Emperador Constantino

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Remembering Constantine
at the Milvian Bridge
Constantines victory in 312 at the battle of the Milvian Bridge established his rule as the first Christian emperor. This book examines the
creation and dissemination of the legends about that battle and its significance. Christian histories, panegyrics, and an honorific arch at Rome
soon commemorated his victory, and the emperor himself contributed
to the myth by describing his vision of a cross in the sky before the
battle. Through meticulous research into the late Roman narratives and
the medieval and Byzantine legends, this book moves beyond a strictly
religious perspective by emphasizing the conflicts about the periphery
of the Roman empire, the nature of emperorship, and the role of Rome
as a capital city. Throughout late antiquity and the medieval period,
memories of Constantines victory served as a powerful paradigm for
understanding rulership in a Christian society.
Raymond Van Dam is Professor in the Department of History at the
University of Michigan. His most recent books are Rome and Constantinople: Rewriting Roman History during Late Antiquity (2010) and
The Roman Revolution of Constantine (Cambridge, 2007).
R E M E MBE R I NG
C O NST ANTI NE
AT THE
M ILVIAN BR I D G E
iii
Raymond Van Dam

university of michigan
cambridge university press

Cambridge, New York, Melbourne, Madrid, Cape Town,
Singapore, Sao Paulo, Delhi, Tokyo, Mexico City
Cambridge University Press
32 Avenue of the Americas, New York, ny 10013-2473, usa
www.cambridge.org
Information on this title: www.cambridge.org/9781107096431

C Raymond Van Dam 2011
This publication is in copyright. Subject to statutory exception

and to the provisions of relevant collective licensing agreements,
no reproduction of any part may take place without the written
permission of Cambridge University Press.
First published 2011
Printed in the United States of America
A catalog record for this publication is available from the British Library.
Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication data
Van Dam, Raymond.
Remembering Constantine at the Milvian Bridge / Raymond Van Dam.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
isbn 978-1-107-09643-1 (hardback)
1. Saxa Rubra, Battle of, Italy, 312. 2. Constantine I, Emperor of Rome, d. 337. 3. Maxentius,
Marcus Aurelius Valerius, Emperor of Rome, d. 312. I. Title.
dg315.v36 2011
2010048057
937 .08 dc22
isbn 978-1-107-09643-1 Hardback
Cambridge University Press has no responsibility for the persistence or accuracy of urls for external
or third-party Internet Web sites referred to in this publication and does not guarantee that any
content on such Web sites is, or will remain, accurate or appropriate.
For Anne
CONTENTS
iii
preface \ ix abbreviations \ xi timeline \ xii
1. Foreword: Visions of Constantine 7 1
The Vision
Memories, Traditions, Narratives
That Other Vision
Imaginary History
2. The Afterlife of Constantine 7 19

Medieval Popes
The Battle at Constantinople
Relics
3. Ecclesiastical Histories 7 33
Pagan Critics
Christian Historians
New Visions
Memories of Constantine
4. Constantines Memories 7 56
Eusebius and Constantine
Constantines Stories
Eusebius Memories
Theology Becomes History
From Moses to Jesus
5. Eusebius Commentary 7 82
Changing the Story . . . Repeatedly
Changing the Backstory
vii
viii
contents
6. Shaping Memories in the West 7 101

A Panegyric at Trier
Lactantius at Trier
The Arch in Rome
A Panegyric at Rome
Absence
Twilight
7. Rome after the Battle 7 155

Porfyrius the Poet
A Dispute in North Africa
The Arch at Malborghetto
A Dedication, a Statue, and a Hand
Churches and Ritual Topography
Victory
8. Backward and Forward 7 219

9. Remembering Maxentius 7 224
Empire
Emperorship
Forgetting Maxentius
10. Back Word: The Bridge 7 253

Remembering the Bridge
\[
editions and translations \ 259 bibliography \ 267
index \ 289
PREFACE
iii
A book about memories of Constantine is also an album of memories

for me. Earlier versions of parts of chapters were presented as the Moritz
Lecture at Kalamazoo College, a plenary lecture at the annual conference of the North American Patristics Society, and a lecture at Calvin
College. The most rewarding moments of those occasions were always
the complementary conversations: with Anne Haeckl, John Wickstrom,
and their students at Kalamazoo College; with Paul Blowers, Virginia
Burrus, Elizabeth Digeser, David Hunter, Adam Schor, and Dennis
Trout at NAPS; and with Young Kim, Mark Williams, and their students at Calvin College.
As an undergraduate and a graduate student I was blessed to enjoy
the company and learning of wonderful professors. As a professor I
continue to learn from the undergraduates in my survey courses and
the graduate students in my seminars, who have become my most invigorating teachers. After his victory at the Milvian Bridge, the emperor
Constantine relished arguing with bishops at their councils. He would
likewise have enjoyed talking about late antiquity with Alex Angelov,
Jon Arnold, and Rob Chenault, and with Ian Mladjov, who designed
and drew the splendid maps.
Stimulating comments from Mark Humphries and the anonymous
Press readers were helpful, encouraging, and much appreciated. Publishing with Cambridge University Press is a high honor; working with
Beatrice Rehl, the best editor in academic publishing, is a delightful
pleasure.
ix
ABBREVIATIONS
iii
ACW
Bude
Ancient Christian Writers (Westminster)

Collection des Universites de France publiee sous le
patronage de lAssociation Guillaume Bude (Paris)
CChr.
Corpus Christianorum (Turnhout)
CIL
Corpus inscriptionum latinarum (Berlin)
CSEL
Corpus scriptorum ecclesiasticorum latinorum (Vienna)
FC
Fathers of the Church (Washington, D.C.)
GCS
Die griechischen christlichen Schriftsteller der ersten
Jahrhunderte (Berlin)
ILS
Inscriptiones latinae selectae, ed. H. Dessau (reprint: Berlin,
1962)
LCL
Loeb Classical Library (Cambridge, Mass.)
MGH
Monumenta Germaniae historica (Berlin, Hannover, and
Leipzig)
NPNF A Select Library of Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers of the
Christian Church (reprint: Grand Rapids, Mich.)
OCT
Oxford Classical Texts (Oxford)
PG
Patrologia graeca (Paris)
PL
Patrologia latina (Paris)
PLRE
The Prosopography of the Later Roman Empire (Cambridge).
Vol. 1, a.d. 260395, ed. A. H. M. Jones, J. R. Martindale,
and J. Morris (1971). Vol. 2, a.d. 395527, ed. J. R.
Martindale (1980). Vol. 3, a.d. 527641, ed. J. R.
Martindale (1992)
SChr.
Sources chretiennes (Paris)
Teubner Bibliotheca scriptorum graecorum et romanorum
Teubneriana (Leipzig and Stuttgart)
TTH
Translated Texts for Historians (Liverpool)
xi
TIMELINE
iii
early 21st century: this book
mid-19th century: Jacob Burckhardts Die Zeit Constantins des Grossen (Chap. 1)
late 18th century: Edward Gibbons The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire (Chap. 1)
mid-17th century: Berninis statue of Constantine in the Church of St. Peter (Chap. 2)
early 16th century: Raphaels frescoes in papal apartment (Chap. 2)
medieval period: Donation of Constantine (Chap. 2)
late 9th century: Byzantine Life of Constantine (Chap. 2)
late 8th or early 9th century: forgery of Constitution of Constantine (Chap. 2)
late 6th century: historian Evagrius (Chap. 3)
527565: emperor Justinian
early 6th century: historian Zosimus (Chap. 3) and historian John Malalas (Chap. 2)
430s440s: historians Socrates and Sozomen at Constantinople, and bishop Theodoret of Cyrrhus (Chap. 3)
425455: emperor Valentinian III
early 5th century: historian Rufinus (Chap. 3, 7)
late 4thearly 5th century: Eunapius of Sardis (Chap. 3)
379395: emperor Theodosius
361363: emperor Julian
early 350s: revolts of Magnentius and Vetranio; letter of bishop Cyril of Jerusalem (Chap. 3)
after 337: Praxagoras History of Constantine the Great (Chap. 6)
337361: emperor Constantius II
CONSTANTINE AND EUSEBIUS OF CAESAREA (see next page)

303: visit of Diocletian and Maximian to Rome; Monument of Five Columns (Chap. 67, 9)
from 284, Tetrarchic emperors: Diocletian (284305), Maximian (285305, 306310), Constantius I (293306),
Galerius (293311), Severus (305307), Maximinus (305313), Licinius (308324)
late 3rd century: construction of Aurelian Wall at Rome
161180: emperor Marcus Aurelius
117138: emperor Hadrian
98117: emperor Trajan
31 B.C.A.D. 14: emperor Augustus
late 3rd century B.C.: construction of Flaminian Way (Chap. 7) and Milvian Bridge (Chap. 10)
late 6th century B.C.: establishment of Republic; defense of Sublician Bridge by Horatius Cocles (Chap. 10)
xii
timeline
CONSTANTINE
BOTH [OR NEITHER]
xiii
EUSEBIUS OF CAESAREA
339(?) May 30: death
after May 337: Life of Constantine (Chap. 4)
337 May 22: death

336 July 25: celebration at Constantinople of 30th
anniversary of Constantines accession, including
banquet for bishops and oration by Eusebius
330 May 11: dedication of Constantinople
326 JulyAugust: visit to Rome (Chap. 6)
325 July 25: celebration at Nicomedia of 20th
anniversary of Constantines accession, including
banquet for bishops and oration by Eusebius
325 JuneJuly: council of Nicaea (Chap. 4)
324325 winter or 325 spring: visit to Antioch
(Chap. 4)
325 March(?): council of Antioch (Chap. 4)

after September 324: third edition of
Ecclesiastical History 810 (Chap. 5)
324 September 18: final victory over Licinius

[321 March: Nazarius panegyric at Rome (Chap. 6)]
316 October317 February: conflict with Licinius
315 July 21September 27: visit to Rome;

dedication of arch of Constantine (Chap. 6)
ca. 314/315: Lactantius Deaths of the Persecutors,
at Trier (Chap. 6)
before autumn 316: second edition of

Ecclesiastical History 89 + 10 (Chap. 5)
315(?): oration at Tyre (Chap. 5, 7)
314 summer: council of Arles (Chap. 7)

314335: Silvester, bishop of Rome
late 313 or 314: first edition of
Ecclesiastical History 89 (Chap. 5)
313 late summer (?): panegyric at Trier (?) (Chap. 6, 7)
313 summer: death of Maximinus
Porfyrius the poet (Chap. 7)
312 October 29313 January: visit to Rome; Church

of St. John Lateran (Chap. 7)
312 October 28: battle at the Milvian Bridge;
death of Maxentius (Chap. 1, 9)
311314: Miltiades, bishop of Rome
310 summer: death of Maximian; Constantines vision
of Apollo (Chap. 1); panegyric at Trier (Chap. 7)
306 October 28: Maxentius proclaimed emperor at Rome
(Chap. 9)
306 July 25: Constantine proclaimed emperor at York
(Chap. 9)
after October 312: anonymous source about

Maxentius and Constantine at Rome
(Chap. 5, 7)
FOREWORD: VISIONS OF
CONSTANTINE
CHAPTER ONE
iii
istory remembers constantines victory at the

battle of the Milvian Bridge. In 312 Constantine invaded
Italy. Since his accession in 306 at York, the emperor had
been residing primarily at Trier and campaigning on the
Rhine frontier. He commanded a large army, most of it stationed in
northern Gaul and Britain. For his invasion he took only a modest expeditionary force. In Italy the emperor Maxentius commanded another
substantial army. To guard against an attack from the east by Licinius,
yet another rival emperor who controlled the Balkans, Maxentius had
moved troops to garrison Verona at the foot of the eastern Alps in
northern Italy. Constantine and his army meanwhile crossed the western Alps at Susa and captured Turin and Milan as they advanced down
the Po River valley. After a hard siege, they also captured Verona.1
Constantine and his army next marched south on the Flaminian
Way through central Italy toward Rome. Although in initial skirmishes Maxentius troops prevailed, he himself remained inside the
1
For initial orientation to the increasingly voluminous modern bibliography on Constantine,

see Van Dam (2007).
2 remembering constantine at the milvian bridge

capitals massive wall. Constantines soldiers then approached the Milvian Bridge, which carried the Flaminian Way across the Tiber River
about two miles north of the wall. Maxentius army crossed to meet
them, and Maxentius himself joined his troops a bit later. At that point,
or perhaps already earlier in anticipation of the invasion, his soldiers
cut the permanent bridge and replaced it with a temporary pontoon
bridge. But after they were routed in battle, their attempt to isolate
the city turned into a bottleneck. While retreating across the makeshift
bridge, Maxentius slipped and drowned in the Tiber. On the next day
the victorious Constantine entered Rome.2
Maxentius had been emperor for exactly six years. He had deliberately
chosen to fight on the anniversary of his accession, hoping to add a
military victory to future celebrations. Instead, after his humiliating
defeat he was dismissed as just another disgraced usurper. Constantine
meanwhile went on to a long glorious reign, and after his death he
was even proclaimed a divinity. In subsequent years people in Rome
celebrated the outcome of the battle on back-to-back holidays as the
replacement of a defiled emperor by a deified emperor. October 28, the
day of the battle, would become a commemoration of the expulsion
of the tyrant, and October 29, a commemoration of the arrival of the
divine [Constantine].3
The Vision
In the late third and early fourth century battles between rival emperors
and usurpers were common. The emperor Diocletian had instituted the
Tetrarchy, a consortium of four concurrent emperors, and considerably
increased the overall number of soldiers to deal with increased threats
2
The details recorded about this battle often conflict: see Kuhoff (1991), for an excellent
overview; Nixon and Rodgers (1994) 319n.103, for a concise survey; and Chapters 36.
Classical Latin authors typically referred to this bridge as Pons Mulvius: see Chapter 10. Some
authors of late antiquity referred to it as Pons Milvius: e.g., Polemius Silvius, Laterculus 4, s.v.
Pontes VIIII, ed. Mommsen (1892) 545. In modern Italian the bridge is the Ponte Milvio;
hence Milvian Bridge in English.
Celebrations: Fasti Furii Filocali, October 28, evictio tyranni, October 29, advent(us) divi,
ed. Degrassi (1963) 257, with the commentary on p. 527 identifying divus as Constantine.
foreword: visions of constantine
on the frontiers. Multiple emperors, large armies, and insecure frontiers

were a recipe for repeated civil wars. Constantius defeated Carausius in
northern Gaul and Allectus in Britain during the mid-290s. Diocletian
defeated Domitius Domitianus and Aurelius Achilleus in Egypt during
the later 290s. Maximian and his son Maxentius defeated Severus in
Italy in 307. Maxentius defeated Domitius Alexander in North Africa in
309. Constantine defeated Maximian in southern Gaul in 310. Licinius
defeated Maximinus in Thrace in 313. Constantine and Licinius fought
an inconclusive war from 316 to 317. Constantine finally emerged as the
sole emperor after defeating Licinius in Thrace and again in Bithynia
in 324.4
In this litany of civil wars the battle of the Milvian Bridge was unremarkable. This was a conflict between sons of former emperors, who
had both started out as usurpers and who had been hustling for legitimacy and recognition from other emperors ever since. Instead, already
in antiquity the most celebrated feature of the battle would become
Constantines vision. The most important literary source for Constantines reign is a biography written by Eusebius, bishop of Caesarea in
Palestine. His Life of Constantine included accounts of the emperors
vision of a cross in the sky and his subsequent dream in which Jesus
Christ explained the symbol of the cross. As a result, according to Life,
the emperor had a military standard constructed in the shape of a cross
and decorated with a christogram, the chi-rho symbol formed from
the first two Greek letters of Christ. This military standard led him and
his troops into battle against Maxentius. After his victory Constantine
openly demonstrated his support for Christianity.
Modern historians have often interpreted the vision of Constantine as a transformational moment in the historical trajectories of the
Roman empire and early Christianity. This vision seemingly confirmed
the emperors personal conversion to Christianity. It accelerated the
conversion of Roman society throughout the empire. It initiated an era
in which politics and Christianity were intertwined, for good or ill, and
4
See Bleckmann (2004), for the frequency of civil wars as a consequence of Tetrarchic emperorship, and Humphries (2008a) 8587, for Constantine as a usurper.

in which Christianity became a key feature of Western Civilization, for
good or ill. The battle of the Milvian Bridge, including Constantines
vision, has become a shorthand reference for momentous change in
religion, society, and politics. In this perspective, nothing counts for
more than the year 312.5
Yet this revolutionary moment has also raised doubts among modern
historians. Several aspects of the vision might seem suspect: the message,
the messengers, and the medium. Some skeptics belittle the historical
importance, either by claiming that pagan cults were already a spent
force and the eventual success of Christianity did not require imperial
patronage or by arguing that even after Constantines reign, Christianity
nevertheless long remained a small cult. Others shoot the messenger,
whether Constantine or Eusebius. With regard to the emperor, one
skeptical approach is to suggest that the vision was irrelevant because
he was already a Christian, another that the vision was ineffective
because he continued to patronize pagan cults afterward, and another
that his advertisement of the vision was merely one more example
of his relentless political opportunism. With regard to Eusebius, the
typical skepticism concerns whether he misreported the vision, or even
whether he fabricated the entire story. It is also possible to critique
the medium by claiming that the appearance of the outline of a cross
in the sky was merely a consequence of sunlight refracted through ice
crystals high in the atmosphere to produce a solar halo. In this case hard
natural science supposedly comes to the rescue of fuzzy social science. In
modern historiography Constantines vision is hence simultaneously an
epochal moment and an irrelevant event, a deeply spiritual experience
and a political gambit, a true divine revelation and a misunderstanding
of a spectacular meteorological phenomenon.6
5
Personal conversion: Odahl (2004) 106, At this moment, Constantine converted. Quotation
about nothing from MacMullen (1984) 102. Girardet (2006a), concludes his critical overview
of the Constantinian Revolution by suggesting that the emperors new religious policies had
global consequences: ohne die Konstantinische Wende . . . hatte die Weltgeschichte einen
anderen Verlauf genommen (p. 155).
Opinions about Constantines vision are legion. For the prior demise of pagan cults, see
Burckhardt (1949) 215, proposing the twilight of paganism already before Constantine, as
discussed by Leppin (2007); Demandt (2006), insists that Christianity would have expanded
This uneasiness is a symptom of a deeper interpretive anxiety: somehow it seems inappropriate to attribute such a momentous historical
impact to a vision. A vision of a cross in the sky seems to encourage evaluating the moment, and therefore all the subsequent historical
consequences, as somehow spiritual and religious. A vision seems to
reveal the intrusion of divine guidance into human affairs and to make
Roman history appear to have been providential and even teleological
all along. A vision complicates any attempt to offer a nonreligious evaluation, a more secular or perhaps a symbolic analysis, of the moment
or of Constantines reign.
As a result, one antidote for this discomfort is to shift the emphasis
from the vision to a proclamation. A few months after the battle, early
in 313, Constantine and his fellow emperor Licinius agreed on a joint
accord that extended to Christians and to everyone else the free power
to follow whatever religion each person prefers. Such a generous statement of religious toleration seems so much more acceptable as a catalyst
for the transformation of the Roman world, comparable to other progressive documents such as the Magna Carta and the Declaration of
Independence. Such a proclamation of universal pluralism seems to
have been a preview of modernity, that is, our enlightened modernity,
certainly preferable to a religious vision and its distasteful potential for
theocracy and totalitarianism.7
Memories, Traditions, Narratives

For historical analysis the availability of so much information and so
many opinions is both an opportunity and an obstacle. Constantine has
even if Maxentius or Licinius had defeated Constantine. For Constantine as a Christian

before 312, see Elliott (1987); for his continued toleration for pagan cults, Clauss (2006); for
his limited impact, MacMullen (2009) 111, suggesting that still in 400 less than 7 percent
of the population of Rome was Christian: the evidence from Rome is not at odds with
the evidence from cities anywhere else in the empire. For the importance of politics, see
Drake (2000) 191: it is better to situate Constantines religious development in the context
of contemporary power politics and political thought. For the solar halo, see Jones (1972)
99100 (first published in 1949).
Joint letter (often, but misleadingly, referred to as the Edict of Milan) quoted in Eusebius,
HE 10.5.114, and Lactantius, De mortibus persecutorum 48.212, with Drake (2000) 194: a
landmark in the evolution of Western thought.
remembering constantine at the milvian bridge
been guaranteed a central place in all discussions of early Christianity

and the later Roman empire in particular and of religion and politics
in general, from the medieval period to today. As the first Christian
emperor Constantine promptly became a standard of comparison for
the evaluation of subsequent medieval and Byzantine Christian rulers.
Even a pagan orator used Constantine as an exemplar. In 364 Themistius
suggested that the emperor Jovians policy of religious toleration had
made him fully Constantine. Constantine was also a constant topic
of analysis for ancient historians, both Christian and pagan. Eusebius
ended his Ecclesiastical History with Constantines victory over Licinius;
subsequent church historians started their narratives with the vision of
the cross or the theological controversies leading up to the normative
definition of orthodoxy at the council of Nicaea. Moments in Constantines reign would become important pivot points of ecclesiastical
history and Roman history.8
The historians and churchmen of late antiquity also discussed the
battle at the Milvian Bridge soon afterward. Within a year or two
Eusebius published an initial narrative of the battle in his Ecclesiastical
History; decades later, after Constantines death in 337, he repeated that
earlier narrative in his Life of Constantine even as he added accounts of
the vision and the dream. An orator at Trier in 313 and another at Rome
in 321 described the invasion and the battle in their panegyrics. The
Christian rhetorician Lactantius discussed the activities of both Constantine and Maxentius in an apologetic pamphlet composed within
two or three years of the battle. One of the sculpted relief panels on the
arch of Constantine at Rome, dedicated in 315, recalled the battle of
the Milvian Bridge by depicting combat at the edge of a river. Within
a decade the battle was uncommonly widely referenced and described.
Modern scholars often treat these ancient accounts of the battle as
documentation, as evidence, as testimony, as sources whose information can be filtered and blended into a basic factual framework. Too
often, however, this higher criticism has led to oddly speculative and
irrelevant outcomes, in particular by disparaging the vision as a purely
8
Jovian: Themistius, Orat. 5.70d.
psychological event or the moment of psychological conviction.

Freud would be proud. Even in our post-Freudian age a psychological
crisis is apparently easier to comprehend than a religious conversion. In
the process of evaluation, however, this higher criticism has frequently
overlooked the implications of more fundamental questions about the
transmission and recording of the accounts. What were the sources for
these sources? None of these authors was a participant in the battle or
even an eyewitness. Where did the authors acquire their information,
and how did their personal agendas affect their narratives?9
The starting point is in fact Constantines vision and dream. Constantine was the only participant in the battle whose personal recollections
survive, and in Life Eusebius pointedly emphasized that he had heard
the accounts of the vision and the dream from the emperor himself. The
accounts in Life were Constantines stories as subsequently recorded by
Eusebius. The timing of the emperors storytelling is hence vital. Eusebius never met Constantine until the summer of 325 at the council of
Nicaea. One possibility is that Constantine first told the stories about
his vision and his dream to Eusebius and other churchmen during a
banquet celebrating the twentieth anniversary of his accession that he
hosted immediately after the council. Another possibility is that he
entertained Eusebius and other guests with his stories at Constantinople in 336 during a banquet celebrating the thirtieth anniversary of
his accession. In the trajectory of accounts of the battle at the Milvian
Bridge, Constantine was a comparatively late contributor. The emperor
never told his stories about his vision and his dream, or at least these
particular versions of his stories, until long after the battle.
By then Constantine had already heard and seen many other accounts
of the battle. He had listened to the panegyric at Trier in 313; he had
perhaps heard about the account of Lactantius, who was teaching his
son at Trier; and he had attended the dedication of the arch at Rome
in 315. Before he told his own stories, he may also have already heard
Eusebius account of his victory at Rome. In 325 Eusebius had taken
9
Quotation about event from MacMullen (1969) 78, about moment from Barnes (1981) 43.
For conversion as a process rather than a moment, see Van Dam (2003c).
the stage at the council of Gods ministers to praise the gloriously

victorious emperor with hymns for the twentieth anniversary of his
reign. In 336 he had delivered garlands of words in honor of the thirtieth anniversary. In this panegyric at Constantinople he had repeated
some of his earlier observations on the emperors actions at Rome
after the battle. Perhaps Constantine responded to one of Eusebius
panegyrics by telling his own stories during the anniversary banquet
afterward.10
Constantines stories were hence reactions, not catalysts. All of the
early accounts of the battle, whether a panegyric, an apologetic pamphlet, a historical narrative, or a decorated monument, had been
typically written, orated, or sculpted independently of the emperors
opinions. These accounts had been aimed at Constantine, as recommendations of how he ought to behave as ruler, and were not derived
from him. As a result, modern scholars should not string the accounts
together as a synopsis of Constantines views over the years. Instead, the
relationship was reversed. These accounts were influences on Constantine. By the time the emperor told his stories, he had been thinking for
years not just about the battle but also about subsequent accounts of the
battle.11
This approach that emphasizes the influences on the stories of the
battle, the vision, and the dream draws on important developments in
historical and literary studies. One is the significance of individual and
10
11
Stage, garlands: see Eusebius, Vita Constantini 1.1.1, with Chapter 7, for the repetition of
passages from Eusebius Ecclesiastical History in his panegyric of 336. Perhaps it is possible
to speculate that Constantine had read sections of Eusebius History. Constantine once
complimented Eusebius for his love of learning, and he had certainly read Eusebius
treatise about Easter: see his letter quoted in Eusebius, Vita Constantini 4.35.2.
For the mix-up in perspective, note the questionable characterizations of Barnes (1981) 47:
The speech of 313 reveals how Constantine wished the war of 312 to be remembered; Kuhoff
(1991) 138, referring to the reliefs and inscription on the arch at Rome as die Zeugnisse der
konstantinischen Selbstdarstellung; and Heck (1972) 165, concluding from the invocations
to his Institutes da Lactanz hier constantinische Theologie und Geschichtsauffassung,
u berhaupt sein Selbstverstandnis als christlichen Herrscher reproduziert. For discussions of
how these authors and sculptors instead imagined Constantine, see Chapter 6.
community memories in promoting and transmitting versions of earlier

events. The past did not generate fixed memories; instead, memories
constructed a past. The memories became collective when communities
accepted particular versions of what was memorable by designing monuments and celebrating commemorative festivals. Because those memorials and rituals might evoke a range of meanings, both at a specific
moment and even more so over time, social memories were powerful political and religious forces. Such reworking of the past is most
pronounced in periods of dramatic social transformation. In the early
empire a revived interest in classical Greek culture had allowed provincials in the East to negotiate the disruptive imposition of Roman rule.
In the later empire the unexpected appearance of an emperor who
openly supported Christianity was equally disruptive. Memories of
Constantines victory, as well as of his vision and dream, helped both
Christians and non-Christians cope with the uncertainty and the dislocation. As an event, the battle of the Milvian Bridge was behind them
in the past; as a memory, however, it was always with them in the
present.12
A second development is the formation and transmission of oral
traditions. The study of oral traditions is closely allied with memory studies but usually focuses more on the formatting of memories
through oral transmission. Oral traditions tend to be episodic, selfcontained stories that are typically told in no particular chronological
sequence and that often include no specific chronological markers.
Because such timeless stories blur the boundaries between narrators
and characters, they are highly unstable from one telling to the next.
Even oral accounts by eyewitnesses or participants are susceptible to
the distortions of selectivity and emotional involvement. Because oral
12
Quotation about reworking from Alcock (2001) 325, in an excellent discussion of Greek
archaism under Roman rule. For the rewriting of the past as a consequence of the rise of
Christianity, see Van Dam (2003b) 1545, on the theological controversy over Eunomius,
8297, on Christianity in Cappadocia; and Ferguson (2005) 121, on Rufinus adherence to
the Eusebian pattern of writing history as an apologetic extension of loyalty to a theological
tradition.

accounts are public performances, they furthermore respond directly
to the needs and interests of the audiences. In turn, members of those
audiences can tell their own versions of those accounts to bond with yet
other communities of listeners. Some oral stories might, sooner or later,
be included in narratives made permanent by writing or by sculpting.
In contrast, by constantly responding to changes in communities, pure
oral traditions remain flexible enough to be always relevant and contemporary. Constantine fought one battle at the Milvian Bridge; then
he and others told many, many stories about it.13
A final development is an increased focus on the rhetorical aspects
of written narratives. Narratology, the study of literary narratives, has
absorbed many of the insights of structuralist analyses of the underlying grammar of myths, and literary scholars are by now accustomed to uncovering the self-conscious enigmas and meanings inherent in the plots of ancient narratives. In constructing their accounts,
ancient authors elaborated or condensed similar episodes, they variously claimed to be accurately re-creating actions or merely representing them, they sometimes seemed to know more and sometimes less
than their characters, and they perhaps even elided the past time of
their characters and their own present time. For modern historians the
lessons of narratology challenge the positivist notion of a direct correspondence between the plots of ancient narratives and the sequence
of actual events, or between the literary characters and the historical
actors. In the ancient narratives about the battle at the Milvian Bridge,
Constantine hence performed as an ensemble of one. For his own stories he was both an actor in the past and the narrator in the present.
For contemporary panegyrics and a monumental frieze he was both
an actor in the past and a listener or a viewer in the present. But for
later literary accounts he was only an actor in the past, on his way to
13
For an overview of orality in Roman society, see Thomas (1992) 15870. The study of oral
culture in late antiquity has often highlighted preachers and preaching: see Van Dam (2003b)
10150, for sermons in Cappadocia, and Maxwell (2006), for John Chrysostom at Antioch.
Consideration of oral traditions is especially helpful for understanding stories about saints:
see Van Dam (1982) 28097, (1988).
11
becoming a historical character, sometimes even a fictional character,

whose role could be fashioned to serve authors objectives.14
Memory studies remind us of the ceaseless engagement between
past and present that characterizes historical studies in general. Oral
traditions and narratology remind us of the shaping of memories in
both hearsay accounts and literary narratives. Memory is . . . a bond
tying us to the eternal present; history is a representation of the past.
But because oral traditions were so adaptable and literary narratives so
constructed, they also raise doubts about the success of any search for
a definitive portrait of Constantine.15
That Other Vision

Constantine had a reputation for defining his actions in terms of religious visions and dreams. According to Eusebius, God often honored
him with a vision. Two in particular have become famous. One was
a vision of Apollo in 310. After defeating the emperor Maximian in
southern Gaul, Constantine stopped at a temple during his march back
to the Rhine frontier. There he had a vision of Apollo, or more likely of
himself as Apollo. According to a panegyric delivered soon afterward,
Constantine, you saw your Apollo, I believe, accompanied by Victory, offering you wreaths of laurel. . . . You recognized yourself in the
appearance of him to whom the poets divine verses have prophesied
that rule over the entire world is owed. Even more consequential, of
course, was the emperors vision of the cross in the sky before the battle
at the Milvian Bridge in 312, along with the corresponding dream of
his conversation with Jesus Christ.16
14
15
16
See Prince (1995), for an excellent critical overview of narratology; for the contrast in historical
accounts between empathy, the perspective of characters, and hindsight, the perspective of
narrators, see Pelling (2009) and Tsitsiou-Chelidoni (2009). Cameron (1997), emphasizes the
apologetic purpose of Eusebius Life: If ever there was an author unsuited to a positivist
critique, that author is Eusebius (p. 155).
Quotation from Nora (1989) 8.
Often: Eusebius, Vita Constantini 1.47.3. Vision of Apollo: Panegyrici latini 6(7).21.45, with
Woolf (2003), connecting this epiphany with cult images of Apollo in Gaul.

Constantine apparently thought that his visions were routine.
Toward the end of his reign, Eusebius acknowledged the emperors
familiarity with visions and dreams. In an oration delivered at the
imperial court in 335 he practically invited Constantine himself, if
there were time, to recount thousands of visions of your Savior and
thousands of appearances during sleep. He furthermore claimed that
these visions had helped the emperor decide about battles, affairs of
state, the army, and legislation.17
Eusebius did not know about the early vision of Apollo. In his
later years Constantine was not about to share that vision of a pagan
god with churchmen, and Eusebius would anyway have been unable
to fit such a vision into his perspective on the emperors career. By
then both the emperor and the bishop had entered a future that they
could not have anticipated. Early in his reign Constantine had faced
repeated threats from rival emperors, while Eusebius had been primarily concerned about the ongoing persecution in the eastern provinces
under Maximinus and Licinius. By the time they met, however, the
civil wars and the bouts of persecution had ended. Now Constantine had reunified the empire, and Eusebius and other churchmen
were his occasional honored guests. Now both emperor and bishop
could think that past events had always been leading to this favorable
outcome.18
Memories are wonderfully malleable and dynamic. Even though
memories are ostensibly about the past, they serve as commentaries on
the present and perhaps also as hopes for the future. Stories based on
17
18
Thousands of visions: Eusebius, De laudibus Constantini 18.1.

The vision of Apollo has been difficult to accommodate in modern narratives influenced by
Eusebius. One unproductive reaction has been attempts to distinguish truth from fiction.
Barnes (1981) 36, dismisses the orators account as words which betray the fiction. In
response, Cameron (1983) 186, quotes Barnes opinion to dismiss instead . . . the vision of
the cross in 312. Harris (2005), concludes that Constantine invented all of his dreams to
improve his soldiers morale (p. 494). Another equally problematic reaction is conflation of
the two visions. Weiss (2003), identifies only a single vision, the witnessing of a solar halo in
310, which he claims was reinterpreted through an extension or a shift of its significance
(p. 252) before the battle at Rome in 312; Drake (2009), properly criticizes this emphasis on
the halo phenomenon as reductionist.
13
memories are hence a powerful medium for defining a self, shaping

an identity, and bounding a community. Like dreams and visions,
memories too function as a genuine epistemology, a method that
allows for an articulate construction of meaning. Recognizing the
constructed nature of these stories and of the accounts derived from
them has important implications for modern interpretations of both
texts and contexts.19
One is that we should not conflate the ancient accounts into a single
master narrative. These accounts were not designed to supplement or
correct one another; each was instead a unique attempt at constructing
meaning. Constantine is an intriguing topic for modern interpretation precisely because of the inherent disagreements among the ancient
accounts. We might instinctively consider differences in details as indications of error or invention, but for ancient authors and audiences the
small details guaranteed the realism, the authenticity, and therefore the
relevance of the accounts. As a result, because the significance was in
the details, the discrepancies help us understand the ancient authors
differing agendas. Our goal should be to appreciate and understand
each account, not to cancel the divergences among conflicting reports
by privileging one or another exclusive option.20
Another implication is that on the basis of ancient constructed narratives we cannot pretend to any certainty about the battle, the vision, or
the dream. Constantine shaped his memories of the vision of the cross
and the dream to correspond to his later circumstances. By then the
emperors memories were interpretations of the original events, stylized
stories rather than forensic descriptions. When Eusebius subsequently
recorded the emperors stories in his Life of Constantine, he of course
reinterpreted them, in part by linking them with a narrative of the
battle that he had composed years earlier in his Ecclesiastical History.
Constantines interpretation of events in his memories and Eusebius
reinterpretation of those memories in Life ought to remind us that the
19
20
Quotations from Miller (1994) 10.

For a similar analysis of various accounts of the cult of the Forty Martyrs in Asia Minor, see
Van Dam (2003b) 13250.

other ancient accounts of the battle of the Milvian Bridge, whether
early or late, were likewise interpretive depictions often derived from
oral traditions and reflecting particular agendas. The primary objective
of each account was not to reproduce events but to support a point of
view. As a result, because the texts we read were already explanatory
representations of the events, our goal should be to imagine new interpretive narratives that take advantage of recent advances in scholarship
and fresh intellectual paradigms.21
Contemporaries quickly began using their accounts of Constantines
reign as a symbolic medium. Constantine, that is, images of Constantine, became a battleground for articulating political ideas, social
concerns, and even religious doctrines. Some of the early orators were
scrambling to fit his activities, including the battle at the Milvian Bridge,
into classical paradigms structured around pagan deities. At Rome the
builders of the arch hoped that he might respect senatorial and Republican traditions. Lactantius, a Christian rhetorician, was amazed to
observe an emperor who was open minded about religions. Eusebius,
a bishop, was only too ready to claim Constantine as a Christian long
before he heard about the emperors vision of a cross. Constantine
soon functioned as an epistemology itself, an idiom for evaluating classical culture, pagan cults, ancient traditions, religious tolerance, and
the spread of Christianity.
In fact, not only did Constantine coexist with Constantine already
during his reign, but the emperor himself likewise participated in promoting a mythology. Through the sharing of his memories Constantine
too was complicit in the construction of Constantin imaginaire, a myth
of himself.22
21
22
The fixation on truth and facts is often irresistible: note Alfoldi (1948) 17, on Constantines
vision: Not that Eusebius account has no kernel of historical fact; and Lane Fox (1986) 616,
on Lactantius and Eusebius: They should be combined, not contrasted, and their common
core of truth can be detached in each case from error. For criticism, see Pietri (1983) 63,
on the documents quoted in Eusebius Life: Les querelles de lhistoire positiviste sont bien
encombrantes. Lancees dès le siècle dernier, elles empoisonnent encore la recherche.
Constantin imaginaire is the title of Kazhdan (1987), riffing on the title of Dagron (1984).
15
Imaginary History
In this book the battle of the Milvian Bridge, including the vision of
the cross, provides a focal point for investigating some of the numerous
representations of Constantine and his reign, both ancient and modern.
One outcome is the realization that many modern opinions are not so
modern after all. Constantine is a perennial favorite of scholarship on
the ancient world, especially during the early decades of each century
that mark another series of centennial anniversaries of events in his
reign. But each revival of Constantinian studies also seems to require
not just reviewing earlier scholarship but replicating it as well.
Edward Gibbon acknowledged that Constantine might well have
been a sincere Christian. Gibbon dismissed the rigid criticism that the
emperor used the altars of the church as a convenient footstool to
the throne of the empire. Instead, the specious piety of Constantine, if at first it was only specious, might gradually . . . be matured
into serious faith and fervent devotion. Gibbon published his chapters about Constantine in The History of the Decline and Fall of the
Roman Empire in 1781. In contrast, Jacob Burckhardt argued that Constantine was motivated only by his ambition and lust for power:
such a man is essentially unreligious. Burckhardt published the first
edition of Die Zeit Constantins des Grossen (The Age of Constantine
the Great) in 1853. Eighteenth-century philosophical enlightenment,
nineteenth-century rationalist humanism: the modern discussion of no
other Roman emperor is so reverential toward the weight of its historiographical tradition, and repeated references to the same Past Masters
imply an ongoing concern with their problems. To argue their issues
is to concede that these are the important issues to argue. As a result,
for more than two centuries scholarship has raised the same threadbare alternatives about Constantine: religion or politics, sincere piety
or uninhibited ambition, genuine conversion to Christianity or not.23
23
Quotations from Gibbon (1932) 1:650, and Burckhardt (1949) 292, with SchlangeSchoningen (2006), on the abiding influence of Burckhardt, and the overview of Lenski
(2006), noting that the emperors conversion is still the Constantinian question par excellence (p. 3).

If interpretations of Constantine often seem to be caught in a continuous time loop, the resources available for studying his reign improved
immeasurably during the twentieth century with the publication of
new editions of Eusebius and other authors. Eduard Schwartz (d. 1940)
devoted the first half of his scholarly career to editing Eusebius Ecclesiastical History. Theodor Mommsen (d. 1903) ended his career with his
edition of Rufinus translation and continuation of Eusebius History.
Otto Seeck (d. 1921) reworked Mommsens edition of the Theodosian
Code to calculate a helpful itinerary of Constantine and subsequent
emperors. With their additional magnificent commentaries and editions of Latin inscriptions and Latin chronicles, the proceedings of
the ecumenical councils, and the letters of Symmachus and Libanius,
Mommsen, Schwartz, and Seeck might well be considered the trinity
of master builders who laid the bedrock foundations for the modern
study of late antiquity. For Constantinian studies another significant
contribution has been Friedhelm Winkelmanns outstanding edition
of Eusebius Life of Constantine. Our responsibility now is to combine
these high standards of meticulous scholarship with the interpretive
perspectives of the twenty-first century.24
Looking back at the battle of the Milvian Bridge requires excavating many layers of representations of Constantine. Medieval popes
participated in arguments over politics and religion by claiming that
long ago Constantine had donated secular power directly to the bishop
of Rome; Byzantine scholars simply relocated Constantines vision to
Constantinople (Chapter 2). These divergent medieval and Byzantine
interpretations followed the lead of the historians of late antiquity,
who had already viewed the reign of Constantine as a significant turning point with positive or negative consequences (Chapter 3). Those
historians in turn had often relied on the emperors own later memories, as recorded by Eusebius in his Life of Constantine (Chapter 4).
24
For the making of the joint edition of Eusebius and Rufinus HE, see the prefaces to the
three volumes of Schwartz and Mommsen (19031909), with Winkelmann (2004), for a
generous appreciation of Schwartzs philological achievement. For a critical pietistic reaction
to Schwartzs and Seecks opinions about Constantine, see Baynes (1931).
17
Years earlier Eusebius had already used another source as the basis for
accounts of the battle in his Ecclesiastical History (Chapter 5). Other
early reactions to the battle likewise each reflected a distinctive agenda.
In the years immediately afterward, even though Constantine himself
was soon involved in ecclesiastical disputes, many senators at Rome
were not thinking about him as a Christian emperor (Chapters 67).
The chapters in this book evaluate many of the fundamental texts
and monuments about Constantine and the battle. They also discuss
some events, texts, and monuments that are often overlooked. The
neglected events include subsequent battles linked with visions that
predicted success (Chapter 3). The neglected texts include the letters
between Constantine and the poet Porfyrius from soon after the battle
(Chapter 7). The neglected monuments include a commemorative arch
at Malborghetto and a second sculpted right hand almost identical to
the right hand of a colossal statue of the emperor at Rome (Chapter 7).
Accounts of later battles were interpretive commentaries on the original
battle, while the letters and the monuments revealed reactions in the
aftermath of the battle.
On the surface this book is about an emperor and a battle. At
the same time it is an exercise in adapting the writing and reading of
scholarly history to modern media and postmodern interests. Historical
analysis is a journey, with many guides but no preordained outcome,
no fixed route, and not even a certain destination. In this book the
journey is decidedly retro, regressing from now to then, from our
present to the Roman past. Such a backward narrative permits us to
assess the usual issues from a different angle. Reversing the direction of
the narrative allows us to investigate the uncertainties like detectives, to
write about the suspense like novelists, and to respond to the surprises
like moviegoers (Chapter 8). In the end, after examining the ancient
accounts about Constantine it is possible to reconsider the implications
of his victory in an alternative analysis that highlights Maxentius, the
other emperor who fought at the battle (Chapter 9). Focusing on only
one emperor has led to a misleading emphasis on individual psychology
and religious conversion; focusing on both emperors stresses instead the
competing perspectives on emperorship and empire at stake.

