Gulu Khan Qajar
The Safavi (Gizilbash) Empire created by Shah Ismail in the 16th Century
was divided into 13 regions, the so-called Beylarbeys, which were headed by a
Beyiarbey. During the reviewed period, Azerbaijan included four Beylarbeys:
Tabriz, Chukhursaad, Garabagh (including Ganja) and Shirvan.
The Beylarbeys of Garabagh and (Ganja had for a long time been populated
by different Turkic tribes, many of which were Qajars. The Beylarbeys of Garabagh and Ganja came from the Qajar family of Ziyadoghlu. The first Beylarbey of
the region was Kamal ad-Din Sultan Ziyad-oghlu Qajar. Later Beylarbeys included
Ibrahim Sultan Ziyad-oghlu Qajar, Yusif Sultan Ziyad-oghlu Qajar, Peyqar Sultan
Ziyad-oghlu Qajar and Imam Gulu Khan Ziyad-oghlu Qajar.
Imam Gulu Khan Ziyad-oghlu Qajar was an unusually distinguished figure,
an outstanding statesman and a talented commander. No biographical data on him
is available. Some manuscripts refer to Imam Gulu Khan, largely due to military
campaigns conducted by him when he was Beylarbey of Garabagh and Ganja.
On 22 August 1576, the son of Shah Tahmasib, Shah Ismail II, came to
power in the Safavi Empire. At that time, the country was being weakened by the
Gizilbash Emirs' struggle for power. Shah Ismail II took some measures to limit
the exclusive powers of the Emirs, and he replaced some of the rulers with
Beylarbeys.
In particular, he dismissed Yusif Khalil Ziyad-oghlu Qajar from his post as
ruler of Garabagh and Ganja. Peyqar Sultan, a representative of the same family,
became ruler of the region. However, by order of Shah Ismail II, Imam Gulu Khan
Qajar soon replaced him. This choice proved to be rather successful. Thanks to his
far-sighted policy and large military talent, Imam Gulu Khan Qajar managed to
preserve the independence of Garabagh, when the whole of Azerbaijan was under
Ottoman occupation. During 10 years of struggle against the Ottomans, Imam Gulu
Khan Qajar followed the tactics of forestalling the enemy, and he always tried to
combat outside Garabagh. Also, Imam Gulu Khan created a mobile army that was
capable of retreating, where appropriate, with insignificant losses.
Shah Ismail II did not stay on the throne for long. His follower, Shah
Mahammed Khudabende, reaffirmed the assignment of Imam Gulu Khan as ruler
of Garabagh. Meanwhile, the Ottoman army invaded Shirvan. The Turks, who
were allies in the campaign against Georgia and Shirvan, tried to attract Crimean
Tatar Khan Girey, Daghestan feudals and part of the Shirvan nobility in an attempt
to restore Shirvan's independence.

248

In 1578 and 1579, a strong Ottoman army of 100,000 troops marched

against Shirvan, under the command of Mustafa Lala Pasha. Imam Gulu Khan's
first battle, which was in alliance with Governor of Chukhursaad Turkman Khan
against the Ottomans, took place near Tiflis. The battle was a failure for the allies,
so Imam Gulu Khan came back to Garabagh. It is probable that during this period,
Imam Gulu Khan was given the title of Sultan; it was no mere coincidence that
Imam Gulu Khan was called Imam Gulu Sultan.
Having restored his army, Imam Gulu Khan marched against the Ottomans
again, this time joined by Azerbaijani ruler Amir Khan. The Ottomans were
defeated, and Imam Gulu Khan and Amir Khan seized a lot of plunder from the
war. The Gizilbashes captured 1,000 camels and 3,000 horses, and they took
several Turkish commanders as prisoners. The Turks elected Osman Pasha as ruler
of Shirvan.
Near Tiflis, the joint troops of Imam Gulu Khan and King Simon defeated
Mustafa Lala Pasha's army. More than 20,000 soldiers were killed and plentiful
body was seized from there. Imam Gulu Khan then set out for Aresh, which had
earlier been fortified by the Ottomans. A strong garrison of 5,000 troops, led by
Kitay Pasha, was defeated. Kitay Pasha was killed and Ottoman Commander Abd
ur-Rahman was taken prisoner.
Part of the garrison was defeated, and attempts of the joint armies of the
Gizilbashes to liberate Shirvan from the Turks were prevented by Crimean Khan
Adil Girey. In pursuing the joint troops, Adil Girey came up to the Mughan steppe,
crossed the river Kura, defeated the enemy and returned to Shamakha. On 28
November 1578, the confronting parties clashed near the village of Mollahasan on
the banks of the Aghsu. This was one of the most famous battles in the history of
Shirvan and Garabagh.
The battle lasted from early morning to late evening. As a result of the
battle, Adil Girey was taken prisoner; the same was true for Ottoman Commander
Kitay Pasha. The Tatar army had to flee, the Gizilbashes seized a lot of valuables,
and nearly all of Shirvan was liberated. Only Derbent remained in the hands of
Osman Pasha.
In 1755 Crimean Tatars raided Shirvan, overran it and came back. In
1580/81, they marched against Shirvan for the third time. This time, the Gizilbash
army forced the Tatars from Shirvan rather easily. However, a famine broke out in
Azerbaijan soon after, and the Turks again invaded Shirvan. The Safavi leaders
decided to continue their struggle for Shirvan.
Peikar Ziyad-oghlu Qajar was nominated as the new ruler of Shirvan. He
was granted the title of Khan. The tribes of Qajar and Otuziki, among others, made
their way to Shirvan from Garabagh. In the spring of 1581, Crimean Tatars led by
Qazi Girey and Safi marched against Shirvan for the fourth time. The battle
occurred at a location between Shamakha and Shabran. The armies of Qajars,

249

Jigurlues, Garamanlis, etc., headed by Peyqar Khan Qajar, won a victory. The
Qajars captured Qazi Girey. However, the death of Peyqar Khan a year later
enabled the Turks to restore their power in Shirvan.
In the spring of 1583, Imam Gulu Khan made an attempt to force the Turks
out of Shirvan. In a battle near the village of Niyazabad, the Turks suffered a
decisive defeat, and many Turkish commanders fell in action. Imam Gulu Khan's
army pursued the retreating Turks up to Derbent. On the banks of the Samur, the
Turkish army, reinforced by troops from Derbent, tried to tight Imam Gulu Khan's
troops. The "battle under torches" lasted for a few days, and was lit day and night
by torches. On the fourth day, the advantage of the superior forces of the Ottomans
became obvious, so Imam Gulu Khan had to retreat.
In the summer of 1584, the Ottomans again marched to the Chukhursaad
region. The Beylarbeys of Chukhur-saad applied for help from Imam Gulu Khan.
However, taking into consideration the overwhelming superiority of the enemy,
Imam Gulu Khan did not want to take the risk. The Turks, therefore, first occupied
Irevan, and a year later they seized Tabriz. Only Garabagh remained independent.
At the same time, some Gizilbash tribes rebelled against the Shah. After
suppressing the revolt, the Shah and his follower Khamza Mirza arrived in
Garabagh, escorted by Imam Gulu Khan's warriors. Following talks with the
Turkish Pasha near Ganja, Khamza Mirza's personal barber assassinated him, and
disorder broke out in the country. Soon, the son of Iranian Shah Mahammed
Khudabende, aged just 16, was proclaimed Shah Abbas I,
The new Shah transferred the capital of the country to Isfahan. According to
Azerbaijani historians, the Gizilbash state of Azerbaijan founded by Shah Ismail I
ceased to exist. It is symbolical that this event coincided with the death of the
outstanding commander and patriot Imam Gulu Khan Sultan Ziyad-oghlu Qajar.
Mahammed Khan Ziyad-oghlu Qajar replaced him as ruler of Garabagh. However,
the days of Garabagh were already numbered.
Meanwhile, Turkish commander Jafar Pasha attacked Garabagh in 1588/89,
and the aged Mahammed Khan Ziyad-oghlu Qajar surrendered his country to the
enemy without any resistance. The Turks conquered a large part of Azerbaijan.
However, the Qajar tribes besieged Ganja a year later, but it brought no desirable
results. In order to preserve his power, Shah Abbas signed a peace treaty with the
Turks and persuaded the residents of Garabagh to remove their siege of Ganja and
yield Garabagh to the Turks. When Shah Abbas I won a victory over Garabagh and
Ganja in 1605, he nominated Mahammed Khan Qajar from the same family of
Ziyad-oghlu to rule these regions.
At the end of the 16th Century, nearly all of Azerbaijan was occupied by
Turks-Osmans. The famous Tabriz library with art ateliers was ruined. Painters,
miniaturists, khattats and other masters had to move first to Qazwin, and then to
Isfahan because of the transfer of the capital cities of the Safavid state.

250

The Greatest Among

The Greats
Shah Abbas The Great
In the last quarter of the 16th Century, there was a serious crisis in the great
Safavi Empire, which was created by Shah Ismail and extended from the borders of
the Osman Empire to the borders of India. The continuous destructive intertribal
wars of Turkic-Gizilbash emirs resulted in the easing of royal authority. Shah
Mahammed Khudabende, who was almost blind, weak and flabby, came to the
throne. The state was actually ruled by his wife, Kheyr an-Nisa Beyim, who had
the nickname Mahdi Ulya ("A High Cradle"), and her son Khamza Mirza, who was
a talented commander and gained a number of victories over the Turks.
They unsuccessfully aspired
to strengthen central authority in
the struggle with the Emirs of the
Gizilbash tribes, who were almost
completely
independent
and
continuously
hostile
among
themselves. The treasury was
devastated, and the people were
ruined. Using the country's difficult
situation
to their advantage, Osman
Gates of Shah Abbas the Great in the fortress of
Turks
and
Crimean
Tatars
Baku. 17th Century. Post-Card, Late 19th Century.
repeatedly invaded Shirvan and
Azerbaijan. The aggravated relations between the Gizilbash Emirs and Mahdi Ulya
weakened the struggle against the occupants. She was accused of infringement of
the Turkic Emirs' rights and of promoting Persian nobility. Eventually, the emirs
organized a conspiracy against Mahdi Ulya, killed her and her mother in the
palatial harem, and again became sovereign owners of the country.
Khorasan was also experiencing hard times. Shah Mahammed Khudabende
appointed the vicegerent of Khorasan, Ali Gulu Khan Shamlu, to the post of
governor of Herat. He also appointed him as mentor of his son, Abbas Mirza. In
union with Murshid Qulu Khan Ustajlu, Ali Gulu Khan Shamlu refused to submit
to royal Qazwin's government, and they chose Ali Gulu Khan as their leader. They
called him "Khanlar Khani" ("Ruler of the Rulers"). In response, the Qazwin
Emirs, who were supporters of the Shah, put to death the mother and father of Ali
Gulu Khan, as well as other members of his family.
Then, in 1581, the Emirs of Khorasan announced the prince Abbas as Shah.
A struggle arose between the leaders of the families of Shamlu and Ustajlu, the
victor of which was Murshid Qulu Khan Ustajlu. At this time, Khamza Mirza ruled

251

Shah-nama" of Shah Abbas I. Kay Khosrov offering the Crown to Luhrasp. 1614.
The Spencer Collection, New York Public Library.

252

in Qazwin with variable success, beating off attacks of the Osman Turks and
Crimean Tatars.
In the autumn of 1585, the Turks seized Tabriz. In the city, they destroyed
palaces, mosques and houses, and they carried out a terrible massacre. Tabriz,
which had been one of the most beautiful cities in the Middle East, turned into a
dead city.
Because of the policy of Khamza
Mirza, dissatisfied Gizilbash notables
killed him. They sent a barber - an
Armenian from Khoy to kill the sleeping
prince. It happened near Ganja in
December of 1586, during peace
negotiations with Turkey, near the
entombment of the great Azerbaijani
poet, Sheikh Nizami. At that moment,
taking advantage of the confusion in the
courtyard after the assassination of the
prince, the Turks occupied almost all of
Azerbaijan.
Meanwhile,
Uzbeks
invaded
Khorasan,
and
Shah
Mahammed
Khudabende crossed swords with them.
At the height of the war with the Uzbeks,
Abbas Mirza invaded Qazwin and
accepted the title of Shah. The old Shah,
Shah Abbas and a young man. 1628.
Mahammed Hasim. Opaque watercolour on
his father, was persuaded to abdicate in
paper. Shah Abbas' audience. Second half of
favour of Abbas Mirza. The new Shah
the 18th Century. Opaque water colour and
gold on paper.
took about 12,000 Georgians, who
adopted Islam and reformed their military
and civil administration.
Don Juan Persian (Oruj Bey Bayati), a participant in these events wrote:
"On the first day, when the new monarch took oath, Shah Abbas ordered all
Khans and commanders to come unarmed to his palace the following day to begin
planning the parliament's foundation. On the next day, when all were gathered in
the palace, Shah Abbas gave a secret command to his Georgian guards to close all
entrances and exits. Then he asked them how a person who killed his own prince
would be punished. Eventually, everybody agreed that such a person must be
killed. As soon as this sentence was pronounced, the Georgian guards attacked the
attendants and killed all of the mutineers. Then 22 heads on spear heads were
exposed from the palace windows in view of the people - an awful show causing
irrational fear in the hearts of even the most self-confident".

253

After this, the young king, who was only 15 years old, killed the claimant to
the regency, Murshid Gulu Khan Ustajlu, and others, desiring to rule from his
name, and he completely took authority in his own hands. However, the basic
struggle was way ahead. Turks seized
Azerbaijan, and Uzbeks seized Khorasan with
the cities of Merv, Herat, Meshhed and
Nishapur. The long-time internal areas of the
country left from the submission of royal
authority. The first thing Shah Abbas did was to
promulgate a number of laws, which limited the
rights of Gizilbash Emirs and expanded the
rights and privileges of Persian civil
bureaucracy. Thus, he carried out a number of
military and civil reforms.
However, it is impossible to exaggerate
the process of Persia-fication of the country and
army carried out by Shah Abbas, as some
historians do. The Turkic-Azerbaijani language
remained the official language of the courtyard
Shah Abbas and Khan Alam. 1633.
and
army, as many European travellers wrote.
Rizayi Abbasi. SPL, St. Petersburg.
Don Juan Persian, a contemporary of Shah
Abbas, wrote, "Now with us are 32 clans of noble families, who are recognized in
Persia and have huge superiority in the country". All 32 families, including Ustajlu,
Shamlu, Afshar, Turkoman, Bayati, Tekelu, Kharmandalu, Zulkardarlu. Qajar,
Qaramanlu, Beyburtlu, Isnirlu, Oryat, Chaushlu, and others, kept their Turkic Azerbaijani surnames. Many names of military and courtier grades also remained
Azerbaijani. Some examples were Khan, Beylarbey, Gizilbash, Qullar,
Eshikaghasibashi, Kurchi, Kurchibashi, Yasavul, Ovchibashi, Munajimbashi,
Cufrachibashi, Kanugi-bashi and Chalchibashi.
Azerbaijan remained the major administrative unit of the country, and the
governor of Azerbaijan was considered to be the successor of the throne and
commander-in-chief of the army. If one may put it that way, the Safavi Empire
ceased to be Azerbaijani, but Safavi Iran, created by Shah Abbas, still remained, to
any degree, a Turkic-Gizilbash State (Memleket-i Gizilbash).
To gain a foothold in Qazwin, Shah Abbas set off on the first of numerous
victorious campaigns. In a short time, he released Khorasan from the Uzbeks and
he dreamed of releasing his native Azerbaijan. However, for this purpose, it was
necessary to win time, and in 1590. Shah Abbas concluded a peace treaty with the
Osmans. Up to this point, he had in every possible way limited the struggle for
independence on occupied territory. So, before signing the treaty, the Gizilbash
tribes, Qajar and others led by Mahammed Khan Ziyad-oghlu Qajar, won

254

Garabagh from the Turks and besieged Ganja. Under

the request of Shah Abbas, which the Turks
complained about, the siege was removed. Under the
treaty, a large part of the country passed into the
hands of the Osmans. They received Shirvan,
Garabagh, Tabriz and neighboring areas.
The territory Shah Abbas called "Azerbaijan"
remained in his hands as one entire administrative
unit Iskender Munshi, an Azerbaijani historian of the
16th Century, wrote that Shah Abbas kept "proud the
name Azerbaijan - hereditary possession of the
Safavids". Ardebil was announced the capital of
Shah
Abbas`
audience.
Second half on the 18th
Century. Opaque water
colour and gold on paper.

Azerbaijan. Zulfugar Khan Qaramanlu was nominated

as the first Beylarbey of Azerbaijan in 1592. A year
later, Shah Abbas solemnly entered Ardebil. In 1598
Shah Abbas transferred the capital to Isfahan, which

was in the centre of the state.

Shah Abbas received news that Uzbeks had
seized Meshkhed and had put to death more than
40,000 people there. Shah Abbas did not have enough
means for the recruitment of an army, and he gave the
order make coins out of all available magnificent gold
and silver crockery. He said, "My father, blind king
Mahammed Khudabende, frequently said that good
payment will bring many more victories than the best
luck can bring".
On September 14, 1603 Shah Abbas began a
military campaign to liberate Tabriz. For 14 days the
young commander brought his army from Isfahan to
Tabriz, unexpectedly for the Turks. On the road, the
Shah Abbas' Georgian
troops of Amir Gulu Khan Qajar and Zulfugar Khan
guard.
Qaramanlu joined him. When the army approached
Tabriz, the people of the city rose, which helped Shah
Abbas take the city in a short time, and in a month the fortress.
After that, by defeating the Osman army to the west of Tabriz, Shah Abbas
moved his army in the direction of the Araks River. Nakhchivan and Julfa were
surrendered to him without a struggle. Soon Ordubad joined them. Under the
petition of Shah Abbas's Grand Vezir, Ordubadian Hatem Bey, the city of Ordubad
was declared all tax-free.

255

It was the most difficult to

take the strongly fortified Irevan,
the siege on which began on
November 16, 1603. Here Shah
Abbas used for the first time guns
of large caliber, which had been
cast by the known Azerbaijani
foreman and gunner, Bahadir Bey
Topchibashi. For the first time in
about 100 years, the army of the
Safavi State was attacking, and the
Shah Abbas' mosque. 17th Century. Tiflis.
Turkish army was defending. At
the head of the army stood a clever, vigorous, courageous and ambitious 16-yearold man, who set for himself the noble task of restoring the huge Safavi Empire of
Shah Ismail. The fortress was taken in the summer of the next year. Amir Gulu
Khan Qajar was appointed governor of Irevan's region, and Magsud Sultan
Kengerli
was
appointed
governor of Nakhchivan. After
this, Georgia recognized the
vassalage of Shah Abbas. Now
all that remained was to return
Garabagh
and
Shirvan.
Beforehand, Husein Khan
Musahib Qajar was nominated
as Beylarbey of Garabagh.
However,
confrontation with
Shah Abbas I's edict on limestone. 1615. Usta Sayid Taa
ben-Sayyid Amir Badkui. Friday Mosque. Icheri Sheher,
the general forces of the
Baku.
Osmans was still waiting
ahead.
Understanding the danger of the forthcoming battle for the fate of the entire
country, Shah Abbas used traditional tactics of the Safavids - tactics of "scorched
earth". On the scale of cruelty, however, he exceeded all that had been done until
that time. The vast territory that divided Turkey and Shirvan was devastated; the
cities were destroyed and the people resettled in the central regions of Iran. Julfa,
Nakhchiwan and Irevan were destroyed. After coming to Irevan, Turkish troops
headed by Jalal-oghlu Sanan Pasha ended up without food and habitation and were
compelled to return to Van. The troops of Shah Abbas launched an unexpected
attack on the road to Van and defeated the army of Jalal-oghlu.
Then and there Shah Abbas used the tactics of "scorched earth". On the way
from Salinas to Tabriz, a distance of almost 250 km, the country was turned into

256

scorched desert. Despite this, Jalal-oghlu again collected a huge army of almost
100,000 people and moved in the direction of Tabriz. On 7 November 1605, one of
the largest battles in the history of Shah Abbas' wars took place. Here his military
talent was discovered especially brightly. All of the battles were conducted under
Shah Abbas' command. He distributed the basic forces and reserves, which
managed to overpower the superior forces of the enemy. He used unexpected
military cunning. The army of Shah Abbas seized many trophies, including about
100 cannons.

Shah Abbas Meydani. Esfahan. Pascal Coste. 1847.

At once after the victory, Shah Abbas invaded Garabagh and besieged the
fortress in Ganja. The capture of the fortress became possible after only four
months, in the summer of 1606. Mahammed Khan Ziyad-oghlu Qajar was
nominated as governor of Garabagh, taking the place of former governor, Husein
Khan Musahib Qajar. Afterwards, Shah Abbas took Lori, Dmanisi and Tiflis, and
he directed the army to Shirvan. The siege of Shemakha lasted almost half a year.
At this time the people of Baku and Derbent rose and executed the Turkish
garrisons. Thus, in the middle of 1607, all of Azerbaijan, East Kurdistan, Armenia
and Georgia had ended up in the hands of Shah Abbas. Turkish historian Ibrahim
Pechevi wrote about it with despair: "Thus, all that was conquered by Islam
warriors in 10-12 years was completely lost. This godless Shah won all from the
Turks in two years".
The Turks could not agree to the loss of the territories won by Shah Abbas,
and they required a return to the treaty that was signed in 1590. This led to
continuous wars, which ended in the signing of a new peace treaty in 1612, fixing

257

borders. Actually, the Osman government recognized Shah Abbas' conquest. After
the signing of the peace treaty, Shah Abbas invaded Georgia, ruined East Georgia
and took prisoner 30,000 of the peace inhabitants. In reply to this, the huge Turkish
army of 100,000 troops was directed to the Caucasus.
In 1615, following traditional tactics, Shah Abbas ordered Mahammed
Khan Ziyad-oghlu Qajar, Beylarbey of this region, to destroy the Ganja fortress
and to move the capital city area to the Tiflis fortress. Shah Abbas avoided battle
and limited his own actions by blocking communications of the Turkish army with
back areas. In the winter of 1616-1617, the Osmans, who were suffering from
famine and epidemics, retired, carrying huge losses.
During the next year, Khalil Pasha, with a huge army of Turks and Crimean
Tatars, was directed to Tabriz, and then to Ardebil. Shah Abbas had previously left
both cities without battle, by evacuating the population. After refraining from the
general's battle, Shah Abbas at last decided to launch a battle near the place Siniq
Kerpi. Tired by their long march, the Osmans and Tatars suffered a shattering
defeat. Commander of the Osman army, Hasan Pasha, died in the battle.
After that, the Turks agreed to sign the next peace treaty, in September of
1618. Peace, however, was not kept for long. This time, the treaty was violated by
Shah Abbas. In 1622-1623 Shah Abbas invaded Arabian Iraq, including the cities
Baghdad, Kerbala, Najaf, Mosul, Kirkuk and others, as well as Akhaltsikh in
Georgia. In a year, Georgia, under the command of George Saakadze who had
received good military training from Shah Abbas, rose in a struggle against the
Safavids. Saakadze's troops liberated East Georgia and invaded Ganja.
To suppress the revolt, Shah Abbas sent a huge army, which won the battle
over Georgia at Gumushlu on 30 June 1625. Shah displaced the governor of
Garabagh, Mahammed Gulu Khan Ziyad-oghlu Qajar, for cowardice.
Shah Abbas died on 19 January 1629 in the city of Ashraf in Mazandaran at
the age of 58.
An outstanding historian, poet and public figure of Azerbaijan in the 19th
Century, Abbas Gulu Agha Bakikhanov, summarized Shah Abbas's government in
his widely known work, "Gulistan-i Irem". In it, he wrote:
"Shah Abbas, known by his wise management and organization of the state,
constituted civil and military rules and laws, by which Persian Shahs have been
guided until now. Even in European histories, where the advantage of governors is
strictly understood, Shah Abbas, patron of sciences and arts, deserved a name Great. The people of Asia, for whom the memory of this great person has become
an ideal of justice and wisdom, deify him. He erected so many public buildings that
any King of the East cannot be compared to him in this respect.
Mosques and schools in cities, caravanserai and waterworks in the desert,
which spread out over all of Persia and the Caucasus, will yet for a long while
testify about his benefactions. Shah Abbas lived in friendship with all

258

contemporary writers and scientists of Persia, who appeared in greater number in

his time. He himself also sometimes composed verses, which have been highly
esteemed in Persia until now".
Shah Abbas was so popular that he became the hero of Azerbaijani dastans
and fairy tales. He himself wrote verses and patronized scientists, physicians, poets
and painters. It is enough to say that in different times at the Court lived such
known figures of Azerbaijani culture as the poets Masihi and Saib Tabrizi, and the
painters Sadiq Bey Afshar, Ali Riza Tabrizi, and Mir Mahammed Qazwini "Imad
ul Muluk" ("The Support of Power"). There was a palace orchestra conducted by
"chalchibashi". In Shah's library were a lot of religious and everyday books. It was
dignified by the name Blooming Library. The first guardian of the library was the
famous poet, painter and historian, Sadiq Bey Afshar, who obtained the name
Sadiq Kitabdar. After him, it was led by the poet Ali Riza Tabrizi, who was
dignified by the title Abbasi and otherwise known as Shah Navaz (Shah's flatterer).
Shah Abbas completely re-planned Isfahan. On the straight and wide streets,
he had constructed magnificent palaces, mosques, caravanserais, and public houses
embellished by multicoloured tiles. In the center of Shah Abbas's capital was a big
rectangular Royal Square, Shah Meydani, which looked onto Shah's mosque,
palace and park. Shah's mosque (Mosjid-e-Shah) was constructed in 1616 and was
one of the best architectural monuments in the world. All buildings and mosques
were decorated with extravagant gleaming compositions of flowers, geometric
designs and Koranic inscriptions in the distinguished style that started at the Gey
Masjidi (Blue Mosque) in Tabriz. At the time of Shah Safi, the mosque was
decorated with silver gates and marble. Military parades and games of chovqan
(polo) took place on the square. By the planning and structure, and even by the
names of the buildings situated here, the square looked like the squares of
Azerbaijani capitals Tabriz and Qazwin, also called Shah Meydani. There were
also Shah masjide (Shah's Mosque), Chehel Sotun (Forty Columns), Ala Gapi
(palaces) and Haft Beheshi (Eight Paradises). The architects, calligraphers and
builders from AzerbaijanShams ad-Din Mahammed Tabrizi, Qasim Tabrizi,
Abdulatif Tabrizi, Molla Abdulla Tabrizi and others - actively participated in the
construction of Esfahan. Shah Abbas built a special quarter in Esfahan for
craftsmen and masters resettled from Azerbaijan.