After the battle, memories of the Milvian Bridge were featured in
the myth of Constantine; before the battle, however, an ancient myth
about defending another bridge at Rome may have influenced Maxentius tactics (Chapter 10). For both emperors then, subsequently for
Christians and their critics, and now for us too, memories of a battle have offered a bridge for linking a mythologized past with present
concerns and a coveted future.
THE AFTERLIFE OF
CONSTANTINE
CHAPTER TWO
iii
is horse is spooked and rears back, but constantine

looks up. A radiance brightens his face, and he raises his
hands in admiration. Perhaps he is praying.
We visualize the moment of Constantines vision of the
cross in the sky as just such a spectacular epiphany because we have
already seen Berninis luminous marble statue of the emperor astride his
horse. During the mid-seventeenth century successive popes hired the
gifted sculptor and artist Gian Lorenzo Bernini to complete the new
Church of St. Peter in the Vatican. In addition to his grand decoration
of the interior, Bernini designed semicircular colonnades to embrace
the vast elliptical piazza in front of the church. He also added an oversize
statue of Constantine, located in a niche at the juncture between the
corridor from the north colonnade and the front portico of the church.
In contrast to earlier equestrian statues that had commemorated the
generic majesty of emperors, this statue portrayed a precise dramatic
moment, the very turning point of Constantines life, an instant when
the emperor was himself subjected to a superior power. As a result, the
installation of the statue in this church seemed to link Constantines
19

vision with the defense of Christianity and, more specifically, with the
enhancement of the power of the popes.1
Later historians and churchmen were keen to requisition and exploit
the episode of Constantines vision of the cross. Another episode with
obvious potential for reassessment was his baptism. Shortly before his
death in May 337, Constantine had been baptized by Eusebius, the
bishop of Nicomedia. Even though his baptism was the final confirmation of the emperors attachment to Christianity, for subsequent
narratives some of the historical details were problematic. In particular,
both the timing and the officiant were disconcerting. If Constantine
had converted to Christianity as a consequence of his vision of the
cross before the battle at the Milvian Bridge, then one concern would
be the long interval of almost twenty-five years before his baptism on
his deathbed. If Constantine had made his reputation as a supporter of
the doctrines endorsed by the council of Nicaea in 325, then another
concern would be the realization that Eusebius of Nicomedia had been a
firm supporter of the heterodox priest Arius, whose doctrines the council had rejected. The responses to these apprehensions were predictable.
One was to tighten the chronological nexus of vision, battle, and baptism. Another was to change the identity of the bishop who presided
at the baptism. The catalysts for these new legends were frequently
associated with medieval Rome and Byzantine Constantinople.2
Medieval Popes
Constantines victory at the Milvian Bridge marked an important transition for the bishops of Rome. Later traditions claimed that many of
1
Quotation from Lavin (2005) 159, in an excellent overview of Berninis work at the Church
of St. Peter. As counterpoint to this statue of Constantine, in the early eighteenth century
the sculptor Agostino Cornacchini added a blandly conventional statue of Charlemagne at
the south end of the front portico.
Baptism: Eusebius, Vita Constantini 4.60.564.2, with Burgess (1999a) 21932, (1999b), discussing variants in the tradition, and Bleckmann (2006) 2830, on details in later accounts.
Role of Eusebius of Nicomedia: Jerome, Chronicon s.a. 337, with Lieu (1998) 13649, on
embarrassment over Constantines association with Arian churchmen, and Berger (2008), on
dealing with problematic aspects of Constantines reign during the Byzantine period.
the afterlife of constantine
21
the earlier bishops had been martyred during persecutions. In contrast,

the tenures of Miltiades, serving in 312, and Silvester, serving in 315
and 326 during Constantines return visits to Rome, marked the first
time since the late second century that two consecutive bishops had
not been martyred or exiled. The reigns of Constantine and subsequent
Christian emperors considerably enhanced the fortunes of the bishops
of Rome, and through gifts and offerings they became wealthier and
more powerful. The episcopacy of Rome soon became a prize. In 366
the partisans of two rival deacons fought in the streets, with a superhuman passion, over succession to the see. By the end of the fourth
century a distinguished senator who had served as prefect of Rome and
had held several pagan priesthoods was thought to have quipped that he
would convert to Christianity immediately if he could become bishop
of Rome.3
The increasing power and pretensions of the papacy form a significant
theme of medieval history. To bolster their authority popes and other
churchmen eventually deployed a particularly expedient assertion about
Constantines generosity. In the mid-eleventh century pope Leo IX
claimed that Constantine himself had once acknowledged his deference
and subordination to the bishops of Rome by bestowing powers and
possessions on bishop Silvester. According to Leos treatise, Constantine
had granted power and firm jurisdiction to him [Silvester] and to his
successor bishops. At the time, Leo was planning to cite this imperial
gift of power in his quarrel with the patriarch of Constantinople over
doctrinal and liturgical differences. This dispute culminated in the great
schism between the Latin Catholic and Greek Orthodox churches; it
also seems to have set a precedent for additional appeals to this so-called
Donation of Constantine.
Subsequent popes increasingly resorted to the warranty of this
Donation in their conflicts with secular rulers in western Europe, and
eventually they even tried to expand their influence by claiming to have
3
Conflict between Damasus and Ursinus: Ammianus Marcellinus, Res gestae 27.3.12, passion.
Witticism of Vettius Agorius Praetextatus to bishop Damasus: Jerome, Contra Ioannem
Hierosolymitanum 8 (PL 23.361c).
22
received actual imperial power from Constantine. In the mid-thirteenth

century pope Gregory IX confronted the emperor Frederick II, king
of Sicily, with the assertion that Constantine had given to the bishop
of Rome the imperial insignia and scepter, the city [of Rome] with
its entire duchy, and also the empire with perpetual oversight. In the
early fourteenth century pope Boniface VIII was still more explicit: I
am Caesar, I am the emperor. The later medieval bishops of Rome
traced their authority over both secular rulers and rival patriarchs to
the generosity of Constantine.4
In fact, this justification was an imaginative falsehood. The elaborate
assertions about the Donation of Constantine were a fiction, developed
from earlier legends and documents that were themselves forgeries. One
was a legal document known as Constitution of Constantine. According
to Constitution, Constantine had granted to Silvester and his successor
bishops of Rome various privileges, including primacy over the other
great sees of Antioch, Alexandria, Constantinople, and Jerusalem. Some
of the gifts seemed to imply a transfer of imperial provinces and property
in the West: as a return gift to the most blessed bishop, our father
Silvester, the universal pope, we decree that our palace . . . as well as the
city of Rome and all the provinces, places, and cities of Italy and the
western regions must be distributed to his power and the administration
of his successor bishops. Through a firm imperial judgment [and] by
means of this divine, sacred, and lawful constitution we allow everything
to remain under the jurisdiction of the holy Roman church.5
A second false legend highlighted the role of bishop Silvester in
baptizing Constantine. According to Constitution, Constantine was
suffering from leprosy when he arrived at Rome. Priests from the
Capitolium, that is, the Temple of Jupiter on the Capitoline Hill,
4
5
For this survey of medieval popes and the Donation of Constantine, see Fried (2007) 1133,
42, citing the relevant texts.
Constitutum Constantini 12, primacy, 17, Silvester, ed. Fuhrmann (1968) 8283, 9394,
reprinted in Fried (2007) 134, 136. Fried (2007) 2, clearly distinguishes between the earlier forged document entitled Constitutum and its subsequent (mis)readings as the fictional
Donation of Constantine. For an excellent survey of the reception of Constitutum in medieval
juristic exegesis, see Miethke (2008), emphasizing the lack of historical criticism.
23
suggested that he could be healed by bathing in the blood of innocent

babies. After Constantine declined to initiate this massacre, St. Peter
and St. Paul appeared in a dream and encouraged the emperor to
find Silvester, bishop of Rome. Silvester first had Constantine perform
penance at his palace on the Lateran and then presided over his
immersion in a pool of piety. During his baptism the emperor realized
that he had been cleansed from his leprosy: with my own eyes I saw
a hand touching me from heaven. Afterward Constantine bestowed
gifts and privileges on Silvester.6
At Rome this legend about Silvesters influential role was circulating
in texts no later than the beginning of the sixth century, and as an oral
tradition, already earlier. Originally it seems to have been a distinct
story about the emperors illness and baptism; then it was subverted
for other purposes. In Constitution the legend that combined healing
and baptism provided the rationale for the emperors gifts to the bishop
of Rome. Constitution in turn was itself a forgery, produced sometime
during the Carolingian period. One possibility is that it was composed
during the later eighth century at Rome, perhaps by a Roman cleric
working in the Lateran chancery. In that case Constitution would have
bolstered the standing of the bishops of Rome in their negotiations
with the Byzantine emperors at Constantinople or in their dealings
with Pepin and Charlemagne, the new Carolingian kings of the Franks.
Another possibility is that it was composed in the Frankish empire
during the early 830s by monks at the directive of influential abbots. In
that case it may have been an attempt not to expand papal authority but
rather to counter the plans of the emperor Louis the Pious to divide the
Frankish empire by attributing a unifying jurisdiction to the bishops of
Rome. As a result, if composed at Rome during the late eighth century,
Constitution was a papal forgery useful for clarifying the relationship
between the bishops of Rome and Christian rulers such as Frankish
kings and Byzantine emperors; if composed at the initiative of Frankish
6
Constitutum Constantini 6, leprosy, priests, 7, Peter and Paul, 9, Silvester, 10, baptism, ed.
Fuhrmann (1968) 6780, reprinted in Fried (2007) 13133, with Fowden (1994b) 15368, and
Pohlkamp (2007), for discussion of the legends of Silvester.
24
abbots in the early ninth century, it was a monastic forgery meant to

mitigate the impact of territorial partitions in the Frankish empire.7
Later medieval popes nevertheless read Constitution as an authentic
gift of secular power from Constantine, and hence as proof of their
authority over secular rulers. Forgery had sired fiction: by then the
collective cultural memory had undermined the original meaning of
the forgery. This transformation of the forged Constitution into the
fictitious Donation of Constantine also influenced interpretations of
the battle of the Milvian Bridge.8
In the early sixteenth century pope Leo X commissioned the famous
artist Raphael to decorate a reception room in his Vatican apartment.
For this room, now known as the Hall of Constantine, Raphael designed
a series of magnificent frescoes displaying scenes from the emperors
career. After Raphaels death in 1520, Giulio Romano and Gianfrancesco
Penni, two students in his workshop, modified and completed the
paintings. Each of the four large frescoes depicted a consequential
moment in Constantines activities at Rome: the vision of the cross in
the sky, the battle at the Milvian Bridge, the baptism of the emperor
by the bishop of Rome, and the Donation. The setting for the scene
of the Donation in the final fresco was the interior of the Church of
St. Peter. In the center the emperor was shown kneeling before the
pope to present a statuette of the goddess Roma. In the background a
priest was carrying a document, representing perhaps the deed of the
Donation, in a procession around the altar. According to this fresco,
7
For the story about Silvester, see Liber pontificalis 34.2, 13, with Davis (2000) xlvixlvii,
arguing that this collection of papal biographies was compiled in the 530s or early 540s;
also pseudo-Zachariah of Mitylene, Historia ecclesiastica 1.1, tr. Hamilton and Brooks (1899)
16: the story of his conversion by Silvester is also preserved in writing and in pictures at
Rome. Quotation about eighth-century cleric from Brown (1995) 328; also Fuhrmann (1968)
7, dating the composition of Constitution between the mid-eighth and the mid-ninth century
wahrsheinlich unter Beteiligung romischer Kleriker, and Noble (1984) 135, a consensus
that the famous forgery was fabricated between the pontificates of Stephen II and Hadrian.
For the role of Frankish abbots, see Fried (2007) 88109: The forged decree was compiled
among the circle of Franks who, late in the reign of Louis the Pious, sought to reform the
empire (p. 111).
Quotation about cultural memory from Fried (2007) 113.
25
with Constantines consent St. Peter and his successor bishops at Rome
were to become the guardians of imperial power and the old capital.9
By then critics of papal power, most notably the humanist scholar
Lorenzo Valla in the mid-fifteenth century, had already exposed Constitution as a forgery. Seemingly in defiant response, the frescoes designed
by Raphael and his students offered instead another partisan narrative
that linked the vision and the battle with the emperors subsequent
baptism and Donation. Now the emperors vision and his victory at the
Milvian Bridge were combined with his baptism to buttress the papal
account of the Donation of Constantine. In this papal narrative the
battle marked only another moment in Constantines progression as a
loyal Christian ruler. As a result, the artistic grandeur of the frescoes has
forcefully reinforced the notion that the proper interpretive contexts
for the battle are Constantines personal conversion and the expansion
of Christianity.10
The Battle at Constantinople

In the medieval West some of the significant episodes in Constantines
reign, such as his vision, his victory at the Milvian Bridge, and his
supposed baptism by bishop Silvester, would be appropriated into the
fabricated narrative of the Donation as additional infrastructure for the
edifice of papal power. These episodes were also familiar at medieval
Constantinople. In the East, however, the same episodes would acquire
a much different gloss.
Apparently quite quickly after its appearance at Rome, the legend
about Silvester and his role in Constantines baptism was in circulation
at Constantinople. In the eastern capital, however, artists and historians
soon detached the legend from its context at Rome to link it instead
with distinctly eastern concerns.
9
10
Fehl (1993), suggests that Raphael modeled the frescoes of the vision and the battle after
some of the panels on the arch of Constantine.
For the fresco depicting the Donation of Constantine as a response to critics, see Quednau
(2006) 276: wird hier das durch Lorenzo Valla und andere langst als falsch und unhaltbar
Erwiesene letzmalig durch das Bild als historische Wahrheit beschworen.
26
One was theology. On the Church of St. Polyeuctus, constructed in

the early sixth century, Constantines baptism by Silvester was depicted
in a mosaic over the main entrance. According to the epigram inscribed
near the mosaic, it is possible to see . . . judicious Constantine and
how he fled from the idols . . . and found the light of the trinity by
purifying his limbs in the water. The patron who financed the construction of this church was Anicia Juliana, a daughter of the earlier
western emperor Anicius Olybrius. As a granddaughter of the emperor
Valentinian III, Juliana was also quite probably a direct descendant of
Constantine. Because Juliana was a strong supporter of the doctrines
endorsed by the council of Chalcedon in 451, the display of this scene of
her ancestors baptism on her church was apparently meant to encourage a rapprochement between the churchmen of Constantinople and
Rome over their mutual endorsement of Chalcedonian theology. In this
mosaic the legend of Constantines baptism was a reminder of unity
between the two capitals, not an endorsement of one capitals bishop
over the other.11
A second concern was protecting the eastern frontier. In the edition
of his historical narrative completed in the early 530s, John Malalas
claimed that Constantine had seen a cross in the sky while he was
fighting barbarians somewhere in the West. After his subsequent victory
he returned to Rome carrying the symbol of the cross before himself.
He then had bishop Silvester baptize him and his family: the emperor
Constantine became a Christian. Soon afterward the emperor scored
another victory in a campaign against the Persians. According to John
Malalas account, Constantines baptism had led to his success on the
eastern frontier.12
11
12
Epigram on church: Anthologia graeca 1.10.7173, with PLRE 2:63536, Anicia Juliana 3,
and Fowden (1994a) 277, on the mosaic: it seems certain that Juliana . . . used the Silvester
version. Milner (1994), suggests that mosaics depicting Constantines conversion and his
victory over Maxentius accompanied this mosaic depicting his baptism. Julianas support
for the council of Chalcedon: Theophanes, Chronographia a.m. 6005. For the ancestry of
Valentinian III, see Chapter 3.
John Malalas, Chronographia 13.2, vision, baptism, 3, Persians, with Jeffreys et al. (1986) xxiii,
on the chronology of composition, and Scott (1994), on John Malalas image of Constantine.
27
These two contemporary narratives, the mosaic on the Church of

St. Polyeuctus and the history of John Malalas, hence retold the myth
about Silvester and the baptism of Constantine but transformed it into
a legend with an eastern perspective. In the process the narratives were
also indistinct enough to imply that the emperors baptism had taken
place not in Rome, but in New Rome, Constantinople.
Subsequent Byzantine authors began to write new biographies of
Constantine, sometimes drawing on respectable earlier accounts but
often inventing new episodes. In these Byzantine biographies the
emperors vision of a cross was a favorite topic.
One format was to retain the connection between the vision and
the battle of the Milvian Bridge but to extend the paradigm to include
other battles. One Life composed in the later ninth century (known
now as the Guidi-Vita, named after its editor) drew on Eusebius Life
for its general description of Constantines victory over Maxentius and
other accounts for additional details, such as the name of the Milvian Bridge. The narrative in this Byzantine Life mentioned the vision,
the emperors subsequent conversation with Jesus Christ in a dream,
and the construction of the military standard that led Constantines
army to victory at Rome. As Maxentius and his army had retreated
in disarray, the river and the bridge called Mulvian were filled with
horses and riders. In addition, this Life described a subsequent battle
in similar terms. According to this account, after capturing Licinius,
Constantine still had to defeat the Byzantines, the people of Byzantium. He established his camp in the spot where the forum is now
located. There he saw an encouraging message written in the stars,
just as he had seen earlier [during the campaign] against the tyrant
Maxentius. When he looked again, he saw a cross formed from the
stars and a caption predicting his victory. Immediately he recalled the
symbol that had appeared to him before, when through the power of
the venerated cross he defeated the wicked Maxentius at the Mulvian
Bridge over the river of Rome. Constantines victory at the city that
would become Constantinople hence mimicked his victory at Rome,
and his new nighttime vision of a cross in the stars imitated his earlier
noontime vision of a cross in the sun. To commemorate his victories
28
over Maxentius at Rome, the Byzantines, and the Scythians on the

Danube frontier, Constantine later set up three large bronze crosses in
Constantinople, which he called Jesus, Christ, and Victory. According
to this Life, Constantine erected the cross known as Jesus in the forum
where he had initially camped. Then everyone could see on display the
cross that the emperor had witnessed in his vision.13
This Byzantine Life used the battle at the Milvian Bridge as a model
and invented a similar vision for Constantine before another battle.
Another format was to dispense with the battle at Rome and move
Constantines initial vision of the cross in the sky directly to Constantinople during a battle against Byzantines. An account of the
apocryphal martyrdom of Eusignius, for instance, even claimed to
include a description of Constantines battle by a participant. According to its narrative, when Eusignius faced martyrdom under the pagan
emperor Julian in the mid-fourth century, he began to recall Constantines earlier success. Back then when the Byzantines were on the verge
of capturing Constantines soldiers, including Eusignius, the emperor
first read a message of encouragement written in the stars and then saw
a cross formed from the stars. A description of monuments at Constantinople, composed in the early eighth century, likewise claimed
priority for Constantines vision at the new capital. According to this
account, Constantine subsequently commemorated the exact spot of
his initial dream by erecting a large gilded cross on top of a square
porphyry column: there he saw the shape of the cross first of all. In
these accounts there was no comparison between Constantines vision
at Constantinople and his vision at Rome, or even any reference to
Maxentius and the Milvian Bridge. Instead, a battle at Constantinople
had replaced the battle at Rome as the site of his famous vision.14
13
14
Vita Constantini, ed. Guidi (1907) 323, bridge, 33536, camp, Maxentius, 64950, three
crosses; dated to circa 900 by Kazhdan (1987) 201, to mid- to late ninth century by Lieu and
Montserrat (1996) 102, and Lieu (1998) 153.
Participant: Passio Eusignii 9, ed. Devos (1982) 22122; dated to the tenth century or earlier
by Kazhdan (1987) 2034. First of all: Parastaseis syntomoi chronikai 58; dated to the first half
of the eighth century by Cameron and Herrin (1984) 1729.
29
Memories of the battle at the Milvian Bridge hence might develop in

different directions during the medieval period. In the West the battle
was linked with the emperors vision of the cross, his baptism at Rome,
and his gift of possessions and power to the bishops of Rome to become
another episode in the legend of the Donation of Constantine. In the
medieval West the papacy appropriated memories of the battle as a prop
to bolster its claims to sovereignty. In the Byzantine East stories about
the emperors vision of the cross and his baptism were likewise popular
and occasionally included references to Maxentius and the battle at the
Milvian Bridge. In the East, however, these stories typically appeared in
support of theological harmony or military success. They also might be
recounted to highlight the foundation of Constantinople. As a result, as
Constantinople became more prominent, the Milvian Bridge at Rome
was increasingly forgotten in Byzantine accounts of the vision and the
battle.
Relics
Relics of Constantine were thought to have survived at Constantinople
throughout the Byzantine period. One was his cloak. In 379 Theodosius supposedly wore Constantines cloak at his installation as a new
emperor. According to a ninth-century account, Theodosius was so
tall that the cloaks of various emperors could not cover his shoulders. . . . Finally he was clothed with splendor in the purple [cloak]
of the most revered emperor Constantine, which fit him perfectly.
Another relic was the famous battle standard that Constantine had had
constructed in the shape of a cross. In the mid-fifth century a historian
claimed that this standard was in the palace; in the later ninth century it was supposedly still in storage, safeguarded as a great gift in the
imperial storerooms. The most famous relic was Constantines body,
interred in a mausoleum that became part of the complex surrounding
the Church of the Holy Apostles. According to a description from the
end of the twelfth century, some of the other emperors buried near this
church had been forgotten: their memories have been buried in their
graves. In contrast, Constantines purple imperial tomb was still a
conspicuous reminder that he had been the first Christian emperor, the

builder of Constantinople, and the successor to the twelve apostles as
the thirteenth herald of the orthodox faith.15
Over the centuries Constantines reputation flourished. In fact, of
all the Roman and Byzantine emperors Constantine has had the most
influential afterlife. Throughout the medieval and Byzantine period
he was invoked as an imperial prototype, a point of reference, and
a symbol of imperial legitimacy and identity. The emperor Marcian
was acclaimed as new Constantine for presiding over a session of the
council of Chalcedon; the Frankish king Clovis seemed to become new
Constantine at the moment of his baptism in the early sixth century;
the emperor Heraclius was hailed as new Constantine for his victory
over the Persians and his restoration of the relic of the True Cross
to Jerusalem in the early seventh century. Councils, baptisms, and
military campaigns provided opportunities to associate the religious,
personal, and political affairs of Christian leaders with memories of
Constantine.16
Even in the twentieth century the specter of Constantine influenced
contemporary Italian politics. The emperor Augustus was one model for
Benito Mussolinis Fascist regime at Rome; Constantine was another.
October 28, the day of Constantines victory at the Milvian Bridge,
marked the anniversary of another invasion of Rome from northern
Italy, this time Mussolinis march on the capital in 1922. Mussolinis
construction projects at Rome included a new bridge known as the
Ponte XXVIII Ottobre (now known as the Ponte Flaminio), located
just east of the Milvian Bridge. Already during Constantines reign an
orator at Rome had insisted that the emperors memory was eternal:
15
16
Cloak: George the Monk, Chronicon 9.8, ed. de Boor (1978) 2:563. Battle standard: Socrates,
HE 1.2.7, and Vita Constantini, ed. Guidi (1907) 323. Nicholas Mesarites, Ecphrasis 39.3,
tomb, herald, 40.10, memories, with Johnson (2009) 11929, on Constantines mausoleum,
and Wortley (2009), on the fate of Constantines body.
Quotation about prototype from Magdalino (1994) 3. Marcian: Council of Chalcedon, Actio
6.5, 11, ed. Schwartz (19331935) 2:140, 155. Clovis: Gregory of Tours, Historiae 2.31, with Ewig
(1956), for images of Constantine in the early medieval period. Dedications for Heraclius:
Gregoire (1922) 2122, nos. 7980 (Smyrna), 40, no. 113 (Ephesus), with Whitby (1994) and
Haldon (1994).
31
the only way to forget Constantine is to destroy the human race. His
flattery has been uncommonly clairvoyant.17
Those memories were sometimes less than flattering, because Constantine also became a topic for rumors and gossip. He was thought to
have invented a hair lotion to compensate for his baldness. He acquired
the nickname of thick-necked, presumably based on his physical
appearance but perhaps also as a compliment for his firmness or a critique of his arrogance. A member of his inner circle, one of his own
prefects, was thought to have taken a bite in a sarcastic couplet that
compared Constantine to the disgraced emperor Nero. A later scholar
claimed to be embarrassed by all the drivel an earlier historian had
written about the emperor. In these comments Constantine was treated
like a modern-day celebrity, a vacuous embodiment of everything that
was admirable or shameful about human experiences. But for keeping
his reputation alive, the popular gossip and scandalous allure were as
important as grand papal forgeries.18
Then there was the fascination with the cross and the christogram.
If Constantine could see a cross in the sky, its profile might likewise
appear to others almost anywhere. Like modern sightings of silhouettes
of Jesus on rust spots, damp stains, and potato chips, in the early sixth
century Constantines cross was thought to have appeared to Christians
at Zeugma on the eastern frontier, as if engraved in relief on the shell of
a newly hatched goose egg. According to a later Byzantine biography,
Constantine himself once recognized the shape of the precious cross
in the smear on his handkerchief after wiping his bloody nose.19
17
18
19
For Augustus influence, see Cooley (2009) 5155; Mussolinis bridge, Painter (2005) 2126,
142. Forget: Panegyrici latini 4(10).12.4.
Hair gel: Polemius Silvius, Laterculus V, Breviarium temporum, ed. Mommsen (1892) 547.
Trachala as nickname: Epitome de Caesaribus 41.16, with the evaluation of Bruun (1995).
Distich of Ablabius: Sidonius, Ep. 5.8.2, with Chausson (2002a) 2089, suggesting possible
confusion between Constantine and his son Constantius, and Van Dam (2007) 36972, for
the dating of Ablabius prefecture during the 330s. Drivel: Eunapius, Fragmenta historica
9 = Suda K.2285.
Goose egg: Chronicle of Pseudo-Joshua the Stylite 68, tr. Trombley and Watt (2000) 86
87, with their note: The Cross may in fact have been the Chi-Rho. Bloody nose: Vita
Constantini, ed. Opitz (1934) 545.

Modern historians of antiquity tend to dismiss later traditions about
people and events as unreliable, even frivolous legends. The afterlife of
Constantine hence seems to have little to contribute to understanding
his life and his reign. With regard to factual details, this assessment may
be correct. But with regard to the process, the making of myths about
Constantine and the battle at the Milvian Bridge had started not after
his death but already during his lifetime.
ECCLESIASTICAL
HISTORIES
CHAPTER THREE
iii
nly two generations after his death, memories of

the historical Constantine were fading. According to a
preacher at Antioch in 387, he founded many great cities
and he conquered many barbarians. We remember none
of them. Historians nevertheless continued to read and write about
Constantine, either directly as an earlier emperor or indirectly as an
influential paradigm. As a social process this shaping of the emperors
legacy was entangled with some of the important trends of late antiquity,
including the impact of Constantinople as an eastern capital during the
fourth century, the establishment of barbarian kingdoms in the West
during the fifth century, and the attempted reconquest of the West by
the eastern emperor Justinian during the sixth century.1
Thinking about Constantine provided a common denominator for
Christians, who usually appreciated him, and for pagans, who typically
resented him. For both Christians and pagans Constantine remained
meaningful. They could share a discourse even as they disagreed about
Remember: John Chrysostom, Homiliae de statuis 21.11 (PG 49.216), with Van Dam (2008),
for the context.
33

his significance. As a result, both Christians and pagans, both supporters
and critics, became, wittingly or not, ecclesiastical historians. Evaluating
episodes from Constantines reign offered an opportunity to assess the
place of Christianity in late antique society.
Pagan Critics
At the beginning of the sixth century Zosimus composed a history
of the Roman empire that covered the period from the uncertainty
over imperial succession in the early third century to the coming
of the barbarians in the early fifth century. Constantines reign was
hence at the chronological midpoint of his narrative, and in his discussion of the emperor, Zosimus highlighted civil wars. The first was
against Maxentius in 312. According to Zosimus account, Constantine
invaded Italy with an enormous army while Maxentius prepared to
defend Rome with an army that was almost twice as large. His defense
included the construction of a special breakaway timber bridge over
the Tiber. Before the battle Maxentius consulted the Sibylline oracles while Constantine was heartened by seeing a propitious flock of
owls on the citys wall. After his troops were overwhelmed, Maxentius
was thrown into the river when the bridge collapsed. The residents of
Rome rejoiced when they saw Maxentius head on display at the end of a
spear.2
The second important civil war was against Licinius in 324. Several years earlier Constantine and Licinius had fought an inconclusive
campaign. This time Constantine built a huge fleet in the harbor of
Athens while Licinius mobilized ships contributed by regions around
the eastern Mediterranean. Constantines army defeated Licinius forces
in Thrace, and his fleet besieged the fleeing emperor in Byzantium. At
his last stand outside Chalcedon, Licinius was again defeated and then
2
Zosimus, Historia nova 2.15.1, Constantines army, 2, Maxentius army, 34, bridge, 16.1,
Sibylline oracles, 2, owls, 4, collapse of bridge, 17.1, head, with Paschoud (19792000) 1:vii
xx, on the date of composition: après 498, dans le premier tiers du 6e s. (p. xvi). Zosimus
claimed, quite implausibly, that Constantine invaded Italy with 90,000 soldiers and 8,000
cavalry, and that Maxentius commanded an army of 170,000 soldiers and 18,000 cavalry,
including 80,000 Italians and 40,000 Carthaginians.
ecclesiastical histories
35
surrendered. Although initially Constantine exiled his rival to Thessalonica, he soon had him executed.3
Zosimus was appalled at Constantines duplicity in his treatment
of Licinius. He trampled on his oath; this was customary for him.
This dismay was simply one outburst of censure in a larger interpretive
perspective that was strongly critical of the emperor. Zosimus provided
an extensive list of Constantines mistaken policies. The emperor had
founded Constantinople as a counterweight to Rome, encouraged its
growth in size beyond what was required, and subsidized its residents with distributions of free grain. He had impoverished other cities
by increasing taxes. He had upset traditional offices by appointing four
prefects. He had weakened the frontiers by stationing the troops instead
in cities. Zosimus then reinforced his critique of these misguided policies with an expose of the emperors character flaws. According to his
account, after eliminating his final rival, Constantine had no more
restraints on his behavior, and he no longer had to conceal his inherent
wickedness.4
Perhaps Constantines worst infraction was his failure to commemorate the Secular Games at Rome. In 17 b.c. the emperor Augustus had celebrated the Secular Games, which included sacrifices and
prayers to various gods, in particular Jupiter and Apollo, as well as
an extended series of public entertainments presented in Rome. This
Augustan version of the games was advertised as a revival of a festival first instituted in the early Republic, and its organizers claimed to
have consulted both old archives and an ancient Sibylline oracle. In
fact, the festival became a celebration of the emperor himself and his
dynasty, an act of myth-making designed to provide a visually impressive . . . manifestation of the achievements and ideology of the Augustan
regime. Subsequent emperors were hence also eager to associate their
rule with this traditional festival. The games were supposed to be celebrated after each saeculum, an interval interpreted as 110 years. The
3
4
Zosimus, Historia nova 2.22.12, fleets, 23.1, Byzantium, 28.2, execution.

Zosimus, Historia nova 2.28.2, customary, 29.1, wickedness, 30.1, counterweight, 32.1, grain,
33.12, prefects, 34.2, troops, 35.1, beyond, 38, taxes and cities.

emperor Claudius nevertheless celebrated the games in 47, presumably
to coincide with the eight hundredth anniversary of the foundation
of Rome, and the emperor Domitian in 88, likewise out of sequence.
The emperor Septimius Severus celebrated the games in 204, which
did correspond to the cycle established by Augustus. These games were
hence due to be celebrated again in 314.5
Zosimus included an extended digression on the origins of the
Secular Games and the details of their festivities. On the first night
the emperor himself was to join a college of priests to sacrifice three
lambs at three altars on the bank of the Tiber. On the next day he
and the priests were to preside at sacrifices on the Capitoline Hill. As
confirmation Zosimus quoted at length the Sibylline oracle that had
originally recommended the rituals. In his perspective, as long as all
these rituals were celebrated in accordance with custom, the empire of
the Romans was protected and they continued to hold our entire world
beneath their domination. Even emperors who rarely visited Rome
acknowledged the significance of the games. During a joint visit with
Diocletian in 303, Maximian apparently began planning to celebrate
the games during the next year, clearly out of sequence but nevertheless
a full century after the previous games. His plans were abandoned when
the emperors decided to retire instead. A decade later Constantine and
Licinius could have celebrated the games after the proper interval in
314. Because by then Constantine controlled Rome, he would have
had the golden opportunity to preside. Instead, Zosimus lamented his
neglect: because this festival was not maintained, events necessarily
evolved into the misfortune that now oppresses us.6
5
6
Quotation from Beacham (2005) 162, with Beard, North, and Price (1998) 1:2016, and
Beacham (1999) 11419, for excellent overviews of the games.
Zosimus, Historia nova 2.5, rituals, 6, oracle, 7.1, empire, 2, Maximians plans, misfortune.
Zosimus attributed the origin of the Secular Games to Valesius, who was later renamed
Manius Valerius Tarantinus and considered the founder of the Valerian family: see Zosimus,
Historia nova 2.13. Diocletian, Maximian, and the other Tetrarchic emperors consistently
included Valerius in their official names: see Van Dam (2007) 90102. So perhaps Maximian
was interested in celebrating the Secular Games as a reaffirmation of the Valerian dynasty
of Tetrarchic emperors, in particular at Rome.
37
Zosimus likewise could find nothing positive to say about Constantines promotion of Christianity. Even though he did attribute a
moment of conversion to the emperor, his version was quite different
from accounts that associated it with a vision and a battle. Instead,
according to Zosimus, Constantine was simply trying to soothe his
guilty conscience. Constantine had already promoted Crispus, his oldest son, as a Caesar, a junior emperor, and during the final campaign
against Licinius, Crispus had commanded his fathers fleet. Despite his
achievements, Crispus was eventually suspected of an improper liaison
with Fausta, his stepmother, and Constantine had ordered his sons
execution in 326. But when Helena, Constantines mother, became
distraught at the destruction of the young man, the emperor remedied that evil deed with a greater evil deed by ordering the death of
Fausta. Now he was complicit in the murders of his son and his wife.
Because of his remorse, he asked pagan priests for absolution for his
misdeeds. When they demurred, he instead listened to an Egyptian
who had come to Rome from Spain. This adviser informed Constantine that the teachings of Christians removed every sin and offered this
promise, that unbelievers who converted were immediately established
beyond their every sin. On the basis of this assurance of forgiveness
the emperor accepted the new doctrine and abandoned the traditional
rituals. In Zosimus perspective, what Christians would see as Constantines rejection of pagan cults had been in fact the beginning of his
impiety.7
Zosimus located Constantines change of mind comparatively late in
his reign, and he provided a nonreligious explanation. As a result, his
account linking conversion with guilt effectively has become the prototype for modern interpretations that explain the emperors religiosity
in terms of hidden ulterior motives, whether political or personal.
Yet Zosimus was concerned less about the motivations for Constantines decision and more about the outcome for the state. By failing
7
Zosimus, Historia nova 2.29.2, Crispus and Fausta, 3, priests, Egyptian, 4, beginning. This
Egyptian (in the sense of charlatan) is often identified as bishop Ossius of Corduba: see
Paschoud (19792000) 1:237.

to celebrate the Secular Games, by discarding traditional religious
ceremonies, the emperor had disrupted the continuity between the
assistance of the gods in the past and their continued support for
the empire in the future. Subsequent emperors had likewise failed to
revive traditional rituals. In Zosimus perspective it was precisely that
neglect that had contributed to the current withered condition of the
empire, which was now under the control of barbarians, diminished,
destroyed. Zosimus had seen the future. As a resident of the eastern
empire he was presumably thinking about the misfortunes of the western provinces and Rome. His historical narrative had concluded most
likely with the brief seizure of Rome by the Visigoths in 410, and by the
time he started writing, there were no more Roman emperors in Italy.
But in contrast to other pagan commentators, Zosimus did not associate the ransacking of Rome or the demise of imperial rule in the West
directly with the rise of Christianity. Instead, he criticized Constantine
simply as a negligent emperor. His disregard of pagan ceremonies had
led to the weakening of the empire. By the time he died, Constantine
had destroyed the state.8
Zosimus derived much of the information for his narrative of the
fourth century from Eunapius, a sophist who had taught at Sardis during the late fourth and early fifth century. Eunapius had composed
an account of Roman history that covered the period from the later
third century to the early fifth century. Subsequently his historical
account was largely lost, excepting some quotations and allusions in
later accounts. During the ninth century Photius, a bishop of Constantinople, was still able to read and compare the complete narratives
of both historians. In his estimation, Zosimus did not write a history,
but instead rewrote the [history] of Eunapius. In addition to recycling the information, Zosimus no doubt inherited many of Eunapius
distinctly hostile opinions about Christianity. According to Photius,
Eunapius commitment to pagan cults had tarnished his historical
8
Zosimus, Historia nova 1.58.4, barbarians, 2.39.1, the state, with Kaegi (1968) 117, he
[Zosimus] seldom discusses Christian beliefs, and Feeney (2007) 114, on Constantines
failure to celebrate the Secular Games as a symbolic rupture of great power.
39
interpretations: in every way and without restraint he abuses and

disparages those [emperors] who ruled the empire with piety, in particular the great Constantine. Eunapius may well have told the story
about the squalid circumstances of Constantines conversion in a critique of the emperor or of Christianity.9
This story about Constantines guilty conversion was certainly
already in circulation soon after the emperors death. The hero of
Eunapius historical narrative was the emperor Julian, a nephew of
Constantine. During Julians short reign in the early 360s Eunapius had
been only a young teenager; decades later, however, he still remembered
the intoxication of his strong feelings for the emperor. Julian had almost
self-consciously fashioned himself as a reverse image of Constantine,
right down to living out a religious trajectory that was the opposite
of his uncles. Julian too had converted. Although he had grown
up as a Christian, once he became sole emperor he openly endorsed
pagan cults. At the moment of his unsanctioned acclamation as a senior
emperor, his transformational experience had included a prayer for the
assistance of Zeus and a vision of the guardian spirit of the Roman
state. Julien imaginaire, the emperor who converted from Christianity
through a vision, would become a mirror image of Constantin imaginaire, the emperor who converted to Christianity through a vision.
To praise one was to criticize the other. Eunapius hence underlined
his critique of Constantine by presenting his historical narrative as a
panegyric of Julian.10
Julian himself had already been a critic of Constantine. In contrast
to his uncle, who had been a professional soldier, Julian was an intellectual. His academic pedigree dominated his thinking as an emperor.
Even during his preparations for a campaign against the Persians he
9
10
Photius, Bibliotheca 77, description of Eunapius History, 98, Zosimus reliance on Eunapius,
with Blockley (19811983) 1:56, arguing that Eunapius ended his narrative with events of
404.
Strong feelings: Eunapius, Fragmenta historica 15. Request: Julian, Epistula ad Athenienses
284c. Vision: Ammianus Marcellinus, Res gestae 20.5.10, with Athanassiadi (1981) 7475, on
the moment of Julians conversion to a theocratical conception of kingship. Panegyric:
Photius, Bibliotheca 77.
40
took time out to rank his imperial predecessors in a satirical treatise.