259

A Star of First Magnitude

in the Constellation of Talents
Sadig Bey Afshar
Without art, a life is not a life.
Sadiq Bey Afshar
Eminent painter and miniaturist Sadiq Bey Afshar stands out as a star of
first magnitude in a constellation of talents, which Azerbaijan is rich in. As a
prodigy, Sadiq Bey could not limit his creative work to only painting. He tried his
hand in calligraphy (his name is mentioned among the calligraphers of Shah Abbas
I), music, verse, prose, historical chronicles and tazkiries (biography, history and
memoirs). Sadiq Bey was just as talented in all of these areas as he was in painting.
The biography of this
unusually talented man is
reminiscent of an adventure
story. During his life, he was
a wandering dervish, as well
as a manager of property for
a minor ruler. Through some
time, he became a battle hero,
and in intervals between
palace carousals and battles,
he became a hard-working
Rustam Kills a Dragon. Shahnama. Sadiq Bey Afshar. Qazwin.
1576/77. Opaque watercolour and ink on paper. Collection of
disciple and apprentice. At
Prince and Princess Sadruddin Aga Khan.
last, he was appointed
manager of a famous library and art atelier in the royal palace.
Historians who were Sadiq Bey's contemporaries highly valued his poetry.
He wrote under the penname Sadiqi, which means Devoted. Sadiq Bey was the
author of 10 various literary essays in prose and in verse, including "Divans" ("The
Corpus of Poetry"). He also wrote Azerbaijani and Persian verses, as well as a historical epic poem called "Fathname Abbasi-nama" ("The Book of Victories of a
Famous Abbas"), which consisted of several thousand accurate verses about the
campaigns of Shah Abbas I. A well-known Azerbaijani historian from the 17th
Century, Iscander Munshi, compared this poem with Firdowsi's "Shah-Nama",
which was written in the same metre.
In Sadiq Bey's book, "Tazkire Mejmaul-havas", written in Azeri, a lot of
valuable information is given about 480 poets, painters and calligraphers of the
Safavid epoch. This tazkire presents significant interest for those who study

260

Balqis and the Hoopoe. Sadiq Bey Afshar.Qazwin. 1590. Opaque watercolour and ink on paper.
British Museum, London.

261

Azerbaijani and Persian literature and art. Only recently was it translated into Farsi
and issued in Teheran.
The treatise "Ganun as-Sovar"
("Canon of the Images"), written in verse,
was devoted to the technique and practice of
painting and had a character of pedagogical
edification. It brought fame to Sadiq among
experts. Such treatises in the East were scarce
(the majority of the treatise was devoted to
the art of calligraphy encouraged by the
clergy). Consequently, it became a significant
piece of work used in the study of the theory
and practice of medieval painting.
Furthermore, for modern copyists and
restorers, this is an invaluable handbook that
permits reproduction using the techniques of
miniature painting - from the preparation of
brushes and papers to the manufacturing of
natural pigment and glue paints. This is
clearly one of the reasons for the increased
Dervish. Sadiq Bey Afshar. 16th Century.
Separate Miniature.
interest in this treatise among scholars in
Europe.
Sadiq Bey Afshar was from a noble family of the Azerbaijani-Turkic tribe
Afshar. He was born in Tabriz in 1533, and during his childhood he took a great
interest in poetry and painting. At the age of 20, he lost his father and began his
pilgrimage through the Arabian world, dressed in the garb of a dervish.After Sadiq
Bey returned home, he worked in the palaces of various minor rulers. Due to the
vigorous and gifted nature of Sadiq Bey, he soon found palace life idle and dull,
whereupon he wrote, "As long as you live, go for craft and art, and improve your
skill in them as much as you are able. Without art, a life is not a life".
He decided to continue his education and became a pupil of the famous
Tabriz miniaturist, Muzaffar Ali, who was the nephew of the great Behzad.
Sadiq Bey said, "Any work, in my hands, seemed to me simple and easy.
My only dream was possession by Behzad's art...and I spent many years looking
for an ustad (master) similar to Behzad before 1 found him. At last, I found a
teacher ... who is a rare ustad and one of the pupils of Behzad's brush".
During his years of training, Sadiq Bey found time to earn fame with his
own courageous, daring and reckless bravery in the battle against the Astrabad
Turkmans. Sadiq Bey explained that these distinctive features of his temperament
came from his Azerbaijani-Turkic origin. He said that displaying a "Turkic nature

262

and following a gizilbash tradition", he considered himself a very soldierly and

courageous person.
Eight years of training did not pass in vain.
Sadiq Bey, as wrote one of his contemporaries, "has
reached huge success and has become an
unsurpassed painter with thin brushes. He depicts
thousands of amazing portraits".
Sadiq Bey was invited to the royal palace,
and under Shah Ismail II, he worked in the atelier of
the royal library. Then under Shah Mahammed
Khudabende (1578-1587), he was in charge of this
famous library and accepted the name Sadiq
Kitabdar (Sadiqi-Curator of Books). This library,
which had in previous times been headed by the
great artists Behzad and Sultan Mahammed, was
Old Man on a Mule. Sadiq
considered to be the Academy of Arts. In the
Bey Afshar. Late 16th/early
17th Centuries. Bibliotheque
library's workshops and ateliers, books were
Nationale. Paris. Separate
rewritten, illustrated and embellished. Also,
Miniature.
technologies of manufacturing paints and paper were
developed, and art bindings were manufactured.
The staff, consisting of a calligrapher, an ornament
maker, painters and a gilder, prepared bookbinders
on cardboard and on leather.
For some time he worked in this position
and under Shah Abbas I. Then he was replaced by
a talented calligrapher and an even more talented
courtier, Ali-Riza Tabrizi, called "Shah-Navaz"
("Flatterer of the Shah"). However, as wrote
Iskander Munshi in "Tarich-e Alem ara-e Abbasi",
Sadiq Bey formally stayed in his position as
kitabdar.
Sadiq Bey's works were highly appreciated
in his country and beyond. He presented some of
his drawings to the poet Goruri, who had written a
Teymur Khan Turkmens'
Portrait. Sadiq Bey Afshar.
panegyric in his honour. Upon seeing the drawings,
1594. Separate Miniature.
Goruri forewarned Sadiq Bey: "merchants
purchased each sheet of my work for three tuman for delivery in India. Be careful:
I would not sell them cheaper!"
Among the well-known pictures by Sadiq Bey are portraits of Imam Gulu
Khan, Teymur Khan Turkoman, Emir, vagrant dervishes and others. They are
stored in museums in Istanbul, Paris, Boston and St. Petersburg. All of them are

263

Seated Prince. Sadiq Bey

Afshar. Separate Miniature.

executed in a manner characteristic of Sadiq Bey,

transmitting the individual features of each particular
person. Some books illustrated by Sadiq Bey have
disappeared.
Sadiq Bey died at the age of about 80. In the
history of Azerbaijani miniature painting, Sadiq Bey
has remained a magnificent portraitist and innovator in
the realistic reproduction of his surroundings, and he
showed an aspiration to represent perspective. Modern
experts believe that his creative activity has played a
significant role in the evolution of miniature painting in
general, and in particular, in the evolution of the
Isfahan School of Miniature Art in Iran.

The Sheikh of Calligraphers

Ali Riza Tabrizi
At the end of the 16th Century nearly the whole Azerbaijan was occupied
by Turks-Osmans. Famous Tabriz library with art atelier was ruined. Painters
miniaturists, khattats, other masters had to move at first to Qazwin, then Isfahan
due to the transfer of capital cities of Safavid state.
Among these refugees was a very talented calligrapher, decorator, painterminiaturist and poet, Nizami ad-Din Ali Riza Tabrizi. He wrote in seven scripts but
succeeded in nastalig and naskhi-suls. His biographical data is very scarce. It is
only known that Ali Riza Tabrizi spent his youth in Tabriz, where he learned the
naskhi-suls script from Al ad-Din Mahammed Tabrizi, and nastalig from
Mahammed Husein. The latter wrote in verses to teach Ali Riza about the role of
handwriting in art.
After the Turks captured Tabriz in 1585, Ali Riza moved to Qazwin and
settled there. He participated in the decoration of the mosque of Qazwin, rewrote a
few highly artistic copies of the Koran and started teaching.
Soon Ali Riza took service with the Khorasan sardar, Abul Mansur Farhad
Khan Garamanlu. Stones about the works of the talented master reached the court,
and Shah Abbas took on Ali Riza.
Ali Riza succeeded not only in the art of calligraphy, but also in the art of
intrigue and flattery. His success was so great that he was titled Abbasi. Besides,
Ali Riza Tabrizi wrote verses and had the literary pseudonym Shah-Navaz
(Flatterer of the Shah).

264

Ali Riza was nominated as the head of the Shah's library, which had been
managed quite deservedly by the well-known poet and painter Sadiq Bey Afshar
since the time of Mahammed Khudabende's rule. Straight after his appointment,
Ali Riza, by order of Shah Abbas, created an album composed of the best works of
famous calligraphers and painters.
From 1602 to 1604, Ali Riza was in Meshhed, where he made inscriptions
and ornaments on the entombment of the eighth Shii imam-Musa ar-Riza. The

Sufi Poem by Jami. Ali Reza Tabrizi. 1598. Isfahan. Opaque watercolour, ink and gold on paper.

work wa s done on such a highly artistic level that Shah Abbas asked Ali Riza to
decorate the most important governmental buildings and mosques in Isfahan.
Among them were inscriptions in large suls on the gates of the mosque of Magsud
Bey, the mosque of Sheikh Lutfullah and the mosque of Shah Abbas I.
Several manuscripts executed by Ali Riza are presently well known. Among
them are medieval manuscripts of Azerbaijan, in which the scholar Kaziyev
mentioned "Timur-nama" by Khatifi, 1568; a book of conversations between Shah
Tahmasib I and Ambassador of Turkey Sultan Suleyman I, which was copied with
the nastalig script in 1601/02; "Sahbat ul-Abrar" by Abd ur-Rahman Jami, 1613; a
corpus that consists of different verses; and a copy of "Mehr-i Shafai".
In 1616, Ali Riza and other masters and astronomers designed the plan of
the restoration of the Maragha observatory. He also tried his forces in the art of
miniature and poetry.
One of his biographers, Mirza Sanglah, wrote that Ali Riza died at the age
of 125 and was honoured one more title: Sheikh-ul Khattatin (Sheikh of
Calligraphers).
Ali Riza Tabrizi's son, Badi az-Zaman Tabrizi, choose his father's path and
became known as a talented calligrapher. He possessed perfect nastalig handwrit-

265

ing and was nicknamed Nikni-gar (Having Beautiful Handwriting). Badi enjoyed
authority among scientists, due to his deep knowledge of Persian, Azeri and
Arabic. Badi was also a well-known poet. A fragment of his verse, which he wrote
on a separate sheet, is stored in the Institute of Manuscripts of Azerbaijan.
If you go to Meshhed or Isfahan, please look at the arabesques that decorate
the mosques and entombments of these famous cities, and take note of our
outstanding countryman Ali Riza Tabrizi.
Azerbaijani Don Juan
at the Spanish Royal Court
Don Juan Persian
Oruj Bey, an Azeri from the Turkic-Gizilbash'sian tribe Bayat, wrote "Don
Juan Persian", which was published in 1604. The book was written in Spanish and
published in Valladolid, the capital of the Spanish
Kingdom, just one year before the appearance of
"Don Quixote", by Servantes. Oruj Bey arrived in
Spain as a secretor of the Safavid Embassy, and he
decided to stay there for good. The publishing of the
book was an outstanding event because it was the first
book by an Azeri writer to be published in Europe. In
addition, the issue of the book and the reception for
Oruj Bey at the Royal Court proved to be the highest
level of education of Azeri graduates of universities
of that lime. The sonnets written in honour of Oruj
Bey at the Royal Court of Spain described his
aristocratism,
his high level of education and his love
Mahammed Riza Bey Safavid ambassador in
of painting. The members of the Royal family sought
France. 1715. Jermen Gilon.
out his company.
In 1926, after long years of oblivion, the book was translated into English
and published in London, and in 1959, it was translated into Persian. The book was
translated into Russian and published in Baku by the famous Azeri historianmedievalist Octay Effendiev, with the help of Akif Farzalliyev, with comments and
introduction.
The biography of Oruj Bey (Don Juan), included afterwards, was made on
the basis of the information given by Oruj Bey himself in his book. Oruj Bey, as
some researches had supposed, was born in 1560. His father, Sultan Bey Gizil, a
noble representative of the Turkic-Gizilbash an tribe, was a close retainer of
Mahammed Khudabende, Safavid Shah and his son Khamza Mirza.

266

During the years of Khudabende's rule of the

country, Osmans occupied almost all parts of
Azerbaijan. Therefore, the Safavid government
concentrated all their forces on releasing Tabriz from the
Osmans. Young Oruj Bey and his father participated in
the battles for Tabriz. Sultanali Bey sacrificed his life
heroically in one of those struggles in 1585, and Oruj
Bey took the detachment of 300 people under his
command, which was gathered by his father's own
account. Oruj Bey participated in most of the military
actions led by Hamza Mirza. After Shah Abbas, an
outstanding general and statesman, took the Safavid
throne, Oruj Bey participated in a lot of his military
actions. After taking Gerat, Oruj Bey was promoted to a
higher post in the army.
As Oruj Bey's authority of honorable military and
political figure was strong enough at that time, he was
the first candidate nominated by Shah Abbas for an antiOsmanian Embassy directed to Europe. The Embassy,
headed by Huseinali Bey, left the country in 1599. The
mission consisted of four secretors and five service
assistants. Oruj Bey was assigned first secretor of the
Mahammed Riza Bey Safavid Ambassador in
Embassy. The diplomatic mission, authorized by Shah
Paris. 1715. Jermen Gilon.
Abbas, was to visit eight European countries, including
Russia, Germany, Spain, France,
Poland, Venice, England and
Scotland.
The Embassy went from
Esfahan through Qum and Qazwin,
directly to Gilan, and from there, to
Astrakhan by ship. Then they sailed
along the Volga to Kazan, and
continued in a sledge through Nijniy
Novgorod and Vladimir to Moscow.
Shah Abbas I with Osman Ambassadors. 1609.
Tsar Boris Godunov warmly
accepted the delegation in Moscow. Because of the rain and snow, they had to stay
in the city for five months.
In the beginning of 1600, the Embassy, with many presents received from
the Tsar, continued to the West. From Arkhangelsk, the mission went by ship to
the mouth of the Elba and sailed up the river to Emden. They went through

267

Germany in eight coaches. During their entire journey to Prague, they were greatly
accepted by all the landowners in Bohemia.
The Embassy was solemnly met in Prague
by Emperor Rudolf II (1576-1612), grandson of
Ferdinand I. The travelers rested in the Imperial
Palace for three months, and in the spring of
1601, their path led through Nuremberg, Munich
and other towns in Germany, to Italy. The
Embassy was met by the duke of the famous
family Bonzaga in his residence in Mantua. Then
Oruj Bey went with other delegates through
Verona and Ferrara to Florence. They stayed for
two days in the palace of the Grand Duke of
Tuscany, Ferdinand I. The Prince himself and his
wife Christine, granddaughter of Queen
Catherine Medici, met them in Pisa, where the
delegation stayed for 10 days. From there, the
mission went to Rome to visit the Pope. More
Shah Ismail I with Osman
Ambassadors. Zeynalabdin Tabrizi.
than 1,000 carriages, 4,000 riders and crowds of
people met them in front of the gates of the city.
The delegation paid a visit to the Pope and stayed in Rome for two months.
From Rome, Huseinali Bey and the rest of delegation went to Florence on
freighted galleys, and then on horseback through Avignon, Montpelier and
Perpinian to Barcelona. From there, they took occasional breaks to the capital of
the Spanish Kingdom, Valladolid, There, having given the message of Shah Abbas
to the King of Spain, Philip III, the diplomatic mission had accomplished its task,
and having made the trip around Spain, the Embassy arrived at the time to return
home. Everything was well except for one unpleasant surprise: three secretors of
the Embassy decided to convert to Christianity and to stay in Spain.
King of Spain Philip III himself became godfather to Ali Gulu Bey and
gave him the name Don Philip Persian. Bunyad Bey was the second christened and
was given the name Don Diego Persian. Our Oruj Bey turned out to be the last
apostate and was named in his new religion Don Juan Persian. Margarita Austrian,
the Queen of Spain, was his godmother.
Almost nothing is known about the further life of Oruj Bey in Spain. There
is only one piece of information from his contemporaries: Oruj Bey had a
bickering with the Persian Ambassador on 15 May 1605 and killed the latter in a
duel.
The information about the historical events, gathered from Oruj Bey and his
travel notes, show him as an observant person with the habit of generalising substances. For example, speaking about Safavid Iran, he wrote: "Now we have 33

268

clans of noble families, having been recognized in Persia, and they have had a
great influence in the country". Here he named the following: Ustajlu, Shamlu,
Afshari, Turkomani, Bayati, Tekelu, Kharmandalu, Zulkardarlu, Qajar, Garamanlu,
Beyburtlu, Ispirlu, Oryat, Chaushlu, Asoyishlu, Chamish-Kazaklu, Saruzolaklu,
Garabajaklu, Bakhaarlu, Kuyniorilu, Kirklu, Boshalu, Haji Phakilu, Hamzalu
Zolahlu, Mahmudlu, Garachomahlu, Gara Goyunlu, Gezi-Bayizlu, Peiklu, Inazlu
and Khuh-Giluyalu. Referring to this, he stated that even with Shah Abbas, who
always tried to decrease the authority of the Gizilbashian noble society, the ruling
of all of Iran was still in the hands of the Azeris.
The lines written by Oruj Bey about Spain were very similar to what was
reported on television from the Olympic Games in Barcelona in 1988, although
they were written almost 400 years ago: "All those folk festivities, as it seemed to
us, were celebrated in Spain much better than in any kingdom or country we had
visited before, because Spanish people inherent a magnificence and self-mastery
which most people lack".
Reading Oruj Bey's description of the life in Moscovia, we are reminded of
the past years: "Nobody is accepted to be treated if he is a foreigner. Nobody, in
the scare of death, is allowed to go to a different country and to have
communication with other people and to study there". About Persian people, he
wrote, "They are always jealous of their wives. This is their ancient characteristic
feature".
In conclusion, it must be stated that Oruj Bey was, no doubt, an outstanding
personality, and his work, written without the conventional Shah's censorship, is a
valuable source of historical information about Azerbaijan, Iran, the Caucasus, and
other bordering countries.
Oruj Bey himself compared his traveling, without a sense of confusion, with
the travels of Marco Polo and Magellan. However, there is one more question
which still remains unclear: if Oruj Bey could have served as a prototype of the
Ladies'man, Don Juan, described by the Spanish dramatist Tirso de Molika in his
1630 drama "Sevilian Mischief-Maker or Stone Guest". Or, vice versa, if during
his christening, Oruj Bey was given the name popular in Spain due to some
resemblance to the real hero.
A Famous Doctor and Poet
Rugn ad-din Masud Masihi
Masihi is one of the most outstanding poets and physicians of the 17th
Century. He came from a hereditary family of physicians. His father Nizam ad-Din
Ali was the court doctor of various governors of Iran and India. His brothers Nasir
and Qutba and son Mahammed Husein also were doctors. All of them like most

269

educated people of their time wrote verses. Nizam ad-Din Ali dealt with medical
education of his son and from young age Masihi not only began medical practice,
but also wrote for physicians- practician, a book called "Zabitat ul-alaj" ("Rules of
the Treatment"). However, Masihi is now known more as poet, though a large part
his poetic heritage was lost. Except for number
of lyrical and epic writings, there servived and
brought him glory the only poem " Varga and
Gulsha ", written in 1629 in Azeri. Unique
manuscript copies of the poem are kept at the
British Museum and the library of Teheran
University.
The second manuscript, as it follows
from an inscription, belonged first to Beylarbey
of Garabagh, Ughurlu Khan Ziyad-oghlu Qajar
(appointed as Beylarbey in 1664), who always
patronized scientists and poets and was not a
bad poet. Then somehow it got in Moscow,
whence a certain Huseingulu, son of
Mahammed Khatamis Kadkhamini in 1749/50
Mughal Miniature. 18th Century.
redeemed it and brought to Teheran.
Jahangir seated next to Safavid
The London manuscript was copied in
Emperor Shah Abbas I and attended
by Asaf Khan, the Queen's brother;
17 years after the completion of the poem, but
Nur Jahan (left); and Khan-i Alam
the Garabagh copy in four years. Copyist's
(right), the Mughal ambassador to
name became known from Ughurlu Khan's
Persia.
manuscript. It was well-known Khabibullah ibn
Asadullah Dumbuli. The work "Dane va Dan" (" Grain and trap") and " Zanbur
vaasal " (" Bee and Honey "), written also in Azeri, havn't been discovered so far.
Works of Masihi written on themes of Nizami's poems are not found either.
The information on life and creativity of Masihi is collected on the basis of
the analysis of medieval tazkirists' works by Aliyar Safarly.
The time of life of the physician - poet goes back to approximately 1579/80
- 1655/56. Masihi was born in Tabriz. It is known that Masihi's father at first
removed from Tabriz to Qazwin after removal of the Court of
Shah Tahmasib, and then, when the Shah Abbas transfereed the capital
further away east wards, the court doctor appeared in Isfahan.
Full name of the poet was Ruqn ad-Din Masud Masihi. Frequently he was
called simply doctor Ruqna. Masihi (Masikh, Masikha) -is his literary pseudonym.
Masihi was educated in Isfahan. He perfectly knew Azeri, Persian and Arabic,
studied medicine, philosophy, logic, astrology, theology and versification. Like
many of his contemporaries, Masihi was devoted to calligraphy, gained great

270

successes on this track. Verses he wrote in Azeri and Persian. His writings number
about 100,000 beyts(distich).
Like his father, Masihi as court doctor of Shah Abbas came to the Palace.
Owing to his erudition high level of poetical skill, Masihi became closer with
Shah, became his nearest adviser.
Medieval tazkirists wrote, that Shah frequently stayed at Masihi's home and
attended his majlises. Masihi was regarded as Shah's adviser and accompanied him
in many campaigns. After quarrel with Shah, Masihi left for India together with an
other doctor Heydar.
Doctor Heydar, like Masihi, was talented poet, writing in Azeri. It is known
that Shah Abbas issued a decree of the translation of his poetical stories into
Persian.
In India, Masihi held medical practice under the court of hakims of different
ranks, including Shah Akbar and Shah Jahangir from dynasty of Great Mughals.
The authority of Masihi as doctor, at the court was very great. A testimony to the
fact is an episode from his life under the court of Shah Jahangir.
Following an insignificant fault, proud doctor Ruqna was asked to leave the
court. However, in a year, when Shah was gravelly ill and no court doctors could
help him, he with apologies was invited to return and continue to perform his as
doctor.
He lived and worked in Agra, Allahabad, Jeypur, other towns of India. Here
he frequently met with his countrymen. In particular, Masihi met well-known
Azerbaijan poet Saib Tabrizi. Many tazkirists considered Saib as Masihi's disciple.
Their friendship had a positive effect on the creativity of both poets.
One of the first "Divans" of Masihi after his death was compiled by Saib
Tabrizi. Tazkirist Mirza Tahir Nas-rabadi, familiar with Masihi, wrote that in
Saib's home there were ten "Divans" of Masihi. In Bengal, Masihi met with Azeri
scients Husein ibn Kalar Burkhan Tabrizi, author of the dictionary "BurkhaneGate".
In 1632, Masibi came back home from India, after having stayed there for
more than 20 years. On the occasion of his return, poet Ovji Nazari wrote verses: "
Thousand gratefulness to God that I had saw doctor Ruqna. His treatment, like old
wine, is fresh and perfect, gives doctors an idea of natural life. Let wine cup be
filled who helped my hands reach up to wineglass ".
On return home, Masihi presented his poem " Varga and Gulsha " to Shah
Sefi. The court, however, him did not recieve him properly, he spend the rest of his
life in poverty. Doctor Ruqna died at the age of 81 in the town of Kashan, not
decliming from medical practice to last days of his life.