Before Julians imaginary tribunal each emperor was allowed to extol
his own accomplishments. After Constantines presentation, however,
the pagan gods who were serving as the panel of judges dismissed his
military victories as transient and ridiculed the emperor himself as a
chef and a hairdresser. Constantine responded to his dismissal by taking
refuge with Jesus, who was preaching about baptism and forgiveness.
Whoever is corrupt, stained with blood, abominable, and disgusting,
let him come with no fear. For I will appear and immediately wash him
clean with this water. And if he will again be guilty of the same [sins], I
will allow him, as he pounds his chest and beats his head, to be clean.
According to Julians scenario, because Constantine had his familys
blood on his hands, he had been very happy to hear Jesus message
of unconditional clemency.11
Julian furthermore had a personal grievance, because after Constantines death, soldiers had murdered various imperial relatives, including
one of Constantines half brothers who was Julians father. Subsequently
Julian had held the emperor Constantius, one of Constantines sons,
responsible for this massacre. He also blamed his cousin Constantius
for his own extended exile to an imperial estate in Cappadocia. In
his intellectual isolation Julian had read the Christian books in the
library of a local churchman, and he had studied the Bible, theological
controversies, and early ecclesiastical history. Despite his preference for
pagan cults, Julian most likely surpassed all the Christian emperors of
the fourth century, including Constantine, in his knowledge of early
Christianity. He would certainly have been familiar with more favorable
evaluations of Constantine. In fact, because he had studied at least one
11
Julian, Caesares 328d329d, victories, 335ab, chef and hairdresser, 336ab, Jesus, blood. The
orator Libanius, a supporter of Julian, likewise thought that Constantine had converted to
Christianity after his victory over Licinius in 324, but only in order to plunder the pagan
temples: see Libanius, Orat. 30.6, After defeating the man [Licinius] who had previously
encouraged the cities to flourish, he [Constantine] thought it was useful to classify some
other [deity] as God, and he used the sacred resources on the construction of the city
[Constantinople] that he was promoting, with Malosse (1997), discussing Libanius veiled
criticism of Constantine already during the 340s.
41
apologetic treatise by Eusebius of Caesarea, perhaps he had also read

Eusebius historical writings. Even for non-Christian authors Eusebius
writings would become a catalyst.12
In reaction to the flattering evaluations of churchmen like Eusebius,
pagan critics such as Julian, Eunapius, and subsequently Zosimus preferred to construct Constantine as the object of their criticism. Constantine could be both a positive and a negative image. By maligning
Constantine each critic found an outlet for articulating his own concerns, including a family feud, anger at the rise of Christianity, and
despair over the welfare of the state. For pagans too Constantine
served as a symbolic medium.
Christian Historians
Zosimus account of Constantine provoked a strong reaction from
a Christian historian. Evagrius, a legal adviser for bishop Gregory of
Antioch during the later sixth century, was especially offended. Because
his ecclesiastical history covered the period from the council of Ephesus
in 431 to the reign of the emperor Maurice at the end of the sixth
century, his narrative did not overlap Zosimus historical narrative at
all. But when discussing the abolition of a particular property tax by
the emperor Anastasius in 498, Evagrius noted that Constantine had
originally introduced the tax. Zosimus account may have been his
source for that information, but suddenly Zosimus himself became the
object of Evagrius scorn.13
Zosimus had claimed that Constantines innovations, including his
adoption of Christianity and his neglect of pagan cults, had led to a
weakening of the Roman state. Evagrius pointedly disagreed: on the
contrary it has been made perfectly clear that the affairs of the Romans
12
13
Books: Julian, Ep. 23, 38, with Van Dam (2002) 17374, on Julian in Cappadocia. Apologetic
treatise: Julian, Contra Galilaeos 222a, objecting to a claim of Eusebius, Praeparatio evangelica
11.5 (PG 21.852d), about the literary talents of Moses and David, with Van Dam (2007) 357
62, on Julians familiarity with Christian theology.
Abolition of the chrysargyron, also known as the collatio lustralis: Evagrius, HE 3.39; imposed
by Constantine: Zosimus, Historia nova 2.38.2, with Whitby (2000) xxvixxvii, for the
likelihood that Evagrius had read Zosimus account.
42
have been enhanced with our faith. The best example was the contrast between Constantine and Julian. For Zosimus, Julian had been
a hero; for Evagrius, he was the true culprit. Although the Christian
emperor Constantine had governed the Roman empire bravely and
courageously with the assistance of our religion, the pagan emperor
Julian had dumped so many disasters on the state. Evagrius also
rejected Zosimus claim that Constantine had converted to Christianity to find forgiveness for his guilty conscience after the deaths of his
wife and his son. His counterarguments were quotations from Eusebius
History implying that Constantine had been a Christian already upon
becoming emperor. Evagrius refutation here was in fact not reliable,
because in his History Eusebius had most likely misunderstood Constantines early reign. But Evagrius was certainly convinced enough to
slander Zosimus as a wicked and defiled demon: you abominable
and thoroughly accursed man! From the perspective of a Christian
historian like Evagrius, maligning Constantine was proof that Zosimus
had been an irresponsible historian.14
At the beginning of his narrative Evagrius carefully located his narrative in the arc of accounts by earlier ecclesiastical historians. Among
these predecessors, his canon of four historical evangelists included
Eusebius, of course, as well as his historiographical heirs, Socrates,
Sozomen, and Theodoret of Cyrrhus. The latter three historians had
each continued Eusebius History through the fourth century into the
early fifth century. The starting point for each of their narratives had
been the reign of Constantine.15
Socrates wrote at Constantinople during the later 430s. Although he
intended his narrative to start in 324 at the end of Eusebius History,
he first included some background on the way the emperor Constantine came to be a Christian. His narrative included the vision of the
cross, the dream of Christ, the construction of the battle standard, and
the victory over Maxentius outside Rome near the so-called Mulvian
14
15
Critique of Zosimus: Evagrius, HE 3.4041, with Chapters 45, 7, for Eusebius misinterpretations. Sozomen, HE 1.5, had already tried to refute the allegation that Constantines
conversion was a consequence of his guilt over Crispus death: it seems to me that these
[accusations] were fabricated by people who wished to slander the religion of Christians.
Sequence of historians: Evagrius, HE 1 preface, 5.24.
43
bridge. Excepting the detail about the name of the bridge, Socrates had
extracted this information from Eusebius Life of Constantine. Using Life
as a source had nevertheless made him nervous. Socrates thought that
Eusebius Life had been too laudatory about the emperor and too partisan about theological controversies. In his estimation, Eusebius wrote
a biography of Constantine in which he offered a partial recollection of
the events concerning [the heterodox priest] Arius. He was concerned
more about his eulogies of the emperor and the grandiloquence of the
words in his panegyric, as if in an encomium, than about an accurate
narrative of events. Socrates hence conceded that after his victory at
Rome Constantine acted like a Christian, even as he distanced his
account from Eusebius perspective.16
Sozomen wrote his historical narrative a few years later and also at
Constantinople. First he composed a separate account of Christian history from the ascension of Christ into heaven to the elimination of
Licinius. This treatise was presumably an epitome of Eusebius History.
Even though Sozomen started his own historical narrative in 324, he
also included a flashback describing the events that had led Constantine to honor Christianity. The most important was the sign of God
that appeared to him. Sozomen elaborated by describing the vision
of the cross, the dream, and the construction of the battle standard,
and he explicitly attributed these stories to Eusebius. Then his narrative diverged from Eusebius Life. Sozomen supplemented Eusebius
account by letting the churchmen whom Constantine consulted about
his dream add comments about resurrection, salvation, and repentance.
He also did not describe a battle against Maxentius. Instead, he claimed
that the emperor always had this symbol [the battle standard] carried in
front of his troops. Sozomen too seemed reluctant to follow Eusebius
Life too closely.17
16
17
Socrates, HE 1.1.2, biography, 4, came to be, 2.7, Mulvian bridge, 3.1, like a Christian, with
Van Nuffelen (2004) 1014, arguing that Socrates published his History in 439440.
Sozomen, HE 1.1.12, epitome, 3.1, sign of God, 2, attribution to Eusebius, 46, churchmen, 4.3, symbol, with Grillet (1983) 2531, suggesting that Sozomen completed his History
between 443 and 448, Leppin (1996) 27981, in the later 440s, and Van Nuffelen (2004)
5961, in the mid-440s.
44
In Syria bishop Theodoret of Cyrrhus wrote another historical narrative at the end of the 440s. He also decided to begin his narrative at
the end of Eusebius History. But unlike his contemporaries Socrates
and Sozomen, Theodoret did not first look back at Constantines early
career. Instead, he plunged forward to describe the theological controversies that followed the elimination of the evil tyrants Maxentius,
Maximinus, and Licinius. In his narrative Theodoret quoted many
letters about these disputes, including one by Eusebius in which he
had tried to explain the harmony between his doctrines and Nicene
theology. In his description of the council of Nicaea, Theodoret quoted
extracts from another treatise by Eusebius, his Life. Despite these
references, Theodoret seems to have known little about Eusebius and
his writings.18
These Greek ecclesiastical historians presented their own narratives
as continuations of Eusebius History, and they extracted a few episodes
from his Life in their accounts of Constantines vision, dream, and
victory at Rome and the council at Nicaea. Even though the later
historians were suspicious of Eusebius theology, none challenged his
history. In contrast, in the West their older contemporary Rufinus
did challenge both Eusebius theology and his historical account of
Constantines victory at Rome.
Rufinus had lived in Egypt and Palestine before returning to his
homeland of Italy. In 401 the bishop of Aquileia asked him to translate
Eusebius Ecclesiastical History into Latin. Rufinus translation was more
of a paraphrase than an exact rendition. With regard to the final books of
Eusebius History that discussed Constantine, Rufinus retained most of
books 8 and 9 in his translation but omitted much of book 10, including,
most conspicuously, a long sermon by Eusebius. He then combined
whatever history remained from book 10 with his translation of book
9. Following the lead of Eusebius History, Rufinus ended his translation
18
Theodoret, HE 1.1.4, beginning and end, 2.1, tyrants, 12.118, Eusebius letter, 13.14, another
treatise (quoting Eusebius, Vita Constantini 3.1314, 21.422.1); for the date of composition
of Theodorets History, see Parmentier and Scheidweiler (1954) xxvi, in late 449 and early
450, and Martin (2006) 2937, before 448.
45
with Constantines victory over Licinius in 324. But he then went on

to add two new books as a sequel that covered the period from the
era of Constantine after the [ending of] persecution to the death of the
Augustus Theodosius in 395. Rufinus translation both modified and
extended Eusebius History.19
Adaptation and elaboration were already apparent in Rufinus version of Constantines march on Rome. His account was notably different from Eusebius account, which he was nominally translating.
First, Rufinus added information that he may have based on reading
Eusebius Life of Constantine. In particular, he added a description of
the emperors dream. According to Rufinus, while advancing against
Maxentius, Constantine often looked to the sky and prayed for divine
assistance. While sleeping he saw toward the east the symbol of a cross
gleaming with a fiery glow in the sky. In Eusebius History Constantine had prayed to God and Jesus Christ before his military campaign,
but there had been no mention of a vision or a dream. In Eusebius
Life Constantine had witnessed the cross in a daytime vision. In his
translation of Eusebius History Rufinus had Constantine witness the
cross during a nighttime dream.20
Second, Rufinus added details that were not in Eusebius Life. Rufinus claimed that Constantine was already a supporter of the Christian
religion and a worshipper of the true God, although he had not yet
accepted the symbol of the Lords suffering, that is, he had not yet been
baptized with the sign of the cross. When the emperor witnessed the
symbol of the cross in his dream, Rufinus added that he also saw angels
standing nearby who reassured him with an acclamation: Constantine, conquer in this. Although Eusebius had not mentioned angels,
Rufinus may nevertheless have derived their chant from the slogan that
Eusebius claimed had accompanied the vision of the cross in the sky.
In fact, Rufinus even quoted the angels acclamation in Greek. These
were some of the few Greek words he included in his translation, and
the only ones not copied or directly derived from Eusebius History.
19
20
Rufinus, HE prologus.
Prayer: Eusebius, HE 9.9.2.
46
Constantine subsequently constructed a military standard in the shape

of a cross. He also, according to Rufinus, carried in his right hand
a symbol of the cross fabricated from gold. Another detail Rufinus
added was a reference to the Milvian Bridge by name.
Rufinus hence amended Eusebius account in History by mentioning
a dream of the cross, which he may have derived from Eusebius Life,
and by adding the new details about the emperors prior commitment
to Christianity, the angels, and the gold cross. The most notable of his
additions, however, was his interpretive perspective. Rufinus explicitly
compared Constantines dream with the legendary vision of the apostle
Paul. Long ago Paul too, then still known as Saul, had seen a light
from heaven. Constantine was invited to the faith from heaven. To
me he is no less significant than the man to whom likewise a voice
was heard from heaven: Saul, Saul, why are you persecuting me? I
am Jesus of Nazareth. [The difference is that] this [emperor] was
invited not while he was still a persecutor, but while he was already
a follower. After his vision Paul had been baptized. Likewise after
his dream Constantine had marked the symbol of the cross on his
forehead. In Eusebius Life Constantine was not baptized until the
very end of his life. In Rufinus account, however, there was no mention
at all of a baptism by churchmen. Instead, immediately after witnessing
the cross Constantine had essentially baptized himself.
Rufinus narrative of the subsequent battle was not just anticlimactic;
there was nothing to describe. According to Rufinus, as Constantine
approached Rome he was distressed that he could restore liberty to the
fatherland only through bloodshed. He was rescued from his anguish
by his rival. As a stratagem Maxentius had ordered the construction
of a bridge floating on boats. But when he rode out to confront Constantine, he forgot his own artifice, capsized the boats, and drowned.
Maxentius preserved the pure right hand of the religious emperor
from civil bloodshed. In Rufinus version Maxentius drowned before
engaging Constantine, and there was no battle at the Milvian Bridge.21
21
Rufinus, HE 9.9.18, with Chapter 7, for discussion of Rufinus subsequent account of

Constantine at Rome, and Christensen (1989) 29297, downplaying Rufinus familiarity
47
Rufinus comparison of Constantine with the apostle Paul has been

very influential, although in a roundabout way. Modern historians are
understandably hesitant about most of his additional details, including,
of course, the disappearance of the battle. Simultaneously, however, it is
often difficult for modern scholars to avoid interpreting the emperors
experience as another unexpected conversion, similar to Pauls moment
of redemption. Rufinus interpretive gloss has reinforced the perception
of Constantines career as a sequence of abrupt moments, including
military victories, rather than as an extended process of hesitations and
ambiguities. The most abrupt of those moments seems to have been a
sudden conversion to Christianity.
New Visions
Toward the end of his reign Constantine arranged to be succeeded by
his three surviving sons and a nephew. After his death in May 337,
however, troops at Constantinople killed the nephew as well as other
imperial relatives. During the massacre the soldiers supposedly shouted
that they would support no other ruler than the sons of Constantine. This initial bloodshed seems to have set the tone for subsequent
interactions among the brothers. Constantine II was killed in 340 after
invading Constans territory, and Constantius and Constans almost
went to war over a disagreement about Christian doctrines. Not only
were the brothers eliminating, or trying to eliminate, each other, but
their confrontations also jeopardized the long-term continuation of
the Constantinian dynasty. Constantine had had (at least) six children,
including four sons, and he had slowly purged his imperial rivals in
a series of civil wars to ensure the succession of his sons. In contrast,
none of the three sons who had succeeded him had yet produced
with Eusebius Life: Rufinus relied on a tradition here, which despite all the similarities,
is independent of Eusebiuss account in Vita Constantini (p. 295n.301). Heim (2001),
suggests that Rufinus modified the account of the battle at the Milvian Bridge to recall the
recent victory of the emperor Honorius troops over the Visigoths in north Italy on Easter
402: Dieu sera aux cotes des Romains. . . . La bataille de Pollentia . . . repète celle du Pont
Milvius (p. 209); note also Humphries (2008b) 157, suggesting that Rufinus translation
would reassure the nervous Christians of Aquileia.

any children, and now they were engaging in their own fraternal
conflicts.22
In January 350 army officers and imperial magistrates hailed the
commander Magnentius as emperor in Gaul. After his agents assassinated Constans, Magnentius crossed into northern Italy and marched
toward the Balkan frontier. At about the same time, troops in Pannonia
had proclaimed their commander Vetranio as emperor. Magnentius settled for control of the western empire, including Italy and North Africa,
while Vetranio controlled the Balkans. Constantius was meanwhile still
campaigning against the Persians on the eastern frontier.
Both usurpers were career soldiers from simple provincial backgrounds. Because his father had been from Brittany and his mother
had been a Frank, Magnentius was belittled as a barbarian. Vetranio
hailed from Moesia, along the middle Danube, and was supposedly illiterate. To compensate for these deficiencies in their pedigrees, both tried
to associate themselves with the legacy of Constantine. Vetranio had
been proclaimed as Caesar, a junior emperor, by Constantina, one of
Constantines daughters. Magnentius suggested that Constantius marry
his daughter, and after his offer to marry Constantina was rebuffed, he
instead married Justina, who was probably a young great-granddaughter
of Constantine.23
These emperors also publicized their new Constantinian affiliation
through the images and legends on their coins. One issue of coins
from Trier and Lyon depicted Magnentius holding a military standard
22
23
Support: Zosimus, Historia nova 2.40.3.

Magnentius pedigree: Aurelius Victor, De Caesaribus 41.25, Epitome de Caesaribus 42.7,
Zosimus, Historia nova 2.54.1, with Paschoud (19792000) 1:281 and Drinkwater (2000)
13845. Vetranios pedigree: Aurelius Victor, De Caesaribus 41.26. Constantina and Vetranio:
Philostorgius, HE 3.22. According to Peter the Patrician, Frag. 16, ed. Muller (1851) 190,
Magnentius offered to marry Constantia, a sister of Constantius. PLRE 1:222, Constantina
2, identifies this Constantia as Constantina; Chausson (2007) 11516, suggests that she was
Constantius half sister, another daughter of Constantine with an anonymous wife whom
he married after Faustas death in 326. Justinas pedigree: see PLRE 1:48889, Iustina, and
Van Dam (2007) 121n.49, for various conjectures, with Woods (2004), arguing that she
was a granddaughter of Crispus, and Chausson (2007) 105, 161, suggesting that she was a
granddaughter of Julius Constantius, a half brother of Constantine.
49
decorated with the chi-rho symbol, the christogram formed from the
first two Greek letters of Christ. Another issue from various mints in
Gaul depicted the christogram flanked by an alpha and an omega,
the first and last letters of the Greek alphabet, referring to Gods eternal power. Coins minted in Pannonia meanwhile depicted Vetranio
likewise holding a military standard decorated with the christogram,
surrounded by an encouraging legend: in this sign you will be a victor.
By quoting the caption that had reportedly accompanied the sighting
of the cross in the sky, this legend was a manifest evocation of the
vision of Constantine. Through their associations with relatives of
Constantine, through their use of symbols that recalled the original
vision of the cross, both Magnentius and Vetranio hoped to edge into
the limelight of the Constantinian dynasty.24
These two usurping emperors had hence revived memories of
Constantine in a similar fashion, in particular by deploying symbols
associated with Constantines vision of the cross, but for opposite reasons. Magnentius hoped to claim the heritage of Constantine to pose as
a viable alternative to Constantius, while Vetranio publicized his devotion to Constantine as a sign of his loyalty to Constantius. Vetranio
apparently saw himself as a temporary emperor holding the Balkans on
behalf of Constantius. Once Constantius arrived in late 350, Vetranio
was divested of his emperorship and his troops joined Constantius
army.25
Constantius campaign against Magnentius quickly became a conflict
over the succession of Constantine. In 337 Constantius may well have
initiated the massacre of his relatives to safeguard the succession of
himself and his brothers as the only true heirs to Constantines imperial
24
25
Magnentius coins depicting military standard: Kent (1981) 157, nos. 25960, Trier, 18485,
nos. 10814, Lyon; depicting christogram: Kent (1981) 123, nos. 3445, Amiens, 16365, nos.
31827, 33237, Trier, 217, nos. 188202, Arles. Vetranios coins from Siscia: Kent (1981) 369,
nos. 272, 275, 27879, 28283, 28688, 29192, hoc signo victor eris. Quotation about
evocation from Kent (1981) 344.
Note Dearn (2003), suggesting that Vetranios coinage demonstrated his loyalty to Constantius, not opposition, and Drinkwater (2000) 156: Vetranio was an unwilling emperor and
in his heart remained loyal to Constantius.
50
rule. Now, as the last surviving son of Constantine, he had to protect his
imperial authority against a usurper who was trying to marry into the
Constantinian dynasty. This time the dispute over dynastic succession
also included dueling claims to the legacy of Constantines vision of the
cross.26
In 351 one eastern bishop made his preference very clear by using the
symbolism of the cross to link father and son. In a letter to Constantius,
bishop Cyril of Jerusalem first declared that the wood of salvation
belonging to the cross had been found at Jerusalem during the reign
of Constantine, your father. This assertion about the early discovery of
the True Cross on which Jesus Christ had been crucified was dubious
at best. But it allowed Cyril to note that an apparition even more
impressive than the relic of the True Cross had recently appeared in the
sky: the trophy of victory over death belonging to our Lord and Savior
Jesus Christ, the only-begotten Son of God I am speaking of the
blessed cross appeared at Jerusalem, twinkling with sparkles of light.
This luminous cross of light, which surpassed the beams of the sun,
had stretched across the sky from Golgotha to the Mount of Olives
and lasted for many hours. Motivated by fear or by joy, everyone went
to the church and praised Jesus Christ. Cyril then wrote to reassure
Constantius that he would have God as his ally if he displayed the
trophy of the cross, . . . the sign revealed in the sky. The appearance
of this new apparition of a cross in the sky was proof that God would
reward the emperors support for the churches and his defense of the
Roman empire. In his letter Cyril had connected Constantius to his
fathers vision of a cross in the sky while also hinting that the son would
surpass his fathers achievements.27
26
27
Succession: Themistius, Orat. 3.43a. For the probability that Constantius had been the
mastermind behind the massacre of Constantines half brothers and some of their sons in
337, see Burgess (2008), with Van Dam (2007) 10411, 118, 302, on the competing factions.
Cyril of Jerusalem, Epistula ad Constantium 3.12, wood, father, 1516, trophy, 4.18, Golgotha,
20, sun, 21, church, 5.32, trophy, 8.44, churches, empire, with Drijvers (1992) 79145, on legends about the role of Helena in the discovery of the True Cross, (2004) 162, suggesting that
Cyril knew about Constantines vision, (2009) 24145, suggesting that Cyril was promoting
his own see of Jerusalem. Cyrils letter was apparently soon available in general circulation:
51
Constantius army fought a series of battles against Magnentius.

During this extended campaign Constantius explicitly promoted the
memory of his father. To remind soldiers of their loyalty to the imperial
dynasty, his supporters denigrated Magnentius as a murderer of a
son of Constantine while praising Constantius as the last son of
Constantine. The images and legends on his coins also strengthened
his dynastic claim. On coins minted at Sirmium and Thessalonica the
images depicted Constantius holding a military standard decorated with
a christogram, while the legends again explicitly recalled Constantines
vision: in this sign you will be a victor. In this case the legends on
the coins offered a correct forecast, as Constantius forces won a final
victory over Magnentius in the summer of 353. His victory seemed
to confirm that only a true Constantinian emperor could claim the
military assistance of Constantines cross.28
Constantius was the last son of Constantine to reign as emperor.
There were no grandsons. Subsequent emperors nevertheless continued to emphasize their connections to the Constantinian dynasty. The
emperor Gallus, Constantines nephew, married Constantina, Constantines daughter, and Julian, another nephew, married Helena, another
daughter. As his second wife the emperor Valentinian I married Justina,
probably Constantines great-granddaughter and by then the widow of
Magnentius; his son Gratian married Constantia, the daughter of Constantius. Thereafter Gratian claimed Constantius as my ancestor. As
his second wife the emperor Theodosius married Galla, the sister of the
emperor Valentinian II. Through their mother, Justina, both Galla and
Valentinian II were probably direct descendants of Constantine. As a
28
see Socrates, HE 2.28.22, Sozomen, HE 4.5, Philostorgius, HE 3.26. One tradition even
claimed that Constantius and his army, although far away in Pannonia, had witnessed the
same vision of the heavenly cross before a battle: see Chronicon Paschale s.a. 351.
Zosimus, Historia nova 2.44.3, murderer, 46.3, son. Constantius coins: Kent (1981) 386, nos.
2324, Sirmium, 416, no. 146, Thessalonica. In their polemic over theological controversies,
however, churchmen typically contrasted Constantius and his father: see Humphries (1997)
464, To establish Constantine as a paradigmatic Christian emperor it was necessary . . . to
condemn his sons ecclesiastical policies as excessive and aggressive.
52
result of this marriage the new Theodosian dynasty of emperors could

also claim to be the heirs of Constantine.29
In 394 Theodosius marched west from Constantinople to confront
the usurper Eugenius at the Frigidus River (modern Vipava River)
near Aquileia. Eugenius went into battle with the support of Jupiter
and Hercules. He set up statues of Jupiter in the foothills of the Alps
overlooking the battlefield, and an image of Hercules led his army.
Theodosius meanwhile prayed with clerics at the shrines of martyrs
and apostles. He also claimed to have had a vision of two men riding
white horses, who identified themselves as the evangelist John and
the apostle Philip and offered their assistance. Theodosius army then
went into battle led by a military standard in the shape of a cross. A
river, a vision, a cross used as a battle standard: Theodosius victory
was represented as a reminder of Constantines victory at the Milvian
Bridge. Theodosius was another new Constantine. Less than a year
later in a funeral oration for the emperor a bishop described a family
reunion in heaven. Among those imagined to have gathered to welcome
Theodosius was his putative ancestor Constantine.30
Eusebius account linking a vision with Constantines victory at the
Milvian Bridge had established a model for subsequent historiography.
New Constantines needed new visions, and it is not surprising that
later historians attributed visions to Christian rulers before important
battles. In fact, in the twelfth century one Byzantine historian allocated
even more visions to Constantine himself by claiming that during
his campaign against Licinius the emperor had witnessed a horseman
carrying an image of the cross, two young men slicing through enemy
units, and a light that illuminated his camp during the night. Like the
story about the original vision of the cross in the sky, this tendency to
multiply visions may have derived from Constantine himself. According
29
30
My ancestor: Ausonius, Gratiarum actio 11, with Lenski (2002) 97104, on connections with
Constantine in the family of Valentinian I. For the possibility that Theodosius was himself
descended from a collateral branch of the Constantinian dynasty, see Chausson (2002a)
22023, (2002b) 150.
Statues of Jupiter: Augustine, De civitate Dei 5.26. Praying with clerics: Rufinus, HE 11.33.
Theodoret, HE 5.24.4, image of Hercules, cross, 56, vision. Reunion: Ambrose, De obitu
Theodosii 40.
53
to Eusebius Life of Constantine, before battles the emperor would

pray to his God until he certainly received a vision. Then, as
if motivated by divine inspiration, he would mobilize his army. In
his subsequent campaigns Constantine too seems to have hoped to
revitalize the memory of his own original vision of the cross by praying
for new visions.31
Memories of Constantine
The emperor Valentinian III was a grandson of Theodosius and Galla.
If Justina, Gallas mother, had in fact been a granddaughter of Constantines son Crispus, then Valentinian was the final direct descendant
of Constantine to reign as an emperor. Because dynastic inheritance
was a sign of an emperors success, Constantine would have been gratified at this extended succession, which lasted almost 150 years. But he
would most likely also have been surprised by this particular successor.
Unlike his distant ancestor, Valentinian was neither a frontier emperor
nor an emperor at Constantinople. Instead, he was proclaimed a senior
emperor at Rome in 425, and he spent most of his reign at Ravenna
before relocating to Rome. In 455 he was murdered in the Campus
Martius.
One of Valentinians daughters married a son of Geiseric, the king of
the Vandals in North Africa who had once briefly captured Rome. Their
son, Hilderic, later himself became king of the Vandals. Valentinians
other daughter married Anicius Olybrius, a distinguished senator at
Rome who became emperor briefly in 472. In the later fifth century the
contrasting marriages of Constantines direct descendants, as the wives
of an emperor at Rome and a Vandal king, succinctly symbolized the
great transformation of the West from the illustrious past of a Roman
empire to a future defined by barbarian successor states.32
The final fates of the daughters of Valentinian also neatly reflected the
significant changes in the political and religious dynamics of the East
31
32
Divine inspiration: Eusebius, Vita Constantini 2.12.2. Additional visions: Zonaras, Annales
13.1.2728, with Bleckmann (1992), speculating about Zonaras source.
Eudocia, wife of Huneric, and Placidia, wife of Olybrius: see PLRE 2:4078, Eudocia 1,
57273, Hunericus, 79698, Anicius Olybrius 6, 887, Placidia 1.
54
initiated long ago by Constantine. One daughter died in Constantinople, Constantines new capital for the eastern empire, and the other
in Jerusalem, the focus of the Christian Holy Land once patronized
by Constantine. Thereafter the Constantinian pedigree seems to have
lost its luster, and subsequent descendants were traced back instead to
their more recent imperial ancestors. After the emperor Justinians army
defeated the Vandals in North Africa, the children and grandchildren of
Hilderic arrived at Constantinople in 534 as captives. Justinian decided
to support these descendants of the emperor Valentinian with financial subsidies. One of Olybrius remote descendants may have been
married to a relative of Theodora, Justinians wife, at Constantinople. Even though some later Byzantine emperors claimed to be direct
descendants of Constantine, by the mid-sixth century Constantines
legacy was no longer the glow of a ruling imperial dynasty but only
memories of a distant emperor.33
Other casualties of the fading of Constantines legacy were Eusebius
Ecclesiastical History and Life of Constantine. During the fourth century
the emperor Julian had read some of Eusebius writings, and Eusebius
account in Life of Constantines vision of a cross had established a
rhetorical paradigm for thinking about other Christian emperors and
their battles. During the fifth century Rufinus had translated Eusebius
History, and Socrates, Sozomen, and Theodoret had written historical
narratives that continued Eusebius History and referenced his Life. In
the later sixth century Evagrius had cited Eusebius History. Historians
long continued to use Eusebius writings for information about early
Christian history and the reign of Constantine.
At the same time they had deep misgivings about his theology. Even
as Evagrius complimented Eusebius for his ability to persuade readers
about Christianity, he noted that his predecessors arguments had been
very mistaken. Despite the condemnation of the doctrines of the
33
Justinians subsidies: Procopius, Bella 4.9.13. For Georgius Areobindus, husband of Proba,
who was a great-great-great-granddaughter of Olybrius, see Nicephorus, Chronographikon,
ed. Dindorf (1829) 756 (correcting the reference in PLRE 3:515, Georgius 7). For the claims
that the emperors Basil I, Constantine VII, and Nicephorus Phocas were descendants of
Constantine, see Brubaker (1994) and Markopoulos (1994).
55
priest Arius at the council of Nicaea, Eusebius was remembered as

the most outspoken advocate of Arius impiety. Eusebius theology
threatened to undermine his history.34
One reaction was editing for religious correctness. In his translation
of Eusebius History Rufinus revised or omitted passages that were
theologically suspect. As a result, in the Latin West Eusebius History
was known mostly through the sanitized version of Rufinus.35
Another reaction, especially in the Greek East, was uncertainty and
extreme caution. In one manuscript of Eusebius History a copyist
added a note of warning. Reader, watch out lest you are seduced
by the heretical outlook of this author. Although this present book
is especially useful regarding history, . . . he is an Arian and he reveals
his thinking in disguise. Germanus, bishop of Constantinople in the
early eighth century, was unsure where to store Eusebius books in the
patriarchal library. Even as he admired Eusebius historical narrative for
its recollection of ancient affairs, he was uneasy about his doctrines.
Because of these opinions expressed by him [Eusebius], even the staff
in our library never shelve his books with the works of the orthodox
writers; instead they put them separately in their own crate next to
the stack of those among the most prominent of the heretical books.
As a result, Photius, bishop of Constantinople during the later ninth
century, worried that heterodox doctrines had tainted Eusebius Life of
Constantine: the narrative is neither accurate nor clear.36
These later readers had concluded that Eusebius History and Life
offered valuable history but suspect theology. The most important
sources for the reign of Constantine seemed to be radioactive.
34
35
36
Mistaken: Evagrius, HE 1 praef. Advocate: Jerome, Ep. 84.2.

For discussion of Rufinus Nicene translation, see Van Dam (2007) 32934, and Humphries
(2008b).
Marginal note: ed. Schwartz and Mommsen (19031909) 1:4. Recollection, library: Germanus of Constantinople, De haeresibus et synodis 14 (PG 98.52d53a), with Lemerle (1971)
96n.81, discussing the patriarchal library, and Winkelmann (1991) xxviii: rechnete die VC
mehr zu den Schriften, die die falschen theologischen Ansichten des Euseb enthalten.
Narrative: Photius, Bibliotheca 127, with Amerise (2008), distinguishing Photius praise of
Constantine from his criticism of Eusebius.
CONSTANTINES
MEMORIES
CHAPTER FOUR
iii
usebius account of constantines vision and dream

before the battle at Rome in his Life of Constantine has become
powerfully influential among modern historians. This is an
odd outcome. Eusebius was still revising Life when he died
probably in May 339, more than twenty-five years after the battle. He
was the bishop at Caesarea in Palestine and hence knew little about
events at distant Rome. He clearly used his biography of the emperor
to promote a theological and political agenda about the nature of
Christian emperorship. Late, far away, sectarian, partisan: Eusebius
account should have struggled to become so significant.
The redeeming factor of his account of the vision and the dream was
the declaration that he had heard it directly from Constantine himself.
Eusebius claimed to be recording the memories of an eyewitness. But
this assertion in turn raises another set of issues about the dating of
Constantines recollections, the reliability of Eusebius reporting, and
the accuracy of his interpretations. Constantine recalled his memories
for Eusebius and other bishops for specific reasons at a specific moment
long after the battle; Eusebius subsequently recorded the emperors
stories for different reasons at a different moment after the emperors
56
constantines memories
57
death. The account of the emperors vision and dream in Life hence
represented three distinct layers of particular circumstances: Eusebius
remembrance of Constantines memories of events from long ago.
Eusebius and Constantine

Eusebius of Caesarea first met Constantine at the council of Nicaea,
which the emperor convened during June and July 325. Subsequently
he noted that he had in fact once glimpsed Constantine decades earlier
as Diocletian and the imperial entourage passed through Palestine on
their way to Egypt during the winter of 301302. Back then Constantine
had been a junior military officer serving at the court of an emperor
who was soon to initiate persecutions against the Christians. In 305
Constantine had joined his father, Constantius, in northern Gaul.
Thereafter his primary concern had been military campaigns along the
northern frontiers, first in Britain with his father, then, after he had
become an emperor himself in July 306, along the Rhine. Constantine
had also fought against two rival emperors, Maxentius in Italy and
Licinius in the Balkans and northern Asia Minor. During the first two
decades of his reign Constantine had been, above all, a soldier and a
military commander in the West.1
After his final victory over Licinius in September 324, Constantine
had reunified the empire under his sole rule. Soon afterward he sent
letters to the provincials in the eastern regions that were then under
his rule. In a general letter to the people in the East he described
himself as a servant of God and claimed that his military success had
been a direct outcome of his humility. Although other emperors who
had failed to acknowledge the power of the great God had suffered
defeats, the divinity had approved Constantine himself as the agent
of their overthrow. With that endorsement the emperor had marched
from the ocean next to the British people all the way to the regions
in the East to enhance the most blessed faith. In another letter to
the eastern provincials he explained that although previous emperors,
that is, his rivals, had been very harsh as persecutors, he had instead
1
Eusebius, Vita Constantini 1.19.1, earlier sighting.
58
championed the greatest God. Everywhere I displayed your seal as I

led a victorious army.2
In these letters Constantine represented himself as a patron of
Christianity and a successful military commander. But with regard
to both concerns, his religious beliefs and his wars, he did not mention
any specific battles or particular turning points. Instead, he recalled
his preference for Christianity and his previous military campaigns in
a longer, unbroken trajectory of predictable success. Even though he
looked back as far as his campaigns in Britain, he did not note any
particular episode of discontinuity. In fact, because in one letter he
went back even earlier by recounting a story he had heard when he
was still a boy at Diocletians court, he seemed to want to lengthen
even farther the uninterrupted arc of his life and the continuity of his
religious beliefs. Despite the interlude of almost twenty years in western
provinces, from his last service in the East under Diocletian until his
return in 324, there had been no moment of disjunction or of a sudden
conversion.3
Constantine also introduced himself to the bishops in the East in
a circular letter that instructed them to attend to the repairs of their
churches or the construction of new churches. The bishops now had the
emperors permission to request supplies from the provincial governors
or the department of the prefect. One of the bishops who received
a copy of the letter was Eusebius of Caesarea. Eusebius was ecstatic,
and when he included a copy of the letter in his Life of Constantine,
he carefully noted that it had been the first letter addressed to me by
name. Almost fifteen years later Eusebius seemed to want to leave the
impression that already in late 324 he had been known personally to
the emperor.4
If indeed Constantine had already heard of Eusebius, it would most
likely have been in the context of disputes over theology. When Eusebius
2
3
4
Eusebius, Vita Constantini 2.24.2, great God, 28.1, divinity, 28.2, British people, faith, 29.1,
East, 29.3, servant of God, 49.1, very harsh, 55.1, God, army.
Eusebius, Vita Constantini 2.51.1, still a boy.
Eusebius, Vita Constantini 2.45.2, first letter.
59
received the emperors letter, he was preparing to defend his doctrines

yet again. During the winter of 324325, or perhaps in the spring,
Constantine traveled across Asia Minor twice, to and from Antioch.
During his visit he may have attended a council at Antioch in early
spring of 325. Eusebius was certainly present. This council formulated
a doctrinal creed that opposed the teachings of Arius, a priest from
Egypt. All but three of the bishops in attendance accepted the creed.
Eusebius was one of the dissenters.5
The council of Nicaea was Eusebius next opportunity to defend
himself and his doctrines, and he arrived prepared to make his case.
First he presented his own creed to the members of the council, and
then he solicited the emperors support. According to his own account,
the council did not object, and Constantine was enthusiastic: he was
the first to admit that this creed included the most correct statements.
Nor did the emperor stop with an endorsement. He confessed that he
thought the same, and he urged everyone there to agree and subscribe
to these doctrines. Although Constantine did suggest that homoousios,
of the same essence, should be included as the appropriate adjective
to characterize Jesus Christ in his relationship with God the Father,
Eusebius could now argue that this vital term was a logical extension
of his own theology. After discussing these issues in the presence of
the emperor himself, who was most beloved of God, everyone agreed
with the new terminology, including Eusebius. Through the emperors
intervention he too could now accept the Nicene creed. Constantine
first met Eusebius in the process of embracing him in the fold of Nicene
orthodoxy.6
After the council of Nicaea, Constantine and Eusebius met again
occasionally. Consistently it was the bishop who went to the emperor.
Eusebius was among the bishops who attended the banquet, most likely
5
6
Council of Antioch: Urkunde 18. For the uncertainty about the dating of Constantines trip,
see Van Dam (2007) 150n.1.
Eusebius letter to his congregation at Caesarea: Urkunde 22.7, the first, homoousios, 14,
presence, quoted in Athanasius, De decretis Nicaenae synodi 33.7, 14, and Socrates, HE 1.8.41,
52.

at Nicomedia, that the emperor hosted immediately after the council to
celebrate the beginning of the twentieth year of his reign in July 325. He
probably attended a council that Constantine convened at Nicomedia
in December 327 to decide on the readmission of the heterodox priest
Arius and some of his supporters. In late 335 he was one of the envoys
sent to the court by the bishops who had been meeting in a council
at Tyre. At Constantinople he and the other bishops in the delegation
accused their detested rival Athanasius, bishop of Alexandria, of meddling with the grain supply from Egypt. In November Constantine
sent Athanasius into exile in Gaul. Eusebius, however, was honored to
deliver a panegyric about the Church of the Holy Sepulcher, which had
only recently been dedicated in Jerusalem. He delivered his oration in
the palace at Constantinople before a large crowd. The emperor stood
with the other listeners, and repeatedly declined Eusebius suggestions
that he sit and rest on the imperial throne: it is pious to listen to divine
matters while standing. Instead, he offered a careful critique of Eusebius argument and asserted the truth of his theological doctrines.
After this oration Eusebius noted that I went home and resumed my
customary activities. In the next year he was back in the eastern capital
to attend another council convened by Constantine. After this council
he stayed to help celebrate the thirtieth anniversary of the emperors
reign in July by delivering another panegyric in the palace, and he
attended another banquet hosted by the emperor. He may also have
remained in Constantinople into the spring of 337 to collect information for the biography of the emperor that he was already planning
to write. During these visits to the capital Eusebius either witnessed
or heard about aspects of the emperors personal piety, including his
regimen of intense prayers in the palace.7
Eusebius also received more letters from Constantine. In one sent
during the later 320s the emperor mentioned his intention to construct
7
Participation in embassy of 335: Athanasius, Apologia contra Arianos 87.1. Eusebius, Vita
Constantini 4.22.1, prayers, 33, oration at Constantinople on Church of the Holy Sepulcher,
46, banquet in 336. For the possibility that Eusebius remained in Constantinople until the
spring of 337, see Drake (1988).
61
a new church commemorating the appearance of the Savior and

two angels to the patriarch Abraham at the site of Mamre, south
of Jerusalem. Eusebius implied that the emperor had sent this letter
directly to him alone: he sent these reasonable instructions to me, the
writer of this history. In fact, Constantine had addressed the letter to
Macarius and the other bishops of Palestine. In this case Eusebius was
downplaying a slight. Even though he was the metropolitan bishop of
the province, he was being overshadowed by Macarius, a subordinate
bishop whose prestige was increasing along with the growing reputation
of his see of Jerusalem. At about the same time Eusebius sent a letter
to Constantine declining an invitation to become bishop of Antioch.
Constantine replied in a letter flattering Eusebius for his respect for the
traditions of church order. Later in his reign the emperor wrote once
to thank Eusebius for a copy of his treatise about Easter, and again to
request him to have his scribes prepare fifty copies of the Bible for the
churches in the capital. Despite Eusebius occasional hints at an intimate friendship, this was a strictly professional relationship between
the emperor and a provincial bishop, limited to infrequent meetings
and intermittent letters.8
Constantines Stories
At the council of Nicaea and during subsequent years Constantine
began to spend more time talking and corresponding with eastern
churchmen, including Eusebius of Caesarea. He still, of course, continued to lead military campaigns in the Balkans and even again on
the Rhine frontier, and at the end of his life he was planning a major
campaign against the Persian empire. But with churchmen he discussed
primarily ecclesiastical and, sometimes, civil affairs, as well as theology.
The anniversary banquet of 325 had become the model for balancing military and ecclesiastical concerns. At that banquet soldiers and
bodyguards, with the blades of their swords drawn, had ringed the
8
Eusebius, Vita Constantini 3.51.2, instructions, 52, letter to Macarius, 61, Constantines letter about Antioch, mentioning that I have read with much pleasure the letter that your
intelligence has composed, 4.35, letter about treatise, 36, letter about Bibles.

entrances to the imperial palace. But the bishops, the men of God,
had proceeded inside, where they had reclined on couches with the
emperor. Likewise in the empire, having now eliminated his rivals,
Constantine could restrict his military campaigns to the outer frontiers
and chat about religious concerns with civilian bishops in the inner
provinces.9
Yet military affairs nevertheless came up in his conversations with
bishops. In his oration delivered in 335 Eusebius even encouraged the
emperor to tell us about the conspicuous assistance in battles from
God, your champion and protector, and about the destruction of enemies and traitors. At some point Constantine did describe his military
campaigns, including his victories over both Maxentius and Licinius,
for Eusebius and other bishops. The earliest Eusebius could have heard
the emperors memories was in 325, most likely not during the council
of Nicaea, when he and the other participants were arguing over theology, but perhaps during a more informal conversation at the subsequent
anniversary banquet. He and the other bishops might also have listened
to the emperor reminiscing during the mid-330s, perhaps after being
invited by Eusebius to talk about his victory, or perhaps during the celebration of the thirtieth anniversary of his accession at Constantinople
in 336. But whenever in the later years of his reign Constantine became
a raconteur, it was substantially after the original events, and in the case
of the battle of the Milvian Bridge, long after. By then his memories
had expanded to include stories about a vision of a cross in the sky and
a dream of Jesus Christ.10
The catalyst for the emperors stories was, apparently, an opportunity
to explain the circumstances behind the construction of his famous
military standard and its effectiveness in battles. Eusebius noted that
9
10
Eusebius, Vita Constantini 3.15, banquet.