271

The Last
Great Classical Poet
of Iran and Azerbaijan
Saib Tabrizi
One of the most prominent poets of the Orient of the 17th Century was Saib
Tabrizi, who wrote in Azeri and Persian. Mirza Mahammed Ali Saib Tabrizi was
born in 1601 in Tabriz, the capital of Azerbaijan, where he received primary
education. His father, Mirza Abdulrahim, was a merchant and, as well known
tazkirist Nasrabadi pointed out, was a reputed bargainer, "worthy of trust". His
paternal uncle, Shams ad-Din Mahammed Tabrizi, was a magnificent calligrapher,
famous under the name of Shirin-Kalam (Sweet Pen).
The Osmans invaded Tabriz
during the reign of Tahmasib at the end
of the 16th Century, after which Shah
Abbas moved many Tabrizians to
Isfahan. Among them was Saib's father.
There, Saib continued his studies and
poetic activity. His teachers were
prominent scientists of that time, Kashi
and Shafai. By the end of his studies, he
was already well known in Isfahan as a
well-educated figure and a talented poet.
Further, as it was accepted in that period, Saib started his life of wandering.
He visited Mecca and Adina, and he went to Turkey, where he met scientists and
poets and acquainted them with his own poetry. In Isfahan, where Saib soon
returned, the poet faced a cold reception, and in 1625 he left for India. From
Isfahan, he moved to Kabul. Governor of Kabul Mirza Ahsanulla Navvab, who
was known in the poetic world under the pseudonym Zafarkhan, received Saib as a
respected guest in his palace.
In 1630, Zafarkhan brought Saib to the Palace of the Great Mughal Shah
Jahan. (Later, Shah Jahan became known throughout the world as the creator of the
mausoleum for his wife, the Taj Mahal). Shah Jahan received the poet with
significant homage and honoured him with high status.
At this court, Saib met Masihi, the famous Azerbaijani physician and poet
who wrote the poem "Gulshen and Varga". Masihi performed the duties of the
Shah's chief physician.
The friendship between the poets lasted for many years and positively
influenced the creativity of both of them, though many tazkirists considered Masihi
to be Saib's teacher. Saib highly appreciated the poetical talent of Masihi and was

272

one of the first people to put together his "Divan" straight after his death. Tazkirist
Mirza Tahir Nasrabadi wrote that there were 10 of Masihi's "Divans" in Saib's
house. A few years later, Saib's father arrived in India, bringing with him
permission for the poet to return to Isfahan. Zafarkhan, already governor of
Kashmir, let Sahib go home in 1633. However, for some reason the poet did not
stay in Isfahan for long and again started travelling.
He visited Meshhed, Qum, Qazwin, Yezd,
Ardebil and Tabriz, and then came back to
Isfahan. There, Saib was received with great
honours and was invited to the palace of Shah
Abbas II (1642-1666). In the palace, Saib was
given the title Maliki-Shuara, or head of court
poets. He composed several lyrical verses and
kasids. Saib Tabrizi created a new trend in poetry,
which Iranian scholars define as the Isfahan style.
Here it would be appropriate to note that he is
known in India as the founder of the Indian
school Persian poetry.
While at the court, Saib wrote about the
Shah's feats of arms in his kasids and epic poems.
Of particular significance from a literary
standpoint was the poem Kandahar-name. It was devoted to the military campaign
of Shah Abbas II in Afghanistan and the capture of Kandahar in 1649.
After the advent of the rule of Shah Suleyman (1666-1694), Saib's status at
the court weakened and he had to leave Isfahan.
Saib devoted the last 10 years of his life to putting his own works in order
and classifying them. He compiled thematic volumes of verses: Mir'atul-Jamal,
Arayishenigar and Vajibul-Khifz.
Saib created a huge poetic heritage. Some scholars believe that he was the
author of about 300,000 beyts (couplets). The well-known Azerbaijani scholar
Mahammed Ali Tarbiyat wrote about Saib's Divan in his book "Prominent Figures
of Azerbaijan", indicating 120,000 beyts (not including poems).
Saib Tabrizi died in 1677 in Isfahan, where he was buried.
Seyid Azim Shirvani, Husein Efendi Gayibov, Firidun Kocharli, the scholar
Arasli and Azeroghlu all studied Saib Tabrizi's creativity. His poetry was carefully
analysed in Iran, India and in the West. Saib's talent and his leading position in the
poetry of the Orient are generally recognised. Czech orientalist Yan Rinka
considers that after Hafiz and Saadi, Saib Tabrizi was the brightest poet in Iran.
Crimski believes that Saib was the teacher of the Iranian poets of the 17th Century.
Bertels saw Saib as the Hafiz of the 17th Century. Outstanding Indian scholar

273

Shibli Neman considers Saib to have been the last great poet of Iran. Saib Tabrizi
was the last poet of the old school.
The history of literature is noted for its regularity. The higher the authority
of the poet, the more cities and countries regard him as their own poet. So it was
with Homer, Nizami, Nasimi, Shakespeare and many others. These disputes have
proceeded for many centuries, and it will probably never be resolved as to where
each personality belongs. The destiny of Saib developed a little differently. The
poet is considered to be native Azeri, Iranian and Indian. Nobody casts doubt on it,
since Saib did so much for each of these nations. Saib, however, always emphasized the role of Tabriz in the formation of his poetic talent, and he stressed his
Tabriz origin. He praised the beauty of this city:
If Saadi is from the clay of Shiraz,
Saib is from the clean ground of Tabriz.

The Shah of Persia Elected by the

Great Azeri-Turkic
Gurultay (Congress)
Nadir Shah Afshar
Safavi Iran experienced a terrible economic and political crisis at the end of
the 17th and beginning of the 18th Centuries. The central and eastern parts of the
country fell under the authority of the Afghans. Turkey had occupied Azerbaijan,
Shirvan and neighboring provinces. Russia had intensified its activities in the
Caucasus. In 1723, Peter I launched a campaign against Baku and occupied the
entire Caspian area.
Only Mazandaran actually remained independent. Governor of Asterabad,
Fatah Khan Qajar, ruled there. He received prince Tahmasib, son of Sultan Husein
Shah, who had escaped from the Afghans and soon after proclaimed himself Shah.
In the country, tensions intensified between the nobility and both peasantry
and the urban population. There was no leader to take the lead of the struggle
against the conquerors. Such a person soon appeared. It was the little known Nadir
Gulu Khan Afshar.
Nadir Gulu Khan, future Shah of Iran, came from the Qirqlu family of the
Azeri-Turkic tribe Afshar, who had been resettled by Shah Ismail I from
Azerbaijan to Khorasan. Nadir Gulu was bom in 1688 to a poor family of sheep
skinners.
When the young man was 18 years old, he and his mother were abducted
into slavery, after the raid of Khorezm Uzbeks. Nadir Gulu soon escaped from
captivity and on his way back to Khorasan, he joined the army of Baba Ali Bey,

274

governor of Abiverd. He mastered a small army and gradually subordinated a few

provinces of Khorasan.
Nadir Gulu Khan's further
victorious drive on Khorasan was
stopped by the powerful feudal lord
Melik Mahmud.
Nadir Gulu Bey sought help
from Tahmasib. When Shah Tahmasib
and Fatali Khan Qajar arrived with
troops in Khorasan in 1726 to
overthrow Melik Mahmud and restore
the power of the Shah in Iran, Nadir
Nadir Shah Receiving an Ottoman Envoy. 1730sGulu and his soldiers joined the Shah's
1740s. Opaque watercolour and gold on paper.
army.
Private Collection.
Tahmasib nominated Nadir Gulu
as vicegerent of Khorasan, and he adopted the name of Tahmasib Gulu Khan. Shah
Tahmasib needed Nadir Gulu Khan, among other reasons, to neutralize Fatali Khan
Qajar, whose influence was quickly growing. However, it seemed insufficient for
the Shah, and not to a smaller degree to
Nadir, and during the siege of Meshhed,
Fatali Khan Qajar was killed on Shah
Tahmasib's order. Nadir's report to the
Shah that Fatali Khan had allegedly held a
secret alliance with Melik Mahmud served
the occasion.
Nadir Gulu Khan was appointed
commander-in-chief of the Shah's army.
Soon Nadir defeated Melik Mahmud's
army and killed Melik Mahmud.
Nadir Shah's Equestrian Statue. Meshhed,
Afterwards, Nadir's standing at the court
Iran.
strengthened significantly. In 1727, Nadir
completely broke off with Shah Tahmasib and began his struggle for power in the
whole of Khorasan.
Nadir gained a number of victories over Kurdish and Turkman tribes who
got out of his control, as well as Shah Tahmasib's army.
The Shah recognized his defeat and searched for ways of reconciliation. By
that time, Nadir had united all of northeast Iran by launching a number of
successfl campaigns. His success greatly worried the Afghan Shah in Iran,
Ashraf. The latter moved his army to Khorasan for the struggle against Nadir.
On 30 September 1729, Ashraf was overwhelmed in a battle on the river
Mihmandost. This battle of Nadir was a brilliant victory to liberate the country

275

from forcigners. Ashrafs army receded to Teheran, and then to Isfahan. The
Turkish Sultan sent a large army to the aid of Afghan Shah Ashraf, realising
correctly that having fnished with the Afghans, Nadir Shah would make his way to
Azerbaijan.
The decisive battle between Nadir and
Ashraf occurred on 13 November 1729 near
Isfahan. This time, Nadir gained a victory over
a united Afghan-Turkish army. Thc chaotic
escape of Afghans began. They were so
frightened that they left Isfahan without a battle.
Nadir solemnly entered the city and, with his
own hand, he put an Iranian crown on Shah
Tahmasib's head. After some time, Nadir
directed his troops after the Afghans to the
province of Fars. Nadir again won a victory,
and Ashraf died during the escape. The eastern
part of the country was completely liberated. It
was then necessary to liberate Azerbaijan and
some neighboring regions from the Ottomans.
Battle Scene with Nadir Shah on
In 1731, Nadir Gulu Khan defeated the
Horseback. Ali Qulu Jabbadar.
Turks and liberated Azcrbaijan, Hamadan and
Isfahan. Mid-18th Century. Opaque
watercolour and gold on paper.
Kermanshah. Turks remained only north of the
Museum of Fine Art. Boston.
Arax.
In an attempt to enhance his authority, Tahmasib decided to liberate the
region using his own forces.
Tahmasib suffered a defeat, and in 1731 he concluded a shameful peace
treaty for his country, under which all of the areas north of the Arax and some
areas of Kermanshah were to pass over to the Turks. Nadir Gulu Khan did not
recognize this treaty. Observing an ancient Turkic custom, he invoked in 1732 a
Gurultay (congress) of Kfans and nobility, which overthrew Tahmasib. His eightmonth-old son Abbas III was announced Shah. All power fell com-pletely in thc
hands of Nadir. Then he won victory after victory, and within two years he had
liberated all of Azerbaijan and East Georgia from the Turks.
Bakikhanov wrote that the military talent of Nadir Gulu Khan manifested
itself during the siege of Ganja, where there was a Turkish garrison to defend it.
The siege was delayed, however, and the garrison did not surrender hoping to get
aid from Turkish Commander Abdulla Pasha. He camped in Kars and supported
the spirits of the besieged troops by constantly promising to help.
Leaving a part of the army at the walls of Ganja and blocking the road to
Daghestan, Nadir and 15,000 soldiers moved to Kars. Not wanting to risk entering
into battle with Nadir, Abdulla Pasha proved his worth as a gifted warlord and

276

locked in the fortress to prepare for a long siege. Wishing to speed up events, Nadir
lifted the siege at night and fell back.
Abdulla Pasha swallowed this bait and began pursuing Nadir up to Irevan
with a strong army of 100,000 troops. There, in the south-west of Ichmeadzin
Nadir unexpectedly turned back and came upon the
Turkish army. The unexpected attack brought panic to
the Turkish soldiers and Nadir Gulu Khan won a
complete victory. After this, the garrisons of Irevan
and Tiflis surrendered at the discretion of the victor.
By the end of 1735, the Caucasus were
completely cleared of Turkish troops, which was
possible due to the great victories of Nadir. It is
Abbasi. Silver. Nadir Shah
Afshar. Daghestan. 1154
important to stress the local population's help to Nadir
(1741).
Gulu Khan in his struggle against the Turks, and their
later struggle with Nadir Gulu Khan. In this struggle, the future independent
Azerbaijani Khanates were shaped. The frst that came out of submission to Nadir
Shah became the Sheki Khanate.
According to the Ganja treaty of
1735, Russia ceded Baku to Nadir, and
Peter I seized Derbent on condition that he
would continue the struggle against Turkey
and not make a separate peace agreement
with Ottoman Turkey.
In 1736 a peace treaty was
concluded, under which all the territories
within the borders of Safavi Iran in 1722
were returned to Nadir. Only the peoples of
The throne of Nadir Shah. 18th Century.
Daghestan remained recalcitrant, always
This throne was presented by Nadir Shah to
Ottoman Sultan Mahnud I (1730-1754).
orientating towards Sunni Turkey. Nadir
Gold, precious diamonds and enamel
directcd troops to Daghestan, nearly
embelish the throne.
reached Qazy Qumukh and came back.
Nadir nominated his native brother Ibrahim Khan as Governor General of the
newly established areas of Azerbaijan.
For the first time in many years, the huge territory of Great Azerbaijan was
administratively subordinated to one person. Now the borders of Safavi Iran had
almost completely been restored, and it was necessary to restore its destroyed
economy.
The representatives of the old the Safavi Dynasty had lost their authority
among the feudal nobility and people, and they were hardly capable of saving the
country from breaking up. Nadir decided to choose the next Shah. For this purpose,

277

he again invoked the Gurultayin the Mughan steppe, observing ancient Turkic
customs. At the Gurultay, he gathered military, civil and religious nobility, as well
as town and country leaders. On the whole, there were about 100,000 people there,
including servants. About 12,000 temporary buildings were erected for them out of
wood and reed, including mosques, bath-houses and bazaars.
On the New Year holiday, Novruz Bayram, on 21 March 1736, Nadir Gulu
Khan suggested that the Gurultay select a Shah from their people, as Shah Abbas
III was a baby and Nadir Gulu Khan had become tired from the affairs and
declined from authority.
The Gizilbash (the Azerbaijan military nobility) was obliged with their rise
to the Safavids and, certainly, opposed to changing the dynasty. However, it was
only Beylarbey of Garabagh and Ganja Ughurlu Khan Qajar who spoke openly
about it; as a result, he lost a greater portion of his possessions. He owned the
region of Ganja and therefore bore the title of Ganja Beylarbey. A larger part of
Qajars from Garabagh was resettled in Khorasan.
When the Gurultay crowned Nadir under the name Nadir Shah, he had to be
entreated for a long time before he agreed to accept this title. Then Nadir gavc all
the participants of the Gurultay expensive souvenirs, including slaves that were
mainly of Armenian and Georgian origin.
After the advent of his power, Nadir Shah waged war and his military
genius did not let him down. During his campaigns, Nadir Shah hoped to restore
the national economy and win over the Gizilbash nobility, who were dissatisfied by
the change in the dynasty.
In 1737 Nadir Shah marched out against the rebellious Afghans and
occupied Herat and Kandahar. Then he started a campaign in India, which received
the Afghan refugees. Without difficulty, Nadirs army approached Qarnalu
(northwest of Delhi), where on 24 February 1739 he defeated the army of the Great
Mughal Mahammad Shah, and on 20 March he occupied Delhi.
The Mughal State paid a huge contribution worth 6 million rupees in cash
and 500 million rupians in precious stones. The military booty was estimated at
700 million rupees. A greater portion of the riches was taken to Qelat, where it was
kept until the death of Nadir Shah. Nadir Shah withdrew some precious stones and
kept them for himself. This displeased the warriors. The contribution included a
diamond called Qukhi-Nur (A Mountain of Light), which was famous throughout
the world. It also included a "peacock throne", which was spangled with precious
stones. After conquering India, Nadir subjugated Sind and undertook an expedition
to Central Asia.
Despite persistent resistance, Nadir Shah annexed Bukhara and Khiva
Khanates to his state in 1740. In 1741 Nadir Shah launched a campaign in
Daghestan. The fact is that while Nadir Shah was capturing India, the highlanders
had got out of subordination. Their troops regularly made attacks on Derbent,

278

Shemakha, Kakheti and Jaro-Belokan. In 1738 during the battle of Janika, the
troops of Ibrahim Khan, Nadir Shah's brother, were defeated by allied troops of the
highlanders. Ibrahim Khan and Uhurlu Khan Qajar, Beylarbey of Ganja, were
killed.
In Daghestan, Nadir Shah met persistent resistance. Despite a number of
victories in the beginning of 1743, Nadir Shah had to retreat from Daghestan.
However, in order to maintain his prestige in Daghestan, a coin with the name of
Nadir Shah was made.
Aspiring to restore his reputation that had been undermined in Daghestan,
Nadir Shah waged war against Turkey with the purpose of occupying Arabian lraq.
However, this war proceeded with variable success and did not lead to a victory,
since part of the army had to be transferred to Iran and neighboring countries to
suppress overt actions against Nadir.
In 1746 Nadir concluded a peace treaty with Turkey, under which the
previous borders remained as they were. Nadir Shah transferred the capital from
the ruined Isfahan to Meshhed, where he built the fortress Qelat on an
unapproachable mountaintop and where he kept treasures. For the construction of
the fortress, Azerbaijani peasants dragged marble blocks weighing up to 15 tonnes.
Approximately at the same time, hc began building a fleet in the Persian
Gulf and the Caspian Sea, hoping this re-equipped army would attract European
experts. A special place in the army was occupied by artillery and tufankchi
infantrymen armed with heavy muskets. Ahuge fortifed centre was created in
Merv to cast new guns, mortar and cannonballs. Nadir Shah's only interest was
war. When he learned that there was no warfare in paradisc, he asked, "How then
can there be any delight there?"
All this entered into Nadir Shah's extensive plans for further conquest. He
dreamed of seizing the entire coast of the Caspian Sea, subduing China ad
creating a large state. However, his plans failed to come true.
The policy of centralization, which he pursued, did not coincide with the
interests of the determined feudal nobil-ity. In 1741, when he was moving through
the Mazandaran forest, an attempt was made on him. Then the failures in
Daghestan and a number of uprisings in 1743-1747 followed. Disappointed by
these misfortuncs, Nadir Shah began to resort to mass execution, which involved
members of his own family. As part of a conspiracy in June 1747, Nadir was killed
at night in his tent. So tragically came the end of the life of the Napoleon of the
East, as many historians titled him.

279

The Courageous
Freedom Fighter
Haji Chelebi
The outstanding political figure and
talented commander Haji Chelebi Shekili entered
into history as the founder of the independent
Sheki Khanate. He was a distant relative of
Danish Khan, who in 1551 led the revolt of
Shekinians against Safavi Shah Tahmasib I.
Haji Chelebi was one of the first Khans
who ceased to obey Nadir Shah and announced
the Sheki Khanate as independent. Everything
began with mass protests against Nadir Shah's
severe tax policy in Shirvan and Daghestan. The
wave of disorder went beyond the boundaries of
Panel on the wall of the central
Sheki.
hall on the first floor in the palace
Melik Najaf was appointed by Nadir Shah
of Sheki Khans.
to govern the region, but by unreasonable
exaction and cruelty he managed to get the local population against himself. The
inhabitants of Sheki lodged their complaints to Nadir Shah, who at that time was
near Derbent. Nadir Shah was frightened by the growing discontent of the people
and decided to smooth out the incident.
He offered the Sheki dignities to choose an authorized
person to send to his encampment. At the end of 1741 a
representative was chosen: it was the prosperous Haji
Chelebi, who enjoyed high authority. The Shah nominated
him as vekil of the Sheki region, and he was authorized to
supervise Melik Najaf `s taxation.
Hence, Haji Chelebi actually seized power in Sheki.
He openly interfered with affairs, compromising Melik
Najaf `s competence. Najaf, in turn, lodged a complaint
against Haji Chelebi. Nadir Shah, not desiring to lose such a rich territory,
demanded Haji Chelebi to come to the camp, where Nadir sentenced him to death
by hanging. However, the courageous Haji Chelebi, with the noose around his
neck, convinced Nadir Shah of the falsity of the accusation: "Melik", he said,
"having any order from the Shah always adds to it his own orders". Nadir Shah
excused Haji Chelebi and conferred to him even larger authority than before. Also,
he addressed the emirs with reproach: "While nobody dares to even give a hint to
Abbasi. Silver.
Sheki. 1189 (1775).
Sheki Khanate.

280

me, this Chelebi from Nukha (Sheki) ventured with a noose around his neck to
offer me his own opinion".
When Nadir Shah left Shirvan in
1743, new disorder began. Profiting by
it, Haji Chelebi and people faithful to
him attacked the residence of Nadir
Shah's protege Melik Najaf and killed
him. Then Haji Chelebi announced the
Sheki region as an independent
Khanate.
Fuad Aliyev wrote, "This act
saw the beginning of the establishment
in the territory of Azerbaijan of smallsized state formations - independent Khanates. It is remarkable hat while an
overwhelming majority of independent khanates was formed after the
disintegration of the state of Nadir Shah, the Sheki Khanate declared its
independince during the reign of Nadir Shah".
In the winter of 1744 Nadir Shah sent an
army to suppress a rebellion of Haji Chelebi. The
latter anticipated such a step and urged the people
of Sheki to go to a newly fortified citadel that was
supplied with provisions. After he arrival of Nadir
Shah, this fortress was called Gelersen-Gorasen"
("Come and see").
Nadir Shah went to the citadel with a group
of 15,000 well-trained warriors. However, he
retreated a few days later, not even having
organized a siege. Nadir Shah's army suffered
essential losses as a result of frequent attacks from
Panel on the wall of the palace of
the Shekians. The people of Sheki seized rich
Sheki Khans. I8th Century. Wall
trophies. Nadir Shah hardly escaped death. After
painting.
this, Nadir Shah withdrew his army to Barda.
From there, he went to Derbent with an army of 30,000 troops at the end of 1744.
In February, he again marched against Haji Chelebi. The siege of the
"Gelersen-Gorasen" stronghold gave no results. Then Nadir Shah burnt ancient
Sheki and adjacent villages. For nearly three years, the people of Sheki suffered
terrible deprivation in the citadel "Gelersen-Gorasen", struggling with the superior
forces of Nadir Shah.
Finally, in March 1746, Haji Chelebi concluded an agreement with Nadir
Shah. The latter sent a new Melik to Sheki; it was Najaf's nephew. However, at the

281

The Fortress Galarsan Gorarsan. 18th Century. Sheki Khanate.

282

same time he entrusted Haji Chelebi with the powers of a Melik and sent him
money as compensation. It was a far-reaching victory for Haji Chelebi.
A year later, after a sharp rise in taxes,
Ganja, Nakhchivan, Tiflis and Irevan disobeyed
Nadir Shah; Haji Chelebi was prepared to act
against the Shah. Haji Chelebi's popularity was so
high, and his army was so mobile and well armed,
that various regions of the Caucasus offered to help
him. Historical chronicles wrotc that representatives
of Ganja asked him to come to Ganja, for fear of
the Gizilbashes. He arrived there in the middle of
the summer of 1748 with Ali Khan Qajar, and both
stayed there.
When Panah Ali Bey received the title of
Khan
and
began the construction of a citadel in
Woman's highly decorated
headdress. 19th Century.
Bayat at the end of 1748, his hostile neighbours
Village of llisu, Gakh region.
asked for Chelebi's help. A Garabagh historian of
Gilt silver with semiprecious
stones.
Museum
of
that time, Mirza Adigezal Bey, pointed out that they
Azerbaijani Crafts and
addressed Haji Chelebi Shekili as the sovereign ruler
Carpet-making,Baku.
of Shirvan.
However, Panah Khan was able to organize
a reliable defense, and Haji Chelebi and his army
had to recede. Coming back, he said: "Panah Khan
has so far been similar to silver without
hammering. We have come and hammered the
silver and have returned back".
Haji Chelebi continued strengthening the
military and economic power of the Khanate,
frequently on account of his neighbours. After leaving Garabagh, Mahammed Hasan Khan Qajar
failed to beleaguer Shusha. Panah Khan
Garabaghli, Kerim Khan Garadaghli, Heydar Qulu
Khan Nakhchivani and Shah-verdi Khan Qajar
Ganjali arrived at the meeting, which condemned
the
behaviour of Haji Chelebi, who was
Gulu beys House. 19th Century.
inconsiderate of them and "did not go with them to
the part of peace and friendship".
They brought their notice of their decision to begin a struggle against Haji
Chelebi to the Georgian King, who invited them for negotiations. In 1752 near
Ganja, Georgian King Teymuraz and his son Irakli took into captivity all four

283

Khans and arrived in negotiations to seize Ganja and Garabagh. One of Shahverdi
Khan Qajar's servants informed Haji Chelebi about it. Haji Chelebi, therefore,
moved towards the allied forces with
a strong army and settled on the
opposite bank of the Kura river.
(According to another version, the
informant was one of Panah Khan's
sons named Ibrahim Khalil Khan.)
Before the meeting with his
emirs, Haji Chelebi said a famous
phrase: "Whatever decision you
adopt: the Kura shall be crossed".
Sheki Khans' Palace. 18th Century.
Sheki.
The Meliks said, "We came to
Common view.
this meeting only to solve this problem
without crossing the Kura. But if you wish, let it be so. Order your army to act".
Haji Chelebi led his army across the Kura and started fighting near the mausoleum
of the great Azerbaijani poet, Sheikh Nizami. "At the sacred entombment of
Sheikh Nizami, bless him the Most High God,
from whence emanates celestial light to illuminate
the hearts and heads of people. Two armies have
confronted each other and the battle has started".
The Georgian army suffered a terrible
defeat. Irakli II sought safety in escape. Chelebi
pursued the Georgians almost up to Tiflis and
nominated his son Agha Kishi Bey as governor of
all the liberated regions, Ganja, Gazakh and
Borchali. It was already the second confrontation
between Chelebi and the Georgians.
Earlier, a united Georgian-Kakhetian army
Sheki Khans' Palace. 18th
under the command of Kings Irakli II and
Century. Sheki. The central hall
Teymuraz II had marched against the Khan, who
on the first floor.
was rapidly becoming stronger. In the first battle
against the Georgians, the Shekians retreated; this was a military trick. The
Georgian army lost vigilance, was suddenly attacked by Chelebi and had to retreat
in disorder.
In 1755, Haji Chelebi moved to Shirvan with a huge army and began to
attack Aghsu. Guba Khan Husein Ali came to Shirvan's aid. Chelebi suffered a
defeat and had to retreat.
Haji Chelebi died in 1755. At that time, the Sheki Khanate was one of the
most powerful and advanced Khanates in Azerbaijan. Chelebi did a lot for the

284

reconstruction of the capital city of Sheki; mosques, caravanserai, bathhouses,

schools and a madrasah were built in the city.
The Great Khan
of the Garabagh Khanate
Panahali Bay Javanshir
Panakhali Bey Sarijali Javanshir, the founder of Garabagh Khanate, an
outstanding commander and renowned statesman, was born in 1693 in a noble
family of the Javanshirs tribe in Garabagh. Being still very young, Panakh Khan
joined the army of the Iranian Shah Nadir Afshar. It
should be noted that Nadir-shah was one of the most
talented commanders of his time; under his leadership,
Panakh Khan gained all the necessary skills of military
strategy and tactics - but not only that, under him,
Panakh Khan learned to rein a state.
Having noticed the outstanding abilities and
high personal courage of Panakh Khan, Nadir Shah
drew him to the close circle of his entrusted people.
However, soon after, as a result of the court intrigues,
Panahabadi.
1199
(1785).
Panakh Khan fell into disfavor and had to return to
Silver. Panahabad. Garabagh.
his motherland escaping from the Shah's wrath.
Having formed mobile detachments from people loyal to him, Panakh Khan hid in
the mountains of Garabagh and Sheki region.
In 1747 after the assassination of Nadir Shah, Azerbaijan split into the
independent Khanates of Ganja, Shirvan, Sheki, Guba, Baku, etc. Having defeated
Garabagh emirs and meliks fighting against the centralization of power, Panakh
Khan founded united Garabagh Khanate.
Garabagh-Ganja Beylarbeynate, established in 1551 split into Garabagh and
Ganja Khanates. Power in Garabagh Khanate passed from the Qajars to the
Javanshirs (the Ziad-oghlu Qajars remained the rulers of Ganja Khanate). Before
mass expulsions of Gizilbash tribes from the Caucasus by Shah Abbas and Nadir
Shah this Beylarbeynate had been mainly inhabited by the Turkic tribes of Qajar,
which were led by the descendants of Ziad-oghlu Qajar who in 1547 was awarded
the title of Sultan. Qajars could not put up with the loss of their dominion over
Garabagh and tried to gain it back during numerous military campaigns.
The Bayat Fortress, which was built in an impressingly short period of time,
became the capital of the Khanate. Hoping to play the leading role in the region,
the Sheki Khan, Haji Chelebi, formed an alliance with the Khan of Shirvan and
besieged the young capital. However, the Bayat Fortress did not surrender even