Eusebius, De laudibus Constantini 18.3, assistance. Barnes (1981) 266, suggests the council
of Nicaea as the setting for these stories; Bleckmann (2007) 5556, suggests that Eusebius
heard Constantines account during the celebration of the emperors thirtieth anniversary
at Constantinople in 336: In diesem Fall kann der Visionsbericht nicht als intimer Bericht
u ber eine personliche Bekehrung gelten, sondern es handelt sich um die offizielle Version
der spatkonstantinischen Zeit.
63
he himself had seen the military standard: the emperor himself once
allowed me to observe this standard with my own eyes. The standard
resembled a vexillum, a conventional military standard consisting of a
flag or a banner hanging from a crossbar attached to an upright shaft
(or spear). The novelty of Constantines standard, however, was the
addition of a Christian emblem. According to Eusebius description, the
new standard had been designed in the shape of a cross that supported
a decorated tapestry banner, displayed a portrait of the emperor and his
family, and was topped with a bejeweled wreath encircling a chi and a
rho, the initial Greek letters of Christ. Eusebius hence interpreted the
entire military standard as a Christian symbol.11
The version of the military standard that Eusebius observed and
described was certainly not one constructed in 312. The inclusion of
Greek letters would seem out of place for a military standard designed
by a Latin-speaking emperor in the western provinces. In addition,
Eusebius mentioned that the imperial icon on the standard depicted
Constantine and his sons; but Constantines second son, Constantine
II, was not born until 316 and not proclaimed a Caesar until 317. Even
though in Life he inserted his depiction of the military standard in the
middle of an account of the invasion and battle in 312, Eusebius was
obviously describing a later version that he had seen only sometime after
Constantine began spending more time in the East. But perhaps he and
the other bishops had been curious about the symbols on the standard
and their meanings, and one of them had asked for an explanation. As
is common in the transmission of oral traditions, an object served as a
cue for the background story. The military standard was a memento,
a relic of an earlier moment: storytelling is a little like fingering a
11
Eusebius, Vita Constantini 1.30, own eyes. Although Eusebius himself did not call Constantines military standard a labarum, subsequently an editor or copyist added an explanation
in the heading to Vita Constantini 1.31: a description of the symbol in the shape of a
cross, which the Romans now call a labarum. For the vexillum, see Bruun (1966) 56, The
vexillum as an emblem of power is no doubt a Constantinian innovation. Note that the
labarum, a vexillum with Christian symbols, apparently did not appear on coins until after
Constantines reign: see Bruun (1966) 6264, with Singor (2003), summarizing scholarly
speculation about the labarum.

holy medal that is both a symbol and a source of power. And the
emperor was presumably happy to oblige the request. Eusebius noted
that Constantine supplemented this viewing of the military standard
with stories about its origins and effectiveness: a long time afterward
the victorious emperor himself narrated [this story] to me, the author
of this account, when I was honored with his acquaintance and his
conversations. Constantines memories about his battles were now
included in his polite conversation with bishops.12
Constantines recollections about the military standard covered two
imperial rivals and several separate episodes. One set of stories was
associated with the prelude to the victory over Maxentius in 312. One
episode described the famous vision of the cross in the sky before the
battle at Rome, and another the emperors subsequent dream of Christ,
who had urged him to make a copy of the sign that he had seen in the
sky and use it against enemy attacks. This set of stories most likely also
included the emperors consultation with the churchmen who explained
their theology of God and the meaning of the symbol. A second set
of stories focused on the victory over Licinius in 324. This battle too
had been preceded by a vision, this time among Licinius soldiers, who
seemed to see units loyal to Constantine marching through cities, as if
they were already victorious: through a divine and higher power this
obvious vision prophesied what the future would be. Another episode
described the success of Constantines soldiers in repelling successive
attacks, with the trophy of salvation leading the way. Eusebius stated
that he had heard this story too directly from Constantine: the emperor
himself narrated these events to me, the author of this account, at a
time of relaxation long after the events. Yet another episode described
the miraculous protection offered by the military standard to nearby
soldiers. Once more Constantine was the source. This story is not
12
Eusebius, Vita Constantini 1.28.1, long time, 31.2, sons. Quotation about storytelling from
Slater (1986) 74. While describing the Greek letters on this military standard, Eusebius
clearly contrasted past and present by claiming that in times after these events the emperor
was accustomed to display these letters on his helmet: Eusebius, Vita Constantini 1.30.1.
65
mine, but again belongs to the emperor himself, who recalled it for my
ears in the presence of companions.13
Constantine supplemented the stories about battles with additional
stories about his army. He had taught his soldiers to observe the day
of salvation, that is, Sunday. In another edict he had instructed them
to recite a prayer to the Emperor in heaven as their giver of victory,
savior, protector, and helper. Because the prayer had been in Latin,
Eusebius provided a Greek translation. Constantine furthermore had
had his soldiers depict the symbol of the trophy of salvation on their
shields, and he directed their processions to follow only the trophy of
salvation. Because the trophy was presumably the cross that had been
incorporated in the military standard, these stories about the military
prayer and the military symbols were perhaps also episodes in the larger
collection of memories about the military standard.14
Constantine told his stories to Eusebius and the other bishops to
explain the origin of his military standard and its subsequent success in
defeating his two most important imperial rivals. Two aspects are important to note. First, the episodes all seem to have been part of a single
extended recollection, an anthology of collected memories. Although
Constantine claimed that he had first used this military standard at
the battle against Maxentius, it had also proved its effectiveness in the
battle against Licinius. Constantines continuous sequence of episodes
highlighted the value of the standard in all of his campaigns, and he did
not prioritize one or the other victory. Second, his primary concern in
those campaigns had been the loyalty and confidence of his soldiers. In
his story of the vision in the sky Constantine insisted that the trophy
13
14
Eusebius, Vita Constantini 1.29, sign, 2.6.2, trophy, 8.2, relaxation, 9.3, not mine. Bleckmann
(2007) 57, also distinguishes separate episodes by suggesting that the spectacle in the sky was
das alteste und ursprungliche Element der komplexen Visionserzahlung. If Constantine
himself designed the military standard, then the omission of an image of Jesus Christ might
reflect his preference: see Grigg (1977), suggesting that the emperor wanted to preserve the
traditional aniconic worship of the Christian Church (p. 32).
Eusebius, Vita Constantini 4.18.3, day of salvation, 19.1, second edict, 20.1, prayer, 21,
shields.

of the cross had appeared after midday, above the sun and formed
from light, and that it had been accompanied by a slogan, conquer by
this. One guarantee of this story came from Constantine himself: he
said that he saw it with his own eyes. An additional warranty for the
details of this vision came from his soldiers. Amazement at this spectacle overwhelmed both him and his entire army, which . . . observed
this marvel. Whatever reassurance the emperor had received from this
vision had been shared by his troops.15
Constantine hence told these stories to bishops to explain the subsequent deployment of religious symbols on his military standard. But as
he remembered the use of the cross in the military standard, his stories
were primarily about the loyalty of his soldiers and their success in
battles, not about his own religious beliefs and the role of churchmen.
In his memories Constantine did not highlight specifically the victory
over Maxentius, but he did emphasize the military aspects of the cross,
first in the vision that he had shared with his soldiers and subsequently
as a military standard.
Eusebius Memories
Constantine obviously liked to talk, and he often summoned his
courtiers to hear his philosophy. During a visit to Constantinople,
Eusebius presumably watched and listened to one of the emperors performances. According to his description, Constantine wrote his own
discourses without the assistance of speechwriters and delivered them in
Latin. Interpreters then translated them into Greek on the spot. In his
discourses he sometimes talked about moral behavior by denouncing
theft and greed, and sometimes about religion by condemning pagan
cults and encouraging worship of the God who rules alone. Whenever
15
Eusebius, Vita Constantini 1.28.2, trophy, entire army. Note that later images may have
shaped the details of these stories. In the imperial palace at Constantinople the ceiling of one
room was decorated with an ornate cross: see Eusebius, Vita Constantini 3.49: the symbol
of the Saviors suffering was attached to the middle of a large open panel, made from many
valuable gems and set in thick gold. Perhaps the splendor of this dazzling cross influenced
Constantines memory of his vision or Eusebius recollection of the emperors story about
his vision.
67
he talked about God, he stood up straight, with a serious face and a low
voice. If his audience murmured in approval, he indicated that they
should not applaud him but instead look up to heaven and worship
only the Emperor over all. All he would claim for himself was that
the God over all had presented him with an empire over everything
on earth. Constantine must have truly enjoyed talking about himself
as Gods impresario.16
Perhaps the emperor shared his memories about his military standard
in the same way, talking earnestly to a captive audience of churchmen
about his divine entitlement. He also insisted on the accuracy of his
memories: Constantine confirmed this story with oaths. Eusebius had
no reason to doubt Constantines account of the origin and effectiveness
of the military standard, especially because it seemed to corroborate his
own impressions about the overall direction of the emperors reign. But
after hearing the emperors stories, he nevertheless shaped them for his
own purposes in his Life of Constantine.17
As an ecclesiastical historian Eusebius was an innovator and a pioneer in terms of coverage, research techniques, and the citation of
sources. In the late third century there were still few precedents for
writing a continuous narrative of early Christianity from the life of
Jesus to his own time. Eusebius himself thought that he was setting
off as an explorer on an unknown trail, completely undisturbed even
by the bare footprints of earlier travelers. Most of that exploration
consisted of sitting in his library at Caesarea in Palestine and studying
the many books that first his mentor Pamphilus and then he himself
had collected. After he had completed his research and excerpted information from the books, he had to decide how to present his findings.
Although earlier historians had of course relied on sources, both written and oral, they had conventionally not quoted documents and cited
informants, or even acknowledged their dependence on earlier texts.
In contrast, Eusebius quoted verbatim extracts from documents, some
16
17
Eusebius, Vita Constantini 4.29.1, speechwriters, 2, stood up, look up, 3, ruled alone, 4, God
over all, 32, Latin.
Eusebius, Vita Constantini 1.28.1, oaths.

quite lengthy. In Ecclesiastical History he quoted letters and edicts issued
by the Tetrarchic emperors and their heirs, including Constantine from
the early years of his reign. In Life of Constantine he would continue
this practice by quoting more of Constantines letters from the later
years of his reign. Eusebius treatises, whether theological, apologetic,
or historical, were literary mosaics, collages of excerpts and quotations.18
During the early twentieth century the authenticity of the documents quoted in Life was challenged. Then a few lines from a letter
of Constantine sent in 324 were identified on an almost-contemporary
papyrus from Egypt that predated the publication of Life. The existence of this independent copy of Constantines letter implied that the
other documents that Eusebius cited were also genuine. Scholars could
then shift their concern to the problems posed by the commentaries in
which Eusebius had embedded the documents. Because his commentaries did not always correspond to the contents of these documents,
his interpretive readings were sometimes suspect, if not outright misleading. One example is Constantines letter to the provincials in the
East, sent in the autumn of 324. Although the emperor indicated his
preference for Christianity in this letter, he also extended toleration
to supporters of pagan cults. Those who persist in their errors are to
receive a similar gift of peace and tranquility as the believers. In contrast, Eusebius commentary on this letter was more absolute, claiming
that the emperor was trying to block his subjects from demonic error
while urging them to pursue the true worship of God. The policy of
religious toleration in Constantines letter had become a firm mandate
against pagan cults in Eusebius commentary.19
18
19
Eusebius, HE 1.1.3, footprints. On the innovation of Eusebius historiography, see

Momigliano (1963) 91, a new type of historical exposition which was characterized . . . by
the lavish use of documents. For an excellent discussion of Eusebius literary techniques,
see Grafton and Williams (2006) 200215: one long adventure in systematic quotation
(p. 202).
Papyrus fragment: ed. Jones (1954), a contemporary copy of the Letter of a.d. 324 (p. 200);
cited in Eusebius, Vita Constantini 2.26.129.1; and beautifully illustrated in Hartley et al.
(2006) 97, figure 39. Eusebius, Vita Constantini 2.56.1, persist, 61.1, subjects, with Cameron
69
Eusebius seems to have followed some of the same techniques of

excerpting episodes and quotations and enveloping them in personal
interpretations when citing Constantines memories in Life. He first
divided the emperors account into discrete episodes that he clustered
around the battle against Maxentius and a battle twelve years later
against Licinius. Constantine had apparently narrated a continuous
recollection about the origin and value of the military standard; Eusebius instead linked specific episodes with particular battles. Eusebius
furthermore surrounded the episodes with additional contextual information that he had derived from various sources. One source for his
supplementary commentary was biblical models. Another was probably
the extra knowledge of the early years of Constantines life and reign
that he had picked up from stray conversations. Yet another source was
himself, as he repeated or recast material from an earlier account in
his own Ecclesiastical History. In Life Eusebius recorded the emperors
oral memories, but he also divided them into episodic fragments and
embedded them in his own distinctive commentary.
In Life Eusebius located the battle against Maxentius within an
extended narrative that stretched from Constantines service as a young
man at imperial courts to his victory over Licinius in 324. He constructed the backstory of the battle in terms of two important role
models, the emperors father and an Old Testament lawgiver. Eusebius
included a few stories about the reign of Constantius as a prelude to
the emergence of his son as an emperor. Of the four original Tetrarchic emperors, only Constantius had refrained from participating in
the persecution of Christians. Instead, he was thought to have stood
up to Diocletian, the emperor who at the time held the top rank in
the empire, by demonstrating that he could accumulate a financial
surplus without acting harshly, and by retaining the Christians who
were serving at his palace while dismissing those court attendants who
decided to perform pagan sacrifices. From this perspective Constantius
and Hall (1999) 18, in several cases it is clear that Eusebius is using a document which does
not precisely fit the interpretation which he puts on it.

had differed from his fellow emperors because of his kindness and
goodness.20
Eusebius noted that he had selected these particular examples about
Constantius from the extensive oral tradition in circulation about this
emperor. Because Constantius had reigned as emperor in Gaul and
Britain and had never even traveled farther east than his native province
of Dacia in the Balkans, Eusebius certainly had no firsthand experiences
of his rule. Instead, he had deduced Constantius piety from the succession of his son. According to this reverse logic, because Constantius had
transformed his court into a church of God through his celebration
of the liturgy, God arranged for his oldest son to inherit his imperial
rule. Even though Eusebius presented this moment of succession as
unproblematic, others would subsequently wonder why Constantius
other sons had not also become emperors. According to Eusebius, the
father of Constantine is remembered in this way. But it is not obvious
whether these memories were the claims of Constantine, defending
his succession by primogeniture at the expense of his brothers, or the
presumptions of Eusebius, as he constructed a pedigree of Christian
piety for the emperor.21
The other model that Eusebius highlighted for Constantines early
career was Moses. Just as Moses had grown up among the tyrants
who oppressed the Hebrew people, so Constantine had grown up
among the tyrants who persecuted the church. Eventually he fled
the plots at the court of Galerius, preserving his imitation of the
great prophet Moses. Eusebius then foreshortened the chronology to
have Constantine show up at Constantius deathbed just in time to
receive his fathers blessing and inherit his fathers purple cloak. He
further condensed the chronology by having the new emperor almost
immediately begin to contemplate liberating Rome from slavery to a
20
21
Eusebius, Vita Constantini 1.13.1, four emperors, 14.1, kindness, goodness, top rank, 16.1,
sacrifices, with M. D. Smith (1997), (2000), arguing that Constantius had in fact been a
traditional pagan who worshipped Jupiter and Hercules.
Eusebius, Vita Constantini 1.14.1, oral tradition, 17.1, father, 17.3, church of God, 18.2, oldest
son. For Constantines brothers, see Van Dam (2007) 1089; Hall (1993) 244, suggests that
Constantine himself was a source for this oral tradition.
71
tyrant. The year between Constantines arrival and his fathers death
and the six years between his acclamation in 306 and the battle at Rome
simply vanished from Eusebius narrative.22
In addition, at that point in his narrative the model of Moses intersected with the model of Constantius. According to Eusebius, while
Constantine looked for a god as his helper in this campaign against
Maxentius in Italy, he decided to honor only his fathers god. As
confirmation of this choice he received his vision of the cross. When
Moses had been unsure about his calling, he had heard Gods voice in
a burning bush; Constantine saw his destiny in the sky. According to
Eusebius, the emperor decided to honor with all rituals the god who
had appeared. By adding this additional commentary about Constantius and Moses, Eusebius had transformed the emperors memory about
the inspiration for and the construction of a military standard into a
story about personal religious conversion. He had also turned it into a
story about conversion to the Christian God. Constantines fathers god
had become his own God, and like Moses, Constantine had received his
reassurance directly from God. Now he would set out with confidence
to extinguish the threat of the tyrants fire.23
Eusebius then highlighted the misbehavior of Maxentius at Rome.
His alleged evil deeds included adultery, murder, confiscation, magic,
and a deliberate food shortage such that the people of our time do not
remember ever happening at Rome at any other time. In this account
Eusebius was repeating his earlier description of Maxentius actions
at Rome in History. But in the context of a more extended analogy
between Constantine and Moses, he now seemed to be suggesting
22
23
Eusebius, Vita Constantini 1.12.1, Moses, 12.2, Constantine and tyrants, 20.2, great prophet,
22.1, purple cloak, 26.1, slavery. For Eusebius use of Moses as a model for Constantine, see
Wilson (1998), Rapp (2005) 12931, and Williams (2008) 3642, stressing his biblicising
outlook (p. 23).
Eusebius, Vita Constantini 1.27.1, helper, 27.3, fathers god, 32.3, rituals, 32.3, fire; with
Cameron and Hall (1999) 31: Just as Moses was granted the sign of the burning bush, so
Constantine receives his vision, and Price (2005) 45, on Eusebius account of Constantines
vision: Eusebius additions conflict with the emperors own story. . . . [T]he connection of
the vision to Constantines conversion is Eusebius own invention.

that Maxentius misbehavior was the equivalent of a series of plagues
at Rome. Constantines subsequent victory was hence comparable to
Moses destruction of the pharaoh and his chariots at the Red Sea. In
his account of this battle Eusebius quoted and paraphrased extensively
from his earlier account in History that had already employed that
comparison, but with a few additional comments. In History Eusebius
had noted that Constantine, when attacking Rome, had relied on the
assistance of God in heaven and his Word, the Savior of all, Jesus
Christ himself. In Life, however, Eusebius claimed that the emperor, in
addition to invoking the God over all and Christ, Savior and Helper,
had trusted his trophy of victory, the sign of salvation. Without
missing a beat, Eusebius had simply blended Constantines stories about
the military standard into both his earlier account of the battle outside
Rome and his extended analogy between the emperor and Moses. In
his earlier account in History Eusebius had also claimed that soon after
entering Rome Constantine had ordered the construction of a statue
of himself holding a cross. Eusebius may well have misinterpreted his
sources description of this statue. But in Life he nevertheless repeated
his earlier version, this time with the added warranty that Constantine
had owed his victory in part to a military standard in the shape of
a cross. Constantines later memories had seemingly validated both
Eusebius earlier analogy with Moses and his earlier interpretation of
the emperors actions.24
After his victory over Maxentius, Constantine formed an alliance
with Licinius, who married one of his half sisters. In the East Licinius
soon defeated his rival Maximinus; but within a few years he and
Constantine were themselves rivals. In his account of the wars between
these two emperors in Life, Eusebius no longer mentioned Constantius
or Moses. Instead, his narrative of this new civil war followed the
structure of his previous narrative of the war between Constantine
and Maxentius, with the hint that Licinius might be another pharaoh.
24
Eusebius, Vita Constantini 1.36.2, people of our time, 37.1, trophy, 38.2, Moses and Red
Sea, 40.2, statue; HE 9.9.2, God and Jesus Christ, 1011, statue, with Grant (1980) 39, on
Eusebius self-plagiarization, and Hall (1993) 249, on the changes from History to Life:
drawing truth from the Scripture rather than from further information. For additional
discussion of Eusebius account in History and the statue at Rome, see Chapters 5, 7.
73
Eusebius first denigrated Licinius as a wild beast and a twisted snake

who threatened churches and provincials. His account here in Life
repeated and extended the critical evaluation with which he had earlier
concluded the final edition of his History. According to this account in
Life, Licinius imposed restrictions on bishops and meetings in churches,
he dismissed court officials and army officers who were Christians, and
he finally initiated another persecution of Christians. Unlike Constantine, who had eventually imitated his fathers piety, Licinius failed to
learn a lesson from the miserably painful deaths of previous emperors who had persecuted Christians: he darkened his mind, as if on a
moonless night.25
The confrontation between Constantine and Licinius dragged on for
years and included an inconclusive series of battles in 316317 before
the final battles in 324. In Life Eusebius nevertheless foreshortened the
chronology to make the victory over Licinius follow quickly after the
victory over Maxentius. Constantine prepared for war and put his
hope in his military standard; Licinius supposedly mocked his opponents reliance on this symbol of the suffering of salvation. Instead,
like a pharaoh, he consulted Egyptian seers. He also delivered a speech
in which he framed the coming battle as a direct conflict between the
one God of Constantine and my gods, the ancestral gods. Eusebius
claimed that his sources for information about Licinius speech were
people from the crowd. But by casting Licinius as another pharaoh
and Constantine as a liberator, he was able to provide a larger context
for Constantines stories about the success of his military standard in
the final battle. Licinius army trusted in a multitude of gods, dead
bodies, while Constantines army advanced behind the sign of salvation that brought life. Eusebius had interpreted this battle as a more
comprehensive confrontation between paganism and Christianity.26
In his later account in Life Eusebius had repeatedly manipulated
Constantines memories about the success of the military standard.
25
26
Eusebius, Vita Constantini 1.49.1, wild beast, 59.2, moonless night, 2.1.2, wild beast and
twisted snake.
Eusebius, Vita Constantini 2.4.2, symbol, seers, 5.2, ancestral gods, 5.3, my gods, one God,
5.5, listeners in crowd, 16.2, multitude, sign.

The victory over Maxentius in 312 became an account of the emperors
personal religious conversion, while the victory over Licinius in 324
became an account of the triumph of Christianity in a reunified empire.
In Eusebius earlier narrative in Ecclesiastical History the victory over
Licinius had been the conclusion of Constantines singular rise as a
Christian emperor. In Life, however, each victory became a transitional
moment in longer historical arcs, one of Constantines own religious
growth, the other of the expansion of Christianity in the empire.
As he concluded this extended account of civil wars, Eusebius seemed
to concede that his narrative included a bit of misdirection. By then
people were celebrating the forgetting of ancient evils and the oblivion
of every impiety. To remind them of what they had forgotten, however,
Eusebius had composed this narrative that integrated and contextualized Constantines memories. But because he had refashioned those
memories within his own particular interpretive viewpoint, the original intent of Constantines stories was forgotten. Forgetting is an
active agent in the formation of memories. Eusebius narrative hence
served two purposes, to remind provincials of the horrors they were now
glad to overlook, and to modify the original purpose of Constantines
memories by embedding them in his own commentary. Because of the
demands of his own interpretive perspective, Eusebius misrepresented
the very memories that he was claiming to remember.27
Theology Becomes History

Both Constantines memories and Eusebius commentary in Life
were retrospective interpretations of the emperors early battles.
27
Eusebius, Vita Constantini 1.19.3, forgetting; quotation about forgetting from Whitehead
(2009) 121. Deliberate forgetting is to be distinguished from amnesia: see Flower (2006), discussing the erasure of dedications, the disfigurement of statues of delinquent emperors, and
the imposition of sanctions against disgraced aristocrats in the late Republic and early empire.
To be effective, such condemnation required both lingering memories of the dishonor and
constant reminders. As a result, forgetting could readily again become remembrance. For
a stimulating discussion of the rehabilitation of the memory of a Roman senator in the
early fifth century, see Hedrick (2000) 114, on the paradox of forgetting: the continuance
of memory is essential to the success of the repression.
75
Constantines goal in his stories had been to explain the construction

of the military standard and its use; Eusebius reinterpreted those stories
as accounts of a personal religious conversion before the battle against
Maxentius and of the ultimate victory of Christianity over paganism
after the battle against Licinius. Eusebius was obviously thinking not
only about Constantine and his early career but also with Constantine
as a symbolic medium to articulate his own ideas about spiritual development and the place of Christianity in society. He preferred to narrate
Constantines early career in terms of charged moments and precise
turning points rather than as an untidy process of featureless actions.
As he looked back on the later years of the emperors reign, Eusebius
likewise continued to think both about Constantine the Christian
emperor and with Constantine as a paradigmatic Christian emperor. In
particular, he manipulated his representation of the emperor to advance
his own theology and to diminish the role of the army in the making of
a Christian emperor. As his own concerns had developed over the years,
so had his constructions of Constantine. Eusebius used Constantine,
including the emperors memories, to promote his own personal and
theological interests.
Eusebius was not alone in already using images of Constantine as
a symbolic idiom. Constantine himself often seemed to be thinking
about his own concerns by constructing images of himself. One of those
new concerns was his relationship with bishops and other churchmen.
Perhaps he could define that relationship in a particular way by telling
the history of his reign in a complementary way. The episodic memories
that he recalled about his military standard, for instance, might also
serve the purpose of promoting his standing among the bishops with
whom he was spending increasingly more time.
Within a year of his victory over Licinius, the emperor convened the
bishops who attended the council of Nicaea. Constantine had summoned the bishops with respectful letters. Once they assembled, he
delivered an opening oration, participated in the debates, and encouraged them to find agreement. The oddity, however, is that although the
bishops were consecrated ministers of God, Constantine was still only
a layman who had not yet even been baptized. Like great senators and

local notables, bishops too had a keen sense of rank and status. Some
would subsequently be upset by being described as followers of the
theology taught by Arius, a mere priest; they would be even more sensitive about taking theological direction from a layman. Constantines
story about his dream of Jesus Christ was hence most useful in helping
establish his spiritual authority. In that dream Christ had encouraged
the emperor to construct a military standard modeled on the cross that
he had seen in the sky. At the same time, the dream confirmed that
Constantine had enjoyed a direct access to Christ that was not available even to bishops. As a result, the emperor could joke that he too
was an episkopos, a bishop or overseer, appointed by God to look
after everyone outside the church. Eusebius heard this quip with my
own ears while the emperor was entertaining bishops at a banquet.
This pun would have fit nicely with Constantines memories about the
origin of the military standard. His dream of Christ had both assisted
his success as a military commander and confirmed his credentials as a
bishop.28
Eusebius seems to have agreed with Constantines elevated assessment
of his spiritual standing. After the victory over Maxentius at Rome he
claimed that Constantine would convene councils of bishops like
some common bishop appointed by God. These flattering remarks
have made Eusebius vulnerable to complaints from modern scholars
that his Life was simply a tendentious apology that offered a political
theory of a Christian emperor who ruled in the image of God. In fact,
Eusebius was more concerned about offering a rationale for his own
theology. Nicene Christianity, as defined in the creed issued by the
council of Nicaea, had highlighted the sameness and the coordination
between Father and Son, whereas Arian theology insisted that Jesus
Christ the Son was fundamentally subordinate and inferior to God
28
Eusebius, Vita Constantini 1.29, dream, 3.6.1, letters, 12.15, oration, 12.5, ministers, 13.2,
agreement, 4.24, bishop. For Constantines familiarity with jokes, note that for thirty years
he was accompanied by a jester, who distracted the emperor from his boredom: see
Ambrosiaster, Quaestiones veteris et novi testamenti 115.75. For the complaints of the bishops
at the council of Antioch in 341 about the teachings of the priest Arius, see Athanasius, De
synodis 22.3.
77
the Father. Despite his momentary endorsement of the Nicene creed,

Eusebius doctrines about the subordination of the Son to the Father
were similar to Arius teachings.29
At some point Eusebius seems to have realized that he could defend
his doctrines in Life by presenting an emperor who would make sense
only in the context of an Arian subordinationist theology that allowed
him to be seen as an analogue of Jesus Christ. In true postmodern
fashion, Eusebius subverted the conventional literary genres of biography and panegyric for an entirely different purpose. Both biography
and panegyric could become theology. In real life the emperor had
generously patronized Eusebius; in Life the emperor would become the
embodiment of Eusebius distinctive theology. The more closely Constantine resembled Jesus Christ, the more Jesus seemed to be clearly
distinct from and subordinate to God the Father.
Eusebius defended his own theology in different ways in the commentary he added to Constantines memories. One instance specifically
focused on the vision and the dream before the battle at Rome. According to the account in Life, Constantine had been so stunned at the
marvelous sight that he decided to worship no other God than the
one he had seen. He then summoned initiates in his [Gods] words,
that is, presumably churchmen, and asked about the identity of this
God and the meaning of the sight he had seen of the sign. According
to Eusebius, the consultants offered an explanation in terms of Jesus
Christ, and in particular his incarnation and crucifixion. They claimed
that the sign was a symbol of immortality and a trophy of victory
over death, which he had earned while living on earth. They also
claimed that the God was the only-begotten Son of the one and only
God.30
In his narrative Eusebius located this doctrinal instruction before
the battle in 312. At that time the theology of the relationship between
God the Father and Jesus Christ his Son was in flux, and there had
certainly been no consensus, or even a standard of nominal consensus,
29
30
Eusebius, Vita Constantini 1.44.2, common bishop.

Eusebius, Vita Constantini 1.32.1, sight, no other God, initiates, meaning, 2, symbol, Son.
78
among eastern churchmen. But by the time Eusebius wrote Life, he had
attended the council at Nicaea in 325 and his own theology had been
criticized severely. After the council at Nicaea, Eusebius had written a
letter to his congregation at Caesarea in which he had tried to explain
the harmony between the Nicene creed and his own subordinationist
theology. Now in Life Eusebius used this summary of Constantines
theological lesson in 312 as an implicit confirmation of his own later
apology for his own doctrines. Both Eusebius own creed and the
Nicene creed had confessed one God the Father, and they had agreed
that Jesus Christ was his only begotten Son. But the point of difference
had been the term homoousios adopted by the Nicene creed, which
emphasized the claim that the Son had been of the same essence as
God the Father. Not surprisingly, in their exposition to the emperor
these consultants in 312 now failed to describe the Son as homoousios.
Their omission seemed to be a tacit confirmation of Eusebius theology.
Because Constantine, according to Eusebius narrative, decided to
accept these inspired teachings, he also appeared, at the moment of
his conversion, to have endorsed Eusebius doctrines. Theology became
history, and Constantines vision could be considered a warranty for
Eusebius theology. Through sleight of hand Eusebius had passed off
his own later theological apology as a catechism lesson for Constantine
in 312.31
Eusebius furthermore promoted his theology by stressing the resemblance between Constantine and Jesus Christ. In his panegyric celebrating the thirtieth anniversary of Constantines reign in 336 Eusebius
argued that the Logos, the Word, who commanded Gods heavenly
army, and the emperor, who led his army against enemies, were each
acting like a prefect of the Great Emperor, that is, of God. This
similarity with a Christian emperor entailed that the Logos was distinguished with second place in his Fathers kingdom. In Life Eusebius
again seemed to enhance Constantines standing. He compared the
emperor to a very loud herald of God and a heavenly angel of God.
31
Eusebius, Vita Constantini 1.32.3, inspired teachings. For Eusebius letter to Caesarea, see
Urkunde 22, quoted in Athanasius, De decretis Nicaenae synodi 33.117, and Socrates, HE
1.8.3554, who himself cited the Nicene creed when quoting Eusebius letter.
79
In his panegyric he had likewise described the Logos as an angel of

great guidance. If both Constantine and Jesus Christ were angels,
messengers of God, then Constantines story of his conversation with
Christ only reinforced their fundamental similarity and the consequent
subordination of the Son to the Father. Eusebius would hence have
appreciated Constantines memory of his dream about Christ, but for a
personal theological reason. Constantine had told that story to explain
the appearance of his military standard and to enhance his spiritual
authority when dealing with bishops. Eusebius retold the story in support of his subordinationist doctrines.32
Eusebius had one more objective in recounting Constantines memories in Life. Soldiers and churchmen were fundamentally incompatible,
and Eusebius still remembered with horror the participation of soldiers
in the persecutions under the Tetrarchs. In early 303 Diocletian had
initiated his persecution of Christians by sending officers and soldiers
to loot and destroy the church at Nicomedia. Constantine had been
a military officer, and he would subsequently admit that he had been
at Diocletians court at the time. After he became a Christian emperor,
however, he seems to have sensed that he had to minimize his military demeanor when dealing with churchmen. As a result, although
Constantine was eager to present himself as a bishop appointed
by God, Eusebius was equally eager to represent him as a civilian
emperor appointed by God. The same memories of his civil wars that
Constantine had recounted to indicate his divine consecration now
offered Eusebius an opportunity to create an alternative perspective
that downplayed the importance of military support. In History, before
he had heard those memories, Eusebius had conceded the role of the
army in the proclamation of Constantine as emperor. But in Life, after
describing Constantines emergence as the sole successor to his father,
he completely ignored the involvement of the army: on his own God,
32
Eusebius, Vita Constantini 2.61, herald, 3.10.3, heavenly angel, De laudibus Constantini 1.6,
second place, 3.5, Logos as prefect, 6, angel of great guidance, 7.13, emperor as prefect. For
Life as a theological treatise, see Van Dam (2007) 28385, 31013; also Adler (2008) 59596:
When Eusebius later describes the fall of Licinius and the reunification of the Empire under
Constantine, his language verges on the messianic.
80
the ruler of the entire universe, selected Constantine . . . as ruler and

governor over all.33
From Eusebius perspective, the emperors memories about the vision
of the cross and his dream of Christ certainly reinforced this notion
of divine selection. Constantine had framed his memories in such a
way as to ensure his military support: the entire army had seen the
vision and then followed the military standard. In contrast, Eusebius
retold the stories to demonstrate that Constantines imperial rule was
independent of military support: only the emperor had conversed with
Christ. Constantine never forgot that an emperor, even a Christian
emperor, needed a military reputation to guarantee support in the
army. But while recording and interpreting the emperors memories,
Eusebius seemed to be hoping that a Christian emperor, Gods chosen
ruler, could be a civilian, like bishops and other churchmen.
From Moses to Jesus

For understanding the early years of Constantines reign Eusebius had
consistently used a comparison with Moses. He had deployed this
comparison first in his early accounts in History long before he had
met the emperor, and again later in Life even after he had heard the
emperors own stories. This comparison with Moses had been especially
useful to explain Constantines victory outside Rome, because he could
then also compare Maxentius to the Egyptian pharaoh, swept away in
the current. But once Constantine entered Rome, Eusebius no longer
compared him explicitly to Moses. Crossing the Tiber seemed to mark
a transition from an Old Testament perspective on Constantine to a
New Testament perspective. For the remainder of his reign another
analogy was more useful for both Eusebius narrative and Constantines
presentation of himself.34
33
34
Tribunes and church at Nicomedia: Lactantius, De mortibus persecutorum 12.25, with Chapter 6, for additional discussion of Lactantius. Constantine at Nicomedia: Constantine, Oratio ad sanctorum coetum 25.2. God and Constantine: Eusebius, Vita Constantini 1.24, with
Chapter 5, for Eusebius earlier accounts of the role of the army.
For this transition in Eusebius narrative of Constantines life from reenactment of the Old
Testament to reenactment of the New Testament, see Williams (2008) 42.
81
Eusebius instead highlighted the analogy between Jesus Christ and

a Christian emperor to emphasize that both were subordinate to God
the Father. In Life Eusebius appropriated Constantines life to support
his own particular theology. In part he was following Constantines
own lead, because during the later years of his reign the emperor had
already been advertising his resemblance to Jesus Christ, in particular
in his new capital at Constantinople. Most notably, the shrine that
Constantine constructed as a funerary memorial included a niche for
his sarcophagus surrounded by twelve cenotaphs that represented the
twelve apostles. Even as the emperor was subsidizing the construction
of new churches at Jerusalem and Bethlehem that celebrated the birth,
death, and ascension of Jesus Christ, at Constantinople he seemed to
be appropriating some of Jesus divine roles. As a result, if Constantine
was to be imagined as an analogue of Jesus Christ, then Constantinople
could be thought of as both Constantines city and Christs city.35
At the end of his life Constantine admitted that he had always hoped
to imitate Jesus by being baptized in the Jordan River. Because he was
then preparing for an invasion of the Persian empire, he presumably
planned to detour to Palestine during his march through the eastern
provinces. Such a baptism would not only have publicized his similarity
to Jesus in the Holy Land. It would also have distinguished him yet
again from Moses, who had been allowed to view the Promised Land
from a mountaintop but not to cross the Jordan River. Unlike Eusebius,
Constantine had not promoted Moses as a biblical paradigm for his
imperial rule. As a Christian ruler he seemed to think that the only
proper exemplar was Jesus Christ. After all, even late in his reign when
he recalled that battle at Rome, he still remembered that before the
combat he had talked directly with Jesus in a dream.36
35
36
Eusebius, Vita Constantini 4.5860, shrine, with Chapter 9, for the implications about
emperorship. Constantinople as Christs city: Sozomen, HE 2.3.8.
Eusebius, Vita Constantini 4.62.2, Jordan River.
EUSEBIUS COMMENTARY
CHAPTER FIVE
iii
he stories about the emperors vision and dream

before the battle outside Rome were Constantines own memories. Distinguishing those stories from the commentary in
which Eusebius subsequently embedded them in Life of Constantine has interesting implications. One is that it is possible to detect
some of the influences that independently shaped Constantines memories and Eusebius commentary. Although the memories and the commentary converged in Eusebius Life, until that moment they had
followed separate tracks. The emperors memories and the bishops
commentary each had a distinct backstory.
After the battle and his return to Gaul early in the following year,
Constantine remained in the western provinces. He continued to campaign along the Rhine frontier; he returned to Rome in 315; and after
seizing the Balkans from Licinius, he campaigned along the Danube
frontier. The backstory for his memories hence included his subsequent
experiences in the West, as well as various accounts of the battle that
he heard, read, or viewed (Chapters 67). In contrast, the backstory
for Eusebius commentary in Life consisted largely of his own earlier
accounts. For modern historical analysis, disentangling these earlier
82
eusebius commentary
83
accounts becomes an opportunity to see Eusebius at work as a historian

and an apologist. His narrative in Life of Constantines victory at Rome
was not his first account of the battle. Nor was it his second account.
In fact, it was not even his third account.
Eusebius had written his Ecclesiastical History in a series of revised
and enlarged drafts (or so-called editions) over an extended period of
decades, ending with some substantial revisions shortly after the defeat
of Licinius in 324. In the last three books of History, books 810, he
described Constantines victories over Maxentius and Licinius. But as
he constantly revised those books, he also modified his interpretation of
the battle outside Rome. Years later his narrative of the first two decades
of Constantines reign in Life overlapped with his earlier narrative of
the same period in these final books of History. But because he had
acquired more information during the years after the final rewriting of
History, in Life he yet again modified his narrative of the battle in 312.
Eusebius produced four versions of this battle, three in the sequential
revisions of History and one more in Life. Even as he quoted extensively
from version to version, he kept on adjusting his interpretations.1
Changing the Story . . . Repeatedly

Eusebius presented his History as a straightforward, unitary narrative
from beginning to end, covering the period from our Savior and concluding in our times. In fact, his narrative was a pastiche of segments
that included numerous additions and modifications from different
moments in his life. In the first seven books he covered the period from
Jesus Christ to the late third century. He had been collecting historical
1
Note also the reference to the battle in Jeromes Latin translation of Eusebius Chronicle:
see Jerome, Chronicon s.a. 312, Maxentius iuxta pontem Mulvium a Constantino superatus
occiditur. Eusebius extended the entries in his Chronicle to the twentieth anniversary of
Constantines accession in 325. Although one of his entries did mention Maxentius defeat
and death in 312, it did not include the reference to the Milvian Bridge. That information
was added by Jerome in his translation: see Burgess (1999a) 55, 97, suggesting that Jeromes
source was the list of consuls in Descriptio consulum (or Consularia Constantinopolitana), ed.
Burgess (1993) 235, or the so-called Kaisergeschichte, a lost account used as a source by other
fourth-century historians. Burgess (1999a) 62, proposes a reconstruction of Eusebius original
entry: Maxntiov p Kwnstantnou tthqev nrqh.

material for some time, having started already perhaps before the commencement of the persecutions in 303 under Diocletian, and certainly
well before hearing about Constantines victory in 312. In the first seven
books Eusebius firmly insisted that church and empire were quite distinct. He seems not to have anticipated that the culmination of his
narrative would eventually become the reign of a Christian emperor.2
Eusebius then added two more books that highlighted the persecutions under Diocletian, Galerius, and Maximinus in the eastern
provinces. The eighth book consisted largely of a shortened version
of an earlier treatise entitled Martyrs of Palestine, and the ninth book
concluded with an account of Licinius victory over Maximinus. Eusebius published this first edition of History in nine books in late 313
or 314, after Maximinus death in the summer of 313. Soon afterward,
however, he discarded the shortened version of Martyrs of Palestine and
rewrote the eighth book to widen its focus on persecution, retained the
existing ninth book, and added a tenth book that included his own
oration on the dedication of a church as well as six imperial documents
issued by Constantine and Licinius or by Constantine alone in favor of
Christianity. He published this second edition of History in ten books
before the outbreak of hostilities between Constantine and Licinius
in the autumn of 316. After Constantine finally defeated Licinius in
324, in a third edition Eusebius altered his favorable evaluation of
Licinius, in particular by omitting the dossier of imperial documents
in the tenth book and instead adding an account of Constantines most
recent victory.3
2
Eusebius, HE 1.1.1, the period, with the characterization of History in Christensen (1989) 9:
It is a mess, both from a compositional and a literary point of view. For the possibility of
an early draft of books 17 already before the end of the third century, see Barnes (1980),
(1981) 128, 14546. Quotation about church and empire from Tabbernee (1997) 325, in one
of the few discussions that carefully tracks the changes in Eusebius thinking (in this case,
about persecution) across the editions of his History.
For the detailed arguments that Eusebius published three editions of History, the first in
313 or 314, see Louth (1990) and Burgess (1997) 48386. Modern critical editions of History
compound the difficulty of examining the changes in Eusebius ideas, because none exactly
reproduces any of Eusebius own published editions.
eusebius commentary
85
first edition
In History Eusebius first published a reference to Constantine in the new
eighth book of the first edition. For most of this eighth book he used
an abridged version of his Martyrs of Palestine. Eusebius had composed
the initial, long version of Martyrs already in 311. The long version
had highlighted martyrdoms in Palestine; the shortened version still
focused on Palestine. But when he recycled the shortened version of
Martyrs as the core of the eighth book of History, he concluded with a
short retrospective on the aftermath of the persecutions. In particular,
he added an Appendix (as it is now known), which described the
deaths of the four original Tetrarchs. The three whom Eusebius associated with persecutions, Diocletian, Maximian, and Galerius, had died
badly. The fourth was Constantius, whom he characterized as the most
kind and most gentle of emperors. According to this account, Constantius had not participated in the war against us. As a result, he had
been succeeded by his legitimate son, Constantine, who was proclaimed immediately at the beginning as greatest emperor and Augustus
by the soldiers. Because Constantine in turn was most wise and most
pious, he imitated his fathers piety toward our teaching. In these
concluding remarks Eusebius demonstrated that persecuting emperors
died in pain, while the reward for an emperor who had been favorable
toward Christianity was the succession of his son.4
In the new ninth book Eusebius continued with his narrative of
the persecutions in the East. His primary focus remained the hostile
activities of Maximinus, and he was presumably pleased to conclude
the book with an account of the emperors agonizingly painful death
after his defeat by Licinius in 313. Toward the end of his narrative
about eastern persecutions, however, he returned to Constantine by
inserting a report of his victory over Maxentius at Rome. This account
4
For the editions of Martyrs of Palestine, see Barnes (1981) 14950. Eusebius, HE 8, Appendix 4,
Constantius, son, 5, soldiers, piety, with Tabbernee (1997) 32728, for the novelty of this theme
about the deaths of the persecutors. On the source(s) for the information in the Appendix,
see Christensen (1983) 182, the religiously neutral character of the original account, 203, an
official Kaisergeschichte aimed at justifying Constantines claim to be Maximus Augustus.
86
of a western battle dramatically interrupted the flow of his narrative of

eastern events.
How did Eusebius acquire this information? Because he composed
this initial account within about a year of the battle in October 312,
he presumably used a written source. This anonymous source seems to
have highlighted the military aspects of the battle. It was furthermore
apparently already favorable to Constantine and hostile to Maxentius.
Eusebius obviously retained the evaluations of the emperors in the
source, but by adding his own interpretive glosses, he superimposed a
Christian perspective on the battle. In his account Eusebius claimed that
Constantine had initiated his campaign to liberate Rome by praying to
God in heaven and his Word, the Savior of all, Jesus Christ himself.
Maxentius in contrast had trusted in the artifices of magic. Constantine nevertheless defeated Maxentius troops in Italy and advanced
on Rome, where God himself drew the tyrant outside the citys
wall. Eusebius then compared the drowning of Maxentius to the loss of
the Egyptian pharaoh and his army in the Red Sea; he also compared
Constantine to Moses.5
Eusebius had reinterpreted the battle as a reenactment of a great
moment of liberation in the Old Testament that had previewed Christian salvation. He may have been attracted to this biblical parallel
because of the superficial similarity between a battle near a river at Rome
5
Eusebius, HE 9.9.2, God in heaven, 3, magic, 4, tyrant, 5, pharaoh, 8, Moses. For discussion of
the source for the battle, see the excellent account of Eusebius modifications in Christensen
(1989) 291, little hope of identifying this source, 292, a politically inspired account of
pagan origin. This anonymous source was most likely in Latin: see Chapter 7.
Christensens close reading of History followed the techniques pioneered by Schwartz (1909)
xlviilxi, and Laqueur (1929), described by Christensen (1989) 8, as a detailed critique to
reveal the existence of possible uncertainties, contradictory repetitions and interruptions of
the continuity in Eusebiuss text. Laqueur in particular tended to explain discrepancies in
Eusebius text by postulating the influence of multiple sources. For the account of Maxentius
and Constantine in History, Laqueur (1929) 15060, 18082, 201, argued that Eusebius added
his Christian interpretation to a source with a pagan perspective about the relationship
between Constantine and Licinius and a national Roman perspective about Maxentius at
Rome, and that he also used both a Christian source and a pagan source about Constantine.
eusebius commentary
87
and the drowning of the Egyptian army. If Maxentius had suffered the
fate of the pharaoh, then Constantine could be represented as a new
Moses. Eusebius may also have been inclined to interpret Constantine as a supporter of Christianity because of the emperors apparent
opposition to Maximinus and his policy of persecution. After his victory in October 312, Constantine drafted a most perfect law on behalf
of the Christians and informed Maximinus of his victory over the
liberated city. In December, Maximinus seems to have responded by
announcing his decision to extend religious toleration to all provincials
in the East. Eusebius had acquired a copy of Maximinus letter, and
he also knew about Maximinus subsequent backtracking and defeat
by Licinius. By the time he published this first edition of his History
in late 313 or 314, he had apparently already concluded that opponents
of Maximinus, both Constantine and Licinius, might well be supporters of Christianity. If so, then Constantines victory at Rome could in
addition be imagined in biblical terms.6
In the eighth and ninth books of the first published edition Eusebius still knew almost nothing about Constantius and the early years
of Constantines reign. He had been motivated to extend his narrative
in History to describe the persecutions in the eastern provinces, and
any information he added about events and emperors in the West was
incidental and fortuitous. Even though he had somehow acquired a
source describing events at Rome in 312, he had shaped his interpretation of that information with regard to events in the East. In this
first edition of History Eusebius interpreted Constantine in terms of
his concern about Maximinus and his persecutions. In particular, his
own hostility to Maximinus had led him to think that an emperor
6
Eusebius, HE 9.9.12, most perfect law, 9a.19, Maximinus letter to Sabinus, 9a.12, letter to
Maximinus from the advocates of peace and piety, i.e., Constantine and Licinius. Lactantius,
De mortibus persecutorum 37.1, Constantines letter to Maximinus, 44.11, when the victory of
the liberated city was announced to him. Barnes (1982) 6768, identifies the most perfect
law with the announcement of victory. Although Eusebius, HE 9.9.12, 9a.12, claimed that
Licinius joined with Constantine in sending this letter to Maximinus, Barnes (1981) 49, insists
that the letter was the work of Constantine alone.

like Constantine who had seemingly chided Maximinus might well
have been favorable to Christianity. This Christianizing interpretation
became more apparent in the second edition of History.
second edition
Shortly after publishing this first edition Eusebius seems to have
acquired more information about events in the West. He soon revised
the eighth book by replacing the condensed version of Martyrs with a
more comprehensive narrative of persecutions throughout the eastern
provinces to 311. This general narrative included additional information
about western emperors and their activities. Although he also discarded
the original Appendix, in this revised eighth book Eusebius repeated
his positive assessments of Constantius at the moment of his death
and of Constantine at the moment of his accession. In addition, he
inserted two distinctive supplementary comments. One was the observation that after his death Constantius had been hailed among the
gods. The other was a revision that downplayed the armys role in
the accession of Constantine by emphasizing instead his prior selection by God. In this case all Eusebius had to do was add a new phrase
(noted here in italics) to his original sentence: Constantine . . . was proclaimed immediately at the beginning as greatest emperor and Augustus by the soldiers and long before them by God himself, the Emperor
over all.7
These supplementary opinions presumably represented both the
acquisition of additional information and a major rethinking of Constantine and his father. One opinion was distinctly odd. Eusebius
again presented Constantius as a pro-Christian emperor by praising
his friendliness toward the divine Word, Jesus Christ. Presumably he
had inferred Constantius piety from his sons later behavior, and he had
wanted to underscore Constantines pedigree by praising his father. But
at the same time, Eusebius noted that as a result Constantius had been
the first of the four original Tetrarchic emperors to be hailed as divine.
Because Constantius new standing as divus was publicized primarily
7
Eusebius, HE 8.13.12, gods, 14, God himself.
eusebius commentary
89
in the western provinces controlled by Constantine, it is not obvious

how Eusebius had acquired this information. It furthermore remains
mysterious why a Christian historian like Eusebius would compliment
the divine apotheosis of Constantius as a reward for his support of
Christianity.8
In contrast, the other new opinion that highlighted Gods role in
Constantines succession was quite predictable for a Christian historian.
Eusebius preferred to transform the initiative of the army during a
military coup into passive acquiescence to a choice made by God.
He included these supplementary opinions in the revised eighth book
published before the autumn of 316 in the second edition of History.
The culmination of this second edition was a new tenth book that
included some of Constantines letters, in which he had indicated his
support for Christians. Eusebius had presumably concluded that the
content of the letters confirmed his earlier inference about Constantines
Christianity, and he now decided to enhance Constantines pedigree
as an emperor by extolling his father and to demote the role of the
army by emphasizing instead his preordained selection as emperor
by God.
In this revised eighth book Eusebius also included more information
about Maxentius. His account was very critical of Maxentius activities
and accused him of sexual misbehavior, a massacre, and sorcery. In particular, this expanded account elaborated on the emperors scandalous
behavior toward the most eminent members of the senate at Rome.
One Christian matron, the wife of a prefect of Rome, was even thought
to have committed suicide to avoid abduction by Maxentius associates.
Because Eusebius knew of Maxentius eventual defeat by Constantine,
8
Eusebius, HE 8.13.12, divine Word. For the consecration of Constantius as divus, see Panegyrici
latini 7(6).3.3, 14.3, with Christensen (1983) 198, suggesting that Eusebius made use of a source
with a distinctly pagan outlook for information about Constantius apotheosis, and Gradel
(2002) 365, claiming that divus was no longer an indication of true divinity, but merely an
honorary title. After their deaths Maximian and Galerius had also been consecrated as divi,
presumably at the initiative of Maxentius: see ILS 1:153, no. 671, a dedication to Maxentius at
Iol Caesarea in Mauretania Caesariensis, no. 673, a dedication to Romulus, Maxentius son,
on Maxentius estate (see Chapter 9).

he was probably all too willing to repeat these lurid accusations. But
his source for this additional information is not obvious.9
One possibility is that the accusations had been included in the same
anonymous source that Eusebius had already used for his description
of the battle outside Rome in 312 in his original ninth book. If so,
then the outlook of that source might help explain one of Eusebius
comments about Maxentius religious beliefs. Eusebius noted that in
an attempt to win over the people of Rome, Maxentius had impersonated our faith and ordered an end to the persecution of Christians.
Eusebius of course objected to this characterization, and his strong
denial might suggest that his source had in fact claimed exactly the
opposite, that Maxentius had ended persecution because he had truly
been a Christian (or a sympathizer of Christianity) and that his support for Christianity had led to his other shameful misbehavior at
Rome.10
The accusations of immorality resembled the standard rhetorical
charges against despotic tyrants and disgraced emperors. But the source
may well have been correct about Maxentius toleration for Christianity.
Toward the end of his reign Maxentius and his praetorian prefect had
apparently sent letters to Miltiades, the bishop of Rome, authorizing
him to approach the prefect of Rome: the aforementioned emperor
ordered that those [possessions] confiscated during the time of persecution be restored to the Christians. In North Africa freedom was
restored to the Christians when Maxentius extended toleration. In
this case, if Eusebius source had blamed Maxentius misbehavior on
his adherence to Christianity, it was probably hostile to Christianity in
general. In contrast, Eusebius wanted to retain the stories of Maxentius
bad behavior but distance his actions from Christianity. As a result, he
simply dismissed as pretense any hint in the source of the emperors
sympathy for Christianity. Eusebius instead cast Maxentius, the tyrant
9
10
Eusebius, HE 8.14.16, activities at Rome, 1617, matron. Chastagnol (1962) 59, suggests
that this virtuous woman may have been the wife of Junius Flavianus, prefect of Rome from
311 to 312.
Eusebius, HE 8.14.1, impersonated.
eusebius commentary
91
at Rome, as similar to his ally Maximinus, the tyrant in the East

who had persecuted Christians.11
This recasting of Maxentius in the revised eighth book influenced
Eusebius interpretation of Constantines victory at Rome. Now Constantine had an evil opponent similar to the reviled Maximinus; now it
was more apparent why Constantine had decided that he had to liberate
Rome and its inhabitants from their enslavement to this tyrant. As
a result, the extended denigration of Maxentius in the revised eighth
book considerably enhanced Eusebius account of Constantines victory in the ninth book, even though he had retained this ninth book
apparently unchanged in this new edition of History. According to
Eusebius, after the battle the victorious emperors supporters hailed
him with biblical verses from the Israelites song of triumph celebrating the destruction of the pharaoh and his chariots. The senators and
people of Rome welcomed him as redeemer, savior, and benefactor.
In return, in a public dedication Constantine commemorated his liberation of the city from the yoke of the tyrant. The supplementary
information about the tyrant Maxentius in the revised eighth book had
helped to underscore Eusebius presentation of Constantines victory as
a form of liberation of Rome.12
11
12
Eusebius, HE 8.14.7, tyrant in East and tyrant at Rome. On Eusebius source for this
information about Maxentius, see Christensen (1989) 13940, an official piece of propaganda
which . . . utilized the criticism of Maxentiuss rule which had gradually grown amongst the
leading senators in Rome, 141n.99, a piece of propaganda for Constantine, with Scheidel
(2009) 299301, for the conventional Roman rhetoric linking the abuse of imperial power
with promiscuity. Letters of Maxentius and his prefect: Augustine, Breviculus collationis cum
Donatistis 3.18.34 (CSEL 53:84); also Ad Donatistas post collationem 13.17 (CSEL 53:11314),
with De Decker (1968), arguing that Constantine subsequently imitated Maxentius policy
of tolerating Christianity. Toleration in North Africa: Optatus, Contra Donatistas 1.18.1.
Maximinus had previously sent envoys to Maxentius at Rome to negotiate an alliance; after
his victory Constantine found their letters: Lactantius, De mortibus persecutorum 43.3, 44.10.
Grant (1980) 156, suggests that Constantine himself may have circulated these documents
in a successful propaganda campaign against the memory of Maxentius and the waning
power of Maximin.
Eusebius, HE 8.14.6, enslavement, 9.9.8, Israelites song, citing verses from Exodus 15, 9,
senators, 11, dedication, with De Decker (1968) 480, la personnalite de Maxence, telle
quelle nous est representee par Eusèbe, se distingue peu de celle de Maximin Daa.

For the new tenth book that concluded this second edition of History
Eusebius had certainly acquired a new source of information about
Constantine. In the tenth book he cited a dossier of imperial documents.
One was an accord drafted by Constantine and Licinius in early 313
that guaranteed toleration for all religions. Eusebius would presumably
have acquired or read a copy of this proclamation after Licinius defeated
Maximinus and promulgated it to the governors in his new provinces
in the East during the summer of 313. The other documents included
two letters from Constantine to the governor of Africa Proconsularis
and another to the bishop of Carthage, all three sent during the winter
of 312313, another letter to the bishop of Rome sent in late spring of
313, and yet another summoning the bishop of Syracuse to a council at
Arles in August 314. It is again not obvious how Eusebius might have
obtained copies of these five letters concerning Constantines western
affairs so quickly. But they seemed to reinforce his earlier interpretation
of Constantine as a Christian emperor, and they provided a fitting
conclusion to this second edition of History published before autumn
of 316.13
The last three books of Eusebius History have hence preserved traces
of a sequence of accounts and interpretations of Constantines victory
over Maxentius that appeared in the four years between autumn of 312
and autumn of 316. Quite quickly after the victory a written source that
highlighted political and military aspects of the battle was being circulated in the East. This source was apparently favorable to Constantine,
hostile to Maxentius, and most likely hostile to Christianity. Because
this source had included examples of Maxentius antagonism toward
the senatorial aristocracy at Rome, it had apparently also criticized him
as a Christian or a sympathizer of Christianity. If so, then it presumably
would have welcomed Constantine not as a Christian but for restoring
traditional values at Rome.
13
Accord: Eusebius, HE 10.5.114, Lactantius, De mortibus persecutorum 48.212. For the letters,
see Chapter 7. As Eusebius source for the letters, see the survey of opinions in Carriker
(2003) 285, suggesting perhaps a bishop involved in the Donatist controversy.
eusebius commentary
93
In contrast, at the same time Eusebius was himself still primarily

concerned with dealing with the persecutions in the East. He hence
read and interpreted this source through the lens of his eastern preoccupations. Once he decided to add two more books to his earlier
draft of History, he also included an account of Constantines victory
over Maxentius. In his initial short account Eusebius recast the information from his source by imposing a biblical interpretation that saw
Constantine as a new Moses. Soon after publishing the first edition of
his History he seems to have acquired more information about western
affairs, including copies of Constantines letters, and he quickly rewrote
the eighth book of History. In this second edition he highlighted Gods
role in selecting Constantine as emperor and castigated Maxentius
behavior. Eusebius source had criticized Maxentius as a Christian and
presumably praised Constantine as a restorer of old values; in contrast,
Eusebius criticized Maxentius as an ally of the persecutor Maximinus
and praised Constantine as a Christian. In each case, the account in
the source and then Eusebius versions, the author was interested less in
Constantine himself and more in another emperor, either Maxentius
or Maximinus. Constantine was represented simply as the opposite of
the other emperor.
third edition
In Eusebius second edition Constantines greatest military success was
still his victory over Maxentius in 312. But after Constantine defeated
Licinius in September 324, Eusebius revised his History yet again.
Because one primary objective in this revision was to denigrate Licinius
by obscuring or removing his earlier association with Constantine and
by including an account of his final defeat, Eusebius may well have
wanted to publish the third edition before meeting Constantine at the
council of Nicaea that was to convene in mid-325. Earlier in 325 Eusebius and his theology had been condemned at a council at Antioch.
The council at Nicaea would provide a fresh opportunity to defend his
doctrines, this time in the presence of the emperor. As he faced renewed
scrutiny of his theology, Eusebius may have thought that he could help
his cause by flattering Constantine in a new edition of History.

The culmination of this revised version of History was Constantines
victory over Licinius, which had given him control over the eastern
provinces, including the provinces of Palestine. From Eusebius perspective in Palestine the most recent victory had immediately become
the most important of Constantines reign. In the third edition Eusebius replaced the dossier of imperial documents included in the earlier
version of the tenth book with an overview of Licinius reign. Those
imperial documents, consisting of the proclamation of Constantine
and Licinius and the five letters of Constantine, had demonstrated
Constantines and Licinius initial support for Christianity soon after
the victory over Maxentius. This new narrative, however, emphasized
Licinius increasing hostility toward Christians in the East during the
subsequent years, until finally Constantine had intervened and defeated
his rival. Through overt excisions and judicious rewriting Eusebius
had transformed Licinius from a supporter of Christianity into a new
persecutor.
Even though in this revised edition Eusebius did not rewrite his earlier
account of Constantines victory over Maxentius in the eighth and ninth
books, his new emphasis on the war with Licinius was an implicit
reinterpretation of the earlier battle. By now Eusebius was focused
more on the significance of Constantines victory over Licinius and less
on his earlier victory over Maxentius. The victory over Licinius marked
another beginning. At the end of this revised tenth book of History
Eusebius celebrated the reunification of the Roman empire and the
establishment of a dynasty of Christian emperors in Constantine and
his oldest son, Crispus. Because those two joyful outcomes were recent
consequences, Constantines victory over Licinius seemed to mark the
most important turning point in his reign. Highlighting the victory
over Licinius hence provided a new understanding of the victory over
Maxentius by demoting its significance.14
14
Eusebius, HE 10.9.6, Roman empire, 79, dynasty. After excising the dossier of six early
imperial documents from the original tenth book, Eusebius may have planned instead
to append Constantines letters and legislation from after his victory over Licinius. Three
manuscripts of History included as an appendix a copy of a letter of Constantine written in
eusebius commentary
95
Modern historians must hence be much more discriminating when

citing Eusebius account in History of the battle outside Rome, in particular by clarifying which edition they have in mind. In the first edition
Eusebius interpreted his anonymous source in biblical terminology by
casting Constantine as a Christian emperor, the new Moses. In the second edition he inserted the battle into a longer continuum of victories
over persecuting emperors, both Constantines victory over Maxentius
and Licinius victory over Maximinus, and he emphasized the support
of both victorious emperors for Christianity. In the third edition he
downplayed the victory over Maxentius to highlight instead Constantines victory over Licinius. Even though the words of the basic narrative
remained almost the same from edition to edition, the meanings and
implications of the battle changed considerably.
Then Eusebius met Constantine at the council of Nicaea and subsequently heard the emperors own memories. At that moment Constantine was no longer the distant subject of an anonymous literary
account that Eusebius reinterpreted in his own narrative or the remote
author of imperial letters. Now the emperor could become Eusebius
immediate source, in person.
Changing the Backstory

The defeat of Licinius was a relief for Eusebius. As the tension between
Constantine and Licinius had tightened, Licinius had become more
intolerant toward the Christians in his eastern provinces. Just as Diocletian and Galerius had consulted the oracle of Apollo at Didyma before
they initiated their persecutions of Christians, so Licinius now consulted the same oracle and resorted to pagan sacrifices. By the early 320s
he had ordered imperial magistrates and soldiers to offer sacrifices during pagan festivals, and he had imposed restrictions on bishops and their
communities. The triumph of Constantine had nipped that possibility
October 324 (subsequently inserted in Vita Constantini 2.2442), as well as an exhortation
to collect all the laws and letters of Constantine. If Eusebius was planning to attach a new
dossier of imperial documents, then according to the exhortation, he intended the victory
over Licinius to mark another beginning: see Schwartz and Mommsen (19031909) 2:904,
for the text of the exhortation.

of revived persecution: the great victor Constantine . . . regained the
East that belonged to him, and as in the past he established a single
unified empire of the Romans. Eusebius could exhale again.15
He also could have revised and extended his History by again adding
more books. Initially his History had focused on the slow expansion
of Christianity in the Roman empire; then he had added three more
books about persecution, martyrdom, and the rise of Constantine and
Licinius as Christian emperors; then he had revised the final book to
highlight Constantines defeat of Licinius. Now he had the opportunity
to continue his History by extending the arc of ecclesiastical history from
Jesus Christ well into the reign of a Christian emperor.
Instead, after he completed his revisions to the final book, his History was closed. Eusebius justified stopping after ten books by claiming
that ten was the number of fulfillment. Perhaps he also realized that
to continue his History would require including more information
about himself and his own theology. In the spring of 325 Constantine
may have attended the council at Antioch that condemned Eusebius
and his doctrines. During the summer Eusebius attended the council at Nicaea, where the emperor himself helped integrate his theology with Nicene theology. But thereafter the theology of the church
in the eastern provinces was developing in directions that Eusebius
himself could not always support. Ending History with Constantines
victory over Licinius in autumn of 324 hence saved Eusebius from personal embarrassment and from having to engage in overt theological
polemic.16
15
16
Diocletian and oracle: Lactantius, De mortibus persecutorum 11.7. Licinius and oracle of
Apollo: Sozomen, HE 1.7.23. Eusebius, HE 10.8.1019, Licinius hostilities, 9.6, great
victor.
Eusebius, HE 10.1.3, number of fulfillment. The disgrace of Crispus execution in 326
might have initiated subsequent editing. Eusebius had mentioned Crispus favorably in HE
10.9.4, 6. Because he ignored Crispus when he repeated these passages from History in Vita
Constantini 2.3.2, 19.2, Schwartz (1909) l, suggested that Eusebius had excised the references.
But because the excisions are not found in any of the Greek manuscripts of History, it is
likely that Eusebius left the references to Crispus in History, where they were in fact read
and quoted by later Greek historians, such as [Gelasius of Cyzicus], HE 1.11.16, 2.1.4, and
eusebius commentary
97
Eusebius nevertheless continued to refer to Constantines victory at

Rome in other texts. In an oration at Tyre he alluded to the dedication that the emperor had erected at Rome after the battle. Because
he had delivered this oration most likely shortly after the publication
of the first edition of History, perhaps in 315, he presumably developed this information too from the anonymous source he had used
for his account of the battle in that first edition, and he subsequently
included the oration in the tenth book of the second edition of History
published before autumn of 316. Decades later he again mentioned
Constantines construction of a statue and its accompanying dedication at Rome in a panegyric delivered at Constantinople in July 336
to celebrate the thirtieth anniversary of the emperors reign. In this
case too his comments about monuments at Rome may well have
been incorrect, based on faulty interpretations of his source. The oddity, however, is that he had continued to rely on his initial inferences
about Constantines activities at Rome even in a panegyric delivered
more than a decade after he had first met the emperor. This repetition
might imply that he had not yet heard Constantines own memories of the battle at Rome. In this panegyric of 336 Eusebius was still
repeating and elaborating his own initial interpretation of the battle,
developed more than two decades earlier for the first edition of his
History.17
Eusebius essentially did the same in his Life of Constantine. Eventually
of course he did hear Constantines memories about his vision, his
dream, and the construction of the military standard before the battle
against Maxentius. As a result, his account of the battle in Life was both
a bit more elaborate and a bit more condensed than the account in
History. First, Eusebius provided a different backstory for the invasion,
in which Constantine initially hesitated before marching into Italy.
17
Evagrius, HE 3.41. The Syriac translation of History, composed perhaps circa 400, omitted
the references to Crispus: see Schwartz (1909) xlii. In that case the translator was responsible
for the excisions, as implied by Winkelmann (2004) 72.
For discussion of Eusebius faulty inferences about Constantines statue and dedication at
Rome, see Chapter 7.
98
In History Constantine had been upset that people at Rome were ruled
by a tyrant; in Life, although he was similarly dismayed to see Rome
subject to the slavery of a tyrant, he at first deferred to those ruling
in other regions because they were older. But after the invasions of
Severus and Galerius failed against Maxentius, he set out to liberate the
imperial city himself.18
Second, Eusebius inserted in Life some episodes not included in
History. One described the emperors dilemma about which god to
adopt for assistance against the magic of the tyrant. Severus and Galerius
had trusted in a multitude of gods and failed. In contrast, Constantines father, Constantius, had honored one god, the savior and
guardian of the empire and the provider of everything good. So Constantine decided that he too should honor only his fathers god. It is
not clear whether this internal debate about the relative merits of polytheism and monotheism derived from the emperor himself or whether
it represented Eusebius own gloss. It certainly provided Eusebius with
an opportunity to contrast the power of the Christian God with the
futility of the pantheon of deities promoted by Tetrarchic emperors. It
also provided a segue to Constantines memories.19
Eusebius then included three episodes from Constantines memories:
the story about the vision of the cross in the sky; the story about the
emperors dream of Christ, who encouraged him to construct a military
standard; and the story about his consultation with experts, the priests
of God, who explained the theology of the God who had been seen
and the cross. Between the second episode of the dream and the third
episode of the consultation Eusebius furthermore included a lengthy
description of the military standard.20
18
19
20
Eusebius, HE 9.9.2, tyrant, Vita Constantini 1.26, slavery, deference. The source for this
story about Constantines hesitation is unknown: see Winkelmann (1991) 28, Aus anderen
Quellen nicht bekannt, and Cameron and Hall (1999) 202, suggesting it was Eusebius own
defense of Constantines delay in invading Italy.
Eusebius, Vita Constantini 1.27, Constantines dilemma.
For discussion of Constantines memories, see Chapter 4. Other additions: Eusebius, Vita
Constantini 1.38.4, the bridge now breaks by the command of God (cf. HE 9.9.7), 39.1,
Rome replaced by ruling city (cf. HE 9.9.9).
eusebius commentary
99
Third, Eusebius also omitted a few comments. In Life, once the

emperor began to plan his campaign Eusebius reverted to his earlier
account in the eighth and ninth books of the second edition of History.
Because he reproduced that earlier account almost verbatim, the small
omissions were significant. In Life Eusebius did not repeat his earlier
dismissal of the possibility that Maxentius had once supported Christians, and he no longer associated Constantine with Licinius as the two
[emperors] beloved by God. Instead, Eusebius classified Maxentius as
the western equivalent of the persecuting emperor Maximinus, and he
even transferred derogatory comments about Maximinus in History to
Maxentius in Life.21
Eusebius account in Life of Constantines battle against Maxentius
relied on two important sources. One was comparatively recent: Constantine and his memories of a vision, a dream, the construction of
his military standard, and his consultation with churchmen. The other
was comparatively old: Eusebius himself, and in particular his own earlier account in History. Eventually Eusebius did decide to continue his
narrative of Constantines reign past 324, the ending date of History.
But to do so he made two more, rather odd decisions. One was not to
expand History with additional books; the other was to recycle much
of his earlier narrative about Constantine in History almost verbatim
into Life. Even though he now had occasional access to the imperial
court, he seems not to have interrogated the emperor and his advisers about earlier events, with the express intention of modifying or at
least expanding his earlier narrative. Nor, excepting a few additions and
omissions, did he rewrite his earlier narrative in response to hearing
Constantines memories. Instead, he simply included those memories
as a new backstory, and he shaped his account of those memories to
supplement and confirm his earlier narrative.
21
Eusebius, HE 8.14.1, Maxentius and Christianity, 14, comments about Maximinus (transferred to Maxentius in Vita Constantini 1.33.2), 9.9.1, Constantine and Licinius. Although
Drijvers (2007), properly stresses that Eusebius description of Maxentius in Life was a literary construct, it was repeated from the description in History, which in turn was derived
from Eusebius source.

Modern historians hence must cope with interesting paradoxes when
thinking about the account of the battle of 312 in Life. On the one
hand, Constantine recounted his memories long after the events. On
the other hand, Eusebius had composed most of the narrative in which
he later embedded those memories long before he met the emperor and
heard his stories. Modern historians take pride in using new data to
modify older interpretations. In contrast, Eusebius preferred to mold
new information to conform to his own earlier narrative.
SHAPING MEMORIES IN
THE WEST
CHAPTER SIX
iii
nowledge about events in western provinces was not

common in eastern provinces. At Athens, Praxagoras composed his History of Constantine the Great in two volumes,
apparently soon after the emperors death. Because Praxagoras wrote his history as a young man while only in his early twenties,
he had been born after the battle at the Milvian Bridge. According to a
short summary of his now-lost history, Constantine had once lived at
Diocletians court at Nicomedia, and the emperor Galerius had plotted
against him. After Constantine fled to his father in Britain, he became
an emperor and organized an army of Celts and Germans. According
to Praxagoras, Constantine was upset on hearing that Maxentius was
mistreating the people of Rome. In the subsequent military campaign
Constantine was victorious in battle and turned [Maxentius] to flight.
While he was fleeing, Maxentius experienced a reversal in his life [and
the] treachery that he had contrived for his enemies: he fell into a trench
he had himself dug. Some of the Romans cut off his head, hung it on
a pole, and walked around in the city.
Praxagoras next described Constantines victory over Licinius at
Nicomedia, his consolidation of imperial rule, and his foundation of
101

a new capital at Byzantium. He was clearly quite impressed by the
emperors virtue, excellence, and total good fortune. But by highlighting these activities in the East, he imposed an overall eastern perspective on the significance of Constantines reign. In terms of both
culture and religion, Praxagoras was a Greek, an educated gentleman
and a pagan. Not only did he know little about the emperors activities
in the West, including the battle outside Rome, but his other historical works discussed the ancient kings of Athens and Alexander the
Great. Praxagoras apparently classified Constantine as the most recent
in a long continuum of distinguished Greek rulers. He furthermore
seems to have ignored the emperors Christianity entirely. After the
battle outside Rome, his Constantine entered the capital not behind a
military standard in the shape of a cross but rather behind a pike carrying the head of his defeated rival. Praxagoras Constantine represented
Greekness, not Christianity.1
At about the same time Eusebius was composing his Life of Constantine, which he based on entirely different ideals and a different viewpoint. That viewpoint was a continuation of the perspective already
presented in his earlier narrative in Ecclesiastical History. Somehow
Eusebius had acquired an anonymous source that described Constantines victory in 312 and subsequent events at Rome in time to include
his own interpretive description in the edition of his History published in late 313 or 314. In the next edition of his History, published
before autumn of 316, he included more information about Maxentius scandalous behavior at Rome that he had learned from that same
anonymous source or another source, and he cited a few of Constantines letters from 313 and 314. Even though he was in Palestine, during
the first few years after the battle of 312 Eusebius was remarkably
1
Summary of Praxagoras narrative in Photius, Bibliotheca 62. More might be deduced about
Praxagoras narrative if it could be considered a source for Libanius, Orat. 59: see Wiemer
(1994a), and Malosse (2000). For another eastern account of Constantines reign, note that
in the mid-fourth century Bemarchius, a sophist from Caesarea in Cappadocia who taught
at Constantinople, composed a history in ten books entitled Deeds of the Emperor Constantine: see Suda B.259, and Libanius, Orat. 1.31, 3944.
shaping memories in the west
103
well informed about some of Constantines activities in western

provinces.
Even Eusebius, however, appeared to be knowledgeable only in comparison with other eastern Greek historians. During these same years
other early accounts of the battle at Rome were composed in the West.
One was included in a panegyric delivered most likely at Trier in 313,
another in a pamphlet about the recent persecutions composed in 314
or 315 probably at Trier, and yet another in a series of marble panels
displayed on a memorial arch dedicated at Rome in 315. The panegyric
interpreted Constantines Italian campaigns from the perspective of the
northern Gallic frontier, the pamphlet offered an explicitly Christian
point of view, and the arch portrayed the viewpoint of the people and
senate at Rome.
Eusebius did not know about these other accounts in the West. But
Constantine had been present at the delivery of the panegyric, the
author of the pamphlet was a teacher of his oldest son, and the arch
had been dedicated during his return visit to Rome. As a result, it
is possible to imagine how the panegyric, the pamphlet, and the panels
on this arch might have contributed to the shaping of the emperors
own memories of this battle. Because Constantine never told his stories
to Eusebius and the other bishops until at least thirteen years after
the battle, and possibly more than twenty years later, he had been
constructing his memories for a long time during his years in western
provinces.
A Panegyric at Trier
After his victory Constantine had remained in Rome for a few months.
During the winter he had traveled first to Milan in northern Italy to
attend the wedding of a half sister to Licinius and to consult with
his fellow emperor, and then back to the Rhine frontier, where he
campaigned again against the Franks in northern Gaul. In one year,
from spring to spring, Constantine and his army had marched more
than 1,700 miles round-trip from Trier to Rome and back, and his rule
now stretched from the Tiber to the Rhine. In honor of his recent

accomplishments an anonymous orator delivered a panegyric most
likely at Trier and most likely in 313. Constantine was in attendance.2
This orator highlighted the events of the previous year. He first
praised Constantine for his initiative in invading Italy to liberate the
city, that is, Rome. To justify the invasion he listed Maxentius shameful activities and other shortcomings (including his most despicable
small size!). During this march Constantine had been received at several cities in northern Italy, including Susa, Turin, Milan, Verona, and
Aquileia, although in some cases only after sieges. The orator then
noted his rapid advance on Rome from the north. Although Maxentius had survived earlier invasions by remaining inside the citys wall,
this time he ventured out to face Constantine with the Tiber River
at his rear. The confrontation quickly became a rout, compounded
when Maxentius troops tried to retreat over the narrow Milvian Bridge.
Because Maxentius and many of his soldiers had drowned in the Tiber,
the orator was grateful to the river: Constantine drove the enemy into
you, but you killed him. After this victory the orator described the
emperors enthusiastic reception at Rome. During his stay in the capital
Constantine presided over games and attended meetings of the senate.
But soon he returned to your [provinces in] Gaul. There his victory
over the Franks was similar to his victory over Maxentius: once the
barbarians finally dared to cross the Rhine, they were slaughtered. And
just as at Rome, so Constantine again celebrated triumphal games.3
The source of this information about Constantines invasion of Italy
and his activities at Rome is guesswork. Constantine had led a small
army from Gaul, and on his return he had brought back some of the
praetorian guards who had supported Maxentius at Rome. The orator
may have learned about the military campaigns from officials with
2
Residence of almost two months: Panegyrici latini 4(10).33.6; departure for Milan during
the next winter: Lactantius, De mortibus persecutorum 45.1; still in Rome on January 6,
313: CTh 15.14.3. Tiber to Rhine: Panegyrici latini 12(9).21.5, with Nixon and Rodgers (1994)
28990, for the date and location of this panegyric.
Panegyrici latini 12(9).2.4, city, 4.3, small size, 16.3, Tiber, 17.1, Milvian Bridge, 18.1, the enemy,
21.5, in Gallias tuas, 23.3, games, with Christie (2006) 32630, on the fortifications at Susa.
This is the earliest literary reference linking the battle with the Milvian Bridge by name.
105
firsthand familiarity, such as members of the emperors court, or, more

likely, from some of the soldiers who had accompanied Constantine.
In particular, the orators account of the battle at Verona reflected the
perspective of participants: initially, I hear, you arranged your army in
two lines. His description of Constantines entry into Rome may also
have been derived from an eyewitness: the houses themselves, I hear,
seemed to be shaken.4
In his later stories Constantine would of course claim that a vision
of the cross in the sky had appeared to him and to all his soldiers
before the battle. In 313, however, such a vision was apparently not
among the memories of the battle passed on to this orator by his
informants. The orator nevertheless glossed his account of the invasion
and Constantines success by emphasizing the role of divine guidance.
He claimed that a god had encouraged the emperor to liberate Rome,
and that the divine mind had revealed itself to him alone. In his
opinion, Constantine had been guided by a divine divinity, divine
advice, and divine inspiration. By the time the emperor entered
Rome after his victory, the orator was even referring to him as your
divinity. These comments were too vague to be identified as the orators
own interpretations or as the opinions of his informants. They were
also not distinct enough to be classified as either cryptically pagan
or politely Christian. Instead, the orator had simply associated the
emperors success with divine favor, and he had hinted that Constantine
himself had shared in divinity. These were ideas that the emperor might
absorb and subsequently revise for use in a more explicitly Christian
context.5
The orator had described Constantines invasion of Italy, his battles, including the battle at the Milvian Bridge, and his activities in
4
Panegyrici latini 12(9).3.3, less than a quarter of his army accompanied him, 5.12, fewer than
forty thousand soldiers, 9.1, two lines, 19.1, houses, 21.23, defeated soldiers stationed along
Rhine and Danube. For tombstones of Constantines soldiers in northern Italy, see Mennella
(2004), suggesting that Constantines expeditionary army in fact included only four thousand
to five thousand soldiers (p. 359).
Panegyrici latini 12(9).2.4, deus, 2.5, illa mente divina, 4.1, divinum numen, 4.5, divino
consilio, 11.4, divino . . . instinctu, 19.1, numen tuum.

Rome. Even though he had acquired his information most likely from
participants in the campaign, he could then interpret their memories
to highlight his own concerns. In particular, his comments reflected a
Gallic retrospective on the invasion, a view from the northern frontier.
In that perspective Constantines departure from the Rhine frontier,
even if to liberate Rome, had caused anxiety, while his homecoming
had been a moment to express gratitude. The orator may have been
impressed by the success of Constantines invasion of Italy, but he was
more delighted by the emperors defense of the Rhine immediately on
his return. Although you were weary from your battles and satisfied
with your victories, . . . you did not allow yourself leisure and relaxation. Instead . . . , you marched to the lower frontier of Germany. In
his opinion, protecting the northern frontier was more valuable than
liberating Rome. For the people of Gaul, Constantines victory at the
Rhine had been more important than his victory at the Tiber.6
Lactantius at Trier
Approximately one year after the battle at Rome this Gallic orator was
praising Constantine at Trier for having returned to Gaul to defend
the Rhine frontier. At about the same time in Palestine, Eusebius was
reading an anonymous source in preparation for writing the first version
of his account of the battle in History. Both associated Constantines
victory with divine assistance, and Eusebius had concluded that the
emperor was already a Christian. Neither, however, mentioned a vision
of a cross in the sky, a dream about Jesus Christ, or the construction of
a military standard.
At about the same time, Lactantius was preparing to write yet another
account of the battle in a pamphlet about the recent persecutions under
the Tetrarchic emperors. Lactantius had started his teaching career in
6
Panegyrici latini 12(9).2.63.3, concern for security of Rhine, 21.5, new campaigns along lower
Rhine. For the perspective from Gaul, see Panegyrici latini 12(9).14.2, all Italy this side of the
Po [River] having been recovered, referring to northern Italy, which from the perspective
of Rome was considered to be Transpadane Italy, Italy across the Po (as mentioned in
12(9).7.7).
107
his native North Africa. Eventually, perhaps toward the end of the
third century, he was appointed as a Latin rhetorician at Nicomedia
in Bithynia. Nicomedia was a favorite residence of Diocletian. In his
desire to make Nicomedia the equal of Rome, the emperor initiated
many construction projects, including basilicas, a circus for horse races,
a mint, a weapons factory, and mansions for his wife and daughter. He
may also have recruited teachers of Greek rhetoric and culture to move
to Nicomedia, including a sophist from Athens. Diocletian himself,
however, was a native Latin speaker, and he preferred to use Latin as
the language of imperial administration, even in the eastern provinces.
With his patronage Nicomedia was to become a Latin capital. The
appointment of Lactantius, as well as of a Latin grammarian, was meant
to contribute to the transformation of this obviously Greek city into
a new center of Latin studies in the Greek East.7
diocletians court
Although teachers of Latin rhetoric and grammar were appreciated
at Diocletians Nicomedia, Christians were eventually no longer welcome. In February 303, military officers and soldiers ransacked a church
at Nicomedia. In one of his treatises Lactantius admitted that he
had been there at the time. While I was teaching . . . the culture of
oratory in Bithynia, it happened that at the same time a temple of
God was demolished. On the next day Diocletian published an edict
that imposed penalties on Christians. A subsequent edict ordered the
arrest and imprisonment of clerics. The bishop of Nicomedia was
beheaded, and other Christians were burned or drowned. When the
palace subsequently caught fire, Christians were blamed, and court officials were purged and executed. Although Lactantius himself seems to
For Andromachus, a sophist who taught at Nicomedia under Diocletian, see Suda A.2185,
and Eunapius, Vitae sophistarum 457, with Millar (1969) 18, and PLRE 1:63, Andromachus
2. Lactantius appointment: Jerome, De viris illustribus 80, ob Graecam videlicet civitatem,
also mentioning the grammarian Flavius, who wrote a poem about medical practices. Lactantius, Institutiones divinae 5.2.2, ego . . . accitus, De mortibus persecutorum 7.10, construction
projects, with Van Dam (2007) 18588, on the Tetrarchic preference for Latin.

have survived the hysteria untouched, his friend Donatus was tortured
in turn by a prefect and two provincial governors.8
Lactantius apparently remained in residence at Nicomedia for at least
the following two years. If so, then he perhaps witnessed Diocletian
when the emperor returned in 304 from an extended trip to Italy
and the Danube frontier. Even though Diocletian was gravely ill, he
insisted on presiding at the dedication of his new circus. The emperor
next appeared in public in March 305, still so enfeebled from his long
illness that he was hardly recognizable. Two months later Diocletian
finally abdicated. After the ceremony Lactantius perhaps watched as
the former emperor rode back through Nicomedia in a carriage on his
way to retirement in a palace in Dalmatia.9
In addition to his teaching, Lactantius wrote a long book about
Christian philosophy, entitled Divine Institutes, most likely already
during the years after the outbreak of persecution while he was still
at Nicomedia or soon after his departure. One important catalyst had
been learning about the remarks of two men there [in Bithynia] who,
whether from arrogance or from rudeness, were insulting the truth that
was in ruins and overthrown. One of these critics was a philosopher
who had written three volumes attacking the Christian religion and the
Christian name. This philosopher had argued in support of the cult
of the gods by whose divinity and majesty the world was governed and
had praised the emperors for defending the religions of the gods. He
had hence provided a justification for the persecution of Christianity by
suggesting that once this impious and decrepit superstition had been
repressed, everyone . . . might experience the gods and their goodwill
8
Lactantius, Institutiones divinae 5.2.2, temple of God, De mortibus persecutorum 12, burning
of church, 13, first edict, 14.2, palace, 1415, purge, 16, torture of Donatus. Eusebius, HE
8.2.5, second edict, 6.6, bishop, others; with Clarke (2005) 64765, and Humphries (2009),
for excellent overviews of the persecutions under the Tetrarchs.
Lactantius, De mortibus persecutorum 17.4, circus, 17.8, recognizable, 19.16, abdication,
carriage. For Lactantius hint that he had remained at Nicomedia for at least two years after
the outbreak of persecution, see Lactantius, Institutiones divinae 5.11.15, I saw a governor in
Bithynia who was wonderfully elated with joy . . . because a man who had resisted with great
strength for two years finally seemed to yield.
109
to men. The other critic, an important instigator in leading the

persecution, can be identified as Sossianus Hierocles, the governor of
Bithynia. Hierocles had written two volumes in which he had tried to
expose the internal contradictions and falsehoods of the Bible.10
In response, Lactantius Institutes provided an extended defense of
Christianity. Lactantius promoted justice as a Christian virtue, critiqued pagan philosophers, and criticized the worship of traditional
gods as false. In particular, he attacked Jupiter and Hercules, the two
gods adopted as patron deities by Diocletian and his fellow Tetrarchic
emperors. He claimed that the deceit and hatred that had characterized Jupiters rule in heaven had now reappeared among the emperors,
who were persecuting those who are just and faithful to God. He
also argued in favor of religious toleration: there is no need for force
and insult, because religion cannot be compelled. The experience must
be achieved by words rather than by wounds. In this first edition of
Institutes Lactantius censured the intolerance of pagan cults and strongly
endorsed Christianity, but he did not promote the rule of a Christian
emperor or even imagine the possibility. He was writing still under
the cloud of ongoing persecution and not the sunrise of a Christian
emperor.11
During his years at Nicomedia, Lactantius had no doubt seen Constantine, who was serving as a tribune, a military officer, at Diocletians
court. Constantine himself subsequently conceded that he had been
at Nicomedia when the imperial palace had been burned in 303. In
addition, at the moment of Diocletians abdication in 305, Constantine was standing on the tribunal. Apparently the soldiers in attendance anticipated that he would be announced as one of the new
replacement junior emperors. Then Galerius, a senior emperor, sprang
10
11
Lactantius, Institutiones divinae 5.2.2, two men, 3, philosopher, 4, three volumes, 5, cult of
gods, 7, emperors, 12, instigator, 13, contradictions, with Barnes (1981) 291n.96, arguing that
Lactantius completed the first edition of Institutes in Africa in 308/309, and Digeser (1994)
4344, between 305 and 310. On Hierocles, see Digeser (2002) 48695. The identity of the
philosopher is contested; for arguments that he was Porphyry of Tyre, see Digeser (1998),
and Schott (2008) 17785.
Lactantius, Institutiones divinae 5.5.1011, deceit and hatred, 19.11, religion.

his surprise. Lactantius may have been watching in the audience as
Galerius stretched his hand backward and instead introduced Maximinus: Constantine was pushed aside. Soon afterward Constantine
left Nicomedia to join his father, Constantius, in Gaul.12
Lactantius later pamphlet about the persecutions is the best account
of details about the personalities of Diocletian and his fellow Tetrarchic
emperors. His presence at Nicomedia helps explain how he had acquired
much of this information. Not only did he refer to imperial edicts
and letters. He also claimed to know about the motives of emperors,
perhaps through contacts at court, and he noted personal details about
the emperors, most likely from direct observation. Galerius especially,
and in particular his repulsive appearance and cruel behavior, seemed
to fascinate Lactantius. In his youth Galerius had tended livestock and
been known as cowboy. As emperor he acquired a reputation for
arrogance and disruptive behavior. Lactantius assigned the outbreak of
persecution to Galerius initiative: I have learned that this was the
reason for his rage. He attributed Diocletians abdication to Galerius
threats. He claimed that Galerius was amused by pet bears, which very
closely resembled him in size and meanness. Lactantius concluded that
Galerius was himself a beast and not a Roman at all: his savagery
was alien to Roman descent.13
In his pamphlet about the persecutions Lactantius extended his narrative beyond Diocletians abdication in 305, in particular by highlighting the oppressive behavior of Galerius and Maximinus, the new
12
13
At Nicomedia: Constantine, Oratio ad sanctorum coetum 25.2. Constantine on tribunal: Lactantius, De mortibus persecutorum 19. The historian Praxagoras would claim that Constantius
had sent Constantine to Diocletians court at Nicomedia to be educated: see Photius, Bibliotheca 62. Although Praxagoras was presumably thinking of an education in Greek culture,
it would be intriguing to imagine that Constantine also had listened to some of Lactantius
lectures at Nicomedia: see Foss (1995) 182, suggesting that Constantine had been a student
of Lactantius at Nicomedia.
Lactantius, De mortibus persecutorum 9.2, beast, savagery, 10.6, rage, 18, threats, 21.56, bears,
with Van Dam (2007) 24344, for Galerius personality, and Davies (1989) 89, on Lactantius
motive for emphasizing Galerius hostility: apologetical convention, not . . . empirical evidence. Galerius as Armentarius: Aurelius Victor, De Caesaribus 39.24, 40.1, 6; also Epitome
de Caesaribus 40.15, pastor armentorum.
111
emperors in the East. The continuation of his narrative about eastern affairs hence raises questions concerning his sources and his own
whereabouts. One possibility is that he had remained as a rhetorician in Nicomedia for several more years. In 311, as he lay dying,
Galerius issued an edict that extended toleration to Christians. Lactantius noted that the edict was published at Nicomedia on April 30
and that immediately afterward his friend Donatus was freed after
six years of imprisonment. This detail might imply that Lactantius
had been there to greet his friends release. In June 313 the emperor
Licinius posted on public display in Nicomedia an official accord that
he and Constantine had negotiated earlier that year. Because Lactantius
quoted the declaration at length, perhaps he was himself still residing in
Nicomedia.14
But it is more likely that he had already left Nicomedia years earlier. The threat from the persecutions was presumably one incentive
for departing; another may have been the scarcity of students from
the eastern provinces interested in studying Latin. Instead, Lactantius
became a teacher in the West when Constantine selected him as a tutor
for his oldest son, Crispus. Lactantius, the most eloquent of all men
in his time, instructed Crispus in Latin culture. During his extreme
old age he was the teacher of the Caesar Crispus, a son of Constantine,
in Gaul. Constantine would have Crispus proclaimed as a Caesar, a
junior emperor, in March 317. By then Crispus was most likely in his
early twenties, and one possibility is that he studied with Lactantius
after his promotion. But because during the next several years he was
conducting military campaigns on the Rhine frontier, it is much more
feasible that he would have studied with Lactantius before becoming a
14
Lactantius, De mortibus persecutorum 1.1, dedication, 3435, accord, Donatus release, 48.1,
posting of Licinius declaration, with Nicholson (1989) 48n.4, suggesting that Lactantius
apology for flight in the face of persecution might have reflected his own behavior, and
Digeser (2000) 171, It is very unlikely that he was in the East in these years, let alone in
Nicomedia. In contrast, Odahl (2004) 12326, suggests that both Lactantius and Crispus
left Nicomedia and arrived at Trier in 313, Wlosok (1989) 377, that Constantine invited
Lactantius to Trier in 314/315, and Moreau (1954) 1:15n.1, that Lactantius was Crispus
teacher only after 317.