285

after a month of siege and the enemies had to move back. According to the
historian Mirza Jamal, Haji Chelibi Khan said the following, leaving the foot of the
Bayat Fortress: "When we came,
Panakh Khan was a Khan. We fought
with him and could not win. We are
going back having made him a
Shah". Later Panakh Khan built a
new capital in a place called
Shahbulagh, near modern Aghdam.
He continued to unit and expand the
territory of his Khanate, annexing
neighboring Khanates. The authority
of Panakh Khan grew. The Khans of
The Askeran Fortress. 18th Century. Garabagh.
Sheki, Ganja, Irevan and Tabriz
sought after his friendship and union
with him.
Panakh Khan matured grand plans for the future; however, he needed to be
sure that his family and treasure were safe. Thus, he decided to build a third
fortress for the capital - quite impregnable this time. The place for the fortress was
picked by specialists invited from all over the region. In 1750 the foundation of the
fortress, initially named Panakhabad in honor of Panakh Khan, was laid in dense
forest, surrounded by rocks. Later the fortress was called Shusha after the name of
a nearby village. Architects and constructors were invited from all over Azerbaijan
to build the fortress and the city. Inhabitants of the neighboring settlements and
villages moved to the newly built capital. Magnificent Khan's palace, mosques,
bathhouses and mints were erected in it. The coins of Garabagh Khanate
"Panakhabadi" were minted there. These coins were in use all over Azerbaijan and
Iran.
At that time in Iran, representatives of the tribes of the Afshars, Qajars and
Zends were fighting for power. Mahammed Hasan Khan Qajar was the most
successful among them. He controlled the largest part of Iran, considered himself
to be the Shah of the country and even minted his own coins.
In 1751 Mahammed Hasan Khan Qajar led his army to Garabagh. He with
his numerous troops planed the siege of Shusha for over a month. However, having
received the news that Iran had been attacked by Kerim Khan Zend, he with his
army had to return home. Panakh Khan followed him and conquered the province
of Ardebil.
The people of Garabagh had not yet recovered from the campaign of
Mahammed Hasan Khan, as they met one of the most prominent commanders of
Nadir Shah, the ruler of Urmia, Fatali Khan Afshar with his thirty thousand army at

286

the walls of Shusha. Having suffered defeat in the first battle, Fatali Khan
promised to give his daughter as a wife to Panakh Khan's son as a sign of reconciliation, if the captives were released. Panakh Khan accepted Fatali Khan's
proposal and sent his son together with the freed captives to the camp of Fatali
Khan. However, Fatali Khan broke his promise and having captured Ibrahim
Khalil, the son of
Panakh Khan, fled
to Urmia. Heartbroken
Panakh
Khan sought for a
chance to revenge
Fatali Khan on the
battlefield. Soon he
was granted the
chance. Kerim Khan
Zend, having been
defeated in the fight
for
the Shah throne
School in Shusha. 19th century. Garabagh. Drawing by Vereschagin.
by Fatali Khan at
Isfahan, proposed to Panakh Khan establishing an alliance against their common
enemy. Panakh Khan accepted the proposal and the united troops of these two
khans defeated Fatali Khan's army in Urmia. Fatali Khan was captured.
The authority of Panakh Khan as a statesman and commander in Iran and
the Caucasus rapidly grew. Being worried of the fact, Kerim Khan Zend sent Ibrahim Khalil to Garabagh, "invited" Panakh Khan to Shiraz.
Soon in 1758 Panakh Khan died in Shiraz, not being able to cope with the
compulsory "hospitality". He was buried not far from Aghdam with great honors.
There is a legend, according to which, "Panakh Khan decided to lake opium ami
fell asleep, pretending to be dead. In his "will" he asked to bury him in his
motherland. Only a handful of very close to him people knew of the real plan.
However, as it was summer, Kerim Khan ordered his court doctor to dissect his
stomach, after which Panakh Khan died".
According to the above-mentioned historian, Mirza Jamal, "for the twelve
years of Panakh Khan's rein after the death of Nadir Shah, he proved to be an
outstanding commander and statesman. The biggest part of the territory called
Azerbaijan was under his dominion".

287

The One Who Restored

Azeri Iran
Agha Mahammad Shah Qajar
The Turkic-Qipchak tribe of Qajars,
like the tribes of Afshar, Bay at, Kengerli,
Zulkadar, Shamlu and others, played a
significant role in the origins of the
Azerbaijani people. The history of the Qajars
is fascinating and dramatic. They went
through a difficult period of centuries of
struggle, accompanied by brilliant victories
and crushing defeats, prompt rises and even
faster falls. The Qajars lived, basically, in the
northern part of Azerbaijan in the regions of
Garabagh, Ganja and Irevan.
Outstanding Azerbaijani historian
Aga Mahammed Shah.
Shahinshahnama. Shaba. 1810. Opaque
lskander Bey Turkman Munshi (1560-1634)
watercolour on paper.
wrote the following in his famous work,
"Tapikh-i alam arayi Abbasi": "Garabagh is a gorgeous territory with gishlaghs and
yaylaghs, clean air and luscious greenery. The ancient inhabitants of Garabagh
Qajars and their kindred tribes cultivated here perfect gardens". The memory of it
was saved in the name of a village Qajar near Fizuli, a city in the Zangezur region
Qajar (at present Qajaran).
During the last six to seven centuries, the best representatives of Qajars
have engaged in the most active participation in the tempestuous historical events
occurring in the territories of Iran and Azerbaijan. According to the Qajar
chronicle:
"The noble tribe of the Kajars, forming a part of the body of the Eel and
Alous in the regions of Turkistan, had long spent their lives happily, passing the
summers amongst the pasturages of the mountains, and descending in the winter to
the southern plains of those delightful countries. The commencement of their
power begins with a family of five brothers, who were uniformly ambitious of
greatness and elevation, and who attained celebrity in battles and daring exploits.
On account of their inbred valour and innate magnanimity, every one, without
premeditation, exclaimed, agreeably to the purport of this tetrastich:
We five Brothers spring from one root:
We are the five fingers in the hand of Fortune:
When erect, we form the standards of victory;

288

When collected, we inflict blows on the faces of our enemies.

The eldest brother was named Qajar Khan; and his tribe, the Qajar Khani;
just as the Seljuk Turks are called Seljuki, after the name of Seljuk Bey: and the
Oguz Khan are called the Oguz Khani: so (the tribes of) Jen-gheez Khan and
Jagatay are called the Jengheez Khani and the
Jagatayi; the Beydali Khan, the Beydali; and the
Afshars are so named after Afshar Khan, the fourth
son of Oguz Khan. At the period of Oguz Khan's
invasion from Turkistan, for the purpose of subduing
Persia, this tribe served under his orders, and formed
part of his army; so that, in the course of time, their
abode, and summer and winter cantonments, were
fixed in the districts of Diarbekr and Erlat".
During the reign of Sultan Hasan Bey Agh
Image of the Qajar
symbol of Lion and Sim
Goyunlu
(1453-1478), Qajars were rehoused from
on a coin of Seljuqs.
Diyarbakir to Azerbaijan. During the rule of Sultan
1234/35. Sivas. Private
Collection.
Yaqub and Alvend Mirza, the noble rulers of Qajars
tribe governed the majority of the cities in Azerbaijan,
Iran and Phars.
According to the same Qajarian legends and chronicles, the Shah's dynasty
of Qajar descended from Kaan Loo, the son of Chingiz Khan. One of the Qajars'
ancestors married his son to the daughter of Kaan Loo. Allegedly, since then they
were referred to as Kaan Loo Qajar, as opposed to Dovanlu Qajar the other branch
of the tribe. According to another legend: " Qajars are the descendant of Qajar
Noyan son of the Mongol general Sertaq Noyan son of Saba Noyan". Abbas Gulu
Agha Bakikhanov (1794-1847) Azerbayjani scientist and historian, states that
Qajars are originaly Jalayers that came to the Caucasus at or (and) before the time
of the Mongol inroad. Jalayer, whom the Jalayer, a dinasty of rulers of Azerbaijan
(1336-1432) are named was great-great grand father of Qajar Noyan.
Available historical documents testify that the last time the Qajars came to
Near Asia was as part of the army of Hulagu Khan, grandson of Chingiz Khan, in
the 13th Century (1256). These groups of Qajars settled in Iran and then, after the
fall of the Ilkhans' rule, they migrated to Syria (or rather to Armenia, between
Syria and Iran). During Timur's rule they were relocated to the regions of
Garabagh, Ganja and Irevan, among their kindred tribes. The influence of the
Qajars increased during the first Safavids.
Shah Ismail transferred to them the captured grounds, legalising their
possessions. The Qajars joined the number of Gizilbash tribes, with the help of
whom the Safavids had established their authority in Azerbaijan, and then in
Safavids' Iran. By then, there was no city or province in either Iran or Azerbaijan,

289

in which at some point in time a representative of the Qajar family had not ruled.
Thus, Toygun Bey Qajar was nominated the first Safavids ruler of Sheki (16th
Century).
Approximately at the same time, Kamall ad-Din Khan Ziyad-oghlu Qajar,
an important Safavids political leader who had received the title of Sultan in 1547,
became the governor of Garabagh and Ganja. The first governor of the Irevan
region was Gulu Khan Qajar, and the first governor of Irevan Khanate became
Hasan Ali Khan Ziyad-oghlu Qajar (d. 1783).
Representatives of the Ziyad-oghlu Qajar family ruled these regions with
almost no interruption from the 16th Century to the beginning of the 19th Century,
when the regions were joined to Russia. Beylarbey (the governors) of Shirvan in
the years during the Safavids were Ali Gulu Bey Qajar and Peyqar Khan Ziyadoghlu Qajar, and the Beylarbey of Azerbaijan was Murtuza Gulu Khan Qajar (d.
1664).
Shah Abbas, who decided to weaken the increasing authority of the Qajars
and at the same time strengthen the borders of Iran, relocated them from the
Caucasus to the border regions of Iran. Some Qajars moved to Khorasan to protect
the northeast borders from the Uzbeks; some migrated to Astrabad on the river
Gorgan, separating Iran from bellicose Turkmen; and some remained on the
borders of Georgia.
The Khorasan Qajars quickly assimilated, and the Astrabad and Garabagh
ones started active participation in the political life of Iran and Azerbaijan. There
were many eminent people who came out of these branches of Qajars. The
Astrabad Qajars, who lived on the right high coast of the river Gorgan, were
referred to as Yukhari-bash, or Dovanlu (upper), and the ones living on the left
coast were called Ashaghi-bash, or Govanlu-Goyunlu (lower). There was a
continuous struggle between them for leadership in Astrabad. The Govanlu Qajars
happened to win more often.
The first outstanding representative of this family was Fatali Khan Qajar
Govanlu (1685/6 or 1692/3-1726). He became governor of Astrabad and
successfully expanded his properties. Shah Tahmasib II (1722-1732) appointed
him commander-in-chief of the army, and he conducted a successful fight with the
Afghans. However, when Nadir Quly Khan, future Shah Nadir, presented himself
as a candidate for the post of commander-in-chief, Tahmasib hastened to get rid of
the Qajar who had risen too quickly and too high. In 1727, under Tahmasib's order,
with a hint from Nadir Quly Khan, Fatali Khan was killed.
The next rising of the Govanlu Qajars occurred during the rule of
Mahammed Hasan Khan (b. ca 1722-1758/1759), son of Fatali Khan. He seized
authority in Astrabad and expelled the administration of Nadir Shah. In response,
Nadir Shah sent his army, and Mahammed Hasan Khan was compelled to run to
Turkmen. He returned to Astrabad only after the death of Nadir Shah.

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Agha Mahammed Shah's capture and the sack of Kirman. Shahinshahnama. Shaba. 1810. Opaque
watercolour on paper. Copies of this manuscript were sent by Fatali Shah to English, Russian and
Austrian rulers.

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For the purpose of attracting the powerful Qajars to his side, the successor
of Nadir Shah, Ali Gulu Khan Afshar (Adil Shah), nominated Mahammed Hasan
Khan Qajar to be the Eshikaghasibashi (Great Master of Ceremonies) at his Court
in Meshhed. However, Hasan Khan, who was independent and accustomed to
managing, soon quarreled with the Shah and had to flee to Turkmen. The young
sons of Mahammed Hasan Khan, however, fell into the hands of Adil Shah. The
cruel Adil Shah, who destroyed almost all the relatives of Nadir Shah, did not
govern for long.
Mahammed Hasan Khan helped Shahruh Mirza, grandson of Nadir Shah, to
come to the throne. The new-Shah, therefore, gave him expensive gifts and
nominated him as governor of Astrabad. Shahruh Mirza, however, did not hold
authority for long either. He was blinded and displaced from the throne by
Suleyman, grandson of the Safavid Shah Suleyman, who accepted authority under
the name of Shah Suleyman Sani.
Suleyman Sani Shah nominated Mahammed Hasan Khan to be the sardar
(military ruler) of Astrabad. This allowed Hasan Khan to gather forces and
strengthen in Astrabad and Mazandaran. He restored Shahruh Mirza to the throne
and began a struggle with Kerim Khan Zend, who fought to restore the authority of
the Safavids. For a long time, Mahammed Hasan Khan enjoyed success in this
struggle.
Mahammed Hasan Khan had two daughters and nine sons from five wifes.
From Fatima (Jeyran) he had Agha Mahammed Khan and Husein Gulu Khan
(Jahansouz Shah). From other marriages he had Murtuz Gulu Khan, Mustafa Gulu
Khan, Jafar Gulu Khan, Mehdi Gulu Khan, Abbas Gulu Khan, Reza Gulu Khan
and Ali Gulu Khan. His son, Agha Mahammed Qajar, founder of the ruling
dynasty of Qajars in Iran, was born on 26 October, 1741.
Hasan Khan's wife, Fatima Khanum, was the sister of a nobleman from
another Dovalu Qajar family, Mahammed Khan Dovalu.
Fatima Khanum was a very beautiful, brave and clever woman. She was
well educated and did everything possible to educate her son, Agha Mahammed.
She helped her husband manage Astrabad and, being a perfect horse rider, she
always tried to be beside her husband in important battles. Many historians believe
that if it was not for Fatima Khanum, Mahammed Hasan Khan could have never
reached a position of importance, and Agha Mahammed Khan would have never
become the Shah.
Hasan Khan literally possessed all of central Iran (Irak-a-Ajam) and
Azerbaijan, and he was considered the non-crowned Shah of Iran. Coins were even
minted under his name. His thirteen-year-old son, Agha Mahammed Khan,
participated for the first time in one of his campaigns: he commanded the advanced
troops. After that, young Agha Mahammed Khan frequently accompanied his

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father in war campaigns, and at different times his father even entrusted him with
the management of Azerbaijan and Astrabad.
In 1759 Mahammed Hasan Khan died
in a fight with the Zends for Shiraz. This
transferred the struggle for authority in Iran
from the father to his oldest son, Agha
Mahammed Qajar. It is clear from the above
mentioned that the struggle of Agha
Mahammed Khan Qajar for the throne did not
start from scratch. His father's authority was
very high and the road to the throne was
thoroughly paved. Thus, for a successful
struggle for the throne, Agha Mahammed was
only required to display high personal
qualities.
After his father's death, Agha
Mahammed fled to the Turkmen steppe, where
he assembled a group consisting of his
tribesmen and Turkmen. He began a guerrilla
war against the Zends and even tried to seize
Astrabad. In 1761 or 1762, a 4,000-troop army
Murtuza Qulu Khan's Portrait. 1796.
of
Kerim Khan Zend surrounded Agha
Borovikovskiy. Oil on canvas. Russian
Mahammed Khan's group. About 500 of Agha
Museum. St. Petersburg.
Mahammed Khan's cavaliers decided to break
through the surrounding enemy. The battle continued almost a full day. Only 10
young men led by Agha Mahammed Khan succeeded in surviving. Agha
Mahammed Khan received 10 bad wounds but forced himself to remain in the
saddle until the end of the battle.
The tired and wounded warriors stationed themselves overnight near the
city of Najaf, leaving one guard. There, they were found by the troops of the governor of Mazandaran, who awoke them. Agha Mahammed Khan tried to resist, but
his strength left him. He was fettered and sent to Tehran to Kerim Khan Zend, who
kept Agha Mahammed Khan as either a hostage or an honorary "guest" for 16
years. Historians are still wondering why Kerim Khan Zend did not take Agha
Mahammed Khan's life, or at least blind him, which would have been the usual
way for rulers to deal with their contenders in those times. Legends explain it
rather simply.
According to one legend, after Kerim Khan Zend learnt that Agha
Mahammed Khan was castrated, he ceased viewing him as a competitor for the
throne and let him live. During the whole time of his captivity, Agha Mahammed

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Khan conducted himself in such a way to convince Kerim Khan Zend that he had
lost any interest in politics.
The circumstances of the
emasculation of Agha Mahammed
Khan are described very poorly in
different sources. Some say that
Adil Shah castrated Agha Mahammed Khan when he was seven
years old. However, if that is the
case, why was his brother Husein
Gulu Khan not castrated as well?
Also, the change in the looks of
Agha
Mahammed
started
Portrait of young Agha Mahammed Khan. 18th
Century. Iran. Mahammed Sadiq. Oil on canvas.
unusually late, so other versions of
Collection of Amery.
the sad circumstance also deserve
attention. According to one of these versions, his emasculation took place as the
result of a vital wound in the pubic area in the battle near Najaf.

Flags of Irevan Khanate and Iran (above). Early 19th Century.

Another version says that Agha Mahammed Khan fell in love with the
beautiful daughter of Zaki Khan Zend. They had intimate pre-marital relations and
the dishonoured father of the girl swore to revenge Agha Mahammed Khan.
During the battle with the Zends, in which Mahammed Hasan Khan died, both
Agha Mahammed Khan and Fatima Khanum were captured. Despite the mother's
begging, Zaki Khan Zend, obeying the rule of vengeance of those times,
emasculated the young man, who had dishonoured his family. Then the mother and
son were released. Agha Mahammed Khan here swore to revenge Zaki Khan and
to destroy his whole family. When he came to power, Agha Mahammed Khan
fulfilled his oath.
In his aspiration to neutralise the Qajars, Kerim Khan Zend married
Mahammed Hasan Khan's sister, Khadija Beyim, and sent the rest of the relatives
to Qazwin. He also appointed Husein Gulu Khan, Agha Mahammed Khan's
brother, as ruler of Damghan. In Damghan, Husein Gulu Khan got married and had
a son, Baba Khan, who would become the King of Iran known as Fatali Shah.

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Husein Qulu Khan Govanlu (Goyunlu) Jahansouz, brother of Agha

Mahammed Khan Qajar. This painting was presented by Fatali Shah to
Napoleon. Thirty years ago the painting from Bonaparte family return
back to the Qajar family. "Journal of the Internatioal Qajar Studies
Association"

Kerim Khan Zend ordered Husein Gulu Khan to create an

army and subdue the governor of Astrabad, Mahammed
Khan Qajar, from the Dovalu family branch.
Husein Gulu Khan conquered Astrabad and
immediately got out of Kerim Khan Zend's control. He
announced himself as Shah and built the plans for conquering Mazandaran and Gilan. Kerim Khan Zend could
not allow this to happen and in 1755, he sent an assassin
to kill Husein Gulu Khan. Husein Gulu Khan was buried
next to his father in Astrabad. In the meantime, Fatima Khanum and the younger
brother of Agha Mahammed Khan, Abbas Gulu Khan, died.
As mentioned above, Kerim Khan Zend kept Agha Mahammed Khan in
Tehran without the right to leave. In those years, Agha Mahammed Khan
conducted a very modest life and began to visit the university (madrasa) where a
known theologian and philosopher, Sheikh Ali Tajrimi, was a teacher. Every day
he rose early, exercised and went to the madrasa, where he listened to lectures and
participated in disputes. He also kept constant correspondence with his relatives
and countrymen.
Agha Mahammed believed in his lucky stars. Thanks to being incredibly
moderate (he was very undemanding in food and consumed it by weight rather
than taste) and constantly exercising, he kept a youthful stature and was in fighting
shape. Agha Mahammed Khan passionately loved hunting. He especially liked to
hunt foxes with falcons. He gave the killed foxes to his neighbours as a symbol of
luck a belief existing at that time.
When Kerim Khan Zend transferred the capital of the Khanet to Shiraz, he
took Agha Mahammed Khan with him. Now that Agha Mahammed Khan was in
one of the ancient cultural centres of Iran, he continued his studies and achieved
great success. He studied theology, philosophy, mathematics, astronomy, astrology
and poetry. In the future, due to his outstanding memory, Agha Mahammed Khan
could easily quote the Koran, fragments from philosophical works and even verses
of the least known poets. In literary Majlises, he had great authority and was
sought after for advice and information.
Ibn Tufail, an Andalusian philosopher of the 12th Century, became his
favourite philosopher. Intense interest in this philosopher remained with Agha
Mahammed Khan for the rest of his life. Ibn Tufail's philosophical novel, "Khay,

295

son of Yakzan", was always with Agha Mahammed Khan, both in campaigns and
in the Palace. He quoted it and constantly referred to it.
When Agha Mahammed learnt about a threat to his life, as well as the lives
of his brothers and a small group of servants devoted to him, he pretended to go
hunting and escaped from Shiraz to Mazandaran.
By the beginning of 1780, he had won a
long lasting struggle with one of his brothers,
Rza Gulu Khan, for the government of Qajars
and subordinated all of Mazandaran and
Astrabad. The rest of his brothers stood on his
side in this struggle. In 1782 Agha Mahammed
came to Astrabad with all of his brothers and
relatives to visit his father's tomb.
After the death of Kerim Khan Zend,
his relatives started a fight for authority over
the country. The fight among them went on for
Agha Mahammed Shah in Battle.
several
years. Agha Mahammed Qajar took
Shahinshahnama. 1810. Opaque
advantage of this and went from Mazandaran to
watercolour on paper.
Esfahan with a small group of 500-600 people.
In 1785 he took this city, expelled the Zend governor and then, after a number of
brilliant victories over the representatives of the Zends, he released almost all of
Central Iran.
Important help came from a talented commander, Jafar Gulu Khan, brother
of Agha Mahammed Khan. The small town of Tehran, which in 1786 was announced to be the capital of the new state, was chosen to be the residence of Agha
Mahammed Khan. In the same year, he won a victory over Jafar Khan Zend, who
considered himself the Shah of Iran. The defeated Jafar Khan fled to Shiraz, where
he died as a result of a conspiracy.
After conquering Gilan, Agha Mahammed Khan nominated his brother,
Murtuz Gulu Khan Qajar, to be the hakim of both Gilan and Astrabad. However,
his brother turned against him and joined the side of the Zends. From here, he fled
to Talish and asked for protection from Catherine II. With the support of the
Russian flotilla, Murtuz Gulu Khan came back to Gilan, but after receiving news of
the approaching large army of Agha Mahammed Khan, he fled to Russia again. He
died in 1798 in St. Petersburg.
In 1795 after the campaign in Georgia, Agha Mahammed Khan punished
the Talishs for supporting Murtuz Gulu Khan. This time many rulers of Azerbaijan,
Kurdistan and Central Iran (Iraq-eAjam) joined the side of Qajars. By the
beginning of the 1790s, almost all of Iran was under the authority of Agha
Mahammed Qajar.

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The Turkman-Yomuds, who refused to accept the Qajars' authority, were

crushed in a fight, and the heads of the killed warriors were piled up in a pyramid.
The remains of Kerim Khan Zend, whom Agha Mahammed fervently hated, were
dug out from the grave and buried under the doorway of the Shah's Gulistan Palace
in Tehran.
In 1791 Agha Mahammed proclaimed himself the Shah of Iran, but he
postponed the coronation. He took measures to consolidate his royalty by disposing
of the disobeying Khans and restoring economic and trade communications inside
the country. No serious administrative reforms, however, were conducted.
The last battle between the
Qajars and the Zends took place in the
summer of 1794 in Kerman and ended
in a complete victory by Agha
Mahammed
Qajar
and
the
dethronement of the Zends dynasty in
Iran. In Kerman, Agha Mahammed
learnt about the intentions of Georgian
King Irakli II to go under the protection
of Russia and (not without the
assistance of Ibrahim Khalil Khan
Presentation coins of Aga Mahammed Shah
Garabaghli) to transfer to Russia
and Fatali Shah. Teheran and Esfagan, Iran.
Gold. 1795-1797. Heberden Coin Room,
Garabagh and Irevan Khanates, as well
Ashmolen Museum. Oxford.
as Ganja hereditary lands of the Qajars.
Agha Mahammed perceived the intentions of the Georgian King as treason
of the subject of Iran and the interference in the internal affairs of Azerbaijan Khanates, which for many centuries had been populated and controlled by the Qajars.
In April 1795, Agha Mahammed Shah Qajar directed an army of 60,000 to
the Caucasus. A small part of the army moved through Mughan to Daghestan,
while Agha Mahammed himself led the main part of the army to Shusha. Shah's
brothers led the third brigade to the Irevan Khanate. To occupy the inaccessible
Shusha in a short time without special preparation was impossible, and Agha
Mahammcd Shah turned in the direction of Tiflis. Almost effortlessly, Agha
Mahammed's troops put to rout the militiamen of Irakli II and entered Tiflis. Irakli
fled to the mountains, and 22,000 civilians were sold into slavery. Tiflis was
plundered and completely destroyed.
The reason for the quick removal of the Shusha siege and the campaign
against Tiflis was the military expedition against Ganja, organised by Irakli II
during the siege of Shusha. The most active support for Agha Mahammed was
offered by the Ganja Khan Javad Khan Ziyad-oghlu Qajar, who wanted to get back
at Irakli for continuous predatory forays on Ganja. After the rout in Titlis, many

297

Azerbaijani Khans announced their obedience to Agha Mahammed Shah. Only

Irevan and Garabagh Khans did not want to recognize him.
In the summer of 1796, an army of 20,000, under the command of Agha
Mahammed Shah's brothers, approached Irevan. The siege there lasted fve weeks,
after which the fortress surrendered and a peace agreement was signed.
Finally, while returning from the campaign, Agha Mahammed Khan
organized the solemn ceremony of his coronation in the Mughan steppe. He
refused to put on the crown of Nadir Shah, whose coronation also took place in this
region of Azerbaijan. The crown contained four feathers symbolising the
domination over Iran, India, Afghanistan and Central Asia. Agha Mahammed
Khan was coronated with a small diadem and a shah's sword, consecrated on the
entombment of the Sheikh Safi ad-Din in Ardebil. This symbolised the transfer of
the Safavids' authority to the Qajars. Agha Mahammed-Shah dreamt of restoring
the Great Safavids Empire.
In every possible way, Agha Mahammed Khan emphasised the leading role
of the representatives of the Qajar family in the state affairs. In his struggle for
authority, he leaned on the Azeri-Turkic tribes of Afshar, Khalaj, Bayat and
Garagezlu.
In his verbal will about the succession of the throne, Agha Mahammed Shah
told his nephew Baba Khan that "a daughter of Beylarbey Mirza Mahammed Khan
-Dovalu Qajar should be given to Abbas Mirza, who is Dovalu by his mother and
who will become the successor of the throne (after Baba Khan), so that his son,
who will be named after me as Mahammed Mirza, would descend from the two
great Qajar tribes. My uncle Suleyman Khan did a lot for this state. Marry your
daughter to his son, and their daughter I designate for Mahammed Mirza. This
way, the son of Mahammed Mirza, will be your grandson from both sides". This
meant that Agha Mahammed wanted the crown to belong to the Qajar princes
whose fathers belonged to the Govanlu family, and whose mothers belonged to the
Dovalu family. Therefore, the successor of Baba Khan (Fatali Shah) became not
his elder son, who was born of a Georgian mother, but Abbas Mirza.
According to Manuchehr M. Iskandari-Qajar "Though Agha Mahammed
Khan could not have children of his own, he neverthless married and had a harem.
Personal reason aside, his dynastic instict dictated that necessity for him. As the
first ruler of the dinasty, he knew that he must set the guidelines for succsession.
By marrying the widow of his brother Husein Gulu Khan,and declaring her his
Queen Mother (Mahdi Ulya) of his valiahd, he ensured the succession for his son,
Baba Khan. "
After the coronation, Agha Mahammed Shah conquered Khorasan, where
the rider was the grandson of Nadir Shah Afshar, Shahruh. On his way to
Khorasan, Agha Mahammed Shah suppressed Astrabad Turkmen, who went out of
control. When in 1796 Agha Mahammed approached the walls of Meshhed,

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Shahruh himself came out to greet him with honours. But Agha Mahammed was
not satisfied. He demanded the famous treasures of Nadir Shah. Only under
horrible torture, during which melted lead was poured down the old man's head,
did he reveal the places where the treasures of Nadir Shah and the jewelry of the
Meshhed's mosque of Imam Rezi were hidden. Exhausted by torture, the last
political opponent of Agha Mahammed died.
In response to the campaign of the Russian general V. Zubov on Georgia in
1797, Agha Mahammed moved again to the Caucasus. On his way to Georgia he
seized Shusha. Garabagh Khan, Ibrahim Khalil, fled to northern Azerbaijan.
However, the campaign on Georgia did not take place after all. Agha Mahammed
Shah was killed by his servants.
According to one version, the conspiracy against Shah was organised by his
commander, an outstanding Azerbaijani Khan, Sadiq Khan Shekkaki, who was
connected with Azerbaijani Khans, as well as the Georgians living in Iran.
According to another version, among the murderers was a Georgian, Sadiq Gorji
(Andrey from Mtskheta), who acted on behalf of Georgian authorities. According
to the information of some chronicles, Agha Mahammed was killed at night by his
servants, Georgian Sadiq Gorji, Isfahanian Khodad and Mazandaranian Abbas,
who were supposed to be executed by the Shah the next day for some delinquency.
Shah's jewelry was transferred to Sadiq Khan Shekkaki, which hints at the
existence of a conspiracy against the Shah.
A palatial historian described these events: "As soon as this adventurous
enterprise and important event was carried out so criminally and unholy by the
villains, who had no shame, they stole the crown and diadem of the Shah's
authority, on which each pearl was of incomparable beauty, and the price of each
stone was equal to yearly taxes (from a territory as large as Seven Climates). Also,
subjects of the imperial estate were taken, such as the diamond armband, the
destroying enemies' swords decorated with precious stones, a casket with jewelry,
as well as the diamonds 'Kokh-i-nur' ,'Darya-i-nur' and 'Taj-i-Makh,' and
majestically illustrated manuscripts, each of which would honourably decorate the
chest and shoulders of any monarch in the world".
Noble Qajares, including the mother of Baba Khan and the Shah's aunt,
stabbed the murderers. The body of the Shah was transported to Meshhed and
buried.The head was sent to Belokan to Ibrahim Khalil Khan, who buried it with
honours at the cemetery of various famous people. Shah's army returned to Iran
and his nephew Baba Khan was proclaimed the Shah under the name of Fatali
Shah.
Such is the sad history of the founder of the dynasty of the Qajars in Iran,
which reigned until 1925 when it was replaced by the Pehlevy dynasty. It has a
continuation, representing interest for our readers.

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In 1847-1848, as a result of palatial intrigues, Bahman Mirza Qajar

grandson of Fatali Shah, son of Abbas Mirza, governor of Azerbaijan, Persian
Crown prince was compelled to run to the Caucasus and seek refuge in Russia. The
Russian government accepted him with great honours, gave him an imperial
pension and promised to grant him residency anywhere in Russia. After some
hesitation, Bahman Mirza asked for permission to settle in Shusha. He moved there
with a large harem, children and confidants. His treasury and rich library were
delivered from Iran to Shusha. Bahman Mirza gave his children and grandchildren
a European education in the best-privileged educational establishments of Russia.
He himself departed from politics and started writing the history of Iran and
Azerbaijan.
Most of his 33 sons became military. By the beginning of WWI, eight of
them were generals and a number of them were officers. The children of Bahman
Mirza did not accept the Socialist revolution in Russia, and most of them had to
pay for this with their lives. The Caucasian branch of Bahman Mirza's family
literally ceased to exist. The memory about Bahman Mirza, a talented politician,
commander and scientist, remains in his works, and also in the manuscripts and
subjects of fine art from his rich collection scattered throughout museums and
libraries in Azerbaijan, Russia, Ukraine and Georgia.
A Life Sacrificed
for Azerbaijan
Abbas Mirza, son of Fatali Shah Qajar
Fatali Khan (Baba Khan) Qajar
(1797-1834), nephew of Agha
Mahammed Shah Qajar, founder of
the Qajar dynasty in Iran, and elder
son of Huscin Gulu Khan, was born in
1771/2 in Damghan to an Ezzet Dinlu
mother, daughter of Mahammed Khan
Ezzed Dinlu. He was tenderly
nicknamed Baba Khan by Agha
Mahammed
Khan
(Baba
is
grandfather in Azeri) because he was
Qajar Palace. Teheran. 1848. Oil on canvas.
Painted by F. Colombary.
the namesake of his grandfather Fatali
Khan. Fatali Shah was portrayed in
scores of canvases of the so-called Qajar school of painting, which arose during his
reign. This was a rather short man of imposing appearance with grey eyes and
bushy eyebrows, typical of all Qajars. In addition, Fatali Shah was famous for his

300

huge beard, which accentuated his male dignity in contrast with the sleek,
beardless face of his emasculated uncle, and his luxurious enormous harem.
As has been noted above, in his verbal condition
of will regarding succession to the throne, Agha
Mahammed Shah, as witnessed by Qajar Prince Azad odDoule, ordered the following to Baba Khan (Fatali Khan):
"a daughter of Beylarbey Mirza Mahammed KhanDovalu Qajar should be given to Abbas Mirza, who is
Dovalu on his mother's side and who will become the
successor of the throne (after Baba Khan), so that his son,
who will be named after me as Mahammed Mirza, would
descend from the two great Qajar tribes. My uncle
Suleyman Khan did a lot for this state. Marry your
daughter to his son, and their daughter I designate for
Mahammed Mirza. This way, the son of Mahammed
Mirza, will be your grandson from both sides".
In other words, the Shah's throne, according to the
Fatali Shah in Armor.
will,
could
take Qajar princes from the Qovanly family,
Mir Ali. Teheran.
born by Qajar women from the Dovalu family. Agha
1814-1815. Oil on
canvas.
Mahammed Khan chose the first wives for his heir. Agha
Mahammed Khan Qajar named Baba Khan as his heir. Baba Khan took part in the
campaigns of Agha Mahammed Shah and was reputed to be one of his best commanders. Besides, Agha Mahammed Shah believed Baba Khan would be able to
come to terms with the chiefs of the Qajar tribes and thus prevent disorder after his
death. According to the same will, Fatali Shah's heir was to be not his elder son
Dovlet Shah, born by a Georgian woman from the Tsiskarishvili family, but Abbas
Mirza, and following his death (still in Fatali Shah's reign), his son Mahammed
Mirza.
Agha Mahammed Shah was killed in 1797. At that time Baba Khan was
ruler of Fars and quartered in Shiraz. He left with his army for Teheran, where
disorder had already begun. Pretenders to the throne were Baba Khan's brother
Husein Gulu Khan, Sadeq Khan Shekkaki, Agha Mahammed Shah's brother Ali
Gulu Khan Qajar (soon after he was blinded), and Nadir Mirza, the son of Shahruh
Shah Afshar, who demanded to grant him the throne of his ancestors.
Baba Khan succeeded in his uncle Husein Gulu Khan's renunciation of any
claims for the throne, and was crowned on Novruz in 1798 under the name of
Fatali Shah. The last wish of Agha Mahammed Shah was fulfilled. The new Shah
defeated Sadeq Khan Sheqqaqi - who had been successful in conquering all of
Azerbaijan and seizing Qazvin - and directed his steps to Herat where the second
pretender for the throne Nadir Mirza and his army were stationed. As a result of
fierce battle Nadir Mirza was defeated and fell in action. It was this moment that

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Fatali Shah pronounced his famous dictum: "Nadir killed Fatali, and Fatali killed
Nadir" (in the first case, he meant Nadir Shah who killed Fatali Khan Qajar, Baba
Khan's great grandfather; in the second case, he meant himself, Fatali Shah who
killed Nadir Mirza).
After the way to throne
was clear, Fatali Shah returned
to the capital and started
reigning against a background
of struggle against internal and
external enemies. While he
succeeded in coping with
intrastate problems, and his
reign proved to be the longest
in the history of Qajars, Fatali
Shah
came to grief in his
The Court of Fatali Shah. Teheran. 1815.
conflict against Russia despite
his effort to enlist the support first of Napoleon, and then of the English.
Having come to the throne, Baba Khan as a brave and clever military leader
handed over the command of the army and, to an extent, the country to his son, the
talented political figure and commander Abbas Mirza, ruler of Azerbaijan since
1798/99. According to his far-sighted plans of land campaigns in India, Napoleon
tried to arrange matters with Fatali Shah about the unimpeded passage of his army
via Iran. However, the English had forestalled him, and a treaty aimed both against
France and Russia was concluded between England and lran in 1801. England's
support gave confidence to Fatali Shah in his relations with Russia.
After Eastern Georgia voluntarily joined Russia in 1801, and Russians
seized Ganja in 1803, Fatali Shah demanded to withdraw Russian troops from the
Southern Caucasus. This led to the frst Russian-Persian war of 1804-1813. During
this war, Abbas Mirza was in command of a strong army of 30,000 troops.
However, Abbas Mirza's poorly equipped army was defeated, so he had to sign the
Gulistan Treaty of 1813, following which Russians assumed possession of
Armenia, Georgia and Northern Azerbaijan, except for Irevan and Nakhchivan
Khanates. The military genius of Abbas Mirza proved insufficient to defeat an
enemy furnished with strong artillery, fre-arms and an army that applied the
strategy and tactics of European armies, particularly those of Napoleon. Abbas
Mirza realized this, so he decided to reform his army.
With that in view, he sent students to Europe to improve their battle
training. In 1812 Abbas Mirza ordered the installation of printing presses in Tabriz
to print manuals for military training. Also, he built factories for the manufacture
of powder and cannons. To improve military training, Abbas Mirza invited English
military advisers to improve the fighting efficiency of the new army. As a result,

302

the army demonstrated its might during the war against Ottoman Turkey in 18211823 through seizing Van, Bayazid, Suleymaniya and other towns. These victories
inspired Abbas Mirza: in the summer of 1826, instigated by the English, he
launched an attack against the Russians in the environs
of Irevan, Garabagh and Talish. So started the second
Russian-Persian war (1826-1829).
In the first year of the war, Abbas Mirza
managed to return nearly all of the Russian-occupied
lands. In particular, his troops liberated Ganja and
reached Derbent. However, the war dragged out and
Abbas Mirza had neither the funds nor resources to
proceed with it. Even worse, Fatali Shah and his sons
Cotton plain weave. Qajar
declined
from compensating for losses incurred.
period. Victoria and Albert
It
was the numerical superiority, equipment and
Museum. London.
discipline of the Russian army, as well as a change of
command that enabled the new commandcr of the Russian army, General
Paskevich, to make headway to the south and seize nearly all of Azerbaijan,
including Ardebil and Tabriz. Abbas Mirza had nothing to do but sign a new
humiliating Turkmanchay treaty (1828), which officially reaffirmed the transfer of
all the northern part of Azerbaijan (now the Azerbaijan Republic), including
Nakhchivan Khanate, to Russia.
As Iranian historians noted, this was the
most humiliating treaty in the history of Iran.
Iran had to pay 20,000 Russian gold roubles as
indemnity. Fatali Shah agreed to surrender 17
towns to the Russians but declined from
paying money. In order to indemnify, Abbas
Mirza and his companion-in-arms had to sell
the jewelry of their wives.
The nobility and the people were
Qajar
royal
tent.
Wool
with
dissatisfed
with the tough line of Russia
embroidered resht Woolen applique.
Victoria and Albert Museum. London.
regarding Armenians' resettlement to the South
Caucasus with the purpose of establishing a
buffer Christian state and thc payment of indemnity under the Turkmanchay treaty.
This dissatisfaction, coupled with the arrogant behaviour of the Secretary of the
Russian Mission A. Griboyedov, resulted in tragic consequences. On 19 February,
an infuriated crowd attacked the Russian Embassy. As a result, nearly all the
members of the mission were killed. One reason for the massacre was the
concealment in the Embassy of the Shah harem's eunuch, treasurer and chicf
custodian of precious stones Armenian Yakub Markaryan and two Armenian
women from Allahyar Khan Qajar's harem. The eunuch was conversant with

303

scores of state and intimate secrets of the court, and the Shah issued an ultimatum
to Griboyedov to deliver them up. However, Griboyedov refused to comply with
his demand. All things considered, Fatali Shah
failed to deter gusts of indignation of his citizens.
With the consent of both sides of conflict, the
incident was settled in a diplomatic manner. With
that in view, an expiatory mission was forwarded to
St.Petersburg headed by Abbas Mirza's younger son
Khosrov Mirza. In the northern capital, Khosrov
Mirza was received with regal honours and, even
better, Russian Emperor Nicholas I declared: "I
consign to oblivion the ill-fated Teheran incident".
In his turn, Khosrov Mirza presented the
Emperor with gifts brought from Persia. The court
was particularly impressed by a huge diamond, once
brought by Nadir Shah from India. Now at Diamond
Fund of Russia, St.Petersburg, the diamond was to
Fatali Shah Attended by a
serve as expiation for bloodshed, according to
Prince, Smoking a Water Pipe.
ancient Turkic traditions (Gan pulu). Among the
Mehrali.
Oil
on
canvas.
Collection of Mrs. Eskandar
gifts, there were also 18 valuable manuscripts,
Aryen.
including an excellently illustrated lacquered
binding of "Divani Khagan" (an anthology of verses by
Fatali Shah). It was Shah's origin of Khosrov Mirza, his
handsome, exotic appearance and courtly manners that
allowed him to win court salons. It was not astonishing
that two memorable medals with texts in Persian and
Russian were issued to mark his visiting St.Petersburg and
the Mint Place.
It has to be kept in mind that wars and bitterness of
defeat were the last straw that brought Abbas Mirza to his
grave. The glorious successor to the throne died from
tuberculosis in 1833 and was buried in Mashad, near Imam
Reza's tomb. These were the highest ever honours to be
Seal of Fatali Shah.
rendered, according to Iranian traditions. As fate willed,
1822/23. Iran. Emerald
Abbas Mirza's descendants proved scattered all over the
in a setting of sheet
gold,
filigree
and
world, from Azerbaijan to the USA. Note that the father
applique. Nasser D.
outlived his son one year. He reigned for 36 years. In spite
Khalili Collection of
of the fact that Fatali Shah at the time of his death left 59
Islamic Art.
sons and 46 daughters, he named Abbas Mirza's son
Mahammed Mirza as his successor. Fatali Shah made this decision despite protests
of his mighty uncles Ali Khans and Mahammed Ali Mirza.

304

Fatali Shah Qajar killing the Russian General. Shahinshahnama.

Shaba. 1810. Opaque watercolour on paper.

305

Fatali Shah's harem numbered approximately 150

wives and upwards of 900 concubines, served by several
thousand attendants, including eunuchs who were
Christians, mostly Armenians. Women and girls were
conveyed to the Shah's harem from many countries of
Asia and Europe. Among them were daughters of the
chiefs of Iranian militant tribes and heads of neighboring
states that contributed to the settlement of intrastate and
interstate disputes. Wives-minions were actively involved
in court and country management, even interstate
relations. For several years, Shah had favourably been
disposed toward the elder daughter of Garabagh ruler
Ibrahim Khan, the beautiful Agha Beyim (b. 1782), aunt
of
the famous poet Khurshid Banu Natavan. In March
Portrait of Fatali Shah
Qajar Standing with a
1798, escorted by 200 horsemen and scores of
Sceptre. Mehrali. Oil on
maidservants, she was brought to Fatali Shah's harem in
canvas.
Teheran on the occasion of his crowning. The following
are verses ascribed to Agha Beyim:
I'm enamoured of Garabagh
Sheki, Shirvan and Garabagh,
Should Teheran turn into paradise,
I'll never forget Garabagh.

Clever, energetic and incredibly beautiful, Agha

Beyim took an active part in court and in the country's
life. She learnt French to maintain ties with Europeans
and to be in correspondence with prominent figures, in
particular Napoleon and Catherine II. She wrote verses
under the penname of Aghabaji. Agha Beyim died in
1831 and was buried, like Fatali Shah, in Qum. The
mausoleum of Fatali Shah in Qum was destroyed
following the revolution in Iran. It was rebuilt into an
office, and the tombstones disappeared without a trace.
Fatali Shah applied efforts to arrange the harem's
work on a scientific basis. The head physician of the
Portrait of Abbas Mirza.
harem was Scotsman Yohn McNeel who, jointly with a
midwife from Switzerland, was responsible for the
Shah's rendezvous schedule with wives and concubines, and for the registration of
newly born princes and princesses. On Thursdays, on the night to Muslim festal
Friday, the Shah received his minions in a bedroom of the Gulistan palace. A cut-

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glass bed an "eternal bed for the luminary of mankind to sleep" was in his
bedroom. It was a gift from Nicholas I.
Fatali Shah Qajar's reign was
marked by an unprecedented upsurge in
the arts of Iran and Azerbaijan. For
unknown reasons, scores of researchers
pay no heed to this circumstance;
rather, they regard it as decadence,
ignoring both the country and the
structure it was accompanied by. Even
worse, most researchers are prone to
underestimate the role of Fatali Shah in
Palace of Sardar, 18th Century. Irevan. Irevan
Khanate.
the advancement of arts. Canvases
depicting Fatali Shah, his numerous children and Qajar
offspring, court musicians and dancers are currently
decorating the world's best museums.
It was no coincidence that a brilliant, life-asserting
original Qajar school of painting was created at the court at
the Shah's initiative. Termed "Qajar painting" in Europe, it
could as well be called as "painting of the Qajar family".
The same goes for the so-called varnish painting.
Culminating under Fatali Shah were gunsmiths, or rather
Goblet. Silver, gold
metallurgists who in collaboration with metal workers and
plate and enamel.
painters succeeded in creating masterpieces of arms with
1796. Baku. History
blades made of damask steel. Flourishing as well were
Museum. Moscow.
jeweller's art, filigree, enamel, inlaid work, carving, etc. A
school of Qajar architecture sprang up, including such a brilliant specimen as
Sardar's Palace in Irevan. Notable for their high quality and design are handmade
carpets and pieces of fabric manufactured in the reviewed period.
One Struggle More,
and I am Free
Javad Khan Ziyad-oghlu Qajar
After the formation of the Sefevids' state, Azerbaijan was divided into semidependent princedoms, ruled by Beylarbeys. From that time, the hereditary
Beylarbeys of Garabagh and Ganja came from Qajars, a family of Ziyad-oghlu.
The first Beylarbey of Garabagh and Ganja was the prominent political figure and
commander Kamalladdin Shahverdi Sultan Ziyad-oghlu Qajar (died 1568).

307

After the death of Nadir-Shah Afshar, in place of Beylarbeys when

independent Khanates sprang up, governors of Ganja Khanate again remained
Qajars. The first Khan was Shahverdi Khan Ziyad-oghlu Qajar (1747-1760).
The last Khan of Ganja Khanate was a famous political figure of Azerbaijan at the end of the 18th and beginning of 19th Centuries, Javad Khan ibn-Shahverdi Khan
Ziyad-oghlu Qajar. He was born in 1748 in the city of
Ganja. Javad's father Shahverdi ruled the Khanate of Ganja
from 1756 until 1761. His mother, Sharaf Jahan Beyim,
came from a noble family as well. Javad Khan had three
sisters: Khurshid Beyim, Tuti Beyim and Kheyransa
Khanum. In 1780, Javad Khan married an ordinary country
girl named Shukufe Khanum, and in 1790 he married the
Sheki Khan's sister, Maliknisa Beyim. The first died in
1812, and the second died in 1830.
After his death, Javad Khan's second wife came
Bonchuk of Javad
back
to
Sheki to her brother and died there as widow. Her
Khan Ziyad-oghlu
Qajar. 18th
grave is in Sheki. Javad Khan and Shukufe Khanum had
Century. Ganja.
three sons: Ughurlu Khan, Husein Gulu Khan and Ali Gulu
Ganja Khanate.
Khan, and four daughters: Pusta Beyim, Tuti-bike, Khatun
Beyim and Balaja Beyim. In 1801 Ughurlu Khan married Mammed Khan's
daughter, Jahan Beyim. Their son was named Javad. Husein Gulu Khan (17841804) married one of Kasib Sultan Shamshadil's relative,
Zeynab Khanum.
After Shahverdi Khan, Mahammed Hasan Khan
Ziyad-oghlu Qajar came to power in Ganja. He displayed
the abilities of an outstanding state figure, which
contributed to the independence of Ganja Khanate and its
prosperity.
After his brother Mahammed Khan murdered him,
instability came to Ganja. As soon as the flabby and savage
Abbasi. 1189 (1775).
Silver. Ganja. Ganja
Mahammed Khan ascended his brother's throne, he and his
Khanate.
son Aghabey were seized by the allied Garabagh - Georgian
army, blinded and put in a Shusha prison.
During this period Russia, which was struggling with the Turks for Crimea,
started actions in the Caucasus in order to distract Turkey's attention in this
direction. Caucasian policy was entrusted to Potemkin, favourite of Catherine II,
the ruler of Russia. Potemkin's chief adviser on the Caucasus was Armenian
archbishop Jozef Argutinski.

308

As far back as 1783, a treaty between Georgia and Russia was concluded at
Potemkin's headquarters in Georgievsk, under which Georgia fell under the protectorate of Russia and Russian troops entered there.
Georgian King Irakli laid claim to possess Ganja,
Irevan, Akhaltsikh and Nakhchivan. He wrote: "I
suppose that Russia has occupied Adribijan, and that a
part of it is kindly granted to me". Georgia's plan became
known to Ibrahim Khan, who then organized Ganja
residents to set out for the Georgian garrison. Key
Khosrov fled Ganja, and Irakli decided to put
Mahammed Khan - who was one of Ibrahim Khan's
captives - on the throne in Ganja. On learning this,
Ibrahim Khan killed the captive. However, the protege of
Ibrahim Khan, Hazrat Gulu Bey, did not remain long in
Ganja. After the Ganja revolt, Rahim Bey came to power,
Portrait of Javad Khan
Ziyad-oghlu Qajar on a
and was followed some time later by his brother, Javad
carpet. 19th Century.
Khan.
Ganja.
Javad Khan came to power, obviously, not
without Erakli's help. It was no mere coincidence that he paid 10,000 roubles
annually to the Georgian king. To put an end to the dependence and continuous
forays of Georgia in Ganja, Javad Khan joined Agha Mahammed Khan Qajar's
army in 1785, and moved on Tiflis. After the return of Agha Mahammed Khan's
army to Iran, the relations between Javad Khan and Irakli II became increasingly
hostile. The troops of Irakli II, Khan of Garabagh, Ibrahim Khan and Khan of
Avars, Umma (his relative) besieged Ganja. Though the siege was unsuccessful,
Javad Khan had to return prisoners of war captured in Tiflis and pay war costs to
Ibrahim Khan in order to lift the siege.
After the death of King Irakli, Javad Khan struggled to regain the territories
of Borchali and Shamshadil, which had been given to Georgia by Nadir-Shah.
However, he managed to liberate only Shamshadil, where he later sent his son,
Ughurlu Khan.
By the order of Catherine II in 1796, a campaign of the Russian army on the
Caucasus began. The army was under the command of General Valerian Zubov,
brother of Platon Zubov, a favourite of Catherine II. As an official purpose of the
campaign, there was restoration of calmness in the region, which had been
disturbed by Agha Mahammed Khan. More than 30,000 troops took part in the
campaign. In a short time, Russia invaded eastern regions of Azerbaijan, almost
without struggle. The majority of Khans were compelled to fall under the
protection of Russia on the condition of the preservation of Khanates and Khan
authorities, although there were representatives of pro-Turkish and Persian among
them.