Caesar, during his earlier teen years while growing up most likely at his
fathers court.15
Constantine spent most of the first decade of his reign in northern Gaul, close to the Rhine frontier. His most important residence
was Trier, where he initiated many construction projects, including
basilicas, a forum, and an impressive circus. Just as Diocletian had
enhanced the skyline of Nicomedia, so Constantine now improved
Trier. And just as Lactantius teaching of Latin rhetoric had complemented Diocletians construction projects, so Constantine invited the
same distinguished rhetorician to teach his son. After leaving Nicomedia, Lactantius moved, eventually or more likely soon, to Trier.16
constantines court
As a teacher for Crispus, Lactantius would have had close contacts at
the court, and he now started soaking up an outlook on events that
was favorable to Constantine. This new outlook clearly affected the
interpretive perspectives in his writings. At some point he revised Institutes, his earlier book about Christian philosophy that he had written
in response to his experiences at Nicomedia. Back then Lactantius had
focused on countering paganism and the persecution of Christians by
refuting the underlying religious and philosophical justification for such
intolerance. Subsequently he learned about the nature of Constantines
rule. According to Lactantius, immediately on becoming emperor in
306 Constantine had decided to restore Christians to their worship and
their God: this was his first directive for the restoration of the holy
15
16
Most eloquent: Jerome, Chronicon s.a. 317, with Burgess (1999a) 97, derives from an
unknown source that provided Jerome with biographical notices on a number of men
well-known for their literary endeavours during the reign of Constantine. Scarcity of
students, old age: Jerome, De viris illustribus 80, with Barnes (1982) 44, Crispus age, 83, his
campaigns. For Lactantius arrival at Trier, see Digeser (1994) 51, suggesting that Lactantius
was in Constantines entourage from 310 to 313, (1997) 295, after 310 Lactantius is more apt
to have been in Trier than anywhere else, (2000) 135, probably arrived at Constantines
western court between 306 and 310. Lactantius might also have left Nicomedia because
of Galerius hostility toward eloquence and culture after 305: see Lactantius, De mortibus
persecutorum 22.4.
Building projects at Trier: Panegyrici latini 6(7).22.56.
113
religion. Teaching at Constantines court at Trier would have given

him a firsthand look at this unusual world of open religious toleration.
As a result, he inserted new invocations of Constantine at the beginning and the end of his Institutes. In the introduction to this revised
edition he praised Constantine for his religious beliefs: after rejecting
errors, you are the first of the Roman emperors to acknowledge and
honor the majesty of the singular and true God. In the conclusion he
claimed that the highest God has promoted you to restore the dwelling
of justice and to govern the human race. The powerful right hand
of God protects you from all dangers. Lactantius now rewrapped his
Institutes in a dust jacket of invocations to Constantine.17
Between 314 and 315 Lactantius furthermore composed a new pamphlet entitled Deaths of the Persecutors. Having seen the future, he
responded in Deaths to the earlier persecutions by highlighting the
painful consequences for the persecuting emperors. Diocletian had
died supposedly by starving himself, Maximian by hanging himself,
Galerius by wasting away, and Maximinus by poisoning himself. Sometimes the stately philosopher of Institutes seemed to be enjoying a bit
too much the opportunity to describe at length the gruesome deaths of
the persecutors.18
17
18
Lactantius, De mortibus persecutorum 24.9, restore Christians, first directive, Institutiones

divinae 1.1.13, the first, 7.26.11, highest God, 14, right hand. Dating the new invocations in
Institutes is contested. In the introductory invocation Lactantius hoped that Constantine
would be able to pass his rule of the Roman name to your children: see Institutiones
divinae 1.1.14. Constantine married Fausta in 307, but Constantine II, their first surviving
child (and Constantines second), was not born until 316. Digeser (1994) 4450, (2000)
134, suggests that Lactantius was anticipating dynastic succession and that he added the
introductory invocation in 310 and the concluding invocation in 313 at about the same time
that he was writing or preparing to write Deaths. In contrast, Heck (1972) 150, argues that
Lactantius added the introductory invocation in 321/324 and the concluding invocation in
324/325, Wlosok (1989) 378, that both invocations seem to refer to events of 324.
Lactantius, De mortibus persecutorum 30.56, Maximian, 35.3, Galerius, 42.3, Diocletian,
49, Maximinus. For the date of composition, note that Lactantius mentioned Maximinus
death in summer of 313 and the death of Valeria, Diocletians daughter, in late summer of 314
(De mortibus persecutorum 51.1): see Barnes (1973) 3132, suggesting before or during winter
314/315, accepted by Creed (1984) xxxiiixxxv; also Wlosok (1989) 397, zwischen Herbst
313 oder spatestens Winter 313/314 und Sommer 316.

In addition, Lactantius highlighted the emergence of Constantine
and Licinius as emperors who supported Christianity. According to
his narrative, Constantine too had been a victim of the persecuting
emperors. After Diocletians abdication, Galerius had supposedly been
reluctant to allow Constantine to travel to his father in northern Gaul,
because he worried about Constantines support among soldiers, and he
feared the exposure of his earlier attempts to make Constantine suffer
harm. Constantine nevertheless escaped and reached his father, who on
his deathbed commended him to the troops. Lactantius commented
that the hand of God always protected the man. In this telling of the
story of the rise of Constantine, his acclamation as emperor seemed to
have been a response to Lactantius own invocation in Institutes.19
In his account in Deaths Lactantius foreshortened the interval
between Constantines reunion with his father and his acclamation
about a year later, in July 306. He then included stories about Constantines claim for recognition of the legitimacy of his imperial rule from
Galerius; his negotiation with Maximian; Maximians first plot against
Constantine, who nevertheless forgave him; and Maximians second
plot, after which he killed himself. Lactantius telling of these stories
was consistently favorable to Constantine, who, he claimed, had been
completely innocent as he negotiated with his devious rivals. Although
Maximians behavior in the plots had been detestable, Constantine
had been quite unsuspecting. Despite this praise for Constantine,
however, Lactantius significantly did not identify him as a Christian
during the initial years of his reign. As emperor he had immediately
extended toleration, and he had been the opposite of a noted persecutor
like Galerius. But according to this account, Constantine had apparently not yet presented himself as a Christian. Lactantius narrative
reflected the concerns of his own preoccupations, not Constantines
later agenda.20
19
20
Lactantius, De mortibus persecutorum 24.5, hand of God.

Lactantius, De mortibus persecutorum 25, Galerius, 27.1, negotiation, 29.38, first plot, 29.4,
unsuspecting, 30, second plot, 30.6, detestable life. For the unwarranted characterization of
Lactantius as Constantines mouthpiece, note Creed (1984) 105, on the story of Constantines
escape: here more than almost anywhere in the work Lact. is the vehicle of Constantinian
propaganda, 110, on the plots: all the marks of official propaganda.
115
In Deaths Lactantius also included an account of Constantines victory outside Rome in 312. Maxentius troops seemed to be winning,
until Constantine moved his own forces closer to Rome, in the region
of the Milvian Bridge. The emperor then received advice in his sleep
that he mark the heavenly sign of God on the shields. After the battle started, Maxentius consulted the Sibylline books and accepted a
prophecy that he considered favorable. As he marched out across the
Tiber, he had the bridge demolished behind him. But when the hand
of God turned the battle against him, Maxentius retreated to the broken bridge and was pushed into the Tiber by the press of his fleeing
soldiers.21
What was the source for Lactantius account of this battle and other
recent events at Rome? Because he was most likely now teaching Constantines son at Trier, he may have had informants at the court. In
his account Lactantius noted some aspects of imperial politics and
diplomacy, including the envoys and letters that Maximinus had sent
to Maxentius to request an alliance before the battle, the discovery of
those letters by Constantine after the battle, the senates decree to confer
the title of the first name on Constantine, and Maximinus mocking
response on hearing that Constantine was to be hailed as Maximus,
greatest emperor. Lactantius might have talked with someone in
Constantines imperial entourage about this sort of official business.22
One of the oddities of Lactantius account, however, is that its perspective was more attuned to Maxentius than to Constantine. In Deaths
he had already characterized Maxentius as arrogant and stubborn,
and he had already mentioned the unrest at Rome that had led to the
proclamation of Maxentius as emperor in 306; Maxentius reinvestment
of his father, Maximian, who was then living in Campania; Severus
attack on Rome and the desertion of his troops; Galerius attack on
21
22
Lactantius, De mortibus persecutorum 44.19, battle.

Lactantius, De mortibus persecutorum 43.3, envoys and letters, 10, discovery of letters, 11, senates decree, 12, mockery. Lactantius certainly did not accompany Constantines expedition,
and he probably never visited Rome at all: see Nicholson (1999) 14. As the source for his
account of the battle at the Milvian Bridge, Creed (1984) 119, speculates that it came at
least from someone in his [Constantines] entourage. Note that Lactantius may also have
listened to the panegyric at Trier in 313.

Rome and his subsequent retreat; and Maxentius angry expulsion of
Maximian from Rome. For the years before the battle Lactantius seemed
to know more about Maxentius and his challenges at Rome than about
Constantine and his campaigns in Gaul.23
His account of the battle at Rome likewise was better informed about
Maxentius than about Constantine. Lactantius mentioned Maxentius
initial reluctance to go outside the wall of Rome, because of a fear
that he would be killed. He described the different units that made
up Maxentius army and its initial success. He noted that Maxentius
was about to celebrate the anniversary of his accession. As the emperor
was hosting games in the circus, however, the people had shouted
in mockery that he was a deserter for not engaging in battle and
that Constantine could not be conquered. Lactantius mentioned that
Maxentius and some senators consulted the Sibylline books and discovered a prophecy that on that day an enemy of the Romans would
perish. Finally, he reported the end of the battle from the perspective
of Maxentius: his army had been terrified, and he himself had fled back
to the broken bridge. When Constantine returned to Gaul in the next
year, he brought back some of Maxentius troops. Lactantius account
of the battle makes better sense if it were acquired from talking with
Maxentius former soldiers, first about the preliminary events in the
besieged city, then about the fighting. Although researched in Trier at
Constantines court, his account seems to have reflected a perspective
on the battle derived from Maxentius Rome.24
A second oddity is the brief description of Constantines decision
to mark his soldiers shields. Lactantius claimed that before the battle
23
24
Lactantius, De mortibus persecutorum 18.9, arrogant, 26.13, proclamation, 7, Campania,

811, Severus invasion, 27.18, Galerius invasion, 28.34, expulsion.
Lactantius, De mortibus persecutorum 44.1, reluctance, 2, units, 4, anniversary, 7, deserter,
circus, 8, Sibylline books, 9, end of battle. For information about another of Constantines
opponents, note that Eusebius would later receive a report about a speech Licinius had
delivered to chosen members of the soldiers in his entourage and his honored friends from
men who had heard the oration: see Eusebius, Vita Constantini 2.5.1, 5. It is not clear where
Maxentius was celebrating his anniversary, in a circus inside Rome or in the circus he had
constructed on his estate south of Rome: see Chapter 9.
117
the emperor had marked Christ on the shields by using a particular

emblem, a slanted letter C, with the top of its head twisted around.
Because his description of this emblem was notably imprecise, the text
of this particular passage has been susceptible to modern emendations.
Presumably Lactantius had actually seen some emblem that he was
trying to describe and interpret. One peculiarity is that he explained
the emblem in terms of a Greek word. If, as he claimed, the emblem
represented the name Christ, then he had presumably interpreted the C
as a chi and the bar with a round head as a rho (R), the first and second
Greek letters of Christ. Even though he was currently teaching as a Latin
rhetorician, most likely at Trier, Lactantius nevertheless interpreted
the emblem in terms of letters of the Greek alphabet. Because he
had previously been teaching at Nicomedia, he certainly knew enough
Greek to make this visual association. But among people in the Latin
West, including the soldiers in Constantines army, it is unlikely that
this was an obvious connection.25
Language was one peculiarity of Lactantius interpretation of this
emblem. Another was that the chi-rho symbol, the christogram, was
not yet in common usage when he composed Deaths. Stars that might be
interpreted as crosses first appeared on coins minted for Constantine
sometime after the battle in 312 but before early 317, although the
Christian significance of these symbols was dubious, because the coins
also celebrated the pagan deities Sol (the sun god) and Mars. In 315 and
316 coins and medallions depicting Constantine wearing a bowl-shaped,
high-crested helmet were minted to celebrate the tenth anniversary of
his reign. On bronze coins minted at Siscia and silver medallions minted
at Ticinum a monogram resembling a christogram appeared as a badge
on the crest of the emperors helmet. Even though this badge may well
have been a reminder of the victory in 312, it was not necessarily a
christogram, and it did not appear on similar coins produced at the
mints in Gaul at Trier, Lyon, and Arles. It also soon disappeared from
25
For textual emendations to the description of the emblem in De mortibus persecutorum 44.5,
see Moreau (1954) 2:43436, and Creed (1984) 119; for the possibility that the description
should be excised as a gloss, see Rouge (1978) 2122.

coins. The first coins depicting a christogram as the design on a shield
were minted at Trier in honor of Crispus in the early 320s.26
Perhaps Lactantius had indeed noticed a new emblem (whether
Greek letters or something else) on the shields of the soldiers after
their return to Trier from the Italian campaign. In that case the derivation of his story about Constantines dream was similar to the origin
of some of the stories included in Eusebius Life. Eusebius would hear
Constantines memories about his earlier campaigns after he asked the
emperor about the military standard; Lactantius heard the story about
the battle when he inquired about this battle emblem. The stories they
heard were about military successes, not about a religious conversion.
But both Lactantius and, decades later, Eusebius glossed the stories and
the military emblems in terms of Christianity.
A final oddity is that Lactantius did not make this battle the culmination of his narrative. In his early account in History Eusebius compared
Constantine to Moses and his victory at Rome to the salvation of the
Israelites. Writing at almost the same time as Eusebius, Lactantius might
have made a similar comparison in Deaths. He was certainly familiar
with the significance of Moses triumph. At the end of Institutes he had
already offered a description of the last times leading up to the end of
the world. As a preview for the inevitable fall of Rome he had highlighted the downfall of the kingdom of the pharaohs in Egypt. Gods
people had been freed from their slavery by walking safely through the
Red Sea, while the pharaoh and his army had been drowned. In Deaths
Lactantius might hence have suggested that Constantines victory likewise would liberate his people from their burdensome slavery to the
26
For the coins and medallions, see Alfoldi (1932), modified by Bruun (1962) 519: the
christogram was a Greek monogram in Latin territory. . . . It is possible, even probable, that
the christogram in 315 was known as the miraculous sign connected with the victory at Ponte
Molle, but the general public lacked the pre-requisites to draw further conclusions (p. 32);
also Bruun (1966) 37, After 320 the new helmet [with the christogram] disappears from the
obverses, 64, Christian symbolism has no place on the coins of Constantine, 197 no. 372,
christogram as shield design, and Bruun (1997), arguing that the monogram was initially a
Constantinian emblem but later reinterpreted as a Christian symbol.
119
world. After the ending of persecutions Constantines victory could

have been represented as initiating a new era for Christians.27
Instead, while Eusebius, a bishop, used a biblical analogy for Constantines battle, Lactantius, a rhetorician, thought in terms of classical
Latin poetry. In his account he glossed the combat with a line from
Virgils Aeneid about a pointless battle between Trojans and Italians,
before they blended together to become Romans. This citation from
Virgil helped explain Maxentius futility in consulting the Sibylline
books before the battle. Maxentius had indeed misunderstood his
prophecy: with his own death an enemy of the Romans had in fact
been killed. Lactantius represented Constantines battle as a Roman
victory rather than a Christian victory.28
licinius dream
The climax of Lactantius narrative in Deaths was instead the outcome
of the civil war between Maximinus and Licinius in 313. In anticipation of their confrontation Maximinus remained true to his Tetrarchic
background by making a vow to Jupiter. In contrast, Licinius had a
dream in which an angel of God taught him a prayer for his troops to
recite. Before the deciding battle in Thrace his troops recited this prayer
three times; then they were victorious with the assistance of the highest
God. After the battle Maximinus fled to Tarsus, where he killed himself
during the summer, and Licinius tracked down and killed the relatives
of previous emperors, including Diocletian and Galerius. As a persecutor in the eastern provinces Maximinus had been the true successor of
Diocletian and Galerius. In the estimation of one eastern churchman
in the late fourth century, Diocletian had been the first to discredit
Christians, Galerius had been worse, but Maximinus had surpassed
27
28
Lactantius, Institutiones divinae 7.15.23, Gods people, 4, liberate.

Lactantius, De mortibus persecutorum 44.6, citing Virgil, Aeneis 10.757. Literary allusions
certainly shaped Lactantius account of the dream and the battle: see Moreau (1954) 2:433,
suggesting that Lactantius modeled Constantines dream on the dream of Judas Maccabaeus
in 2 Maccabees 15:1116, and Nicholson (2000), that Lactantius linked eschatology and
history by thinking about the Second Coming of the Son of Man.
120
both. Maximinus would become the hobgoblin of eastern Christian

paranoia, the personification of the time of the persecutions. After
his death Christians smashed his statues and slashed his portraits. In a
pamphlet about the horrible fates of persecuting emperors, the death of
Maximinus and the annihilation of the other emperors families hence
offered a much more satisfying conclusion than the death of Maxentius
at Rome.29
Despite his departure from Nicomedia and move to Trier, Lactantius
had always remained more interested in events in the East than in the
West. Even when he quoted the joint proclamation by Constantine and
Licinius that extended toleration to Christianity, he located its publication at Nicomedia, where it had been posted by Licinius, rather than
at Constantines court. Lactantius furthermore dedicated his pamphlet
to Donatus, his friend who had suffered during the Tetrarchic persecutions in the East. Donatus too would have been more pleased to
hear about events in the East. It is hence not surprising that Lactantius
had more to say about Licinius dream before his victory over Maximinus than about Constantines dream before his victory over Maxentius. Constantine may have initiated religious toleration, but at the
time when Lactantius was writing Deaths, Licinius could be credited
with a still-greater accomplishment. For both Lactantius and Donatus,
Licinius, as the victorious emperor who had ended the threat of persecution in the eastern provinces, would have been more significant than
Constantine.30
Lactantius source for events in the East after his departure from
Nicomedia, in particular for the details of the war between Licinius and
29
30
Lactantius, De mortibus persecutorum 46.2, Jupiter, 3, angel, 11, three times, 47.3, highest God.
Gregory of Nazianzus, Orat. 4.96 (PG 35.630b), evaluation of three emperors, disfigurement
of portraits; Gregory of Nyssa, Vita Macrinae 2, time of persecutions, with Van Dam (2003a)
1518, 3439, for memories of persecution in the family of Basil of Caesarea and Gregory of
Nyssa. Maximinus statues: Eusebius, HE 9.11.2.
Lactantius, De mortibus persecutorum 48.1, proclamation at Nicomedia, 52.5, Donatus, with
Moreau (1954) 2:442, Lactance na pas insiste sur le caractère atroce de la fin de Maxence.
Cest la preuve quil ne considerait pas ce dernier comme un persecuteur, and Christensen
(1980) 24, The centre of gravity of the work is . . . the East.
121
Maximinus, is not obvious. One possibility is that he had returned to his

teaching position at Nicomedia after the proclamation of toleration for
Christians in 313. In that case he could have talked again with his friends
about events in the East as he composed Deaths. Another, more viable
possibility, however, is that Lactantius wrote this pamphlet at Trier. In
that case he would have had to rely on a written account (or accounts)
acquired quite quickly after the events. Like other notable teachers,
Lactantius too maintained an extensive correspondence. One of his
correspondents was a former student to whom he had already dedicated
a treatise composed during his stay at Nicomedia. This former student
(and similar correspondents) may well have been providing updates on
events in the East.31
As a result, Lactantius sources, oral and written, were exactly the
opposite of Eusebius sources. Eusebius could rely on oral traditions,
even eyewitness accounts, for events in the East under Diocletian,
Galerius, Maximinus, and Licinius, but he needed a written source for
events in the West under Constantine, in particular the battle at Rome.
Lactantius would have had access to oral memories at Constantines
court at Trier for contemporary events in the West, but he needed to
rely on written accounts for events in the East after his departure from
Nicomedia.
Lactantius presumably acquired information about the early years
of Constantines reign, including the battle at the Milvian Bridge,
31
Contrast Barnes (1973) 40, suggesting that Lactantius might have received copies of eastern documents from friends, with Barnes (1981) 14, arguing that Lactantius wrote Deaths
in Nicomedia as a subject of Licinius, not of Constantine. For Lactantius continuing
contacts with friends in the East, note that the list of his writings in Jerome, De viris illustribus 80, included collections of letters, among them two books of letters exchanged with
Demetrianus, his student; also Jerome, Ep. 84.7, letters to Demetrianus, with Wlosok
(1989) 402, suggesting that the collection of letters to Demetrianus was compiled in Gaul.
In the dedication of an early treatise to Demetrianus, Lactantius described himself as your
teacher: see Lactantius, De opificio Dei 1.1.
In contrast, if Lactantius did write Deaths back in Nicomedia, then he would have needed
a source for events in the West. Christensen (1980) 6264, 7276, hence speculates that he
used the now-lost Kaisergeschichte, also postulated to be a source for other fourth-century
historians writing in Latin; for discussion of the Kaisergeschichte, see Schmidt (1989b).
122
from talking with soldiers and officials at the emperors court at Trier.
Most likely Constantine himself had not been a source for Lactantius
description of the battle, the emperors dream, or other events from
the emperors life. Instead, the relationship may have been reversed,
and Lactantius books, both Institutes and Deaths, may have influenced
Constantine and his later memories of these events. In fact, Lactantius himself might have been a direct source for Constantines later
memories.
Already early in his reign Constantine had shown an interest in
philosophical and theological arguments. Studying Lactantius treatises
was perhaps a difficult project, however. Even a learned bishop of
Rome subsequently grumbled about reading them. In his estimation,
the books were far too long, thousands of lines, and there were too
many erudite digressions about metrics, geography, and philosophy that
were suited only for other scholars. But perhaps Lactantius had used
his Institutes as the basis for a series of public lectures at Constantines
court at Trier. Crispus would have listened as a student, and the emperor
perhaps as an interested auditor. As a result, in a letter to bishops in
North Africa written in the late summer of 314, Constantine seems
to have recycled some of the ideas that Lactantius had highlighted in
Institutes about disobedience to God. If Lactantius were still at Trier
while he was writing Deaths, then through reading or through listening
to orations, Constantine may likewise have become familiar with his
account of events in both East and West, including the battle at the
Milvian Bridge and the civil war between Maximinus and Licinius.32
32
Complaints of Damasus: Jerome, Ep. 35.2. After a friend asked him to compose a condensed
version of Institutes, even Lactantius conceded that he should compress the digressions
and abbreviate the verbosity: see Lactantius, Epitome divinarum institutionum praef. 1.
Constantines letter: apud Optatus, Appendix 5, with Digeser (1994), (2000) 17071, for an
excellent argument that Lactantius philosophy had influenced this letter, and Chapter 7,
discussing the context after the council at Arles. Lactantius ideas may also have influenced
Constantines Oration to the Saints, in particular the emperors interest in Virgil and the
Sibylline oracles: see De Decker (1978) 8081, Guillaumin (1978) 197, Ce Discours aura
ete redige par lempereur a` partir dun canevas fourni par Lactance, and Lane Fox (1986)
65862. Schott (2008) 11617, suggests that Constantines discussion of divine retribution on
wicked emperors (in his Oratio ad sanctorum coetum 2425) almost certainly owes something
to Lactantiuss On the Deaths of the Persecutors.
123
Eventually, of course, Constantine had to explain his own victory

over Licinius, who at the end of Lactantius Deaths had still been his
nominal ally. In Lactantius account, Licinius had had an elaborate
dream experience before his decisive battle against Maximinus, and he
had subsequently dictated a prayer for his troops to recite. Constantine may well have appropriated some of these details into his later
memories. When he eventually recounted his memories to Eusebius,
his account of the effectiveness of his battle standard had expanded to
include victories over both Maxentius in 312 and Licinius in 324. His
dream was now also more impressive than his rivals dream. Although
Licinius had seen an angel of God, Constantine would claim to have
seen Jesus Christ in person in his own dream before the battle in 312.
He would furthermore mention a prayer he had composed for his
troops, which was similar to Licinius prayer. Licinius had addressed
his prayer to Highest God, Constantine (perhaps with a better sensitivity for current doctrinal controversies) to Only God, but each
had his soldiers thank God for their victories. The most significant
difference between the prayers was the addition of an entreaty for the
safety of our emperor Constantine and his sons, Gods friends. As
usual, even in a prayer Constantine was already thinking ahead to the
establishment of a new imperial dynasty.33
Constantine had a gift for consigning his defeated opponents
to oblivion by appropriating their accomplishments. After defeating
Maxentius, he had purloined credit for his rivals monuments at Rome.
After defeating Licinius, he would trump his rivals dream and despoil
his rivals prayer to turn it into a victory ode and an endorsement
of dynastic succession. Lactantius account of Licinius victory over
33
Prayer of Licinius: Lactantius, De mortibus persecutorum 46.6; of Constantine: Eusebius, Vita

Constantini 4.20. Barnes (1981) 48, reverses the sequence by suggesting that Licinius may
have modeled his prayer on one which Constantine originally devised for his own army to
recite before the Battle of the Milvian Bridge. If so, it would be odd for Lactantius to know
about an imitation prayer at a distant battle in the East but not about the original prayer at
a battle that he had discussed with its participants. For an argument that Constantine was
familiar with Deaths, see Digeser (1997) 29293. Even though Davies (1989) 8182, argues
that Lactantius became Crispus tutor only after writing Deaths in 314315, he also suggests
that familiarity with Deaths motivated Constantine to invite Lactantius.

Maximinus, recorded in Deaths but also perhaps publicized in orations,
may well have helped shape not only Constantines subsequent actions
but also his later memories about the battle at the Milvian Bridge. In
his memories Constantine was perhaps reacting to Lactantius account
by claiming that his own experiences had been much more impressive.
The Arch in Rome

Constantine spent the winters of 313314 and 314315 at Trier, precisely the period when Lactantius was collecting information, writing
Deaths, and perhaps delivering public lectures about the end of persecution, the deaths of the persecutors, and, possibly, the emperors own
expedition into Italy. In the late spring of 315 Constantine started to
march south again into Italy. He entered Rome in mid-July and stayed
for slightly more than two months. This excursion was not another
invasion. Instead, he was returning to Rome to celebrate the tenth
anniversary of his accession. He also came to pay his respects to the
capital, its residents, and its senate.
During this visit Constantine joined in celebrating the dedication
of a large commemorative arch located on the street between the Palatine and Caelian Hills, just south of the junction with Sacred Street,
which led west into the Forum. The Colosseum loomed nearby to the
northeast of the arch; a colossal bronze statue of the sun god Sol was
directly north of the arch; and to the northwest the Temple of Venus
and Roma presided on the Velian ridge. This imposing triple arch was
almost eighty-five feet wide, almost twenty-five feet deep, and almost
seventy feet high, and it consisted of a large central passageway flanked
by a smaller archway on each side. The elaborate decorations included
many panels and sculptures, of which some had been recycled from
earlier imperial monuments and others were new for this arch.
At the top the prominent dedicatory inscription was displayed in
the center of each long side of the hulking attic, flanked by panels
depicting the emperor performing various traditional activities. Large
statues of Dacian prisoners stood next to these top panels. Over the
side archways roundels depicted the emperor in scenes of hunting and
sacrifice. A frieze of six long panels encircled the arch and depicted
125
episodes from Constantines earlier invasion of Italy and visit to Rome.

Panels with scenes of warfare were placed inside the central passageway and at the ends of the attic, and roundels of Sol, the sun god,
and Luna, the moon goddess, stared out from the short sides of the
arch. Tall columns framed the three passageways, along with reliefs of
winged Victories and other deities in the spandrels. On the bases of
the columns reliefs depicted more winged Victories as well as Roman
soldiers and barbarian captives. With its inscriptions, relief panels,
roundels, and statues the arch was an especially eloquent text about
Constantine, a panegyric of sculptures as expressive as the panegyric at
Trier.34
As an overtly honorific monument, the arch commemorated different moments in Constantines reign. One was his earlier battle outside
Rome. Inside the central passageway, short inscriptions accompanied
the panels depicting the emperor as a soldier in or after battle. By honoring him as liberator of the city and founder of tranquility, the
inscriptions recalled the consequences of his earlier victory. Another
moment was the beginning of the tenth anniversary year of Constantines accession, celebrated on July 25 concurrently with the dedication
of the arch. Yet another was the next decennial anniversary. Short
inscriptions over the side passageways linked best wishes for the current
anniversary with high hopes for the next: so the tenth, likewise the
twentieth, and with vows for the tenth, with vows for the twentieth.
The inscriptions and the iconography hence offered a succinct overview
of Constantines relationship with Rome, from his first appearance as a
victorious general in 312 to the current celebration of his tenth anniversary in 315, and on to expectation of the next celebration in ten years. To
affirm the bond between Constantine and Rome the arch remembered
34
The analysis and detailed photographs in LOrange and von Gerkan (1939), remain fundamental for interpreting the iconography of the arch; for additional photographs, see Giuliano
(1955). Perhaps there were also sculptures on top of the arch. During his visit to Rome at
the beginning of the fifth century, the poet Prudentius had observed honorific arches: see
Prudentius, Contra orationem Symmachi 2.55657, we marvel at the four-horse chariots on
the very top of an arch and at the commanders standing in the lofty chariots. Quotation
about panegyric translated from Ruysschaert (19621963) 92.
126
a near past, commemorated a joyful present, and anticipated a blessed

future.35
As a more subtle didactic text, however, the arch was designed to
define the relationship between Constantine and Rome and to shape the
emperors behavior at the capital. The preferred interpretive medium
was the reframing of history, for which the decoration on the arch
provided, first, a representation of Constantine that located him in a
longer context of comparisons with emperors from the early empire
and, second, a precisely calibrated reading of recent events, including
the invasion of Italy and the battle of 312. The message was hence
simultaneously generic, about all emperors in general, and specific,
aimed directly at Constantine himself. By stressing both earlier Roman
imperial history and current events, the arch was trying to mediate any
tensions between the expectations of the residents of a very old capital
and the intentions of a new emperor.
memories of the past

The imperial past depicted on the arch was in fact older, much older,
than the battle of 312, and through comparisons with predecessors the
inscriptions and iconography represented Constantine as a particular
type of emperor. The first concern was to insert him into the longer
narrative of good emperors who had honored Rome. Many of the panels
and roundels had been recycled from earlier imperial monuments.
The eight panels on the long sides of the attic had originally depicted
Marcus Aurelius, the eight roundels over the side archways had depicted
Hadrian, and the four panels inside the central passageway and at the
ends of the attic had originally formed one long panel depicting Trajan.
The Trajanic panels showed the emperor in battle and being crowned
by Victory afterward. The Hadrianic roundels showed the emperor
hunting a bear, a boar, and a lion or sacrificing to Apollo, Silvanus,
Diana, and Hercules. The Aurelian panels showed the emperor in scenes
of war, including his reception of prisoners, his address to soldiers, and
his preparations for a sacrifice, and scenes of peace, including his arrival
35
Inscriptions: ILS 1:156, no. 694 = Grunewald (1990) 217, no. 239.
127
at Rome, his distribution of coins to the people, and his departure from
Rome.
The designers of the iconography on the arch had many earlier panels, sculptures, and architectural marbles available for reuse, because
the construction of the massive Aurelian Wall around Rome starting in
the 270s had required the systematic demolition of older buildings and
monuments in its path. From this stockpile of salvaged building materials the designers decided to highlight specific imperial predecessors.
In late antiquity these particular second-century emperors were still
highly regarded as successful rulers. Trajan was noted for his victories
in wars on the northern and eastern frontiers, and Hadrian for his love
of culture; for his virtue and his desire to imitate the gods, Marcus
Aurelius was ranked as the best emperor. Constantine was now put in
their place. On the recycled panels and roundels most of the emperors
heads were recut as Constantine. This replacement was hence not a
condemnation of memories of bad emperors but a revival of memories of good emperors. As a result, enough background features had
to remain for viewers to know which emperors were being replaced
and renewed. By representing Constantine as the new Trajan, the new
Hadrian, and the new Marcus Aurelius, the designers of the arch were
also expecting him to behave like them.36
A second objective was to associate Constantine with Augustus, the
first emperor, and the ideals of an emperorship that respected the traditions of the old Republic. Augustus massive mausoleum was located
in the north end of the Campus Martius, in the narrows between the
Tiber and Wide Street (Via Lata), which was a continuation of the
36
See De Maria (1988) 3035, discussing a now-lost arch of Marcus Aurelius that may have been
the source of the Aurelian panels, and Coates-Stephens (2001) 23235, for the availability
of building materials recycled from old monuments as a consequence of the construction of the Aurelian Wall. Reputation of emperors: Julian, Caesares 311cd, Trajan and
Hadrian, 312b, Marcus Aurelius, 317b, Trajan, 327a328b, Trajan, 333c, Marcus Aurelius,
with Eutropius, Breviarium 10.16.3, for Julians own desire to imitate Marcus Aurelius. Evers
(1991) 793, stresses the limited recutting of the heads of Hadrian and Trajan: le sculpteur du Bas-Empire na retouche les portraits imperiaux du IIe siècle que de manière tres
partielle.

Flaminian Way from the Milvian Bridge into downtown Rome. In his
will Augustus had instructed that a copy of Res gestae, his own catalog
of his achievements, was to be inscribed on bronze tablets in front
of his mausoleum. In Res gestae he had stressed his role in restoring
the Republic by ending wars, establishing peace, and returning power
to the senate and people of Rome. Because Augustus had presented
himself as a Republican emperor, his paradigm served as a check
on the behavior of subsequent emperors, who were likewise expected
to demonstrate their reverence for the old Republic: the tombs of
deified emperors encouraged proclamations about history and identity. Constantine would have passed by Augustus mausoleum as he
entered Rome through the Flaminian Gate and then traveled south on
Wide Street, first in 312, again in 315. Another reminder of Augustus
achievements would have been the large dedicatory inscription of the
new arch, because it likewise honored Constantine for having avenged
the Republic with just arms at one time from both a tyrant and his
entire faction. The dedication cast Constantine as another Republican emperor, like Augustus, who had equally restored the senate and
people of Rome.37
This dedication was a message to Constantine from the senate and
people about the sort of emperor he should be at Rome. Because the
37
Restoration of Republic: Augustus, Res gestae 34.1. Bronze tablets: Suetonius, Augustus 101.4,
with Favro (2005) 258, for Wide Street as a carefully choreographed narrative pathway
about Augustus achievements. Quotation about tombs from Trout (2003) 524. For the
possibility that learned Christians were likewise promoting the paradigm of Augustus, note
Digeser (1998) 143: Lactantius showed how Christians could support not the new fangled
worship of Diocletian as dominus et deus but the sort of honours conferred upon the first
emperor, Augustus, the princeps Senatus.
Note that Constantine himself was thought to have joked about the accomplishments of
his imperial predecessors, presumably to enhance his own achievements. See Anonymus post
Dionem (= Dio Continuatus), Frag. 15.2, ed. Muller (1851) 199: Since Constantine wished
to diminish the accomplishments of earlier emperors, he was eager to belittle their merits
with some [disparaging] nicknames. He called Octavian Augustus a plaything of fortune,
Trajan wall ivy, Hadrian a paintbrush, Marcus [Aurelius] a buffoon, and [Septimius]
Severus . . .
129
senate had presumably taken the initiative in designing and constructing the arch and its decorations, the supervisors of the project had most
likely been the prefects of the city. After his victory in 312 Constantine had allowed Maxentius current prefect, Gaius Annius Anullinus,
to serve for another month. He subsequently appointed first Aradius
Rufinus, who served until late 313, and then Gaius Ceionius Rufius
Volusianus, who in addition held a consulship in 314 and was still serving as prefect when Constantine returned in 315. Both had previously
held high offices under Maxentius, Rufinus as consul and prefect of the
city, Volusianus as praetorian prefect, prefect of the city, and consul.
Constantine was clearly trying to win the loyalty of senators at Rome
by demonstrating continuity of officeholding. Rather than indulging
in reprisals, he reappointed some of the senators who had previously
supported Maxentius.38
In return, the prefects presided over the construction and dedication
of the commemorative arch for Constantine. Their ideas of proper
emperorship had presumably been formed while serving Maxentius,
their former patron who had emphasized his respect for the old traditions of the Republic. In fact, Volusianus had already previewed some
of these ideas when setting up a dedication and statue of Constantine in
the Forum of Trajan, probably in anticipation of the emperors return.
In the dedication he praised Constantine as the restorer of the human
race, the enlarger of the empire and Roman authority, and the founder
of eternal security. Similar sentiments appeared in the inscriptions on
the arch. Under the leadership of the prefects of the city, the senators
could suggest to Constantine their expectations about proper imperial
behavior at Rome.39
38
39
For the careers of these prefects of Rome, see PLRE 1:79, C. Annius Anullinus 3, 775,
Aradius Rufinus 10, 97678, C. Ceionius Rufius Volusianus 4, with Chapter 7, for
Volusianus possible exile.
For Maxentius at Rome, see Chapter 9. Volusianus dedication: ILS 1:156, no. 692 =
Grunewald (1990) 217, no. 241. For the didactic message, note Lenski (2008) 247: By
fashioning the arch and its inscription as they did, Rome and its Senate no doubt hoped to
nudge Constantine toward a similar interpretation of events.

The inscriptions joined with the recycled panels and roundels to represent Constantine as a Republican emperor who deferred to ancestral
traditions and their guardians, the senators at Rome. Custom and expectations about the proper behavior of emperors provided senators with
a symbolic idiom both for imagining a community of shared expectations and for integrating a new emperor into that community. Another
symbolic idiom with the potential for defining a joint community and
integrating a new emperor at Rome was the celebration of traditional
religious cults. From the perspective of senators at Rome, the Tetrarchic
emperors had all been outsiders, undereducated military men who had
been born in remote provinces and had served on the frontiers. Despite
that boorish background, however, some of the Tetrarchic emperors
had wanted to present themselves as champions of traditional cults.
The philosopher at Nicomedia who had so offended Lactantius, for
instance, had praised the emperors for defending the religions of the
gods by initiating a persecution of Christians. At Rome, when Diocletian and Maximian had visited in late 303, they had met in the Temple
of Jupiter on the Capitoline Hill, and they had erected the Monument of Five Columns in the Forum. This new monument included
reliefs depicting scenes of sacrifice, with both an emperor and senators
participating. Maximian had furthermore considered reviving the antiquarian festivals of the Secular Games. To establish their credentials as
guardians of Romanness, Diocletian and the other Tetrarchic emperors had persecuted Christians, and they had participated in traditional
cults at Rome.40
The priesthoods at Rome provided additional continuity from one
imperial reign to the next. During the visit by Diocletian and Maximian
in 303, quite likely Titus Flavius Postumius Titianus was already serving
as a priest of the sun god Sol and an augur, Betitius Perpetuus as a
flamen Dialis (priest of Jupiter), Gaius Ceionius Rufius Volusianus as
one of the experts responsible for consulting the Sibylline books, and
Gaius Vettius Cossinius Rufinus as a Palatine priest. These aristocrats
40
For bibliography on the Monument of Five Columns, see Van Dam (2007) 42n.9. For the
Secular Games, see Chapter 3; the philosopher, above in this Chapter.
131
continued to hold their priesthoods under Maxentius; they also served

as priests under Constantine after 312.41
But despite this continuity, the iconography on the arch did not
emphasize the celebration of traditional cults. Constantine had already
announced his toleration for Christians, and he may have used Christian
symbols during the battle of 312. Because of this uncertainty about his
religious preferences, an explicit appeal to traditional religious cults now
might smudge the glow of harmony between a new emperor and the
senate and people of Rome. The iconography on the arch hence seemed
to be rather circumspect about religion. Some of the appropriated
roundels and panels did depict earlier emperors, with their heads recut
as Constantine, offering sacrifice. But the architects of the arch also
had the good sense to omit a depiction of one particular sacrifice. On
the attic of the arch the architects had recycled eight large panels from
an earlier monument dedicated to Marcus Aurelius. More panels from
the same series had nevertheless been available. Among the panels they
did not use was one depicting Marcus Aurelius performing a sacrifice
in front of the Temple of Jupiter on the Capitoline Hill. During one
of his visits to Rome, Constantine himself would decline to participate
in a pagan festival on the Capitoline Hill. The architects seem to have
anticipated his reluctance and discreetly omitted incorporating this
particular panel in the decoration on the arch.42
In addition, the large dedicatory inscription was carefully bland
about religion, attributing Constantines victory merely to the inspiration of divinity and greatness of mind. This religious terminology
was not obviously pagan or Christian. It conjured up ideas about divination from the old Republic; it resembled the equally vague language
of the panegyric at Trier in 313; it was similar to Constantines own
41
42
Priesthoods: Rupke (2008) 574, no. 941, Betitius Perpetuus, 605, no. 1129, C. Ceionius
Rufius Volusianus (1), 691, no. 1705, T. Flavius Postumius Titianus, 949, no. 3470, C.
Vettius Cossinius Rufinus, and the list of priests on pp. 395402.
For discussion and a photo of the unused panel, see Koeppel (1986) 5256; photo also in De
Maria (1988) Tavola 81.3. The iconography on the arch might hence be an early example of
an attempt to classify a traditional monument in a new and neutral category of the secular,
defined as neither pagan nor Christian: see Lim (1999) 268.

indeterminate expressions in some of his recent letters. The terminology in the inscription would probably have been acceptable even to both
sides of Lactantius dual identity, as a Christian and as a rhetorician who
taught classical Latin literature.43
To situate Constantine in the generic context of ancient Roman traditions, the dedicatory inscription and the iconography on the arch
highlighted not the mutual celebration of religious cults but the imposing precedent of earlier emperors. The architects apparently wanted the
arch to emphasize the proper conduct of emperors at the capital rather
than to promote specific religious traditions. At Rome a shared history
was more important than a shared religion, and the correct behavior of
emperors was more important than their particular beliefs.
memories of the future

The arch furthermore offered an interpretive narrative of specific contemporary events, including Constantines invasion of Italy, his victory
in 312, and his earlier visit to the capital, that likewise promoted a
distinctive perspective about Rome. Locating Constantine in a longer
historical context had involved the use of panels and roundels recycled from earlier imperial monuments. In contrast, this narrative about
recent events consisted of six long panels that were new for the arch.
These panels were apparently meant to be read as a sequence, starting
with a scene of a departure on the west end, then scenes of a siege of a
city and a battle over water, that is, at the Milvian Bridge, on the south
face, then a scene of a ceremonial arrival on the east end, and ending
with scenes of a speech on the Rostra in the Forum and the distribution
of gifts on the north face.
This new iconographical narrative joined the panegyric of 313, Lactantius Deaths, and Eusebius first edition of History in offering one
43
Dedication: ILS 1:156, no. 694 = Grunewald (1990) 217, no. 239, instinctu divinitatis mentis
| magnitudine. For possible influences on the dedicatory inscription, see Grunewald (1990)
7886, discussing similarities with the terminology of contemporary panegyrics, Hall (1998),
stressing Ciceros treatise on divination, and Lenski (2008) 231, instinctu divinitatis was a
noticeably pagan way of referring to Constantines divine inspiration. For Constantines
letters, see Chapter 7.
133
of the earliest interpretive accounts of Constantines invasion and the

battle of 312. Like those literary accounts, this iconographical narrative
commented on the transformation of the emperor himself, the nature
of his emperorship, and even, discreetly, on religion. But in contrast to
those accounts, the uniquely distinguishing characteristic of this particular narrative was its intense focus on Romeness, the importance
of Rome.44
The iconography first correlated the stages of Constantines invasion
and visit with the transformation of the emperor. Constantine appeared
in five of the panels. On the panel depicting the siege the emperor was
shown standing among his troops, wearing full battle armor and Gallic
trousers. On the panel depicting the battle at the Milvian Bridge he
was again wearing armor and a sword on his left hip. After the battle he
entered the city. On the panel depicting the parade of his troops into
Rome he was shown wearing a long military cloak. Constantine was
still wearing that long cloak on the panel depicting his speech to the
people in the Forum. Standing on the Rostra with him was a crowd
of senators wearing togas. Long ago Augustus himself had ordered
that only men wearing a toga could enter the Forum. During the past
century, however, the number of soldiers stationed in or near Rome
had been increased considerably, and the city had been surrounded
by a great wall. Increasingly Rome had become no different from a
military camp. Now the iconography of the arch was suggesting that
Constantine could restore the capital as the city of the toga. On the
next panel the emperor himself was finally shown wearing a traditional
toga as he distributed coins to senators and people.45
This sequence of panels had hence demonstrated how Constantine
was expected to appear, and behave, as an emperor at Rome, not like
44
45
For discussion of Romeness during the fourth century, see Chenault (2008).
For Constantines clothing as depicted on the frieze, see LOrange and von Gerkan (1939)
6162 (siege), 67 (bridge), 74 (procession), 86 (Forum), 96 (distribution) + Tafeln 617, with
Van Dam (2007) 47. Augustus directive: Suetonius, Augustus 40.5; Rome as military camp:
Dio, Historiae Romanae 74.16.2; city of the toga: Prudentius, Peristephanon 12.56; with Busch
(2007), on the large number of soldiers, possibly more than thirty-five thousand, stationed
in or near Rome during the third century.