309

The Caucasian corps approached Ganja under the command of General

Roman Korsakov on December 13, 1796. Javad Khan left the city to meet the army
and presented Ganja's keys to Roman Korsakov.
Benevolent in the beginning of the
campaign, Azerbaijan's attitude toward Russia
sharply worsened after Argutinski was appointed as
Zubov's adviser to Garabagh Meliks. He declared,
without agreeing with Zubov, that Russians came to
Azerbaijan with the plan "of relieving Armenians
from the yoke of Muslims". Armenian Meliks laid
claim to Garabagh and Zangezur.
As soon as the Russians appeared in the
Caucasus, Georgians and Armenians began dividing
the territory of Azerbaijan. In exchange for
Georgia's assistance, Russia promised hereafter to
promote the institution of Georgia's authority in
this region. Irevan and Garabagh Khanates were
The Mosque of Shah Abbas.
17th Century. Ganja. Ganja
planned to be populated by Armenians, who moved
Khanate.
there from Iran and Turkey with the purpose of
creating a buffer Christian state. These politics have proceeded to the present.
More than 1.5 million Armenians were brought to that region, which had
adopted the name Armenia. Also, approximately as many Azerbaijanis were
forcibly evicted from there.
That same year Catherine II died, and the new Emperor Pavel I ordered
Zubov to leave Transcaucasia. Immediately after the departure of the Russians,
Agha Mahammed Khan organized a retaliatory campaign in the north of Azerbaijan. He took Shusha, and Javad Khan then arrived there. They intended to
explain to the Shah the reasons for the surrender of fortresses to Russians without
resistance.
The Assassination of the Shah on June 5, 1797 relieved Khans of possible
punishment. In 1799, the Russian army returned to Georgia, and within a year
Russia announced its annexation of Georgia. Georgian King George XII demanded
the return of Shamshadil.
Javad Khan sent an army there under the command of Ughurlu Khan. This
time, the treasurer of the Georgian king, neighboured by Javad Khan, informed him
about the expected campaign of the Russian - Georgian army against Ganja.

310

It is quite possible that by sending this letter they tried to intimidate Javad
Khan and force him to flee. Russian historian Olga Markova wrote, "The most
painful problem of the internal relations in Transcaucasia - the question of Ganja's
submission - has now sprung up again". The Russian general, Georgian prince
Tsitsianov, was nominated commander-in-chief of the Russian army to the
Caucasus. He wrote
Javad Khan a letter
from Tiflis requesting
a brief report on his
activities
and
demanding him to
send his son Ughurlu
Khan as a hostage to
show his loyalty and
friendship.
Javad
Khan refused to
execute
these
Battle of Prince Abbas Mirza with Russian Troops. Allahverdi Afshar.
1815-1816. Tabriz. Oil on canvas. Hermitage. St. Petersburg.
demands, declaring it
in such a rough form.
He clearly understood that this time the question was not about the transition under
the protectorate of Russia, with the preservation of the Khanate, but complete
liquidation.
On November 22, 1803, Russians from Tiflis set off for Ganja. On approaching Ganja, Tsitsianov again sent a letter to Javad Khan, which categorically
demanded him to yield the fortress.
Javad Khan answered that he was ready to defend Ganja in action. Azerbaijani historian Mirza Adigezal Bey wrote that Javad Khan mustered an army and
attacked the enemy. The battle began near the tomb of the great Azerbaijani poet
Sheikh Nizami, near the village of Qulu-kobu.
The forces were evidently unequal. As a result, Ganja defenders suffered
heavy losses and returned to the city to shelter in the internal citadel. The Russian
army pursued them in Ganja and surrounded the citadel. During a month of threats
and ultimatums by Tsitsianov, Javad Khan answered unequivocally: "As to the
surrender of the city, leave behind this unrealizable dream. In Ganja you can enter
only through my corpse. Do you understand? Only after my death and that's all".
Winter colds came nearer and on January 3, 1804, Tsitsianov decided to
assault the citadel. The first attack was a failure; then another attack on the citadel
followed.

311

Despite the heroic resistance of the Ganja residents, Russians seized the main
towers of the citadel. Early in the morning on January 4, 1804, Javad Khan fell in
action from an enemy bullet. Javad Khan's son Husein Gulu Khan perished
courageously.
The Ganja Khanate was conquered by Russia and ceased to exist. However,
on July 26, 1826, another son of Javad Khan, Ughurlu Khan, took Ganja and
restored the Khanate for a short time.
Ughurlu Khan, notable for his unusual courage and talent as a commander,
twice made deep raids into Azerbaijan with a small army and even tried to take
Ganja.
Javad Khan was buried in Ganja at the "Juma" mosque, constructed by
Shah-Abbas.
A modest entombment was established over his grave. It was made of
marble and an inscription in "nastalig" in Persian was very skilfully traced out:
"In this tomb lies Beylarbey of Ganja
Javad Khan Ziyad-oghlu from the family of Qajar".
Died in the year one thousand two hundred
And eighteen (1218/1804).

In 1962, apparently in connection with the reconstruction of the square

around the mosque, his tomb was destroyed by the Soviet administration. Local
patriots saved the remains of Javad Khan, and on March 27, 1990 they were
returned to their former place.
Russia gained a victory over Javad Khan and captured Ganja. To celebrate
the event, Russians instituted rewards and memorable medals. Decorations (silver
medals) were issued that said "For the capture of Ganja on January 30, 1804" and
"For bravery during the capture of Ganja". The Recapture of Ganja following the
battle with Ughurlu Khan in 1826 was marked in Russia by issuing a memorable
medal by famous medallist Count Fedor Tolstoy. It read: "The Battle under
Elizavetopol. 1826". The city was renamed Elizavetpol in honour of the wife of
Russian Emperor Alexsander I Elizabetha Alexeevna.
Ganja prospered during the reign of Javad Khan. Trade flourished, various
crafts were cultivated, and schools, caravanserais and mosques were built. Under
the court of Javad Khan, scientists, writers and poets assembled, including
Kerbalay Sadiq, father of the prominent Azerbaijani poet Mirza Shafi. When
Russians captured Ganja, Javad Khan's daughter Puste Khanum invited Mirza
Shafi to serve as manager, but after the Shamkir battle, Ughurlu Khan took Pusta
Khanum away to Iran.
Javad Khan's granddaughter and Ughurlu Khan's daughter, Badir Jahan
Beyim, was the wife of the last Khan of Garabagh, Mehti Qulu Khan Juvanshir.

312

She was an outstanding poet and public figure. Javad Khan's grandson Kelbali
Khan Musahib wrote verses in Azeri and Persian.
Javad Khan's brother Fathali Bey Ziyad-oghlu Khali Ganjali was a wellknown poet. The manuscript of his Divan, written mostly in Azeri, is kept at the
Institute of Manuscripts of the National Academy of Sciences of Azerbaijan.
Famous Azerbaijani writer Mohsun Nasiri wrote at the court of Javad Khan. By the
order of Javad Khan, he wrote the Azerbaijani version of "Tuti-name", based on
the ancient Indian fairy tale. After Russia's occupation of Ganja, some of Javad
Khan's descendants adopted the surname Ziyatkhanovs. Now in Baku and Ganja
you can meet Javad Khan's direct offspring under this surname.
A Life Spent
in Pilgrimage
Zeynal abd-Din Shirvani
On March 8, 1852 at the session of the Caucasian Branch of Russian
Geographical Society, a report was made on the book "Riyazus-Seyahat" by
Zeynal abd-Din Shirvani. The chairman of the session, vice-regent of the Caucasus
Prince Vorontsov was so interested in this report that he ordered a collection of
information about Zeynal abd-Din Shirvani. He also ordered that the book be
found or a copy be made.
Through the Russian Embassy in Iran a contact
was established with Prince Mahammed Reza Mirza
Qajar. However, he refused to sell a single copy of the
book, though he kindly agreed to send a copy. Who was
Zeynal abd-Din Shirvani, what attracted the attention of
Russian scientists and of high-ranking dignitaries, in
honour of whom were named a library in Indonesia,
Geographical Societies in Mecca and Jiz (Saudi Arabia),
a street in the Iranian city of Shiraz, a steam-ship
floating in the Caspian Sea, and a museum in India?
Haji Zeynal abd-Din ibn Akhund Iskender Shirvani, a prominent geographer, traveller, historian,
ethnographer, philosopher and poet, was born in 1780 in Shemakha.
In 1785, when Zeynal abd-Din was five years old, the family of Akhund
Iskender migrated to the city of Kerbela (near Baghdad), where the father of the
future traveller attended university. There, Zeynal abd-Din received primary
education. In 1796, he moved to Baghdad to complete his education. There Zeynal
abd-Din continued to study philosophy, medicine, astronomy, mathematics and
languages. Books of travellers were kept in the libraries of Baghdad, and scientists

313

of Baghdad assembled there from all over the East. These, coupled with the
numerous pilgrims visiting the sacred city, opened before the young man a
mysterious, unknown world. Aspiration to see the world and bring the story about
it to his countrymen became the only purpose in the life of young Shirvani, so
without extensive preparations he started his way.
Nureddin Keremov, a well-known Azerbaijani
biographer of Zeynal abd-Din Shirvani, wrote: "The way
was stretched for more than 60,000 kilometers and lasted
for 40 years. It went through Asia Minor, Iran Highland,
Central Asia, Arabian and North African deserts,
through the forests and savannas of Sudan, the tropical
forests of India, the islands of the Indian Ocean. This
way crossed the mountain ridges of Hindukush, Zagros,
Suleyman Mountains, Pamir, and many other areas of
Asia and Africa".
In his works, Zeynal abd-Din Shirvani did not
Portrait of Zeynal abdDin Shirvani. Ali Minayi.
focus on single trips. Nureddin Keremov pointed to his
three main trips. "The first of them was the following:
Baghdad, Iraq-e Ajam, Gilan, Shirvan, Mughan, Talish,
Southern Azerbaijan, Khorasan, Herat, Zabul, Kabul,
onward to India's regions, Penjab, Dean, Bengal,
Gujarat, the islands of the Indian Ocean, Sind, Multan;
then by mountain roads to Kashmir, Muzaffarabad and
by Eabul roads to Takharistan; from there to Turan and
through the Badakhshan Mountains to Khorasan; then
via Iran to Phars. After a short rest, Zeynal abd-Din
Shirvani began the second trip. It started with Shiraz
(Phars), and from there went to Darab; then by sea to
Bender-Abbas, further via Ormuz to Khadramaut and
Yemen, then to Ethiopia and Sudan, then again to the
Arabian peninsula to Jidda, Khijaz, Medina and Mecca.
Later he went by sea to the country of Seyids, from
Egypt in the Near East to Sham-Rum (Anatoly), Diyarbeqir, Garaman and Aydin.
The third trip of Zeynal abd-Din Shirvani - to the Atlantic Ocean and back crossed the following route: the islands of Bahre Akhzar (which means "green
sea", as the Eastern geographer called the Atlantic Ocean), Rum-Eli (or Rumalya, a
European part of the Osman Empire), Anatoly, Azerbaijan, Teheran, Baghdad,
Hamadan, Isfahan, Kerman and Shiraz".
Using more than 500 manuscripts and books, many of which are now lost,
and personal observations, made during these trips, Shirvani wrote three books,
Title page of Bustaneseyahe by Zeynal abd-Din
Shirvani.

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bringing him world fame: "Riyazus- Sayahat" ("Fields of Trips") 1822,

"Khadaikus-Sayahat" ("Gardens of the Trip") 1827 and "Bustanus-Sayahat"
("Flower Bed of the Trip") 1833. In them, he gave valuable information on
geography, history, ethnography, architecture, literature and well-known figures
from many countries.
He gave special attention to the description of the
world's climatic zones. Like his predecessors from the
East, Shirvani divided the Earth into seven climatic
zones.
During his travels, Shirvani became acquainted
with quite a few scientific figures. Several of them tried
to meet with him, and they took his opinion into
consideration. News of the scholarship of Shirvani
overstepped the borders of the routes of his trips. When
asked about the reasons for his unusual hospitality, the
governor of one of the regions of India answered, "I have
rendered you only one hundredth of the respect which
The Siniq Qala Mosque.
you deserved. I highly appreciate you for eight reasons:
1079. Baku, the State of
one of them is your charity; people should respect each
the Shirvanshahs.
other. Another reason is that you have arrived as a guest
of our country, and a guest should be respected; and because you are a scientist,
and scientists need to be to respected; and at last, one more reason is that you are a
wise and informed person. You help the poor people, and he who helps paupers
and unfortunates is estimable... I appreciate you due to the above told and I have a
whole-hearted kindness toward you".
He was invited to the courts of the governor of
Egypt Ibrahim Bey, Shah of Iran, Fathali Shah Qajar,
Sultan of Turkey Mahmud, and many others. There, he
participated in disputes and conversations, but on offers to
stay at the Court, there followed polite refusal. Shirvani
preferred an adventurous life full of hardship to replete the
existence of a courtier. At the same time, Zeynal abd-Din
was a poet and composed lyrical poetry under the
Climactic Zones of
the Earth, by Zeynal
pseudonym of Tamkin. These verses are scattered
abd-Din Shirvani.
throughout his geographical writings and collected in his
"Divan", the manuscript of which is kept at the Central Library of Teheran.
Manuscripts of other works are kept at the British Museum, the Paris National
Library, in St. Petersburg and in Iran.
Shirvani's works were explored by many Azerbaijani, Iranian, Russian and
European scientists, including Abbas Qulu Bakikhanov, Mahammed Tarbiyat,
Asker Rabbani, B. Dorn, N. Khanikov, E. Braun, C. Storn and E. Bloshe. Of

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particular interest are works of N. Keremov, who devoted a greater part of his life
to the propaganda of the scientific heritage of Zeynal abd-Din Shirvani.
Zeynal abd-Din married in 1820/21 in
the city Shiraz. Soon, his son Jalal ad-Din
Mahammed was born, followed two years
later by his second son Khusam ad-Din Ali.
His elder son did not live long. The younger
son followed in his father's steps and took
trips to Iraq, Iran and India. Zeynal abd-Din
Shirvani
spent the last years of his life with
A postcard. Baku. Beginning of the 20
th Century.
his family in Shiraz. From there he went on
his final trip. It was the hajj to Mecca he made
together with his wife. On the way to Mecca he fell ill and died near the city of
Jidda in 1838, where he was buried.
The Master of Love Poetry.
Molla Panah Vagif
Molla Panah Vagif - Grand Vizier of Garabagh
Khanate and well-known political and public figure of 18th
Century Azerbaijan - is one Azerbaijan's outstanding poets
of the medieval tradition and the first poet to create new
realistic poetry, close to folksy. His creativity had a great
influence on the further development of Azerbaijani poetry.
Vagif was born in 1717 in the settlement of Salahli,
near Gazakh. Apparently, his distant ancestors migrated there from the native land
of the great Fizuli-Bayat. However, there is not much reliable information about
his parents. It is only known that Vagif's grandfather's name was Suleyman, his
father's name was Mehdi, and his mother's name was Aggiz.
Panah was highly educated. He was skilled in Persian and Arabic and knew
the particulars of astronomy, mathematics architecture, music and poetry. In
Gazakh, he attended the school of well-known scientist and teacher Shafi-efendi.
Some biographers consider that he was subsequently educated in Ganja or Tabriz.
In Gazakh, and later in Garabagh, Vagif taught in the madrasa under a
mosque named after Molla Panah. The glory of the profound erudition of Vagif
went far beyond his native land; a proverb even said: "Not every scribe can
become Molla Panah".
In the middle of the 18th Century, hostile conditions arose on the border
with Georgia and many families from the Gazakh area migrated to the regions of

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Garabagh and Ganja. Vagif s family was among these emigrants. They found
refuge in the village of Terterbasar, Javanshir's region of Garabagh. There, Vagif
continued teaching. This brought him modest income in the small poor village, so
Vagif s family lived in poverty. It is not surprising that he wrote the poem "Bayram
oldu" ("Holiday Has Come") during this time:
Although Bayram, the holiday, is on its way, I sigh.
At home, there's not a sack that holds a thing to eat.
The jars that held the oil are empty and quite dry
There's not a whiff of cheese and not a shred of meat.
We put no faith in God, whose mercy is never shown
If bumpkins knew they'd drive us off with blows!
In every village house the honey overflows.
It's only in our own there's nothing sour or sweet.
In this immense world of ours we've not a groat to show,
And ne'er a pretty lass to set the heart aglow.
Vagif, don't ever boast about the things you know.
God knows our store of wisdom's poor and incomplete!

This undistinguished verse would not be worth mentioning if not for its bad
name. During the Soviet time this verse would have been regarded as a merit of the
poet. It was recited
everywhere, from creche
to university audiences.
Communists always used
this verse to emphasize the
advantages of the thenexisting socialist system of
management. Masses of
the country's population
started studying the creativity of Vagif from this
verse.
Shusha. 19th Century. Garabagh. Drawing by Vereschagin.
Soon after, Vagif
moved from Terterbasar to Shusha, where he opened a school and shortly after
gained the reputation of excellent teacher and talented poet. The poet's glory
reached Garabagh's Khan Ibrahim Khalil Khan, and he was invited to the palace.
There are different legends as to how Vagif got to the palace. According to one,
Vagif predicted a lunar eclipse and earthquake with great accuracy. Having learned

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about this, Ibrahim Khan wanted to get acquainted with the gifted astrologer, and
Vagif was invited to the palace. Impressed by Vagif's sharp wit, acuteness and
personal charm, Ibrahim Khan offered him to move to the palace.
According to another legend, while Vagif was in Ganja, he wrote a letter on
behalf of an applicant to the ruler of Ganja Khanate Javad Khan Qajar. Javad Khan
was surprised by the style of the letter and took Vagif to the palace. However,
giving in to the persistent appeals of Ibrahim Khali 1 Khan, he released him to
Garabagh. Vagif remained in the palace until his dying day, first as Eshikaghasi
(Vizier or Home Secretary), and then as Grand Vizier. Thanks to his
accomplishment and scholarship, he soon won common respect. It is evident that
Vagif seriously studied astronomy and successfully used his knowledge in practice
to predict eclipses, as well as make calendar calculations and astrological forecasts.
The palace needed these to make serious decisions. Vagif felt at home in applied
mathematics and used this knowledge during the construction of Khan's palace,
residential houses and the wall of the impregnable fortress of Shusha.
Vagif had a rich library and was perpetually engaged in self-education.
Through his accomplishments, he stood out among die intellectuals of Shusha and
fully justified his poetic pseudonym "Vagif" ("Expert"). Aziz Sharif, a researcher
of Vagif, said that as Vizier of Garabagh Khanate, Vagif proved himself to be a
great politician and public figure, and a wise and far seeing individual. There are
no grounds for doubting the exceptional abilities of Vagif, but a question arises:
perhaps it was him and Ibrahim Khalil Khan's "far-seeing policy" that later led
Azerbaijan to the bloody events in Garabagh.
Vagif had two wives. One was called Medina, and the other was
Gizkhanum. Gizkhanum was a Durband Bey's daughter and got married in her
young age to the already elderly Vagif. There are legends about her unusual
beauty. Vagif had one son and two daughters. All of them were children of
Medina Khanum. The son's name was Aliagha. He wrote under the pennamc
"Alim" ("Scientist"), and was murdered when he was middle-aged.
Vagif was on good terms with the poets Vidadi, Husein Khan Mushtag and
Aggiz-oghlu Piri. Of these, his closest friend was the poet Vidadi from Gazakh.
According to some information, Vidadi was Vagif's distant relative. The daughters
of Vagif were married to the sons of Vidadi. The poetic correspondence between
the two poets was of particular significance for their creative work. Another friend
of his, Mahammed Husein Mushtag, was Khan of Sheki for 22 years. Their poetic
correspondence is also known.
Although Vagif arrived in the palace as a Sunnit, he adopted Shiism, which
was professed by the Khan. As Grand Vizier, he supervised the foreign affairs in
the Khanate. Azerbaijan was in a difficult situation. Nadir Shah was murdered in
1747. A little earlier, independent Khanates had been formed in Azerbaijan. In a
short time, such Khanates as Garabagh, Ganja, Guba, Sheki and Talish sprang up

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Shusha Fortress. 18th Century. Garabagh.

319

and were recognised in the international arena. However, despite the political,
military and economic success achieved by these Khanates, they faced the threat of
the loss of their independence.
The independence of the Khanates was threatened by neighbouring
Khanates and Georgia. Ceaseless internal wars and the threat of intrusion of the
powerful neighbour compelled the Khanates to enter into alliance with other
Khanates and seek support of powerful states. Ibrahim Khan concluded a treaty
with Georgia and sought the support of Russia. In 1783, Georgian King Irakli II
adopted Russian citizenship. Vagif visited Tiflis a year later to attend a reception
arranged in honour of the conclusion of the treaty between the two states. During
the reception, some of Vagifs verses were read. These were written in Tiflis and
devoted to Irakli's son Prince Eulon. They also praised Georgia's beauties and
included a eulogy of Tiflis.
In 1783, Ibrahim Khalil Khan
addressed a letter to Empress
Catherine II with a request to admit
Garabagh Khanate into Russian
citizenship. Ibrahim Khan had to
choose between Russia and Iran,
where Agha Mahammed Shah Qajar
had come to power.
Ibrahim Khalil Khan oriented
himself toward Russia. From old
times Garabagh was populated with
Qajars and had been ruled for nearly 200 years by Qajars from the Ziyad-Oghlu
family. Agha Mahammed Shah tried to conquer Garabagh Khanate in any degree,
and he was motivated by the restoration of the rights of Qajars.
Before Agha Mahammed's arrival in Garabagh, Ibrahim Khalil Khan had
maintained close contact with Irakli II. Vagif participated in the negotiations held
by Ibrahim Khalil Khan, Irakli II, hakim of Irevan Mahammed Khan and hakim of
Talish Mir Mustafa Khan. The negotiations focused on the joint struggle against
Agha Mahammed. Prepared to campaign against Garabagh, Agha Mahammed
demanded unconditional obedience from Ibrahim Khalil Khan, and as a guarantee
he expressed his desire that the Khan's son be sent to him. Ibrahim Khalil Khan did
not agree and in 1795, Agha Mahammed Shah's army crossed the river Araz and
made their attack on Shusha. Shusha's people were guided by Vagif and had time
to prepare for their prolonged defense. The siege of Shusha was thoroughly
developed. Agha Mahammed Shah asked his court poet to write an intimidating
letter to Ibrahim Khalil Khan. Noteworthy are the following verses:

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Madman! A hail of stones crashes down from heaven.

And you in glass walls wait for wonder to come.

Here we have a play on words. Shusha in Azeri means glass. A sheet with
this couplet was attached to an arrow, which the Shah's warriors shot into the
fortress. In the same way, they received an answer written by Vagif, Grand Vizier
of Garabagh Khanate:
The Creator surrounded me by glass,
But by hard stone the glass is encompassed.

This verse evoked terrible anger from Agha Mahammed, and he renewed
the shelling of Shusha. After 33 days of unsuccessful attacks of the fortress, the
army of the Shah lifted the siege and made their way to Georgia.
Wielding arms skilfully, Vagif was among the defenders of the fortress.
Legends were spread about his art of straight shooting. People said that one day at
an Armenian wedding party, the numerous visitors arranged a shooting
competition, which Vagif won. Vagif even had muhammas devoted to the gun.
In 1796, Russian armies under the command of count Zubov passed through
Shemakha up to the borders of Garabagh. Ibrahim Khalil Khan sent an embassy led
by Abulfat Khan's son to Zubov. Among them were Vagif and the sons of some
Garabagh emirs too. On behalf of Catherine II, Ibrahim Khalil Khan and Vagif
were presented with costly gifts. Vagif was presented with a staff decorated with
precious stones.
Ibrahim Khalil Khan continually maintained correspondence with Catherine
II. Vagif wrote Ibrahim Khalil Khan's letters to Catherine, and the Empress at once
noticed the uncommon abilities of the author. In a letter to Potemkin written in
1784, Catherine II pointed out that all the letters of Ibrahim Khalil Khan stood out
by the refined style compared with (he ones from Persia and Turkey. She asked her
favourite to find out the details of the personality and state of health of the author
of the letters.
In 1796, Empress Catherine II died and the new Emperor Pavel I withdrew
the Russian army from the Caucasus. Agha Mahammed Shah took the opportunity
to punish the recalcitrant Khans of Azerbaijan. Within a year he launched a new
campaign and again started it from Shusha. This time Ibrahim Khalil Khan opened
the gates of the fortress Shusha without resistance and fled to the north of
Azerbaijan, backed by a small group of relatives and an entourage. However, Vagif
was not among his entourage. Only a week after the arrival of the Shah's army in
Shusha, he was arrested and brought to the palace of Ibrahim Khalil Khan's brother
Mahammed Hasan Bey, where Agha Mahammed Shah sat solemnly.
Historians account for the punishment inflicted by Ibrahim Khalil Khan
on ihe famous delender of Shusha by the disastrous situation in Garabagh, where

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drought was followed by terrible famine. The absence of Vagif in the Khan's
entourage is explained differently.
All the explanations lead to numerous questions. Shusha was regarded as an
impregnable fortress and Ibrahim Khalil Khan had enough time to stock up
provisions and prepare for prolonged defense.
If from the very outset he wanted to hand over the fortress, Vagif, his
closest courtier, would have known about it and would have tried to be in the
fortress at that moment. However, for unknown reasons he left the fortress and
turned Vagif adrift.
There are some versions that explain the poet's absence in the Khan's
entourage. According to one of them, Vagif went with a certain Jamil Agha to
Tiflis and on his return was seized by Agha Mahammed Shah's people. Vagif,
according to another version, escaped from the Shah, was seized by Javad Khan,
and sent off to the Shah. There was also an assumption that antagonists of Ibrahim
Khalil Khan seized the city some days before the intrusion of Agha Mahammed,
and that Vagif was arrested before the arrival of the Shah. This explained why the
impregnable fortress surrendered without struggle. Then there arose yet more
mysterious events. According to the message of historian Mirza Jamal, who
occupied Vagif s position at the court of Ibrahim Khalil Khan after his return to
Shusha, Vagif was brought to the palace close to sunset and Agha Mahammed
announced that he would be executed in the morning. It is rather surprising that the
same evening, he promised to execute three servants the same morning. However,
Agha Mahammed Shah did not hold out until morning. The servants facing
execution penetrated into the Shah's bedroom and killed him. Plots of these stories
are rather primitive as if written under one scenario.
Many historians consider that Agha Mahammed was assassinated as a result
of a conspiracy led by opponents from Iran or Georgia by King Irakli II. The
involvement of tragedy in the murder of Agha Mahammed may be explained by
the presence of a Georgian among the servants charged with the murder of the
Shah. If so, most questions can be explained. Ibrahim Khalil Khan was an ally of
the Georgian king. Therefore, the probability remains that if it were a plot, Ibrahim
Khalil Khan could have participated as well. Then it is possible to assume that
Vagif stayed in Garabagh for the continuation of the struggle against the Persian
Shah and, perhaps, guided the plotters, among whom there may have been representatives of Iranian dignitaries accompanying Agha Mahammed to Shusha.
One such plotter, as historians consider, could have been his commander,
the noble Azerbaijani Khan Sadiq Khan Shekkaki, connected with some
Azerbaijani Khans and Georgians living in Iran. At any rate, this version is
confirmed by the delivery of the Shah's treasures to him after the murder. After the
Shah's murder, the army came back to Iran by different ways, and the possible
campaign on Georgia did not take place.

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Vagifs conduct the night before the murder of the Shah confirms this
version. Vagif, as eyewitnesses testified, repeatedly sent for a custodian that night
and towards the morning and asked him whether something unusual had happened
in the town. Right after the murder of the Shah, Ibrahim Khalil Khan's nephew
succeeded to Garabagh Khanate. Rescue seemed to have come, but Mammed Bey
Javanshir trumped up a charge against Vagif and decided to execute him and his
son Ali Bey.
Historians have no consistent opinion regarding this incident. Apparently,
on the day of the execution, when the guard was leading the father and his son,
allegedly, to the Khan's reception, the son wondered why the guard was taking
them downstairs when the Khan was upstairs. Vagif answered that they were being
led to where many people had sent for them.
Vagif was buried with funeral honours in Shusha. On his grave, a modest
mausoleum was erected. It became a place of pilgrimage. After Vagifs execution,
his house was plundered and his manuscripts were incinerated. The "Divan" of his
verses did not reach us.
The famous poet's works were scripted together by several generations of
scholars. The poet's verses were used by ashigs and have enjoyed popularity by
people at large. A number of his verses survived in manuscripts. In 1856 Mirza
Yusif Nersesov published the corpus of Vagifs poetry in Teymurkhanshur. Then
Mirza Fatali Akhundzade collected rich material and gave it to the outstanding
orientalist Adolf Berje, who issued it in 1867 in Leipzig. Husein Efendi Gaibov,
who was a distant descendant of the poet Vidadi, edited a large anthology of
Azerbaijani poetry. Though his manuscript was not published, many litterateurs
used it.
The last time that Vagif was published before the Russian revolution was by
Hashim Bey Vezirov, editor of the newspaper "New Life". After the revolution,
Salman Mumtaz was actively involved in Vagifs poetry. The popularity of Vagif
was very great not only among Azerbaijanis, but among Georgians and Armenians
as well. In those years, Azeri was the language of international communication in
the Caucasus, so manuscripts of his verses survived not only in the Arabic script,
but also in the Georgian and Armenian scripts.
Vagif used all classical forms of Oriental poetry. He wrote qazels, tejnis,
muhammas, mustezad, muashar, mushaire, mesnevi and elegies. However, a
special place in his creativity belongs to the poetic form goshma, adopted from
ashugh poetry. The language of these verses is close to folksy. There are minimal
Arabic and Persian words. Vagif grew up among ashugs and perfectly knew the
preferences of the audience. This explains the predominance in his poetry of the
poetic form goshma.
On the other hand, "Divan" by Vagif was lost, and in the memories of the
people there remained goshmas congenial to them. However, the overindulgence of

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this poetic form had a positive effect on the content and language of the verses of
classical forms.
The love in Vagifs verses stems from the Sufi-mystical symbolism, which is
inherent, to a degree, in most Azerbaijani medieval poets. Vagifs verses sing the
joys of life, the beauty of beloved, the bitterness of separation and the pleasures of
meetings and ardent love. A great number of Vagif s verses are devoted to the
elegy of Azerbaijani beauties. In nearly all of his poems, the poet describes the
beloved's eyes, eyebrows, cheeks, hands, legs, stature and languishing looks. These
verses seem a little bit monotonous to us, but Vagifs contemporaries perceived
them differently. In the Muslim community, men were deprived of the opportunity
to sec open-faced women and to have free access to communicate with them.
Vagifs verses simply recited the amenities of the beauties, thus permitting them to
be animate, inaccessible live images.
The emotions of that time's audience are exaggerated today. From our point
of view, love verses had an unusually strong emotional effect on listeners, down to
the loss of consciousness. The realisation of a woman's beauty by a male audience
of that time enabled them, under the effect of Vagif s verses, to reconstruct in their
imagination the living image of clever, sharp-witted, playful, flirty, graceful and
slender, pure and virginal white beauties with large eyes and long eyelashes, and
with a birthmark on their cheeks. The poetry of Vagif is very imaginative and
permits the design of volumetric and multicoloured spiritual images. If we could
translate that into a computer, it could create an "ideal" image of the Azerbaijani
beauty. However, he often answers this question himself:
Like a mirror, her body should always be fair,
Her locks should be ebon and set off her height.
Her checks should recall springtide tulips a blowing.
Her lips should be red and like cut amber glowing.
Her body, a jewel no fault ever showing.
From her head to her toes should be pure pearly white.
Her dress should be neat and impeccably clean.
Her manner must never be mincing or mean.
Her breath should be sweet and her glances serene.
Her hair with cool violets' scent should delight.
Both her arms and her legs should be graceful and slim,
Her buttocks well rounded, not fat, or too thin,
On her ankles two dimples and one on her chin,
Her face should be round and her bones should be slight.
At the door of maturity-fifteen, not more.
With no band on her brow that might cover some flaw.
She must not be precocious, or push to the fore,

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Yet charming to guests that her lord may invite.

Let her beauty each morning attention exciteA fine preening pheasant, delighting the sight.
She should not talk too much, but be gay and forthright.
Attentive she must be, and always polite.

Translated by Tom Botting.

Vagif was not only the master of love poetry, but also a connoisseur of love
enjoyment. Aziz Sharif said, "Instead of an unearthly, ideal love that was at the
centre of attention of the classical medieval poets, Vagif conveyed hot and live
feelings, the simple pleasures of love". Vagif wrote deeply philosophical verses
about the mission of man and the frailty of the world, as well as verses of
accusatory nature. However, he remains the poet of love, beauty and the pleasures
of being.
A Key to Wisdom
Mirza Shafi
Mirza Shafi, what do they want of you?
They either glorify you, or speak ill of you.
"The Key to Wisdom", Mirza Shaf

The system of education at schools and

universities in medieval Azerbaijan was built in such a
way that attention was paid frst to theology and then to
the study of languages, theory and the practice of
versification and calligraphy. (This system was preserved
at schools affiliated with mosques until the end of the
19th Century). That is why almost all educated people of
that time had to try themselves in versification and
calligraphy. However, paper, ink and the labor of a
copyist cost a lot, and only poets who had very rich
patrons could afford a luxury such as duplicating their works. As a rule, many
manuscripts that were written as just one copy had a tendency to disappear in the
course of time. The same could have occurred with Mirza Shafi, an ordinary
manuscript copyist from Ganja, if it hadn't been for an almost detective story with
a denouement that made him famous all over the world.
Hardly could the modest calligrapher, and later teacher of Azeri, hope that
his verses would be interpreted by the best translators and poets of European

325

countries into practically all the languages of the world, that a collection of his
poetry would run in 100 editions in various countries of the world, and that
beautiful music for his verses would be written by composers of different music
schools. However, everything happened that way thanks (or contrary) to the
attempts of Fridrich Bodenshtedt, a German literary man travelling around Russia
and the Caucasus. But we will proceed in succession.
At the beginning of the 19th Century, there
lived an architect named Kerbalay Sadiq, a born
Ganja citizen (his father Mahammed was also from
Ganja), in the palace of the last Ganja Khan, Javad
Khan Ziyad-oghlu Qajar. Kerbalay Sadiq had two
sons. One of them, Abdul Ali, was an apprentice of
a stonemason. The other one, Shafi, attended the
Shah Abbas medrese in Ganja. After Ganja Khan
was killed during the seizure of Ganja by Russian
troops in 1804, Kerbalay Sadiq, a pious man who
found himself without means of subsistence,
pinned his hopes on his son Shafi. He hoped that
Shafi would become a theologian. However, he
didn't see his dream come true. Afer Javad-Khan
Qajar died, Sadiq went bankrupt and, unable to
stand the vicissitudes of life, soon died leaving his children orphans.
Shaft could continue his education thanks to assistance from the famous
merchant Haji Abdulla, "a man of remarkable intellect and high morals", who had
recently come back from Tabriz.
Haji Abdulla was born in Ganja. When he became
rich he moved to Tabriz and later to Baghdad. In Baghdad
he got acquainted with a dervish-Sufi, Seyid Sattar by
name. Under the influence of the dervish's passionate
sermons, Haji Abdulla became an ardent supporter of his
philosophical ideas. Before leaving for Ganja, Haji Abdulla
offered his homeless and poor friend a big gift as a token of
his gratitude for the latter's teaching. Seyid Sattar refused
the gift and asked the merchant to adopt his ideology and
Fridrich Bodenshtedt
accordingly change his way of life. Haji Abdulla kept his
word. Upon arrival in Ganja he changed his way of life; moreover, he actively
popularized the Sufist ideologyHaji Abdulla's sermons made a significant impression on Shafi, who
became Haji Abdulla's ardent supporter. Shafi, as far back as in medrese, was keen
on Sufism and the pantheistic philosophy of the Orient, which gave him the key to

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the poetry of his favourite poets Khafiz, Fizuli, Khayyam, Saadi and other Sufist
poets. Therefore, he found Haji Abdulla's preaching congenial to him. Haji
Abdulla in his turn took Shafi under his patronage and, as some researchers
believe, adopted him.
Shafi's heretical views and support for Haji
Abdulla in his disputes with representatives of the
clergy did not go unnoticed, and the future poet was
expelled from medrese. Scholars who deal with the
literary works of Shafi should bear in mind that the
poet remained loyal to his teacher and did not deviate
from the positions of Sufism for the rest of his life.
In Sufist poetry, pubs (Meykhana, Kharabat)
meant the meeting of Sufis, and glorified love referred
to God. In addition, the verses that had a disguised
Sufist meaning, which could not be known to
Bodenshtedt, can be attributed to genuine verses of
Vazeh.
Haji Abdulla helped Shafi find a job as a manager at the house of the late
Javad Khan's daughter, Pusta Khanum. Afterwards, an honorable title, Mirza, was
added to his name.
In 1826 Javad Khan's elder son, Ughurlu Khan Ziad-oghlu Qajar, managed
to restore Ganja Khanate with the help of the troops commanded by Abbas Mirza
Qajar. However, the Russians again recaptured Ganja,
and Ughurlu Khan emigrated to Iran with his sister
Pusta Khanum.
Having lost his job, Mirza Shafi earned his
living by copying Muslim religious literature. In 1831
Shafi's associate and patron Haji Abdulla died. He left
by will several hundred roubles to Shafi. That sum
enabled Mirza Shafi to pay off his debts and ease his
financial difficulties, but not for long. With printinghouses coming to light, the labor of a copyist was not
in such demand anymore, and Mirza Shafi again found
himself in a difficult situation.
M. Rafili, one of the best connoisseurs of the poet's literary works, is of the
viewpoint that the climax of Mirza Shafi's creative activity fell during that very
period. He writes, "Haunted by life, adversities and attacks on the part of the
clergy, Mirza Shafi felt lonesome and rejected, and he found a way out by writing
verses, in which he praised the merits of wine and his sweetheart and which very
often sounded mystic. This was partially a result of the influence exerted by the
works of Khafiz, Khayyam and Fizuli the greatest Azeri poet of the 16th Century".

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Mirza Fatali Akhundzade, an outstanding Azeri philosopher and playwright,

helped Mirza Shaft get the position of teacher in a Tiflis district school. Shaft
worked there for the rest of his life. It was in 1848 that he moved to Ganja, where
he lived for two years while teaching at the Ganja district school, which was newly
opened.
In Tiflis, Mirza Shafi, jointly with
I.Grigoryev, wrote one of the first textbooks in the
Azeri-Turkic language, "Kitab-i Turki". The book
was published in one of the printing-houses of
Tabriz. In official papers it was called as follows:
"A reading-book of the Azeri dialect compiled by
teachers Grigoryev and Mirza Shafi Sadiq oghlu."
"Wise sayings and admonitions", which were
quoted by Mirza Shafi in this book, would later be
repeated word for word by Bodenshtedt, who did
not refer to them as Mirza Shafi's authorship.
In Tiflis Mirza Shafi entered an
environment completely new for him.
However, he did not lose his connections with the literary circle that he had
set up in Ganja. The literary society "Diwan-Khikmet", which was organized by
Mirza Shafi in Ganja, was still operational. Outstanding Azeri scientists and poets
included Abbas-Gulu Aga Bakikhanov and Mirza Fatali Akhundzade, and the
poets included Najmi, Naseh, Shole, Mirza Gasan, Molla Abdulla, Haji Abdulla,
Mirza Yusif Vidadi, Haji Yusif Kane and others. Russian and Georgian literary
men and orientalists, who knew Azeri and Persian, also participated in the activity
of the society. European scientists and poets living in Tiflis were members of the
society as well. The above-mentioned Fridrich Bodenshtedt became a member in
1843. He played such a large role in the fate of Mirza Shafi's heritage that he
deserves special attention.
Bodenshtedt was born on 22 April 1819 in the former Hanover Kingdom.
He studied languages and literature in the best universities of Germany and
Gettingen, Munich and Berlin. Then in 1841 he moved to Moscow, where he was
the tutor of Prince Mikhail Golitsin's children. Three years later Bodenshtedt went
to Tiflis as an observer and foreign language teacher. In Tiflis, Bodenshtedt
decided to start learning oriental languages. In his "Memoirs", Bodenshtedt wrote:
"I was the only German in Tiflis who studied an oriental language, and I started
with Tatar (Azeri-Turkic), because it was the most important language in relation
to numerous Caucasian nations. One could understand you anywhere where the
Russian language did not suffice".
Bodenshtedt's native home. Peine. Germany.

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Bodenshtedt's acquaintances recommended to him, among others, Mirza

Shafi, who had a lot of experience in private teaching in Ganja and Tiflis. "Among
those teachers recommended to me 1 liked Mirza Shafi best of all. He had a slender
figure, and he looked kind and serious", wrote
Bodenshtedt. The classes were held three times a
week and Mirza Shaft's other students were also
present. Soon the teacher and student became good
friends and Bodenshtedt became a full and equal
member of Mirza Shafi's "Divan".
Lively philosophical discussions were held
at the lessons and meetings of the literary majlis
"Diwan-Khikmet". Mirza Shafi read by heart and
sang poetry by Firdowsi, Khayyam, Saadi and
Fizuli. In class, Mirza Shafi devoted a lot of time
to his old verses and to the new ones composed
Above: Mirza Shafi`s script.
during
the lesson in the presence of the students
Below: Mirza Shafi`s ex`libris.
and members of "Diwan". "There wasn't a single
time when I saw Mirza Shafi bringing and using a book in class", Bodenshtedt
recalled. "He sang, dictated to us, and cited by heart, proving to us that his memory
was brilliant and it never failed him".
The highly educated Bodenshtedt used his time spent with his teacher
effectively. He wrote down the contents of conversations and poetry that he
frequently heard there. Mirza Shaft especially dictated his verses to his German
pupil for taking notes. The effectiveness of such a method of teaching foreign
languages, which was tested for centuries, was extremely high. Bodenshtedt soon
started to perceive the charm of Azeri and Persian poetry, which was presented to
him by Mirza Shafi in the original.
Bodenshtedt's sincere desire to get a better understanding of the Orient
appealed to Mirza Shafi, and the latter gave Bodenshtedt a book of his poetry titled
"The Key-to Wisdom" as a gift. Bodenshtedt wrote, "This book contained the
complete outlook of our teacher". In the introduction of the book, the poet presents
the reader with the foreword that Bodenshtedt subsequently published in German,
and which left no doubt of its authenticity. The introduction reads as follows:
"In the name of Allah, the most merciful and gracious one! After we render
homage and praise to the Creator of the Earth and the Sky we reveal the true
essence and nature of this book. At the urgent request of my friend and student
Bustan-effendy (may Allah send him a long life!), Mirza Shafi (may Allah make
his life prosperous!) wrote down in this book a set of gasida, gazal, mugattaat,
masnaviyyat and rubaiyyat, as the source of wisdom and knowledge. May silly
men derive from it and wise men enjoy that source. This collection contains songs
about love, the joy of beauty and kindness, as well as songs condemning

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everything that is bad and vulgar. It contains seeds of wisdom, grown for planting
not on the field of thirst of knowledge and in the furrow of perception; songs which
are not written for people wishing to keep the golden mean as an example of poetry
and eloquence and refusing to let the horse go along the path of loquacity".
In 1845 Bodenshtedt came back to Germany and, summing up the results of
his stay in Tiflis, published a book in 1850 called "1001 Nights in the Orient".
There he presented to the reader the translations of Mirza Shafi Vazeh's songs into
German. Addressing the poet, Bodenshtedt said (and at that time he was sincere):
"You rise in my recollections, Mirza Shafi, a man of wisdom from Ganja! Your
words and everything that you predicted have come true. Your songs have taken
refuge in the hearts of our women and girls and your name is pronounced with
pride in the West. I have made a wreath of flowers that you have given me as a gift
and I have strung pearls that you have scattered in front of me, and I have done that
to glorify you and to bring people joy".
In that book, Bodenshtedt used translations of other Azeri and Persian
poets. He mentioned the authorship of every poet including Mirza Shafi. In
addition, he went into detail specifying where and under what conditions the verses
or songs were written, and what impact it had produced on him. Thus, thanks to the
efforts of this diligent student, all of Europe got acquainted with the works of one
of the most outstanding Azeri poets of the 19th Century.
Bodenshtedt used to deal with literary activity and translations before, but
he had never been popular. He was known in a small circle of literary men. All of a
sudden, and against the author's expectations, the book was a success. Inspired by
the suggestion of his publisher, Bodenshtedt decided to republish the book and, to
be more exact, to publish as a separate book "Mirza Shafi's Songs", which had
previously been a triumph. This time the success was staggering. Within just a few
years, both the author and the translator of the "Songs" won names for themselves
and acclaim all over the world. "The Songs" were published in French, English,
Swedish, Dutch, Danish, Spanish, Portuguese, Russian, Czech, Hungarian, Hebrew
and other languages.
Several poems from the "Songs" were translated into old Jewish. In
Germany alone, the book ran in 169 German editions until 1922. The success was
so overwhelming that "Mirza Shafi's Songs" had to be published several times
within one year. In 1866, the book went through six editions, and in 1876 it went
through 12.
Even the musical comedy "Die Lieder des Mirza Shafi" was written, and its
first night was held in 1887 in Berlin. Emil Pol wrote the libretto of the operetta,
and Austrian composer, Carl Mileker, who wrote more than 20 operettas,
composed the music. Franz Liszt, Glacomo Meyerbeer, Edvard Grieg, Johannes
Brahms, K. Shimanovskiy, Anton Rubinstein and many others wrote" music for
Mirza Shafi's verses.

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Now it is difficult to name any translation other than Rubaiyat's version, of

Omar Khayyam into English by Edward Fitzgerald, which scored massive and
completely unexpected success. In fact, Fitzgerald, as well as Bodenshtedt, was
accused of manipulation of the verses of Khayyam and borrowing verses from Sufi
poets such as Attar, Hafiz, Saadi and Jami. Idris Shah wrote: "Probably knowingly,
but it is not excluded that it was purely accidental, Fitzgerald was penetrated by
Sufi ideas contained in well-known Persian poetry. These ideas ripened in his consciousness, and then after joining them with the Khayyam verses, accepted the
form of Rubaiyat in English". It is possible to say exactly the same about the
translations of Mirza Shafi's poetry into German by Bodenshtedt.
We should mention two Russian translations, among numerous ones, which
differed in level. One was the magnificent translation by Nadson of Mirza Shaf's
songs about Zuleykha. By some misunderstanding, people usually assumed that
"Mirza Shaf's Songs" were translations from "Persian", although Bodenshtedt, in
his description of his trip to thc Caucasus, characterized them as a translation from
"Turkic". For the same reason, Rubenstein's vocal cyclc, consisting of 12 romances
to Mirza Shafi's words, was mentioned as "Persian Songs".
Rafli wrote that readers were so convinced of Mirza Shafi's authorship that
some of them requested that Bodenshtedt show them the original of those
wonderful songs. The success of "The Songs", however, turned Bodenshtedt's
head.
In his next book, with the typically long German title, "From Mirza Shaf's
Heritage with a Prologue and Fridrich Bodenshtedt's Additional Explanation",
which was published in 1874 when Mirza Shaf and his numerous contemporaries
were not alive, Bodenshtedt spoke out with "self-exposure" in public. He stated
that he himself was the only author of his earlier published two books, which were
presented as translations of Mirza Shaf's works. He got used to that image and
later started signing under the name of "Mirza Shafi". He was ironically called "a
Turk from Hanover or a German from Ganja".
German and West European literary critics accepted Bodenshtedt's
statement without reserve. Many people started doubting whether Mirza Shaf
himself existed as a personality; moreover, Mirza Shaf's "Divan" was not discovered in Bodenshtedt's archives after the latters death. Mirza Shafi's notebook of
verses could be the best proof of Bodenshtedt's authorship. The fact that the
notebook suddenly disappeared spoke for itself, taking into consideration the fact
that Germans as a nation were very accurate.
In 1889 a book was published in Leipzig in honour of Bodenshtedt's jubilee.
A Lithuanian literary man and polyglot, Yurgis Yulius Zauerveynas, wrote the
book, which was called "Mirza Shafi's Western-Oriental 'Divan.'" The author
presented to the reader congratulations composed by him in Azeri, Russian,
Persian, Sanskrit, Chinese, French, English, Italian, Latin, Polish, Greek,

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Rumanian, Hungarian, Lithuanian, Old German, Danish, Swedish, Arabic and

other languages. It begins with a poem written in Azeri in which the author calls
Mirza Shaf Bodenshtedt's spiritual tutor (murshid).
Azeri scientists S.Mumtaz, M.Rafli, A.Seyidzade and others managed to
restore the poet's biography little by lit-tle, and they found the originals of his
poems, written in Azeri and Persian. Analysis of "Mirza Shaf's Songs", undertaken
by them, revealed Mirza Shafi as the indisputable author of those verses. However,
they found poems of the Oriental poets Hafz, Saadi and Fizuli, and the verses
written by Bodenshtedt himself as an "imitation of Mirza Shaf" (one could
observe such a phenomenon before as well: there are seven such improvisations in
his translations of Lermontov's poetry). They also found "scrappy translations" (A.
Seyidzade) when the lines of Mirza Shafi's poem were scattered along several
verses of "The Songs".
The fact that Mirza Shafi was a famous poet in Tiflis can be proved by the
publication in the magazine "Otechestvenniye Zapiski" in 1850 of his well-known
poem "Khafiz is my teacher, the pub is my temple..." in the Russian translation.
The Tiflis correspondent of the magazine wrote down the verse from the words of
one of the habitues in Zalzman's tavern who called Mirza Shafi "the current Khafiz
of the Orient". Bodenshtedt himself mentioned Mirza Shafi's popularity in his
book: "Mirza Shafi's many songs, which he sang during poetic contests or during
other ceremonial occasions, continue to live on the lips of Georgians and Tatars
(Azeris), while he himself never thought of putting them in writing. If it hadn't
been for the habit in the Orient to add the poet's name to each verse, it would be
pretty difficult to guess to whom they belonged".
Mirza Shafi died on 16 November 1852 in Tiflis. Deprived and forgotten in
life, he turned out to be deprived after his death as well. The Azeri cemetery located behind the Botanic Garden in Tiflis was pulled down after the war, and nobody
in Mirza Shafi's home country raised a voice in defense of the memory of their
great countryman.
Research of Mirza Shafi's creative activity has not yet been completed;
however, the compiled material suffices to restore his name in the world of poetry,
without belittling the services of his talented translator.
One of the Last Medieval
Encyclopaedists of Azerbaijan
Mir Mohsun Navvab Garabaghi
Shusha, the capital of Garabagh, had always been one of the centres of
Azerbaijani culture. According to well-known musicologist Fridun Shushinskiy,

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there were 95 poets, 22 musicologists, 38 singers, 16 painters, 5 astronomers, 18

architects and 16 physicians in Shusha in the 19th Century.
In the city there operated about 10 literary, musical
and other associations, and over 10 madrasas (universities)
and schools. In the mountainous Shusha, as nowhere in
Azerbaijan, medieval traditions in science, art and culture
were long preserved. In rich libraries, calligraphers and
scribes wrote and copied books; painters decorated the
walls of buildings with paintings; and book miniatures were
created. Excellent carpets were woven, of which the best
museums in the world are proud.
Musicians highly raised the banner of the Garabagh
school of mugham. It is not surprising that in the middle of the 19th Century, when
capitalism had just formed in Azerbaijan to engender a new mentality, the last
encyclopedist of the medieval type was born - Mir Mohsun Navvab Garabaghi.
Mir Mohsun was a prominent musicologist, poet, painter, calligrapher, astrologer,
chemist and mathematician. Because of his knowledge and breadth of vision, he
may be safely attributed to a medieval encyclopedist, although in the public life of
Shusha he always adhered to advanced positions of his time.
Mir Mohsun is presently
known as a musicologist and the
author of two musical treatises
written in Azeri, "VizukhulArgam"
("Explanations
of
Figures") and a second untitled
one. These essays were written in
the best classical traditions and
were the last treatises of the sort
in the East. In Azerbaijan,
Navvab was reputed to be one of
the last alchemists, astrologers
Cafe in Shusha. 19th Century. Garabagh.
and painters of the old school.
Drawing by Vereschagin.
Mir Mohsun Navvab was
born in 1833 to the family of Haji Seyid Ahmed and lived all his life in Shusha. He
was educated at a spiritual school, where he mastered Arabic, Persian and Turkish,
and then in the madrasa of Abbas Sarajali, where he studied astronomy, chemistry,
mathematics and other sciences.
Throughout his long life, Navvab actively participated in the cultural and
public life of Shusha. He wrote verses, published books, taught at school and wrote
over 20 books on science and culture. He also created the literary association

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"Majlisi-faramushan" ("Assembly of the Forgotten"), as well as the musical society

"Majlisi Khanende" ("Assembly of Musicians"), and he opened a library and
reading-room.
The said associations (Majlis) were composed of the
poets Abdulla Bey Asi, Fatma Khanum Kamine, Mes-hadi
Eyyub Baki, Khan Garabaghi and Abdulla Hasan Shahid, as
well as the musicians and singers Haji Gusi, Meshadi Jamil
Amirov, Islam Abdullayev and Seyid Shushinski. These
associations maintained close relations with other associations
of Azerbaijan - "Majlisi-uns" in Shusha, "Beytus-Safa" in
Shemakha and "Majmua-Shuara" in Baku.
Among the works of Navvab is the anthology
"Tezkireyn-Navvab", which informs about the life and creative
activities of more than 100 Azerbaijani poets of Garabagh from
the 19th Century. This book was published in Baku in 1913.
Mir Mohsun Navvab took a great interest in mathematics, chemistry and astronomy. He created a small
Above: Rahil decorated by Navvab. Late 19th Century. Shusha, Garabagh. Azerbaijan.
Below: Galamdan (penbox) depicting holiday in Shusha. Late 19th Century. Mir Mohsun Navvab.
Shusha, Garabagh. Azerbaijan. Opaque watercolour under lacquer.

observatory with two telescopes and a chemical laboratory.