a provincial warlord but instead like a respectable civilian. A change of
clothes could transform a man of war from the frontiers into a man
of peace at the capital. The panels had hence inserted the battle at the
Milvian Bridge into a longer arc of the conversion of Constantine,
not a religious conversion, but a social and cultural makeover as the
emperor came to acknowledge the traditions and expectations of proper
imperial deportment at Rome.
Second, the narrative in the panels also quietly linked Constantines
military campaign with traditional deities. On the panel depicting
the departure of the troops one soldier was carrying a small statue of
winged Victory, which may well have been a replica of the statue of
Victory in the senate house. Another soldier was carrying a small statue
of Sol Invictus, Unconquered Sun. Already in Gaul, Constantine
had associated himself with Sol, sometimes in the guise of Apollo.
Dedications to and depictions of Sol were common on his coins, and
in 310 he had had a vision at a temple in Gaul in which he had seen
Apollo, or more likely himself as Apollo, accompanied by Victory,
who was offering him laurel wreaths. On the panel depicting the siege
Victory hovered over Constantines soldiers, offering a laurel wreath to
the emperor. On the panel depicting the river battle Constantine was
shown standing in the midst of deities. The goddess Roma appeared
on one side, wearing a helmet and outfitted in full battle gear, similar
to an Amazon; Victory stood on the other side, apparently extending
a garland to the emperor; and at the emperors feet was a river god.
These panels depicting the soldiers and the battles seemed to suggest
that Sol (or Apollo) had inspired and led Constantines campaign from
the beginning; that Victory had always assisted him during the battles;
and that Roma, the divine personification of the capital, had likewise
helped at the moment of his victory at the Milvian Bridge. Missing in
this narrative was any hint of the assistance of the Christian God. The
iconography instead discreetly associated Constantine and his military
success with the pagan gods of Rome.46
46
LOrange and von Gerkan (1939) 55, statues of Victory (eine Wiederholung der Victoria in
der Curia) and Sol Invictus, 62, Victory and wreath, 6667, Roma, Victory, river god. The
135
The next panel depicted the entry of Constantine and his troops into
Rome. At the rear of the procession Constantine was shown sitting in
his four-horse carriage, having just passed through the Flaminian Gate.
Although in theory emperors did not celebrate formal triumphs for
victories over rival emperors, in this case the emperor and his soldiers
were shown marching or riding on the traditional Triumphal Street.
The Triumphal Street eventually passed through the old wall by way of
the Triumphal Gate, which was also known as the arch of Domitian.
In honor of a successful campaign in the late first century the emperor
Domitian had rebuilt this gateway, in particular by placing on its crown
statues of a pair of chariots drawn by elephants. At the end of this panel
on the arch a small extension around the corner displayed the two
lead soldiers in the procession riding through this gateway, with the
elephants overhead. Over this panel was a large roundel that depicted
Sol, rising from the ocean on his four-horse chariot. This roundel of
Sol was, appropriately, on the east end of the arch. But the correlation
between the rising of the sun god and the arrival of the emperor seemed
to suggest that Constantine was entering Rome as a new Sol or a new
Apollo. His procession was not so much to celebrate a victory over a
rival emperor as to commemorate a victory for the traditional gods.47
The next two panels depicted Constantine in Rome. In combination
these panels offered a representation of the proper form of emperorship at Rome. At the heart of civic life in the capital was the Rostra, a
platform for orators at the west end of the old Forum that had become
a renowned symbol of ancient power. When Constantius, Constantines son, would visit Rome in 357, he stood on the Rostra and marveled
47
reliefs on the bases of the columns depicted more deities, including several images of Victory
and two of Sol Invictus: see LOrange and von Gerkan (1939) 10336. Sol on coins: Bruun
(1958) 36, the religious policy of Constantine, at least as mirrored in the bronze coinage
of Treveri, appears unaltered . . . from A.D. 308 to 318, (1966) 4850. Vision of Apollo:
Panegyrici latini 6(7).21.4, with Chapter 1.
Chariots and elephants: Martial, Epigrammata 8.65.9, with LOrange and von Gerkan
(1939) 74, 7980 + Tafeln 12a, Flaminian Gate, 18d, Triumphal Gate, 38a, Sol roundel. The
Triumphal Gate and its elephants also appeared on one of the Aurelian panels reused in the
attic of the arch: see Koeppel (1986) 5658, and De Maria (1988) Tavola 79.2.

at the large concentration of spectacular sights spread out before him
in the Forum. One panel on the arch depicted Constantine delivering an oration on the Rostra. To facilitate his transformation into an
emperor who would be more acceptable at Rome, the panel reminded
Constantine of various models for imperial rule that he should now
abandon.48
One was his lingering association with the ideals of Tetrarchic emperorship. At the back of the Rostra was the Monument of Five Columns
erected by Diocletian and Maximian during their visit to Rome in late
303. A statue of Jupiter was perched on top of the middle column and
a statue of the guardian spirit of each emperor on top of the four flanking columns. This Monument of Five Columns had commemorated
the twentieth anniversary of the emperors in the Tetrarchy and their
allegiance to its most important patron deity. It also memorialized the
failure of Tetrarchic emperors to connect with the people of Rome.
Despite their generosity for the capital, Tetrarchic emperors had not
been well received at Rome. During their visit Diocletian and Maximian had celebrated a joint triumph before meeting in the Temple of
Jupiter on the Capitoline Hill, and Diocletian had intended to assume
a consulship in the capital. But when he was unable to endure the
outspoken candor of the people at Rome, he was so eager to leave that
he did not even wait out a frigid rainstorm. To be received favorably at
Rome, Constantine would have to become a different sort of emperor.49
Another aspect of imperial rule for Constantine to minimize in
the capital was his close association with military force. The large
dedicatory inscription was prepared to concede that the emperor had
taken up just arms and had been victorious with his own army.
Initially the emperor had arrived in Rome as a general with his soldiers.
On the panel depicting his oration Constantine stood at the center of
the Rostra, still wearing his military cloak, with his sword hanging at his
left side under the cloak. Seven young soldiers stood in back, beneath
48
49
Constantius on the Rostra: Ammianus Marcellinus, Res gestae 16.10.13.

Depiction of Monument of Five Columns: LOrange and von Gerkan (1939) 8485 + Tafeln
14b15a. Diocletians departure: Lactantius, De mortibus persecutorum 17.23.
137
two military standards. The military standards were quite conventional,

each with an upright shaft and a crossbar supporting a hanging banner.
Although each of the standards hence resembled a cross, they were
certainly not meant as references to Christianity. Instead, because they
neatly framed the statue of Jupiter atop the middle column of the
Tetrarchic monument on the back of the Rostra, the military standards
underlined again the connection between soldiers and the pagan deities
whom Tetrarchic emperors had venerated.50
But because the Tetrarchic monument and the soldiers were in the
background, the layout of the scene in this panel implied that both the
Tetrarchic associations and Constantines reliance on military force were
now behind him. The panel instead emphasized a different model for
emperorship. Flanking the emperor at the front of the Rostra was a row
of senators, each wearing a toga, all listening intently to the emperors
speech, some lifting their right hands in a gesture of acclamation. These
senators were to serve as paradigms for imperial rule. At one end of the
Rostra was a life-size statue of Hadrian, seated and holding a scepter in
his left hand and a globe in his right. At the other end was a life-size
statue of Marcus Aurelius, also seated, holding apparently a book roll
in his left hand and gesturing with his right. Like the senators standing
on the Rostra around the emperor, these revered emperors were each
wearing a toga. The good emperors of the past had looked and acted
like senators; by implication, Constantine should do the same.51
In the final panel Constantine was depicted as having taken the hint.
Here he presided over the distribution of gifts to the people of Rome,
perhaps to celebrate the assumption of his consulship for 313 on New
50
51
Soldiers: LOrange and von Gerkan (1939) 86 + Tafeln 14b15a. For depictions of similar
military standards in the Aurelian panels, see Koeppel (1986) 57, 61, 64, 69, and De Maria
(1988) Tavole 79.2, 80.2, 4.
For the identification of the statues on the Rostra, see LOrange and von Gerkan (1939)
8284. In 310 an orator in Gaul claimed that Constantine was descended from Claudius
Gothicus, emperor during the later 260s: see Chapter 7. According to SHA, Divus Claudius
3.5, a silver statue of Claudius Gothicus had been erected on the Rostra after his death.
Bruggisser (2002) 8691, hence argues that this panel depicting Constantine on the Rostra
reinforced his new imperial pedigree.

Years Day. The emperor was sitting high on a tribunal in the middle
of a group of senators, wearing a toga. Now he resembled not only the
senators but also the seated statues of Hadrian and Marcus Aurelius
depicted in the previous panel. Other senators and ordinary citizens
stood below the tribunal, with their right hands outstretched as a sign
of acclamation or of petition. Usually magistrates distributed the actual
payments, but in this scene the emperor himself was the gift giver, the
direct source of the golden rain. In his right hand he was tilting a tray
full of the coins he was about to pour into the front fold of a senators
toga, and to his left another senator was handing him more coins. The
scene on the panel obviously highlighted the emperors generosity to the
senators and people of Rome. It is also most striking that in this scene
there were no soldiers or bodyguards. Constantine was now a civilian
emperor, sitting alone among senators as he performed a traditional
imperial obligation to the people of Rome.52
Like the accounts by the panegyrist of 313, bishop Eusebius, and the
rhetorician Lactantius, the six panels of the new frieze were early interpretations of Constantines battles and visit to Rome, designed to promote a specific agenda. The scenes on the six panels were so stylized that
they cannot be read as accurate descriptions of actual events. Because
the scenes were idealized representations of the emperors departure,
military victories, entry into the city, and public appearances in the
Forum, they were instead meant to serve as prescriptive images about
the sort of emperor Constantine should be at Rome. The designers of
the arch wanted the emperor to step away from the military force that
had earned his victory in 312 and to move beyond his earlier association
with Tetrarchic emperorship and its ideals. As a replacement model
they did not even hint at the possibility of a Christian emperorship.
Instead, they wanted Constantine to act like a civilian emperor who
52
LOrange and von Gerkan (1939) 90102, suggesting that the depicted donation might be
dated to January 1, 313: Konstantin tritt als Senatskaiser vor die Romer, als Schutzer der
altromischen Libertas (p. 102). For the usual role of dispensatores in distributing imperial
gifts, see Millar (1977) 13539. Corippus, In laudem Iustini 4.73, aureus imber, referring to
the scattering of coins at the assumption of a consulship by the emperor Justin II in January
566.
139
would be mindful of the ancient heritage of the old Republic, reverent toward traditional pagan cults, respectful of the senators and their
expectations, and prepared to follow the lead of earlier emperors like
Trajan, Hadrian, and Marcus Aurelius. The people and senate were
implying that Constantine should become a conventional Republican
emperor at Rome. The scenes on the arch were less recollections of past
events and more memories of the future.53
The iconography of the arch was hence deeply encoded with various
messages. The obvious question is whether the medium was adequate
for the messages. How effective could this iconographic text have been
for Constantine and other spectators? The first concern is the legibility
of the details of the sculptures. The Aurelian panels displayed on the
attic at the top were each slightly more than ten feet high, and the
emperors depicted in them were about life size. The Hadrianic roundels
were each almost eight feet in diameter, and the emperors depicted
in them were a bit smaller than life size. The six panels in the frieze
depicting events from Constantines invasion and visit in 312 were lower
but also smaller and extremely crowded. Each of the panels was less
than four feet high; the four panels on the north and south faces were
each between seventeen and eighteen feet long, and the two panels on
the ends each about four feet longer. The scenes on the panels were
filled with soldiers in close combat, senators in groups, and citizens
in crowds. The panel depicting the emperors distribution of gifts, for
instance, included more than fifty people. Although the emperor was
typically slightly taller than the other people, even he was comparatively
small. On the panel depicting the siege the emperor was about three
feet tall.54
53
54
A good example of the generic representation of the scenes is the uncertainty over identifying
the besieged city depicted in one of the panels. Nixon and Rodgers (1994) 303n.34, suggest
the siege of Susa, as described in Panegyrici latini 4(10).21, 12(9).5.46, LOrange and von
Gerkan (1939) 6465, Kuhoff (1991) 14546, and Cameron (2005) 92, the siege of Verona, as
described in Panegyrici latini 4(10).2526, 12(9).810.
LOrange and von Gerkan (1939) 61, for die u bergroe Gestalt des Kaisers at the siege, .92
meter tall, with the line drawings (Abbildungen 12, 1012) for the dimensions of the panels
and roundels.
140
Today modern scholars can rely on telephoto lenses and close-up

photos taken when the arch has been surrounded in scaffolding for
restoration. Back then, even though they may have had to squint,
ancient viewers could still distinguish many of the small details. The
Aurelian panels at the top had been carved in exceptionally high relief,
and the newly carved figures on the Constantinian panels would have
been quite sharp. Despite the height of the monument and the clutter of
the Constantinian panels, the details of the sculptures were nevertheless
remarkably evident.
The second concern, however, is the intelligibility of the sculptures.
How could Constantine and other spectators have deciphered the messages? To supplement the visual iconography people needed a verbal
commentary. The meaning of this panegyric of sculptures would have
benefited from a corresponding panegyric in words.
A Panegyric at Rome
The iconography of the arch was not the only medium employed by
senators at Rome. When Constantine had entered the city on the
day after the battle in 312, a delegation of senators escorted his carriage.
The senate quickly designated him as the senior emperor in the imperial
college, and it furthermore dedicated in his honor a gold statue of a goddess, probably Victory or Roma. Statues of Constantine himself, many
constructed from gold and silver, were set up in the most renowned
sites. In return, the emperor completed another bath complex, renovated the Circus Maximus, and presided at days of spectacles and
eternal games. In the senate house he delivered a speech in which he
reinstated the senates traditional authority and apparently promised
clemency to supporters of Maxentius. He also issued a formal constitution that restored privileges to the senate. After his departure the
senate and people erected a dedication to him and his fellow emperor
Licinius as liberators and restorers of public security. In addition the
prefect of the city and other magistrates erected various dedications to
Constantine. During his first visit, and afterward during the interlude
before his return, Constantine participated in a dialogue of dedications, speeches, and edicts with the senate at Rome. This relationship
141
followed the traditional pattern of reciprocity that balanced requests

and the conferral of honors from the senate, magistrates, and people of
Rome against favorable responses and benefactions from the emperor.
Despite his absence, Constantine still seemed to be behaving like a
respectful Republican emperor with regard to Rome.55
During his return visit in 315 Constantine again would have interacted with senators. Because he remained at Rome for about two
months, from late July to late September, he may have done some sightseeing. When his son Constantius would visit in 357, senators escorted
his junkets: he followed the happy senate through all the streets of the
eternal city. According to one account, Constantius visited some of
the famous buildings and monuments, including the Temple of Jupiter
on the Capitoline Hill, the Colosseum, the Pantheon, the imperial
baths, and the Forum of Trajan. He also revealed his interest in historical traditions. While sightseeing with senators, he read the names of
the gods inscribed on the pediments, he inquired about the origins of
temples, and he admired the founders. As they showed off the citys
monuments, senators would have had an opportunity to reiterate their
traditions and prerogatives to the emperor.56
Constantine too might have read the primary dedication and the
other short inscriptions on the arch. But for learning about the details of
the iconography, he would have relied more on listening than on viewing. Another opportunity for representatives of the senate to address
the emperor was the dedication ceremony for this arch during the visit
in 315. More than likely an orator (or orators) celebrated Constantines
achievements by describing the arch and its decoration. By providing
55
56
Panegyrici latini 12(9).19.1, delegation of senators, 19.6, games, 20.12, speech, 25.4, gold
statue, with the discussion of Nixon and Rodgers (1994) 331n.157, on whether the manuscript
reading of dee should be emended to dei or (more likely) deae. Senior emperor: Lactantius, De
mortibus persecutorum 44.11. Aurelius Victor, De Caesaribus 40.27, Circus Maximus, baths,
28, statues of gold and silver. Privileges of senate: CTh 15.14.4, with Seeck (1919) 6465,
dating the edict to January 313. Dedications to Constantine and Licinius: Grunewald (1990)
98100, 217, no. 240; from magistrates: Grunewald (1990) 21720, nos. 241, 245, 247, 258.
Constantius visit: Symmachus, Relationes 3.7, happy senate, names of gods; Ammianus
Marcellinus, Res gestae 16.10.1415, tour of buildings.

a commentary on the details of the iconography and articulating some
of its messages, the panegyrics would have compensated for the difficulty in trying to understand the arch by sight alone. The words of
the panegyrics would have supplemented, if not clarified, the images
on the arch. But because no oration has survived from this occasion, a
panegyric from a few years later might serve as a substitute exemplar of
this sort of expository description.
In 321 the rhetorician Nazarius delivered a panegyric at Rome in
honor of Constantine and his two oldest sons, Crispus and Constantine
II. His panegyric celebrated the beginning of the fifth anniversary year
of the sons promotion as Caesars, junior emperors, on March 1, and
he addressed his panegyric directly to Constantine. In fact, none of
the emperors was present, as Constantine, Crispus, and most likely
Constantine II were all in the Balkans. Nazarius hence had to imagine
the presence of Constantine: I seem to address you [as if you were]
present to my eyes. Even though you are far from our sight, you cannot
be snatched from our minds.57
The audience in attendance included senators, and Nazarius may
have been speaking in the senate house. The senators had not seen
Constantine since the visit in 315 that had celebrated the tenth anniversary of his accession with the dedication of the arch. Subsequently
Constantine had continued to campaign on the frontiers, and he had
also fought a recent war against Licinius in the Balkans. That war
had furthermore signaled a shift in the dynamics within Constantines
own family. Since his oldest son, Crispus, had been only a teenager, in
the buildup to that confrontation Constantine had still relied on the
support of his half siblings and a brother-in-law. Then two more sons
were born, Constantine II in 316 and Constantius II a year later. Now
Constantine could shift from dependence on half siblings and in-laws
to sponsoring his direct descendants. In March 317 he had promoted
his two oldest sons as junior emperors.58
57
58
Present: Panegyrici latini 4(10).3.1. For the date and location of Nazarius panegyric, see
Nixon and Rodgers (1994) 338.
Senate house: Panegyrici latini 4(10).1.1, in a gathering of happy rejoicing, with Van Dam
(2007) 10811, for the dynastic politics.
143
The senators at Rome certainly knew about the promotion of Constantines sons. Already in spring of 317 the prefect of the city had set up
a dedication in honor of Crispus, a son of our lord Constantine, the
greatest, unconquered, always Augustus, and a grandson of divine Constantius. The prefect made sure to describe Constantine as Maximus,
the title bestowed on him earlier by the senate.59
In contrast, in his panegyric Nazarius simply ignored Constantines recent activities, including the frontier campaigns, the war with
Licinius, and the dynastic politics. Instead, he looked back almost exclusively to the emperors accomplishments of 312. One of the important
consequences of the emperors earlier victory had been the enhancement of the senate, which now included in its membership the best
men from all the provinces. Because of the emperors patronage, the
prestige of the senate was not more illustrious in name than in fact.
During his previous visits Constantine had engaged in a dialogue of
mutual flattery with the senate. He had honored and rewarded senators
at Rome, and they in turn had represented him as a traditional emperor
in the scenes on the arch. Nazarius likewise offered a retrospective on
Constantines victory in 312 that would have appealed to, perhaps even
reflected, a senatorial perspective.60
In his narrative of Constantines Italian campaign Nazarius seemed
to be replicating the sentiments already expressed in the dedicatory
inscription and the narrative recorded in the panels on the arch. In
fact, because his perspective was both senatorial and focused on the
importance of Rome, the scenes on the arch may well have been a primary source. According to Nazarius account, after crossing into Italy,
Constantine had captured Susa, Turin, Brescia, and Verona. As he had
approached Rome, Maxentius decided to lead his troops outside the
city, where they were slaughtered. Maxentius himself had drowned in
the bloody waves of the Tiber. Nazarius description of the battles
59
60
Dedication by Ovinius Gallicanus: ILS 1:161, no. 716, with PLRE 1:383, Ovinius Gallicanus.
Prestige of senate: Panegyrici latini 4(10).35.2. For the mismatch between the date of the
oration and its content, see Nixon and Rodgers (1994) 338, the oration might as well have
been given in the same year as Panegyric 12 (i.e., in 313), 346n.13, This oration covers most
of the same events as Pan. 12, and not much else.
144
was colorful but did not offer many precise details. In particular, his
account of the battle of the Milvian Bridge is as empty of substance as
it is full of descriptive elements. Rather than providing an independent
account based on new details, Nazarius seemed to be describing and
elaborating on the initial panels in the narrative sequence on the arch.
Although he certainly had some exact information about Constantines
battles in northern Italy, he often seemed to be merely expanding the
basic iconographical narrative with stock scenes and his own imagination. Many of his comments were the equivalent of captions for the
panels.61
The next panel in the narrative sequence depicted Constantines
arrival in Rome. Nazarius described the same scene. The emperors
entrance into the city must be mentioned, and for expressing the great
joy of the senate and Roman people an oration is inadequate unless it
is itself extravagant. He continued by mentioning Constantines generosity, which a panel on the arch had also highlighted. The emperors
gifts for the city had included his patronage for construction projects.
The most celebrated [monuments] of the city shine with new efforts.
These projects included the renovation of the Circus Maximus with
new porticoes and columns.62
Nazarius furthermore deployed the terminology of the dedicatory
inscription on the arch and provided a commentary in his remarks.
On the arch the primary dedication praised Constantine for having
avenged the Republic from both a tyrant and his entire faction. In his
panegyric Nazarius consistently called Maxentius a tyrant. Until Constantine arrived, Rome had been submerged in the evils of an impious
tyranny. After his victory Constantine sent the most disgusting head
61
62
Waves: Panegyrici latini 4(10).30.1. Quotation about substance from Nixon and Rodgers
(1994) 374n.124. Note that Nazarius declined to elaborate on the events of the battle because
they were discussed by me in more detail already yesterday: see Panegyrici latini 4(10).30.2.
Perhaps he had just recently delivered another oration to celebrate Constantines birthday on
February 27: for the festival at Rome during the mid-fourth century, see Fasti Furii Filocali,
February 27, N(atalis) d(ivi) Constantini, ed. Degrassi (1963) 241.
Panegyrici latini 4(10).30.4, entrance, 33.4, generosity, 35.4, most celebrated, 35.5, Circus
Maximus.
145
of the tyrant to Africa. In addition, just as the dedication on the arch

had attributed the emperors success to the inspiration of divinity, so
Nazarius stressed the role of divinity in the military campaign. He
claimed that even before Constantines departure from Gaul armies
appeared, which announced that they had been sent ahead by divine
influence. The leader of these heavenly armies was Constantius, Constantines father, who was now divine himself. According to Nazarius,
Constantine had indeed invaded Italy with the assistance of a god.63
Nazarius use of religious terms was as neutral as the outlook
expressed in the dedication on the arch. His stories about divine assistance, including the appearance of heavenly armies from Gaul, might
well have been an elaboration of the vague reference to divinity in
the dedication on the arch. But even though Nazarius emphasized the
importance of divine leadership for Constantines success, he did not
associate that guidance with any particular religion. There was certainly no hint of a vision before the battle at the Milvian Bridge or of
a subsequent dream about Jesus Christ. In fact, the only deity whom
Nazarius mentioned by name as having assisted Constantine was his
father, Constantius. In his oration, Constantius replaces Christ; as a
result, Nazarius remembered Constantine as an imperial scion and a
military commander who was also a divine offspring. Like the iconographical narrative on the arch, his panegyric praised Constantine for
liberating Rome, not for converting to Christianity.64
With his Gallic perspective the orator of 313 had highlighted
Constantines return to the Rhine after his Italian campaign. In contrast, when speaking to an audience of senators at Rome, Nazarius
hoped for Constantines return to the capital. There is only one event
that could make Rome more happy . . . , that it see its defender Constantine and the most blessed Caesars [that is, his sons]. The orator
63
64
Panegyrici latini 4(10).6.2, tyranny, 7.3, divinity, 14.2, armies, 14.6, Constantius, 16.2, god,
31.4, head. Note that elsewhere in Italy, Maxentius reign was likewise now classified as
a tyranny: see ILS 1:267, no. 1217, a dedication at Atina in Campania to C. Vettius
Cossinius Rufinus, erected after 316: . . . in correctura | eius, quae sevissimam tyran|nidem
incurrerat.
Quotation about Constantius from Nixon and Rodgers (1994) 359n.63.
146
in Gaul had been relieved when Constantine had returned from Italy
to the northern frontier. As an orator at Rome, Nazarius hoped that
the emperor or his sons would leave the frontiers to visit the capital
again.65
Much of Nazarius panegyric hence seems to have been a commentary
on the iconographical narrative on the arch, in which he articulated
the sentiments of the senators and people about the blessings of an
emperors presence at Rome. If an emperor had actually listened to this
sort of oration, there would have been no doubt about the meaning of
the iconographical scenes on the arch. In fact, at the end of his panegyric
Nazarius was following the lead of the short votive inscriptions on the
arch by announcing his expectation that the emperors would indeed
return. Even though Constantine and his sons had not attended the
imperial anniversary at Rome in 321, Nazarius anticipated that they
would return to celebrate the twentieth anniversary of the emperors
reign.
Absence
Each of these narratives in the West offered a distinctively unique
perspective on Constantines victory at the Milvian Bridge. At Trier the
orator of 313 thought of it as a model for subsequent military successes
on the Rhine frontier. Also at Trier Lactantius contextualized the battle
in the longer historical arc of the end of persecution of Christians
in the eastern provinces. At Rome the frieze of panels on the arch
dedicated in 315 illustrated the transformation of Constantine into a
proper Republican emperor who imitated the best of his predecessors
and respected the senate. Also at Rome the orator Nazarius essentially
read the frieze panels on the arch as his source and verbalized some
of the messages inherent in its iconography. His oration may be taken
as representative of the sort of panegyric that Constantine might have
heard at Rome during his visit in 315. Excepting Lactantius, who located
Constantine in the sweep of Christian concerns, the other accounts
highlighted the consequences of the emperors presence. The people of
65
One event: Panegyrici latini 4(10).38.6.
147
Trier were happy that Constantine had returned, and they wanted him
to stay and protect the northern frontiers. The people of Rome were
happy that Constantine had visited, and they wanted him to return
and restore their ancient traditions and privileges.
During his absence on the frontiers Constantine continued to think
about Rome. In late 320, for instance, he replied from Serdica to a
report from the prefect of the city about a lightning strike on the
Colosseum by allowing the traditional consultation of a diviner. In 322
he instructed the prefect of the city to pardon criminals in honor of the
birth of Crispus child, his own first grandchild. In spring of 324, even
as he was preparing for another war against Licinius at Thessalonica,
he responded again to the prefect to ensure the supply of pigs to Rome:
pork barrel politics at its most literal!66
In return, the senate and people continued to honor him with dedications. In one erected after Constantine had defeated Licinius, they
praised him as the conserver of the Roman name, the enlarger of
his world, the destroyer of tyrannical factions, and the conqueror of
barbarian peoples. Once Constantine had defeated his final rival, the
citizens of Rome could expand the traditional language of the arch
to link Licinius with Maxentius. When the arch had been first dedicated, Constantine had recently defeated the tyrant Maxentius, and
the senate and people of Rome had praised both Constantine and
Licinius, still nominal allies at the time, for their victories over the
most hideous tyrants. After Licinius inglorious demise, however, he
too was maligned in this new dedication as just another tyrant. Now
only Constantine was worthy of traditional Republican terminology at
Rome.67
In July 326 Constantine did return to Rome for a third visit, this time
to celebrate the end of the twentieth-anniversary year of his imperial
66
67
CTh 9.38.1, pardon, 14.4.2, pork, 16.10.1, lightning strike, with Jones (1964) 7024, on the
supply of pork at Rome.
Dedication to Constantine and Licinius: Grunewald (1990) 98100, 217, no. 240, dated
between 313 and 316. Dedication to Constantine: CIL 6.8.2:4551, no. 40768a, factionum |
[ty]rannicarum extinctori, dated to 324.
148
tenure. In the previous summer he had been busy with attending a

council of bishops at Nicaea, and he had celebrated the beginning
of this twentieth-anniversary year in Nicomedia. Because emperors
typically marked only the beginnings of their decennial anniversaries,
this celebration at Rome was an exceptional distinction. During his
visit Constantine seemed to follow the recommendations of both the
iconography of the arch and the hints of an orator like Nazarius, in
particular by minting at Rome a large gold medallion that paired a bust
of himself on one side with a representation of the senate on the other.
Nazarius comment about the significance of the emperors presence
would have been applicable to this visit too: Rome, you finally felt
that you were the garrison of all peoples and the queen of all regions.
In the ancient capital Constantine again was behaving like an ideal
emperor of old, respectful of the traditions of the Republic and its
guardians in the senate.68
Recent events nevertheless cast a shadow over this visit to Rome.
First, earlier in 326 Constantine had ordered the execution of his oldest
son, Crispus, in murky circumstances. At Rome he was informed about
the possible role of his own wife, Fausta, in plotting against Crispus,
and he compelled her to commit suicide. These dismal losses motivated
Constantine to think again about his plans for dynastic succession. In
part he reverted to earlier arrangements, because during his visit to
Rome he may have been accompanied by two of his half brothers.
The influence of the half brothers was again on the rise, and by the
mid-330s each would hold a consulship, and the son of one would
join Constantines three remaining sons as designated successors. During this visit to Rome dynastic succession had become an overriding
concern.69
68
69
Gold medallion: Bruun (1966) 326, no. 272, with the suggestion of Alfoldi (1947) 1215, that
the image on the reverse was not the emperor but, in accordance with the legend (senatus), a
personification of the senate, wearing a toga and holding a globe and a scepter: the Emperor
acknowledges once more the high aspirations of the old Capital (p. 13). Rome: Panegyrici
latini 4(10).35.2.
Plotting at Rome: Zosimus, Historia nova 2.29.12. Half brothers: Libanius, Orat. 19.19,
with Wiemer (1994a) 517.
149
Second, even at Rome not everyone was thinking of Constantine

as a Republican emperor. Other images of emperorship were also in
circulation. At Saepinum in south-central Italy a dedication erected
in honor of Constantine shortly after the battle at Rome in 312 had
hailed him as the restorer of public liberty, begotten of the gods. This
dedication continued to represent the emperor in Tetrarchic terms as a
descendant of the traditional gods. In 325 Constantine had celebrated
his twentieth anniversary in Nicomedia. Because Nicomedia had once
been the favored city of Diocletian, Constantine might have seemed
to be reviving aspects of Tetrarchic-style emperorship, in particular its
identification of emperors as gods. During the celebration Constantine
had hosted a banquet for churchmen. At least one of the bishops who
attended that banquet, Eusebius of Caesarea, was prepared to compare
the festivities to an image of Christs kingdom. Even though Eusebius
was of course grateful that Constantine was a Christian emperor, he was
nevertheless still imagining him within an old Tetrarchic framework
that had linked emperors with deities. Although the Tetrarchy was
defunct, images of Tetrarchic emperorship long continued to shape
notions of Christian emperorship.70
At Rome too the top magistrate would have been thinking about
Constantine as some sort of Christian emperor. During the emperors
visit in 326 the prefect of the city was Acilius Severus. Because Severus
was a correspondent of Lactantius, he was most likely a Christian
himself. Despite holding this traditional office, he may hence have
preferred to highlight Constantines support for Christianity over his
connections with Roman traditions. An older Tetrarchic framework,
a new Christian perspective: during this visit other models of emperorship may have competed with Constantines previous tendency to
behave like a Republican emperor at Rome. Constantine himself, as
well as the citizens of an Italian town, bishop Eusebius in Palestine,
70
Dedication at Saepinum: Lannee epigraphique 1984 (1987) 94, no. 367 = Grunewald (1990)
222, no. 272, dated between the battle at Rome and circa 315. Banquet: Eusebius, Vita
Constantini 3.15.2.
150
and a prefect of Rome, was searching for a new way to think about his
emperorship.71
As a result, the visit in 326 apparently did not go well. This may
have been the visit during which Constantine declined to participate
in an ancestral festival on the Capitoline Hill, the religious center of
the city. His refusal deeply upset the senate and the people of Rome.
This visit may also have been the occasion when the people mocked
him with shouts of ridicule, and they may have pelted an image of
the emperor with stones. Something had gone awry in Constantines
relationship with the old capital. He himself apparently tried to shrug
it off by insisting that emperors were supposed to tolerate being the
butt of laughter: he is noted for enduring the boorish behavior of
the Roman people. But during this visit Constantine somehow lost
his reputation for acting like a proper Republican emperor. His stay at
Rome was hence short, most likely only a few weeks. By the time he
departed, he had made the senate and people hate him.72
Constantine might have returned to make amends during the celebration of the thirtieth anniversary of his reign, either in July 335 for
the beginning of the anniversary year or July 336 for the end. In 334,
presumably in anticipation of such a visit, the prefect of the city set up
dedications that revived the traditional terminology by thanking the
emperor for having expanded the Republic and the city of Rome. One
of the dedications most likely accompanied a new equestrian statue
of Constantine in the Forum. In the mid-330s cities in Umbria sent a
petition to Constantine requesting that they be allowed to construct a
new temple at Hispellum (modern Spello) in honor of the emperors
dynasty. Because they noted that Hispellum was next to the Flaminian
Way, the main highway connecting northern Italy to Rome, they too
were clearly anticipating that Constantine might stop and view the new
71
72
Correspondence with Lactantius: Jerome, De viris illustribus 111, with PLRE 1:834, Acilius
Severus 16.
Libanius, Orat. 19.19, laughter, shouts, 20.24, boorish behavior, with Wiemer (1994a) 517
18, (1994b) 47579, dating this discontent during Constantines visit in 326. Stones: John
Chrysostom, Homiliae de statuis 21.11 (PG 49.216), although not locating the episode in a
particular city. Festival, hatred: Zosimus, Historia nova 2.29.5.
151
temple when he next returned to the capital. In the last year of his reign
Constantine and his sons commended the new prefect of Rome in a
gracious letter addressed to the consuls, the praetors, the tribunes of
the people, and their senate. In their correspondence the emperor, the
magistrates and senate of Rome, and the people of central Italy all still
maintained the pretense of proper Republican language.73
But Constantine never returned to Rome, or even to central Italy.
After his departure in 326 he conducted more campaigns on the Rhine
frontier and in the Balkans. Despite the disapproval inherent in the
panels on the arch at Rome, Constantine remained closely linked to his
troops. In fact, in the letter to the magistrates and senate at Rome he
and his sons politely introduced themselves by noting that we and our
armies are well. Constantine also spent increasingly more time in the
East. One favored residence was Constantinople, which was formally
dedicated in 330. Constantine celebrated both the beginning and the
end of the thirtieth-anniversary year of his reign at Constantinople.
After his death in 337 he was buried in the new capital. At Rome the
senate and people had already anticipated performing the usual ritual of
consecration for a dead emperor by dedicating a portrait that depicted
Constantine enjoying an ethereal repose above the arches of heaven.
But when they heard that he was not going to be buried in Rome, the
people were frustrated and angry.74
Constantines relationship with Rome had started with high hopes,
had peaked with the dedication of the arch, and had declined in mockery and resentment. In the end, he had always been more concerned
about the support of the army and more interested in campaigns on
73
74
Dedications by Anicius Paulinus: ILS 1:157, no. 698, CIL 6.1.237, no. 1142 = Grunewald
(1990) 218, nos. 24243, with Verduchi (1995), on the equestrian statue. Petition from
Umbria: ILS 1:15859, no. 705, and Gascou (1967) 61012, with the discussion in Van
Dam (2007) 1934, 5357, 36367. Letter from Constantine and his sons: CIL 6.8.2:4555,
no. 40776.
Portrait: Eusebius, Vita Constantini 4.69.2. Reaction of people: Aurelius Victor, De Caesaribus
41.17, with Price (1987), on the traditional role of the senate in passing posthumous judgment
on emperors. The senate nevertheless recognized Constantines apotheosis by granting him
the title of divus: see Bruun (1954), for the coins, and Amici (2000), for the inscriptions.
152
the northern frontiers. His failure to be buried at Rome seemed to

memorialize a final snub to the old capital.
Twilight
The iconography on the arch at Rome had recalled ancient imperial
history, in particular the idealized emperors of the second century,
even as it had memorialized current events, in particular Constantines
invasion of Italy and visit to the capital in 312. At the moment of its
dedication the arch had been a reassertion of the preeminence of Rome,
as contemporary circumstances seemed to intersect with a living past.
The arch seemed to imply that Rome could be again in the fourth
century the same important capital and imperial residence it had been
in the early empire.
Then, over time, the arch became a relic of a lost past that no
longer corresponded with present circumstances. As the memories of
Constantines visits faded, he became just another of those ancient
emperors, and the once-current events associated with his initial visits
lost their specific references and assumed a more timeless significance.
Like the other panels on the arch, the series of panels in the new
Constantinian frieze could also be read as a depiction of an idealized
relationship between emperors and the old capital.
The significant characteristic of this relationship was the oscillation
between extended campaigns on the frontiers and occasional visits to
Rome. In this perspective the panels in the frieze on the arch were to
be read no longer as a onetime linear sequence with a clear beginning
on the frontiers and a clear end at Rome but as a continuous timeless
cycle of battles on the south side, an arrival at Rome on the east side,
activities at Rome on the north side, and a departure on the west side,
followed by more battles before another return to Rome and so forth.
The circularity of the frieze was intended as a reminder for all emperors
that, even though they might depart, they were still expected to keep
on returning.
Of course, leaving Rome implied that emperors had first arrived.
Soon, however, emperors no longer maintained this cycle, and
intermittent stopovers were the best Rome could hope for. During the
153
fourth century Maxentius was the last significant emperor to choose

Rome as his primary residence. Constantine did visit Rome three times,
but those visits added up to a residence of only five total months in a
reign of more than thirty years. After his visit in 326 he did not return
during the final eleven years of his reign. The next emperor to visit
Rome was one of his sons. Even then that son was not one of the
two sons whom Nazarius had hoped for in 321. Crispus campaigned
primarily on the northern frontiers, both in northern Gaul and in the
Balkans, and Constantine II eventually resided at Trier. Neither ever
visited Rome. Nor did Constans, even though Italy was a part of his
portion of the empire after Constantines death. Instead, Constantius
would celebrate the next imperial visit to Rome. As a young boy Constantius had accompanied his father to Rome in 326. But he too would
then disappear from the capital for decades until returning in 357. By
then he had already been reigning as a senior emperor, a successor to
his father, for twenty years. Visiting Rome had clearly not been high
on his list of priorities.75
In 312 Constantine had departed from a frontier city in Gaul to
fight his way through Italy to Rome. On the arch at Rome a panel in
the new frieze commemorated that departure, because it had implied
that the emperor would soon be arriving in Rome. At the time that
panel of departure had marked the beginning of Constantines progress
toward Rome. In the long run, however, the panel depicting a departure seemed to mark the end of any emperors visit to the capital, no
longer a departure for Rome but now a departure from Rome. By previewing the diminishing significance of the capital for emperors, the
panel had become a statement about Rome itself. Now the sadness of
departure overwhelmed the joy of arrival, and the arch seemed to be
75
For the possibility that Constantius was already with Constantines court in 321, see Panegyrici
latini 4(10).36.1, mentioning the most noble Caesars and their brothers; for his visit to
Rome in 326, Barnes (1982) 85. For Constans and Rome, see Van Dam (2007) 73, 11617. Note
that in the mid-fourth century the people of Rome were still celebrating the anniversary of
Constantines departure from Rome in 315: see Fasti Furii Filocali, September 27, Profectio
divi, ed. Degrassi (1963) 255.

more poignant than hopeful, a remembrance of a lost past rather than
an anticipation of a glorious future.76
The panel depicting the emperors departure was displayed on the
west end of the arch. Over it was a large roundel that depicted Luna,
the moon goddess, and Hesperus, the evening star. The rising sun
associated with Constantines arrival on the other end of the arch was
now setting, and after his reign absence was the common characteristic
of the relationship between emperors and the capital. Now twilight
seemed never to end at Rome.77
76
77
For the suggestion that the artist Raphael understood the panel on the west side of the arch
as a depiction of a departure from Rome, see Fehl (1993) 39, with Chapter 2.
LOrange and von Gerkan (1939) 16465 + Tafel 38b, roundel of Luna.
ROME AFTER THE BATTLE

CHAPTER SEVEN
iii
uring the early years of his reign constantine had

campaigned in Gaul and Britain and resided primarily in
Trier. In 310, in the emperors presence at Trier, an orator celebrated the successful outcome of his recent confrontation
with Maximian, one of the original Tetrarchs. Despite his abdication
in 305, Maximian had returned to imperial rule to help his son, Maxentius, who had become an emperor at Rome in 306. That assistance had
included an alliance with Constantine, who was himself looking for
support. Because he had been proclaimed as an emperor by his fathers
troops in Britain, his accession had defied the wishes of Galerius, the
current dominant senior emperor in the Tetrarchy. Even after Galerius
had begrudgingly recognized him as a Caesar, a junior emperor, in the
Tetrarchy, Constantines position was still shaky. In 307 he married a
daughter of Maximian, who then sanctioned his new son-in-laws rank
as an Augustus, a senior emperor.1
This alliance with the dissident dynasty of Maximian and Maxentius
soon became a liability, however. After a confrontation with his son
1
Acceptance by Galerius in 306: Lactantius, De mortibus persecutorum 25.
155
156
at Rome, Maximian fled to his son-in-law in Gaul. But at a summit

meeting in 308 Maximian had to retire again as emperor, and Galerius
again accepted Constantine as a Caesar. In 310 Maximian challenged
his host son-in-law and tried to buy the loyalty of troops in southern
Gaul. Although Constantine soon suppressed this uprising at Marseille,
the threat remained until Maximians shameful death.
In his panegyric this orator hence had to discuss these recent political events very carefully. Not only did he want to disguise the seriousness of Maximians challenge to Constantines imperial rule. He
also had to downplay Constantines own earlier defiance toward his
fellow Tetrarchic emperors. Despite his eventual inclusion among the
four acknowledged emperors in the official Tetrarchy, one characteristic of Constantines early years had been a series of apparent affronts
to the principles of harmony and hierarchy that defined Tetrarchic
emperorship.2
Even as the orator conceded some innovations, he nevertheless
presented Constantine as loyal to Tetrarchic expectations. Tetrarchic
emperors had identified themselves with traditional gods, in particular
Jupiter and Hercules. The orator reiterated that pattern but emphasized that Constantines patron deities were his own ancestors. One
such divinity was divine Claudius. The revelation that Claudius
Gothicus, a rather nondescript emperor of the later 260s, had been an
ancestor provided Constantine with a claim on imperial rule that predated Diocletian and the establishment of the Tetrarchy. Another divine
supporter was his father, Constantius, an emperor on earth but a god in
heaven. After his death Constantius had been welcomed to heaven by
Jupiter himself, who extended his right hand, and in the council of the
gods he had voted for his son to succeed as emperor. After Constantines
victory over Maximian the god Apollo had emerged as another of his
patrons. During his return to northern Gaul, Constantine had stopped
at a temple, where in a vision he had seen Apollo essentially identified
On the changes in Constantines rank, see Grunewald (1990) 1361, and Humphries (2008a).
rome after the battle
157
with himself. According to this panegyrist, Constantines patron deities

included a distant imperial ancestor, his own father, and Apollo.3
The emphasis on hereditary succession challenged the Tetrarchic
preference for selecting the best men as new emperors, and Apollo had
not been one of the most prominent gods associated with Tetrarchic
emperors. Yet in 310 this Gallic orator had understated the novelties to
present Constantine as a Tetrarchic-style emperor. The institutions and
values of the Tetrarchy still defined a dominant style of imperial rule.
Three years later, however, a Gallic orator at Trier omitted even any
hints of Tetrarchic imperial rule. Because Constantine had recently
returned from his invasion of Italy, the orator instead highlighted his
liberation of Rome and his restoration of the Republic: res publica
restituta. In his panegyric the orator included many references to key
figures from the old Republic as either admirable or shameful exemplars,
such as Horatius, a heroic defender of Rome; Scipio and his reputation
for speedy military actions; the warlords Cinna, Marius, and Sulla;
Pompeius Strabo, who had founded a colony in northern Italy; Cicero
and his devotion to Italy; and Julius Caesar, who had destroyed a Greek
city. Even if in an unflattering reference, the orator also mentioned the
naval victory at Actium that Augustus would highlight as the beginning
of his own restoration of the Republic.4
In the representations offered by these orations, between 310 and 313
Constantine had been converted or rather, his style of emperorship
had been converted from Tetrarchic to Republican. The transforming
event was of course the emperors invasion of Italy and his first visit
to Rome. While at the capital, Constantine too could not escape the
gravitational pull of traditional notions of Republican emperorship.
3
Panegyrici latini 6(7).2.12, divinity, divine Claudius, 4.2, emperor on earth, 7.3, right hand,
21.34, vision of Apollo, with Van Dam (2007) 8485, 98100, and Chausson (2007) 2595,
on the new pedigree.
Panegyrici latini 12(9).1.1, Republic, 6.1, Caesar, 8.1, Pompeius, 10.1, Augustus, 15.3, Scipio,
18.2, Horatius, 19.5, Cicero, 20.321.1, Cinna, Marius, Sulla, with additional discussion
in Chapter 6, and Nixon and Rodgers (1994) 291, on the viewpoint of this panegyric:
Constantine is less of a Tetrarch.