In his "Kifayatul-atfal", written as a textbook on astronomy
in 1899, he drew up tables of heavenly bodies, the times of
solar eclipses, etc.
At his chemical laboratory, he carried out experiments and simultaneously examined the recipes of medieval
alchemists. In his book "Nasihatnama", Navvab referred to
500 instructions for youth. Of the same nature were his
books "Kifayatul-Atfale", "Nurul-Envere" and "Lendnama", containing ethical ideas. Mir Mohsun's artistic
creativity was a great contribution to the art of Garabagh
and Azerbaijan. He also produced watercolour drawings, book miniatures and
paintings of residential buildings and mosques.
Mir Mohsun Navvab's famous musical treatise "Vizukhul-Argam"
("Explanations of Figures") was published for the first time in 1913 in Baku. (His
other work "Keshful-khagigeyi mesnevi", which is devoted to music, is also well
known.) In the treatise, Navvab dealt with the origin and titles of separate
mughams, the structure of some dastgah, the links between mughams and poetical
texts, the contacts between a performer and an audience, and their mutual
arrangement from the point of view of acoustics. Navvab was the first to apply

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the term "dastgah", which put into practice one of the variants of six Garabagh
dastgahs: Rast, Mahur, Shahnaz, Rahavi or Rahab, Chahargah and Nava. As
specified by Navvab, the structure of performed dastgahs in many respects
depended on the taste and abilities of performers.
There were 82 mughams and
songs performed at that time in
Garabagh. Navvab linked the names of
the mughams - Azerbaijan, Nishapur,
Zabuli, Baghdadi, Shirvani, Qajari and
Shah Khatai - to the names of the
creators and regions. He linked the
mugham "Rast" to the gust of spring
wind, "Rahavi" to drops of rain,
"Chahargah" to the reverberating peal
of thunder, "Dugah" to water rushing
from a fountain, "Humayun" to a flight
of birds, "Nava" to the groan of
unfortunate lovers, "Mahur" to a stream
of water, "Shahnaz" to the singing of
nightingales, "Ushshag" to the flight of
The scenes from theatrical performance Shabeh
a bird, and "Uzzal" to the flight of a
(Passion pleys). 1873. Mir Mohsun Navvab.
Shusha,
Garabagh.
Azerbaijan.
Opaque
meteorite.
watercolour on paper.
Speaking about the emotional
influence of mughams on an audience, Navvab wrote that "Ushshag", "Busalik"
and "Nava" inspired courage and daring, while "Bozarg", "Rahavi", "Zangule",
"Zirefkand" and "Huseyni" inspired melancholy. Navvab stated a number of
interesting ideas about the curative properties of music. The treatise ended with the
words: "This work is written with the purpose of increasing the potency of
domestic science".
Well-known musicologist Zemfira Safarova wrote, "'Vizukhul-Arganr is a
valuable work on music to describe the important aspects of musical art and performance of mughams of the last century, not only in Azerbaijan, but in oriental
countries as well".
Musicologist Gultakin Shamili discovered Mir Mohsun's second musical
treatise in 1991 at the Institute of Manuscripts of the National Academy of
Sciences of Azerbaijan. In his treatise, Navvab offered a system of musical
notation identical, to some extent, to the European one. Navvab died in 1918 in the
city of Shusha.

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A Virtuoso Tar Player and the

Inventor of the Azerbaijani Tar
Sadiqjan Garabaghli
During the second half of the 19th Century the capital
of Garabagh, Shusha, saw an exceptional blossoming:
universities, schools and tens of literary and musical associations were active in the city. Science and culture prospered
even more, and Shusha turned into the musical academy of
the Caucasus. New tunes spread all over the Orient. It has to
be kept in mind that many famous singers and musicians
from this period lived in Shusha. Among them was Sadiqjan,
a famous tar-performer (tar is a national Azerbaijani musical
instrument), composer and inventor of the new tar. With
exceptional vocal and musical abilities, he lost his voice in
his youth and concentrated on performing activities.
Succeeding in playing the tar but not confining himself to
this, Sadiqjan was successful in creating a new musical
instrument on the basis of the tar. In addition, he modified
the manner of playing the instrument and thus expanded the opportunities of
performing classical mugham.
Sadiqjan gained popularity as an excellent improviser and composer. It was
the well-known musicologist Afrasiyab Badalbeyli who thoroughly explored the
creative work and mastery of Sadiqjan. Materials on the biography of Sadiqjan,
shown below, were collected by Firudinbey Shushinski, an indefatigable explorer
of the creative activities of professional singers and musicians of classical
Azerbaijani music.
Mirza Sadiq Asad oghlu Sadiqjan was born in 1846 in the town of Shusha.
Like most Shusha residents, he tried his forces in performing songs and mughams.
In fact, the participation in theatrical performances and religious singing during the
"Maharram" month were believed to please God, so a lot of poor families who
could not afford to invite professional singers to mark the holidays had to teach
their children to sing.
With that in mind, there were active special musical majlises (meetings,
associations) and schools in Shusha. Famous singers and musicians trained pupils.
Subsequently, scores of graduates of these majlises and schools became famous for
their singing and musical activities throughout the entire East.
Among the best teachers to work in the Shusha musical schools was Kharat
Gulu Mahammed oghlu, who was noted for his perfect erudition in Oriental music,
poetry and vocal art. Mirza Sadiq began attending Gulu's school on his father's

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instructions. Despite the fact that by the age of 18, Mirza Sadiq had lost his voice
and could not attend the school any longer, Gulu played an exceptional role in his
becoming a professional musician.
The loss of his voice urged Mirza Sadiq to master various musical
instruments. In particular, he tried to learn to play the trumpet, the ney, the
kemancha and the tar. He eventually fixed himself on the tar, having been trained
by a well-known tar performer of Shusha, Mirza Ali Asker.
Firidunbey Shushinski pointed out, "With his
massive hands, long and strong fingers, innate talent and
zeal, the boy successfully mastered the technique of
playing the tar and soon after excelled his teacher in
mastery". Once while Sadiq was playing the tar, Asker
sighed, "I'd like to present all my riches to Sadiq in
exchange for his fingers". People said that Mirza Sadiq
originally performed in an ensemble with Mirza Ali
Asker, playing the kemancha. One day, when his
teacher was ill, Mirza Sadiq had to play the tar and thus
demonstrated his phenomenal ability. After this
occurrence, Mirza Sadiq decided to devote himself to
this wonderful instrument and perfect his mastery.
The musician took part in the popular Shusha musical and literary majlises,
particularly assemblies arranged by the famous musicologist Mir Mohsun Navvab,
"Majlisi-Faramushan" ("Gathering of Forgottens") and "Majlisi-Khanande"
("Gathering of Singers"), as well as the majlises of Khurshid Khanum Natavan.
The majlises discussed problems of theoretical music and poetic works, and they
heard debuts of young singers and musicians.
Sadiq's name became famous in numerous countries. This time, he was
nicknamed Sadiqjan. Note that a title,
in addition to Mirza Sadiq, was conferred to well-known singer Abdul Bagi
Zulalov - Bulbuljan.
Mirza Sadiq performed in a well-known trio of Shusha with singer Haji
Husi and kemancha player Ata Baghdagul oghlu; later he joined another trio with
Meshadi Isi as khananda (singer). In 1880, the trio was invited to give a concert in
Iran, during the wedding ceremony of Muzafar ad-Din Mirza, son of Nasir ad-Din
Shah Qajar.
Following the wedding, Hajji Husi was recognized as the best singer and
Sadiqjan was recognised as an unsurpassed tarist; even better, he was awarded with
the order "Shiri Khurshid". Meanwhile, a well-known tarist challenged Sadiqjan to
a contest. Sadiqjan agreed by running his fingers over the fingerboard of the instrument. On seeing this, the contender declined from taking part in the contest, and
even kissed the fingers of his rival.

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Well-known tar player Meshadi Suleyman Mansurov, son of the head of the
Baku musical majlis Meshadi Melik Mansurov, wrote in his memoirs: "Mirza
Sadiq was the most outstanding tarist of his epoch. His amazing performance and
tar playing had an unfathomable ascendancy over people".
The unrivaled virtuoso Mirza Sadiq frequently played without a mediator;
he just put the tar to his chin. From time to time, he performed with the tar on his
neck. Apparently, even the nightingales in the garden danced to his tar. A music
lover from Baku named Abdulgamid
Babayev noted: "I first heard Sadiqjan in
1897 at our Baku fortress. No such tar
player has ever been born in the
Caucasus. Sadiqjan was very handsome:
tall, broad-shouldered and sturdily built.
He behaved with dignity and restraint at
the majlises. People respected him
interminably. His left arm was so strong
that he frequently performed without a
mediator".
It would be appropriate to note
Sadiq Jan's Ensemble. 1878. Tiflis.
that Sadiqjan partook in weddings,
receptions and concerts, and from time to time acted in theatrical performances
staged in Shusha and Tiflis, jointly with remarkable singers from Azerbaijan and
Iran. He toured about the Caucasus, Central Asia and Iran, and he was a member of
various musical associations. In particular, he performed in Shemakha in the trio of
Hajji Husi, and he attended the musical majlis of Mahmud Agha.
However, famous 19th Century Azerbaijani poet Seyid Azim Shirvani
wrote that for certain reasons Mirza Sadiqjan soon came back to Shusha. From his
verses, it became clear that Seyid Azim was familiar with Mirza Sadiqjan and
highly esteemed his talent.
Shortly after, Sadiqjan was recognized as the first tar player in the entire
Caucasus. The "Caucasian Review" newspaper pointed out that "his playing was
exceptional, artistic, strict and charmingly impressive. It would be desirable for our
Tiflis composers to benefit from Sadiqjan's stay at Tiflis and adopt some tunes
from him to use as material for their future compositions".
As soon as Mirza Sadiqjan realized that he had pressed out everything from
the tar, he tried to improve it further, modifying his manner of playing. It was no
mere coincidence that he was nicknamed Mirza Sadiq, i.e. erudite Sadiq. His
analytical cast of mind helped him solve this problem. In particular, he began
playing the tar by putting it to his chest instead of holding it on his knees, as had
been before. Mirza Sadiq increased the number of strings from 5 to 11 and made
changes in the design of the fingerboard, belly, fastening, etc.

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Musicians termed the new instrument "the magic tar", and Sadiq "the tar's
father". Novelties introduced by Sadiq made it possible to enhance its performing
culture and to sound the instrument brilliantly and lively.
Turkish musicologist Raul Ektabey wrote, "The musical glory of Sadiq was
widely spread all over the Caucasus. Grand master of tar Sadiq added six new
strings to the tar and thus enriched it". Raul Ektabey regarded Sadiqjan as the
greatest ever musician in the Caucasus. The reconstruction of the tar carried out by
the ingenious musician was so striking that shortly after, Sadiq's tar excelled the
previous so-called "Iranian tar" in its design and phonation.
Furthermore, Mirza Sadiqjan was a talented composer. He was successful in
melodizing some rangs to the mughams "Orta Segah" and "Bayati Shiraz", and he
composed musical works and thus enriched popular melodies.
Mirza Sadiq took an active
part in staging the musical play
"Leyli and Majnun" in Shusha in
1897. Uzeir Hajibeyli pointed out
that this staging played a role of
paramount importance in the
development of mugham in
Azerbaijan. European travelers of
the 17th and 18th Centuries
witnessed these miracle plays and
other
performances, usually staged
Hall in Shusha. 19th Century. Garabagh.
at Khan palaces, and focused on
Drawing by Vereschagin.
the likeness of the composition
and form of mughams to European opera works.
Sadiqjan took part in the first Oriental concert arranged in Shusha in 1901.
For the first time in his life, he performed the mugham "Mahur" on his tar.
Mirza Sadiqjan died in Shusha in 1902. His role in the development of
Azerbaijani traditional music is enormous. Afrasiyab Badalbeyli said, "In
considering that the tar is a principal instrument to perform mugham, it would be
appropriate to add that discoveries made by Mirza Sadiqjan marked the new era in
Azerbaijani music. It should be noted that Mirza Sadiqjan's contribution made it
possible to raise the core of Azerbaijani mughams, their means of expression, the
power of impact and the methods of performance to a qualitatively new level.
Mirza Sadiqjan opened up a new page in the history of Azerbaijani music".

339

A Great Master
of Qajar Painting
Allahverdi Afshar
In 1973 a large exhibition of canvases of Qajar painting of the 18th-19th
Centuries was held at the museum of Oriental Art. Among canvases exhibited at
the show, experts focused on the works of Azerbaijani painter Allahverdi Afshar.
Touching upon ceremonial portraits exhibited, art expert Karpova noted:
"To catch a likeness, an artist is not necessarily seeking to identify a psychological
image, specifically in the portraits. In this regard, a portrait of Abbas Mirza,
painted by Allahverdi Afshar, is worthy of note. The portrait is of ceremonial
nature, notable for its psychological features and
natural position of the character".
Today, the portrait is kept at the Museum of
Oriental Art in Moscow. As for other works of
Allahverdi Afshar, there is no additional information.
We know very little about the life of Afshar. It
is known that he was a distant relative of the great
miniaturist of the 16th Century Sadiq Bey Afshar. He
came from the town of Urmiya, in the south of
Azerbaijan. In his famous book "Prominent
Azerbaijanis", Iranian researcher Mahammed Ali
Tarbiyat called Allahverdi Afshar an outstanding
painter who was very popular in Iran. The author
provided interesting facts about Abu-hassan
Miniature Portrait of
Naqqashbashi Afshar Urmavi, Allahverdi Afshar `s
Abbas Mirza. 1820.
son. Apparently, he was brought up by his uncle
Allahverdi Afshar.
Opaque watercolour on
Aliashraf Afshar, who was successful in creating paintpaper. Hermitage. St.
ed pencil cases. Tabriyat pointed out that his works
Petersburg.
were hardly different from his uncle's ones and even
sold at 50 tumans. Abulhassan died in 1888.
Allahverdi Afshar represented the so-called Qajar painting in Iran.
According to critics, this style started developing in the mid-18th Century and
culminated during the reign of Fatali Shah Qajar (1798-1834). It was named after
the title of the ruling dynasty.
According to European art critics, oil on canvas, wall painting, lacquer
works and painted enamel are all attributes of Qajar painting. Some methods and
principles of painting, such as light and shade treatment on the face and garments,
used in Qajar painting were borrowed from the European school of painting. Even
so, canvases were painted to comply with the traditional Persian and Azerbaijani

340

manner. Also, the decorative style of book miniature frequently contained a twodimensional image in bright, clean colours.
Contributing to the creation of such
paintings were famous painters, including Mehr Ali
(naqqash-bashi, or chief court painter of Fathali
Shah), Abdul Qasim Tabrizi, Mirza Qadim Irevani
and Mir Mohsun Navvab Qarabaghi.
Prominent painter Mahammed Hasan
Afshar, whose single work is exhibited at the Art
Museum in Baku, represented the family of Afshar,
famous from olden times, except for Allahverdi
Afshar, his brother and son. Also, some of
Mahammed Hasan Afshar's canvases are known
from J. Emiri's collection. These are portraits of
three princes, depicted perhaps during their
lifetime. The canvases are typical examples of
Qajar painting from the reviewed period. Well
Portrait of Abbas Mirza.
known is a portrait of Sheikh Sanan. Also, two
1816/17. Tabriz. Allahverdi
canvases are exhibited at the State Fine Arts
Afshar. Oil on canvas. The
Museum of Oriental Art.
Museum in Tbilisi, Georgia. Noteworthy is the fact
Moscow.
that there is also a portrait of Jamshid-ad-Dovle by
another representative of the
family, Beylar Afshar, now kept
at the same museum.
It has to be kept in mind
that
Mahammed
Hassan
succeeded in creating his own
style of painting and was
followed by scores of imitators. It
is no mere coincidence that many
works, performed in Mahammed
Hasan's style, are presently kept
at the said Georgian museum, J.
Crown Prince Abbas Mirza and Court Officials. Allahverdi
Emiri's collection and other
Afshar. Tabriz. 1815/1816. Oil on canvas. Hermitage. St.
Petersburg.
places.
Formal
ceremonial
portraits composed the core of Qajar painting. There are a huge number of portraits
of Fath Ali Shah, his son Abbas Mirza and other princes. Also, there are numerous
pictures depicting court beauties, singers, dancers and musicians in colourful garments. Looking at these beauties, we recollect those extolled by Vagif: medium

341

height, large eyes, a wide, oval face, pink cheeks, etc. There are also pictures of the
numerous palaces, hunting lodges and pavilions built by Fath Ali Shah.
K. Porter depicted one of the rooms in the palace of Fath Ali Shah's son,
crown prince Abbas Mirza, in Tabriz: "Various components of the walls were
filled with portraits of former Shahs, hunting sketches and Abbas Mirza"s
exploits".
During the 1739 Indian campaign, Nadir Shah captured a huge quantity of
jewels and treasures of the Mughal Empire, including the famous Peacock Throne
(Takhte-Tavus), strewn with innumerable precious stones set in a massive golden
frame. All the jewelry found its parallel in the portraits of Fath Ali Shah, especially
emeralds and diamonds in the crown and belt.
Qajar paintings are highly estimated by experts today. Not long ago, some
Qajar paintings were successfully sold during a London auction. Today, a great
quantity of the said paintings are kept at several museums and private collections
in Georgia at the Museum of Fine Arts in Tbilisi, in Russia at the Museum of
Oriental Art in Moscow, and in Great Britain at the Museum of Victoria and Albert
in London.
Qajar painting played a major role in the development of North Azerbaijani
painting. Examples include works by Mirza Qadim Irevani, Navvab Garabaghi,
Qayur Yunus, a wall painting in the palace of Sheki Khans and Sardar's palace in
Irevan, destroyed in the early 20th Century.

342

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345

GLOSSARY
Abbasid dynasty of caliphs
Abd servant, slave (used in combination with one of the names of God, as in Abd al-Malik,
"Servant of the King")
Abu father (of)
Agha mister, master
Akhund Islamic religious office
Ahuro Mazda the supreme deity and creator of the world; the spirit of good in
Zoroastrianism
Allah God
Amir a ruler, prince or commander: see also Emir
Anghra Mainyu (Ahriman) the spirit of evil in Zoroastrianism
Ashug folk singer, bard
Ashura the 10th of Maharram, the anniversary of the battle of Kerbala and martyrdom of
Husein, the son of Ali and grandson of Mahammed
Asker soldier
Atabey guardian of a prince; governor.
Bin son (of)
Bayram Azerbaijani feast
Bey nobleman, official
Beylarbey bey of beys
Caliph the name given to leaders of a Muslim community
Chalchibashi bandmaster
Caravanserai lodging place for travellers, merchants and their goods; often fortified and
situated on a trade route
Dakhma Zoroastrian "Silence Tower"
Dervish another word for Sufi
Dinar gold coin
Dirham silver coin (later copper)
Divan collected works of poetry or other writings by a single author
Diwan government office or ministry; royal reception
Emir a ruler, prince or commander
Eshikaghasibashi Chief Master of Ceremonies
Eyvan vaulted or flat-roofed hall, open at one end
Fatimid Shiite dynasty of caliphs
Firman a decree or sanction given by an ruler
Futuvva a brotherhood linked with guilds or with Sufi orders
Gizilbash litteraly red heads in Azeri, the Azerbaijani military nobility
Gazal verse form of five to twelve lines, often used for liric poems
Hadiths collective body of traditions relating to the life, deeds and sayings of the Prophet
Mahammed
Haj the piligrimage to Mecca
Haji a Muslim who has made a piligrimage to Mecca; a title of honor
Hakim a ruler, judge or governor

346

Hammam public or communal baths

Hijra (Hegira) Muhammad's emigration from Mecca to Medina in 622, the date which
marks the beginning of the Muslim calendar
Ibn see bin
llkhan(II-khan) Dynasty of Turkic-Mongol khans that ruled great Azerbaijan from 1258 to
1335
Imam spiritual leader: prayer leader: descendant of Ali, Mahammed"s son-in-law; leader of
the Shiite community
Islam the Moslem religion
Jihad holy war
Kaaba the cubic black stone in the center of the Haram Mosque in Mecca; the sacred
Muslim shrine
Kamancha Azerbaijani classical bow instrument
Kerbala place of pilgrimage of Shiites
Khamsa quintet of books (Five Tales) by Nizami Ganjevi
Khan lord, prince
Khanagah residential Sufi convent, often with an additional funerary function
Khananda singer of mughams
Khanum lady, madam
Khatatt calligrapher
Khatib a prayer-leader qualified to preach
Khutba a bidding prayer or sermon delivered in the mosque at midday prayers on Fridays
Kitab book
Kitabkhana literally "book home"
Koran the sacred book of the Moslems, written in Arabic
Kufic squared letters of Arabic script
Kurchi guards
Malik local ruler, king
Madrasa Muslim religious university
Maghrib the Muslim world in North Africa, west of and including Tunisia
Majlis national assembly; musical and literary miteengs, assembly
Malik Ashshura King of Poets
Mamluk sequence of sultans, originally Turkish or Circassian slaves
Mavali, Mavla literally "join to"; a person living among Arabs who voluntarily adopts
Islam
Majlis, Mejlis an official or formal conference or council; musical and poetic associations
also
Mecca Muslims' main place of pilgrimage
Mehmandarbashi chief of a ceremonial state reception of ambassadors and other
honourable guests
Meydan open public square or plaza; central ceremonial space
Mesjid mosque
Mihrab arched niche, indicating the direction of Mecca (the qibla)
Minaret a tall tower of a mosque from which the faithful are called to prayer
Minbar stepped pulpit in a mosque, used for the pronouncement of the khutba

347

Mirza a prince or son of a prince when after the name (Abbas Mirza), and a scholar or
secretary when before the name (Mirza Fatali Akhunzade)
Mosque a place where Muslims worship
Muezzin a crier, as in a minaret, who calls the people to prayer at the proper hours
Mufti a head of Islamic clergy
Mughal dynasty of emperors that ruled the Indian subcontinent from 1526 to 1857
Mugham classic Azerbaijani music
Munajimbashi a chief astrologer of the court
Munshi a secretary, chronicler
Muraqqa album of calligraphy and pictures
Murid spiritual disciple, murshid's disciple
Murshid a spiritual tutor
Musavvir a painter
Muslim a person who follows the religion of Islam
Nagara-Khana a tower where the court ceremonial orchestra was placed
Nakkash ornamentalist
Nama a book of writing
Naskhi cursive style of Arabic script
Nastaliq arabic script characterized by wide sweeps and loops, invented in the 14th Century
by Mir Ali Tabrizi
Nisba the part of a Muslim name that refers to geographical origin, family or profession
Oghlu son (of)
Ottoman Turkish dynasty of sultans
Ovchibashi chief of court hunting
Padishah emperor
Qadi (Cadi) a Muslim judge
Qajar Azeri-Turkic dynasty of shahs that ruled Iran from 1794 to 1925
Qasr castle or palace
Qibla direction of prayer, i.e. to the Black Stone in Mecca
Qurchi royal bodyguard
Ribat fortified Muslim monastery or frontier post
Rubaiyat the quatrains
Gassida arabic poetic form
Mesnevi arabic poetic form
Safavid dynasty of shahs that ruled Azerbaijan and Iran from 1501 to 1732 and made
Shiism the state religion
Sardar governor-general
Saljuq dynasty of Turks from Central Asia
Saz Azerbaijani stringed instrument
Shahnama literally "Book of Kings"; the Persian national epic composed by Firdowsi
Sharabchibashi chief of court cup-bearers
Sheikh leader, whether tribal or religious (e.g. Sufi); a highly venerated man
Seyid religious official
Shia (hence Shiite) a series of sects not regarded as part of orthodox Islam, which all
recognise Ali (cousin of the Prophet Mahammed) as the first legitimate caliph

348

Simurgh mythical bird like a phoenix

Sufi Muslim mystic or ascetic
Sufrachi table-steward
Sufrachibashi chief of court table-stewards
Sultan ruler, king
Sunni orthodox Muslim (see Shia)
Sura chapter of the Koran
Tar classical Azerbaijani stringed instrument
Tazkira history, story, memoirs
Tazkirist author of tazkira
Tasnif Azerbaijani classical music
Thulth a formalised and elongated version of Arabic naskhi script
Timurid Turkic-Mongol dynasty descended from the great conqueror Timur (or Tamerlane,
r. 1370-1405)
Turkoman Azerbaijani tribe
Umayyad the first Islamic dynasty (r. 661-750)
Ustad a master, expert
Vekil
Vizier minister
Yasavul Shah's adjutant
Zoroastrianism the religious system of Persians and Azerbaijanis before their conversion to
Islam; founded by-Zoroaster

349