The sheer magnificence of Rome was still a powerful influence to
behave like a Republican emperor.
During his residence at Rome, Constantine also acknowledged other
influences. One was Christianity. He corresponded with churchmen,
intervened in ecclesiastical affairs in Africa, and funded the construction of new churches at the capital. Another important influence was
classical culture. The letters that Constantine exchanged with a senator
at Rome highlighted literary allusions but not religion. Perhaps the
most important influence was his relationship with the army. He had
entered the city in the company of his troops, and he soon constructed
a large commemorative arch north of the city to celebrate their victory.
In the aftermath of the battle at the Milvian Bridge, Constantines
top priority was not necessarily the promotion of Christianity, or even a
declaration of his own Christianity. Instead, he was also pondering the
traditions of the capital, the value of classical culture, and, especially,
the role of the army and military affairs. Previously he had been strictly
a frontier emperor; now he was emperor at Rome. An empire that
included Rome compelled Constantine and others to think differently
about his emperorship.
Porfyrius the Poet

Constantine entered Rome on October 29, the day after the battle,
and stayed for more than two months until January. During this visit
he exchanged letters with Publilius Optatianus Porfyrius, an aristocrat
at the capital. Porfyrius was probably already a senator, and he had
perhaps already composed some learned poems at the request of a
consul. He served as proconsular governor of Achaea, the province that
corresponded to the southern part of the Greek peninsula. He may also
have been a supporter of Maxentius at Rome. But once Constantine was
victorious, Porfyrius seems immediately to have switched his allegiance.5
5
Most of the details about Porfyrius life are speculative. He wrote Carm. 21 at the request of
Bassus, who might be identified with Caesonius Bassus, consul in 317, or with Junius Bassus,
consul in 331: see PLRE 1:15455, Caesonius Bassus 12, Iunius Bassus 14, with Barnes
(1975a) 183. In verses woven into an intertextual pattern in this poem Porfyrius identified
159
Porfyrius apparently initiated contact by sending Constantine a panegyrical poem, to which the emperor replied in a complimentary letter.
Constantine noted that even though Homer had been the greatest of
the Greek poets and Virgil the best of the Latin poets, it was still possible for poets from a later age to enjoy the reward of favor. In
fact, the emperor then emphasized his more general support for intellectual pursuits: in my age a sympathetic hearing, similar to a gentle
breeze, honors writers and orators. Constantine was especially pleased
that Porfyrius had preserved the old traditions of versifying while still
introducing some innovations. In particular, he admired the poets skill
at inserting additional lines of verse in patterns of letters woven vertically and diagonally through the other lines. In the panegyrical poem
himself: I, Publilius Optatianus Porfyrius, played with these [verses] by composing every
type of meter for you, most honorable Bassus. As a result, Polara (1973) 2:13637, suggests
that Carm. 21 may have been Porfyrius first poem. The recipient of Carm. 22 was a consul:
see Carm. 22.33, te consule. Seeck (1908) 270, suggests that Carm. 22 was one of Porfyrius
earliest poems and that this anonymous consul might also have been Bassus; in contrast,
Polara (1973) 1:xxixxxx, argues that Carm. 22 was spurious, composed instead during the
Middle Ages.
The city of Sparta commemorated Porfyrius proconsulship of Achaea by erecting a statue,
paid for by a local patron: see Feissel (1985) 284, no. 22, for the text of the dedication. The date
of his proconsulship is quite uncertain, however. The wide spectrum of possibilities includes
perhaps before 306 under an eastern Tetrarchic emperor, or perhaps under Constantine after
the emperor acquired control over Greece and the Balkans in 317, or perhaps after Porfyrius
return from exile in 324 or 325 but before his first tenure as prefect of Rome in 329: for
arguments, see Barnes (1975a) 17576.
Porfyrius association with Maxentius is equally provisional. Maxentius once compelled
senators to make contributions under the guise of gifts: see Aurelius Victor, De Caesaribus
40.24. The name of Publilius Optatianus was included in a list of seven senators inscribed
on a fragment found at Rome: ed. Groag (1926) 102 = CIL 6.8.3:5049, no. 41314. This list is
perhaps to be linked with another list of senators and their contributions: ed. Groag (1926)
105 = CIL 6.4.3:3815, no. 37118. The dating of the lists and their significance for Porfyrius
career are contested. Groag (1926), identifies the senators as priests who had funded the
construction of a temple under Maxentius, PLRE 1:97678, C. Ceionius Rufius Volusianus
4, specifically as septemviri epulonum, members of the college of priests responsible for
arranging meals in honor of Jupiter and other gods, Cullhed (1994) 72, as contributors to the
state under Maxentius, and Rupke (2008) 605, no. 1129, C. Ceionius Rufius Volusianus (1),
862, no. 2859, Publilius Optatianus Porfyrius, as members of a prestigious college of priests
who had shared a common dedication.

presented to the emperor, Porfyrius had highlighted these intertextual
lines in color, producing a glorious illuminated manuscript that could
be both read and viewed: the interwoven pigments of the colors delight
the sensations of the eyes. Constantine concluded by announcing his
seal of approval for both poem and poet: this gift of your composition
was therefore welcome to me.6
In his letter of reply Porfyrius profusely thanked Constantine for
the honor of your tireless clemency. Porfyrius knew that the emperor
was very busy in the aftermath of his recent military campaigns with
celebrating his triumphs and laurel wreaths and issuing the declarations of laws and statutes. But he was also impressed and grateful
that Constantine had nevertheless taken time to announce his support
for literature and oratory: you applaud the Muses as your friends.
Porfyrius could hence claim that in contrast to other poets he had
found the inspiration for his poem not at some sacred grove or through
6
Constantine, Epistula 1, Homer and Virgil, 2, later age, reward, 6, saeculo meo, 9, old and
new, 11, pigments, 12, gift. In the salutation of his letter Constantine used Maximus, the
title voted to him by the senate soon after his victory over Maxentius; Porfyrius used the same
title for the emperor in the salutation of his letter: see Chapter 6, with Barnes (1975a) 185, the
letter was written in November/December 312, and Corcoran (1996) 152. For the debate over
the sequence of the two letters, see Kluge (1924) 347, suggesting that Porfyrius was replying to
Constantine. Porfyrius may have recited the panegyrical poem to Constantine before sending
him the manuscript, because in his letter the emperor mentioned the goodwill for your work
that you sought from my ears: see Constantine, Epistula 14. For the controversy over the
authenticity of the letters, see Millar (1977) 472n.46, rejecting the suggestion of Polara (1973)
1:xxxixxxii, 2:1920, that the letters were medieval forgeries.
Porfyrius panegyrical poem of 312 is not extant. But a hint of its opinions about Constantines victory at Rome and subsequent acquisition of North Africa might have been recycled
in Carm. 16.1321: When the peaceful Roman citizens see a thousand triumphs over enemies, when they see all your regions filled with goodness, Constantine, they will believe that
nothing is more precious to themselves than you, the splendor of the world. With you as
lord, the people of Carthage rejoice that they have always been kept safe by your right hand
of vengeance. In these tranquil times Africa is more precious to the city [Rome] and enjoys
a safe peace. Because Carthage displays its ancient splendor, Africa properly thinks that now
it is fortunate, that now it is protected within the citadel of a divinity. Polara (1973) 2:97,
suggests that the comments about Africa referred to Constantines victory over Maxentius;
Seeck (1908) 26870, concludes that Porfyrius was himself a native of North Africa, if not of
Carthage.
161
some intoxicating potion but in the eternal happiness of your name.

He also seemed to hint that he could repay the emperors goodwill only
by composing more panegyrical poems.7
Porfyrius sigh of relief is still apparent in the flattery of his letter to
the emperor. He had presumably been quite worried about Constantines reaction on entering Rome. Even though he had sent his panegyrical poem with apprehension to the emperors victorious hands,
he had hoped that Constantine would read it with your gentle eyes.
The emperors gracious letter had allayed his fears. In fact, Constantine was favorable also to other supporters of Maxentius, including
some top magistrates whom he reappointed as prefects of Rome and
who most likely subsequently helped supervise the construction of the
commemorative arch dedicated in 315. That arch would attempt to
define Constantines emperorship in terms of the traditions of the old
Republic, the precedents of earlier emperors who had respected those
traditions, and the prestige of the senators who were the guardians of
those traditions.8
In contrast, in his letter of appreciation Porfyrius had not approached
Constantine by highlighting those senatorial and Republican traditions.
Instead, he had wanted to emphasize classical culture. Rulers had always
been expected to show their regard for culture, and in particular for
the orators and poets who could depict their exploits in the proper
literary genres and extol their accomplishments in public performances.
Constantine himself eventually acquired a reputation for nurturing the
fine arts, in particular the composition of literature. Porfyrius hence
represented himself to the emperor not as an apologetic senator but as
a supportive poet. In addition, notably missing from this exchange of
letters was any interest in religion. Porfyrius did mention the lyre of
Apollo and the temples of the Muses but as cultural icons and not as
7
Porfyrius, Epistula 1, clemency, 3, happiness, 6, triumphs, laws, Muses. In Epistula 3 Porfyrius

noted that another incentive for writing was the multiform repetition of your name. This
comment might imply that he had repeated Constantines name in the intertextual lines of
the poem, as he would do in later poems.
Porfyrius, Epistula 2, hands, eyes, with Chapter 6, on the arch.

deities for religious veneration; Constantine mentioned no gods at all.
The emperor in fact seemed to have been pleased instead to have the
opportunity to demonstrate his own familiarity with classical allusions
and his own facility for replying in purple prose. Despite any previous
political disagreements or current religious differences, they could now
bond over classical culture. A shared appreciation for culture would
overcome the horrors of the recent battle outside Rome and the anxiety
of the senators waiting inside for their new overlord.9
Porfyrius had hence survived the immediate aftermath of Constantines victory, in part through a direct appeal for clemency that defined
their relationship in the neutral terms of culture. Subsequently, however, Porfyrius went into exile. Even though he later claimed that he
had been exiled by a false accusation, he may have been disqualified
from holding offices, and he may also have had to leave Rome. But
he was not alone among Roman senators in being exiled. One senator,
even after holding two consulships, was forced into exile by a decree
of the highest order, the senate. This senator may have been C. Ceionius Rufius Volusianus, who had served as prefect of Rome and consul
under Maxentius and subsequently held the same offices again under
Constantine. Volusianus erected a dedication and a statue of the new
emperor, and he was serving as prefect of Rome when Constantine
returned in July 315. Despite his rank and prestige, however, Volusianus
seems somehow to have lost support, because he was replaced as prefect in late August while Constantine was still in Rome. His successor
as prefect of Rome was C. Vettius Cossinius Rufinus, another former
officeholder under Maxentius.10
9
10
Porfyrius, Epistula 3, Apollo, 8, temples of Muses. Nurturing: Epitome de Caesaribus 41.14.

Constantine subsequently revealed his appreciation of acrostics and allegories in an extended
exegesis of a Sibylline oracle and one of Virgils Eclogues in his Oratio ad sanctorum coetum
1820. Although the date and location of this oration are disputed, Edwards (2003) xxix,
argues that it was delivered to former subjects of Maxentius in Rome in 315; see also Van
Dam (2007) 294n.14, for other suggestions about date and location, and Girardet (2006b)
7680, proposing Trier in 314.
False accusation: Porfyrius, Carm. 2.31, falso de crimine. Firmicus Maternus, Mathesis
2.29.10, exiles of senator and his son, adultery, 13, decree. For Volusianus dedication and
the rehabilitation of Maxentius supporters, see Chapter 6.
163
This abrupt replacement hints at the possibility of infighting among

former supporters of Maxentius who were now rivals for Constantines patronage, first during his visits in 312 and 315, then during his
subsequent extended absence. Already in 312, only one month after he
entered Rome, Constantine issued an edict imposing harsh penalties
on informers: the tongue of envy is to be amputated at its roots and
ripped out. He had this edict posted in the Forum of Trajan, which
was becoming a central site for honorific statues of senators. Because the
edict was instead an admonition, however, the emperor was presumably deeply dismayed by the rivalries. As he left the capital in January
313, he repeated these penalties on informers, and he encouraged the
senate to readmit the senators whom Maxentius had compelled to serve
as shipmasters. These former senators were petitioning to be restored
to their birthrights, and Constantine hoped for reconciliation. Despite
this advice and the warnings, the sniping continued. In 315 Volusianus
may have been banished soon after losing his prefecture. The son of
this exiled senator, after being accused of adultery and perhaps magic,
also went into exile after a trial before the emperor. This other banished
senator may have been Volusianus son, Ceionius Rufius Albinus.11
Porfyrius banishment may likewise have been a consequence of strife
among aristocrats at Rome. But as in the past, as a poet Porfyrius could
sidestep the political wrangling by appealing to Constantines patronage
for culture. Just as he had once earned the emperors goodwill by
presenting a panegyrical poem, so he could again hope for the emperors
favor through flattery. This time, however, he would make his case by
11
Informers: CTh 10.10.2, dated December 1, 312, 10.10.1, dated January 18, 313; restoration:
CTh 15.14.4, dated January 13, 313; with Corcoran (1996) 15455, 18889, for the years.
Firmicus Maternus, Mathesis 2.29.12, rivals, 14, adultery, 17, adultery, 18, familiar with
secret texts, trial before emperor, with Barnes (1975b), supporting the identification of the
anonymous senators as C. Ceionius Rufius Volusianus and his son Ceionius Rufius Albinus,
and associating Albinus exile with the execution of Constantines son Crispus in 326 and his
recall with the execution shortly afterward of Constantines wife, Fausta. Chastagnol (1962)
6568, identifies the exiled son as C. Vettius Cossinius Rufinus, prefect of Rome in 315316
and consul in 316, and PLRE 1:1004, 10068, Anonymus 1, Anonymus 12, as Porfyrius
himself.

offering not a single poem but rather a remarkable volume containing
a series of poems.12
In the first poem of the collection Porfyrius contrasted his current
plight with his earlier situation. One distressing deprivation was the
loss of the services of his calligrapher. In the past the Muse who had
presented a poem to the hands of the Augustus had been shiny and
gleaming, ornamented in a beautiful little book, glittering with purple everywhere, written in letters that sparkled with silver and gold,
highlighting words on a path of paint. That earlier poem was presumably Porfyrius panegyric of 312. Because Porfyrius Muse had been
smiling when she offered that original poem as a token of the writers
gratitude, she had been attractive to the sacred gaze of the lord, the
emperor. But now the poets Muse was pale, stained with black on the
page, separating the poems with only an impoverished red mark. Now
his Muse entered the rooms of the venerable palace with trepidation.
Porfyrius hence hoped that the emperor would revive his Muse, who
was arriving as a supplicant. Once he has granted forgiveness in his
clemency, once he has restored your birthplace and your household,
you will proceed . . . shining in a purple garment. By implication, if
the emperor was willing to restore Porfyrius Muse to her full colorful
splendor, then he would also recall the poet from exile. Porfyrius could
then resume his life, just as in the past.13
12
13
Volume: Jerome, Chronicon s.a. 329, Porphyrius misso ad Constantinum insigni volumine
exilio liberatur. Almost all of the medieval manuscripts referred to Porfyrius collection of
poems as Panegyricus dictus Constantino Augusto vel sim: see Polara (1973) 1:viixvii.
This collection included Carm. 112, 13a13b, 1416, 1819, 20a20b: see Smolak (1989)
240, Die Gedichte ab carm. 21 beziehen sich nicht auf Konstantin, scheinen also nicht
zum Panegyricus gehort zu haben, although Kluge (1924) 34748, suggests that perhaps
Porfyrius had been sending poems to Constantine individually, not as an anthology. Carm.
13b was a mirror image of 13a, with the same words in each line but in reverse order; Carm.
20 consisted of two parts, 20a and 20b; Carm. 17 was a spurious composition of the Middle
Ages, see Polara (1973) 1:xxix, 2:100103. For Porfyrius contribution to the development of
Latin poetry, see Levitan (1985).
Porfyrius, Carm. 1.1, ornamented, 34, glittering, 5, calligrapher (scriptoris bene compta
manu), 6, gratitude, attractive, 78, pale, 9, rooms, 1517, forgiveness, 18, past; the poem
was written as an address to the Muse Thalia.
165
In the second poem Porfyrius combined his appeal with admiration of Constantines recent accomplishments. This poem established a
shape that he used in several other poems, a square of thirty-five lines of
verse with thirty-five letters in each line. In his tribute Porfyrius emphasized the prestige of his current hometown by praising the emperor
as the ornament of Rome and a great parent of Rome. He also
acknowledged that the emperor had in fact spent most of his time
fighting battles, in part as an avenger in civil wars. The purpose of
this adulation was reinforcement for his request for a pardon. To make
his petition perfectly clear, he repeated the same line six times, as the
first, middle, and last lines horizontally in the square, as well as in
vertical lines formed from the first column of letters (an acrostic), the
middle column, and the final column (a telestic): divine Caesar, with
gentleness have pity on your poet.14
In subsequent poems Porfyrius continued to applaud Constantines recent successes. One important topic was military campaigns.
Porfyrius highlighted the emperors victories over the Sarmatians along
the Danube frontier during the summer of 323. He also repeatedly celebrated Constantines defeat of his rival Licinius during the summer of
324: I sing about the courageous deeds of a leader who already now
rules the entire world. The victory allowed the emperor to unite
the Roman empire under his sole rule: Constantine, victor, your
golden age prevails beneath the entire sky. Having recently reconquered the eastern provinces, he had become the emperor of the
Nile.15
A second important topic was dynastic succession and the promotion
of Constantines sons. Porfyrius noted that Constantines predecessors
included two generations of emperors, his ancestor Claudius, who
had defeated the Goths, and his father, Constantius, who had been distinguished for his piety, peace, and justice. In addition to Constantine
14
15
Porfyrius, Carm. 2.19, ornament, 25, parent, avenger.

Porfyrius, Carm. 3.1213, golden age, 5.3, iam Nili princeps . . . Oriente recepto, 6.1428,
battles against Sarmatians at Campona, Margum, and Bononia, 7.32, victor Sarmatiae
totiens, 11.12, I sing, 12.45, solus . . . Augustus, 13a.12, solus, 14.2, te solo principe.

himself, the proper heirs were his sons: by his divine command brave
Claudius . . . gives an illustrious empire to him [Crispus]. The two
oldest sons, the young man Crispus and the young boy Constantine
II, had already become Caesars, junior emperors, in 317. According
to Porfyrius, the sons were a guarantee of the future prosperity of the
empire: through you and your sons . . . the affairs of the people flourish. In addition, Crispus was already participating in campaigns against
the Franks, and Constantine II could anticipate similar engagements:
throughout the entire world Victory prevails as a fortunate companion
for your Caesars. The sons would continue Constantines reign and his
military successes: the fortunate achievements of the offspring are worthy of association with their fathers honorary titles. Porfyrius could
hence look forward to celebrating the impending twentieth anniversary
of Constantines accession, as well as the tenth anniversary of the investment of his two sons, Constantinian offspring, as Caesars. In fact,
together the emperors might anticipate celebrating even the thirtieth
anniversary of Constantines accession.16
Porfyrius reiterated the themes of military victories and dynastic
succession in the intertextual patterns embedded in the poems. In
one poem the pattern outlined the formation of troops in a cavalry
squadron. In another the pattern depicted a ship, complete with a mast
and sails, a stern, oars, and a battering ram projecting from the prow.
This ship was a tribute to Crispus, who had commanded Constantines
fleet in 324 and destroyed Licinius navy. In another poem the pattern
portrayed a palm leaf, commemorating both Constantines victory over
Licinius and his impending twentieth anniversary. And in another
poem the intertextual pattern celebrated upcoming anniversaries:
16
Porfyrius, Carm. 4.1, twentieth anniversary, 3, offspring, 5.35, thirtieth anniversary, 7.2730,
sons, Victory, 8.2730, Claudius and Constantius, 10.2528, Franks, 2931, Claudius and
Crispus, 16.35, vicennia praecipe vota, 19.3738, fortunate achievements. For Claudius
as Constantines fictional ancestor, see the introduction to this Chapter. In 321 the orator
Nazarius had likewise praised Crispus and Constantine II in his panegyric at Rome and
anticipated the upcoming anniversaries: Panegyrici latini 4(10).2.23, anniversaries, 3.47,
Caesars, 3638, Crispus and Constantine II, with Chapter 6. Porfyrius may still have been
in Rome during the delivery of this panegyric.
167
twentieth anniversary of the Augustus, tenth anniversary of the

Caesars.17
In the final poem of the collection Porfyrius regretted that he was not
able to join in the festivities at Rome. Senators in particular would be
honoring the emperor. The order [of senators], distinguished in their
robes [decorated] with the purple [stripes] of their honors, invokes
these [vows] with their auspicious lips, and they happily present gifts.
Already Rome, the capital of the world, is bestowing gifts and crowns,
presenting statues of Victory that glitter with gold for the triumphal
processions. Already the vows are echoed in theaters and choruses. In
this description Porfyrius seemed to be recalling an earlier celebration
of a victory at Rome, such as the arrival of Constantine in 312. Porfyrius
himself had most likely witnessed that earlier celebration. Now, however, his exile prevented him from attending the current festival. An
unjust situation has not allowed me to celebrate these events, and I am
removed from the happy festivities.18
In these poems Porfyrius celebrated recent campaigns of Constantine and his sons during the early 320s, in particular the victories over
Licinius; sometimes he seemed to anticipate events, such as the formal foundation of Constantinople, second Rome, and the upcoming
celebration of a triumph or an imperial anniversary. Most likely he presented his collection of poems to Constantine soon after the emperors
final victory over Licinius in September 324. Again the emperor was
generous to the poet. In fact, after his return from exile Porfyrius served
as prefect of Rome twice, for a month in 329 and for another month
in 333. His amnesty paralleled the recall of Ceionius Rufius Albinus,
the senator banished on charges of adultery and magic, who likewise
returned from exile to become a consul and prefect of Rome in 335.19
17
18
19
Intertextual patterns: Porfyrius, Carm. 5 intertextual, Aug XX Caes X, 6.2, per effigiem
turmarum, 9.1, virtutum . . . palmam, 19.2526, visam contexere navem | Musa sinit.
For Crispus naval command, see Origo Constantini imperatoris 5.2327.
Porfyrius, Carm. 20a.1221, celebration at Rome, 2224, unjust situation.
References to Constantinople: Porfyrius, Carm. 4.6, Ponti nobilitas, altera Roma, 18.33
34, Ponti decus . . . , | Roma soror. Constantine founded Constantinople and proclaimed
Constantius, his third son, as a Caesar on the same day, November 8, 324. But in his poems

In his correspondence with Constantine in 312, Porfyrius had hardly
alluded to any deities. In this later collection of poems he had again used
primarily literary references and allusions. Because the poet hoped to
appeal once more to the emperors shared love of classical culture, religion seems again to have been an afterthought. Occasionally Porfyrius
noted divine support for the emperors successes, by describing him
as the pleasing glory of the highest god and by suggesting that he
had been assisted by the pious commands of the highest god. Sometimes he was more explicit. Once he promised that Sol, the sun god,
would help; in another poem he addressed Constantine himself as Sol:
in the purple glow [of his robes] the commander must be venerated
as Sol.20
Even more surprising was the inclusion of unmistakable references to
Christianity. In one poem Porfyrius claimed that people thought themselves worthy of Constantines support because they were approved
beneath the law of Christ. The intertextual pattern in that poem
furthermore spelled out the name of Jesus. It also depicted the christogram, the symbol formed from the first two Greek letters of Christ.
This christogram likewise appeared in the intertextual patterns of other
poems, including the mast of the ship that commemorated Crispus
naval victory. One of the intertextual lines of verse used as a diagonal
bar in one of the christograms again referred to the highest god, but
this time apparently in a Christian context: through the permanent
command and assistance of the highest God [you, Constantine, are]
safe. In an intertextual line in another poem Porfyrius explicitly noted
20
Porfyrius referenced only two Caesars, Crispus and Constantine II: note in particular Carm.
14.36, gemino Caesare. Barnes (1975a) 184, concludes that Porfyrius sent his collection
of poems to Constantine in autumn of 324 and was recalled soon afterward, while Barnes
(1981) 219, delays his recall until summer of 325. According to Polara (1978), the references
to Constantinople were hence the earliest indications of Constantines plan to found a
new capital. Porfyrius return from exile: Jerome, Chronicon s.a. 329, although the date was
incorrect.
Porfyrius, Carm. 2.26, summi laus grata dei, 12.6, assistance from Sol, 16.30, dei pia
numina summi, 18.7, Constantine addressed as Sol, 25, venerandus dux erit ut Sol.
169
Christs support for Constantine and his dynasty: Christ has allocated
rulership to you and to your sons.21
In 312 Porfyrius had been carefully discreet when corresponding
with Constantine, not referring to Christianity, hardly mentioning any
deities at all. Back then the emperors religious preferences were perhaps in flux, and it was more prudent to use literary culture rather
than religion as the medium for petition and flattery. But by 324 even a
pagan poet like Porfyrius could not avoid some references to Christianity. By then the christogram had appeared on Constantines coins, and
the emperor had publicly demonstrated his patronage for Christianity.
But whether because of his own distaste or because of lingering uncertainty about the emperors preferences, Porfyrius was still remarkably
circumspect in his references to Christianity in the panegyrical poems.
Excepting one oblique mention of Christ, he included all of the other
references to Christian symbols and Christian names in the intertextual
lines and patterns of the poems. He furthermore obscured his most
explicit reference to Christs assignment of rulership in a foreign language, using Latin letters to form a hexameter verse in Greek words.
Although Porfyrius was asking the emperor for amnesty and a recall
from exile, he was nevertheless quite reticent to insert references to
Christianity in his poems.22
After the battle at the Milvian Bridge, Porfyrius had obtained Constantines goodwill without mentioning Christianity at all. More than
a decade later he apparently thought that the emperor would again be
sympathetic to the use of cultural and literary references. As in 312, so
21
22
Porfyrius, Carm. 8.5, Christi sub lege probata, 14 intertextual, summi dei auxilio nutuque
perpetuo tutus, 16 intertextual, Nemn soi basile Cristv ka sov tekessi. The
christogram as an intertextual pattern: Porfyrius, Carm. 8, 14, 19.
Carm. 24 was addressed to Christ and emphasized the importance of his incarnation and
crucifixion for salvation, but Porfyrius was not the author: see Polara (1973) 1:xxxxxxi,
2:153, 15758. For Porfyrius as a pagan, note that Bede would decline to cite examples of
rhythm from Porfyrius poems after characterizing them as pagan: see Bede, De arte metrica
(PL 90.173d).

again still in 324 a pagan senator could successfully petition the emperor
without highlighting Christianity.
A Dispute in North Africa

By the early fourth century North Africa had become marginal to the
military campaigns of emperors. In 297 Maximian had campaigned
in Mauretania, and in the following year he resided in Carthage. The
legends on coins minted at Carthage celebrated the emperors fortunate arrival. Then he left for Rome. Maximian was hence the last
legitimate emperor ever to visit North Africa. But because the region
remained vitally important as a major source of grain and olive oil for
the large population of Rome, ruling the capital required control over
North Africa. As an emperor who identified himself with the welfare
of Rome, Maxentius had learned firsthand about the consequences of
losing control of North Africa when the revolt of Domitius Alexander
disrupted the supply of grain and caused a temporary food shortage.
The hardship at the capital had been severe enough that Maxentius
would be accused of having murdered the Roman people through a
famine.23
After his victory in 312 Constantine inherited the responsibility of
ensuring the food supply of the capital. Because meeting that obligation presupposed establishing his authority over North Africa and
its resources, a visit to Carthage would certainly have helped. Instead,
Rome was as far south as Constantine ever traveled in his western
empire. As a result, if he was to be a distant emperor, he would need to
measure his authority in North Africa in other ways. One was demonstrations of support from the cities; another was the loyalty of his
imperial magistrates.
During the initial years after the battle at the Milvian Bridge, cities
in several African provinces set up dedications in honor of Constantine,
23
Maximian in Mauretania: Panegyrici latini 8(5).5.2, 9(4).20.2, with the discussion of Nixon
and Rodgers (1994) 17475n.83. Coins: Sutherland (1967) 41115. Return to Rome: ILS 1:148,
no. 646. Famine: Panegyrici latini 12(9).4.4, with Chapter 9, for the revolt of Domitius
Alexander, and Jadi (2003), for the importance of grain from North Africa for Rome during
the fourth century.
171
either alone or sometimes in tandem with Licinius, emperor in the East.

The dedications combined great honor with great relief. At Thamugadi
in Numidia, for instance, the community hailed Constantine as victor, always and everywhere, at Uccula in Africa Proconsularis as best
emperor, beyond the other emperors, unconquered, and at Uchi Maius
in Africa Proconsularis as our restorer. At Cillium in Africa Proconsularis a local notable rededicated an honorific arch. At Lambaesis in
Numidia the people set up verses thanking Constantine for removing
the savage wars of the tyrant. Some dedications dropped a subtle hint
of future expectations. At Muzuc in Byzacena the community hailed
the emperor as most generous. One city responded to imperial generosity by memorializing the emperors name. After being restored and
embellished, Cirta in Numidia changed its name to Constantina. In
315, cities erected more dedications in honor of the tenth anniversary of
Constantines reign; the dedications began to include his sons after their
promotions as junior emperors. With the establishment of a priesthood for [Constantines] Flavian dynasty, communities throughout
Africa honored both the emperor and his descendants. Now the cities
of North Africa acknowledged only Constantines imperial rule. As a
result, once Constantine attacked Licinius, some communities chiseled
off the references to his rival.24
24
Dedications: Grunewald (1990) 197, no. 107, Lambaesis, 198, no. 109, Thamugadi, 199, no.
118, Uccula, 200, no. 126, Uchi Maius, 203, no. 138 (+ ILS 2.1:388, no. 5570), Cillium, with
Lepelley (19791981) 1:9098, on the limits of Constantines support for building activities
in North Africa. Priesthood, Constantina: Aurelius Victor, De Caesaribus 40.28.
An inscription on a plaque from Iol Caesarea in Mauretania Caesariensis is sometimes
cited as a commemoration of the battle at the Milvian Bridge. This marble plaque depicted
a procession of men carrying a miniature model of a bridge and a placard with an inscription
identifying the bridge: for photographs, see Mastino and Teatini (2001) 291, 299, and Corbier
(2006) 59, Fig. 29. The text of this inscription is disputed, however. ILS 1:155, no. 686, and
Grunewald (1990) 193, no. 84, print the text with an explicit reference to Constantine:
Pons Mulvi(us) | expeditio | imperatoris | [Co]n[stantini]. Mastino and Teatini (2001)
302, instead suggest a revised final line without Constantines name: in Ger[maniam].
This different final line is printed in Lannee epigraphique 2001 (2004) 73031, no. 2138,
and even already in ILS 2.2:clxxi, no. 686. Mastino and Teatini (2001), survey imperial
campaigns against Germans; Corbier (2006) 56, notes that such processions with models
and placards were characteristic of triumphs or imperial funerals; Ostenberg

(2009) 199215,

Imperial magistrates had also erected some of the dedications. At
Constantina, for instance, the provincial governor and the financial
officer set up matching dedications soon after 312 that praised Constantine as the celebrator of triumphs over all peoples and the conqueror
of all factions, who through his auspicious victory has illuminated with
a new light the liberty that had been oppressed by the darkness of
slavery. At Lepcis Magna in Tripolitania the provincial governor honored the emperor by erecting a marble statue that sparkled with his
divinity.25
Immediately after his victory Constantine had worked to ensure the
loyalty of his imperial magistrates in North Africa. One of his first
actions was to meet with some of them at Rome. There they could
see the head of Maxentius, and they might have been the couriers who
soon brought the head to North Africa. The governor of the province
of Africa Proconsularis was Anullinus, who was perhaps a son of Gaius
Annius Anullinus. Annius Anullinus had himself previously served as
governor of Africa Proconsularis, and as prefect of Rome in 306 he had
supported the proclamation of Maxentius as emperor. Maxentius had
appointed him to serve again as prefect of Rome on the day before the
battle of the Milvian Bridge. Maxentius may also have selected his son
as governor. After his victory, Constantine retained Annius Anullinus as
prefect of Rome for another month. As another sign of reconciliation
with the senators of Rome, he appointed (or retained) Anullinus as
governor.26
Soon afterward Constantine sent a letter to Anullinus in Africa
Proconsularis, in which he instructed the governor to restore to the
25
26
surveys the use of models of conquered cities in triumphal processions. This plaque and its
inscription hence referenced the bridge but not the battle, and should not be associated with
Constantine.
Dedications: Grunewald (1990) 19596, nos. 9798, Constantina, 204, no. 147, Lepcis
Magna, with PLRE 1:685, Val. Paulus 12, 771, Laenatius Romulus 4.
For the meeting with the magistrates of Africa, see Eusebius, HE 10.6.4, citing Constantines
letter to bishop Caecilianus of Carthage: know that I have given orders to Anullinus the
proconsul and to Patricius the vicar of the provinces when they were present; with PLRE
1:7879, Anullinus 2, C. Annius Anullinus 3, 673, Patricius 1.
173
Christian church any confiscated possessions. In the letter Constantine

seemed to be testing Anullinus trustworthiness. The emperor wanted
Anullinus to restore the possessions as soon as you receive this letter.
The quickness of his response would be an indication that you have
rendered the most attentive obedience to our command. Constantine subsequently sent another letter to Anullinus about privileges for
clerics. This time when Anullinus replied in April 313, he noted that
the celestial document of your majesty, that is, the emperors letter,
had been both received and adored. The governor had apparently
performed a ceremony of reverence on receiving the emperors letter.
Constantines initial concern was not Christianity in North Africa but
the loyalty of his magistrates.27
The emperors support for Christianity may nevertheless have been
another aspect of his policy of ensuring the reliability of North Africa,
in particular as he was preparing to leave Italy soon to return to the
northern frontier in Gaul. At the same time as he was writing to the
governor, he wrote to Caecilianus, bishop of Carthage. The typical protocol of interaction between imperial courts and provincials consisted
of a constant dialogue of petition and response. In this case presumably Caecilianus had written to the emperor first, and Constantine was
responding to a request from a provincial notable who happened to be
a bishop. In his letter Constantine offered to reimburse the expenses of
some clerics serving the most holy catholic religion. He also noted
that he had already arranged for payment by issuing instructions to
various magistrates, including the chief financial officer of Africa, the
administrator of the imperial properties, the governor, and the vicar. In
a subsequent decision in February 313, Constantine exempted the clerics
who served in the catholic church that Caecilianus administers from
having to perform municipal liturgies. This generosity helped fashion
a distinctive image of the new emperor in North Africa. His imperial
administration was there to serve the provincials. Rather than only
27
Eusebius, HE 10.5.1617, letter, obedience, 7.12, second letter. Augustine, Ep. 88.2, citing a
copy of Anullinus relatio: scripta caelestia maiestatis vestrae accepta atque adorata, with
Corcoran (1996) 156, on the adoration of imperial letters.

exporting resources from North Africa, Constantine was dispersing
funds and granting privileges.28
These gifts publicized Constantines munificence toward Christians,
and more requests apparently arrived at his court. He continued his
openhandedness, and later in the year he was instructing a governor in
southern Italy to extend the same exemptions to clerics in his province.
Now it had become worthwhile to acquire the emperors patronage. As
a result, in North Africa his largesse exacerbated an ongoing dispute.29
Constantine had decided to support catholic Christians in North
Africa, whom he identified with the leadership of Caecilianus. In contrast, opponents who had not accepted Caecilianus legitimacy as bishop
of Carthage reacted by claiming to be the true representatives of the
catholic church and therefore the proper recipients of the emperors
patronage. These opponents were subsequently known as the faction
of Donatus, that is, Donatist Christians, named after a rival bishop
of Carthage. They requested that the governor Anullinus forward to
the emperor a sealed package containing their charges against Caecilianus as well as an unsealed petition. In their petition they appealed to
Constantines just pedigree by noting that in the past his father, the
emperor Constantius, had not enforced persecution of Christians. This
recollection was presumably a hint that Constantine should demonstrate similar restraint. It is notable that the petitioners apparently did
not describe the emperor as a fellow Christian but instead referenced
28
29
Eusebius, HE 10.6.15, letter to Caecilianus, dated to winter of 312313, 7.12, letter to

Anullinus, dated February 313. Quotation about dialogue from Millar (1983) 80. Constantine
planned to pay Caecilianus 3,000 folles: see Eusebius, HE 10.6.1. A follis was a sealed purse
containing a standard number of low-value coins, typically for a total value in the early
fourth century of 12,500 denarii: see Jones (1964) 440, and Hendy (1985) 33840. Under
Constantine a large gold coin (solidus) was worth a maximum of 1,000 denarii: see Hendy
(1985) 466. In a period of rapid inflation these numbers are of dubious value. But simply as a
heuristic exercise, combining them suggests that Constantines gift to Caecilianus may have
been worth about 37,500 solidi, or about 521 pounds of gold. This was about one-fifth the
value of the emperors concurrent gifts to the Church of St. John Lateran and the Church
of St. Peter at Rome (see below in this Chapter).
Governor of Lucania and Bruttium: CTh 16.2.2, dated October 21, 313.
175
his sense of justice. They furthermore asked for judges from Gaul to
resolve their quarrel.30
According to a later historian, at the time Constantine was still
unfamiliar with these issues. The restrictions on imperial authority
had always been practical rather than constitutional. Because so many
communities and individuals submitted so many petitions and letters,
emperors certainly needed the assistance of court officials and secretaries to write up responses. Delegation was an inescapable corollary
of imperial rule. So was ignorance about many current affairs, and
often emperors depended on petitioners to supply the background
information. In the bustle of dealing with issues at Rome and establishing a new regime in North Africa, Constantine would have had to
rely on advisers. Even though in his earlier letter to Caecilianus the
emperor had arranged the funding for the clerics, he had also referred
the details of the payments to a separate list compiled by bishop Ossius
of Corduba. Constantine had endorsed the administrative format but
delegated the ecclesiastical details to a churchman. In his letter he (or
a court secretary) may well have simply repeated back Caecilianus
own description of his catholic Christian community without being
aware that catholic was a disputed characterization in North Africa.
The petition of the Donatist faction, however, exposed the fault lines
and involved the emperor directly in an overseas regional ecclesiastical
dispute.31
By then Constantine had returned to northern Gaul and was campaigning again on the Rhine frontier. In June he sent a letter to Miltiades, bishop of Rome, to establish a tribunal to hear the accusations
against Caecilianus. In his letter he informed Miltiades that he had
already invited Caecilianus, ten of his supporters, and ten of his accusers
to sail to Rome, and that three bishops from Gaul would be joining
30
31
Augustine, Ep. 88.1, pars Donati, 2, documents forwarded by Anullinus in April. Donatist
petition: Optatus, Contra Donatistas 1.22.2.
Optatus, Contra Donatistas 1.22.1, imperatorem Constantinum harum rerum adhuc
ignarum. Eusebius, HE 10.6.2, referring to Ossius brouion, his brief. Quotation from
the excellent account of the working of the imperial administration in Kelly (2004) 191.

Miltiades as judges. Constantines primary concern was, again, not necessarily Christian affairs but maintaining peace in his new provinces
in North Africa. He worried about the disputes that splintered both
bishops and the great majority of the people. His choice of bishops
as judges reflected his personal connections. He had presumably met
Miltiades during his visit to Rome, and the three bishops of Cologne,
Autun, and Arles represented cities he had visited in Gaul. Constantine forwarded to them copies of the documents he had received from
Anullinus.32
The council convened by Miltiades at Rome in early autumn of 313
vindicated Caecilianus. Donatus himself, in person, admitted that he
had rebaptized and reconsecrated bishops who had lapsed during the
persecutions under the Tetrarchs, and none of his supporters verified
any accusations against Caecilianus. Miltiades and the three bishops
from Gaul were joined by fifteen more bishops from Italy, and all voted
against Donatus. Miltiades concluded his own verdict by announcing
that Caecilianus remained in good standing with his ecclesiastical community. On hearing the decision, Constantine thought that a proper
conclusion had been imposed on all troublemaking and quarrels.33
Donatus and his supporters disagreed and instead made accusations against Miltiades and his allegedly biased tribunal. Some of them
apparently visited the emperors court in Gaul to complain again about
Caecilianus. Constantine brushed them off. I replied that they were
talking about this issue to no avail, because the case had been concluded
at Rome by competent and most upright bishops. The Donatists
responded with more complaints about the inadequacy of the judicial
procedure and the honesty of the judges. The emperor then decided
to hold another hearing at a council of bishops in Arles. In spring
of 314 he began to invite bishops to attend, including the bishop of
Syracuse. He also wrote to the vicar of Africa to arrange transportation
for Caecilianus, his entourage, and some of his opponents. Again the
32
33
Letter to Miltiades: Eusebius, HE 10.5.1820.

Description of council at Rome: Optatus, Contra Donatistas 1.23.124.2. Conclusion: Optatus, Appendix 3.29b.
177
emperors primary apprehension was the potential for unrest in our

Africa. As a result of these altercations the highest divinity could
perhaps be moved not only against the human race, but also against
me. Through his celestial nod he has entrusted to my oversight all
earthly affairs for administration. Constantines primary concern was
his imperial authority in North Africa.34
In these letters Constantine repeatedly talked about Christianity.
One striking characteristic, though, is the awkwardness of his terminology. He referred to the Christian God variously as the divinity
of the great God, the deity, omnipotent God, and the highest
divinity. He was apparently unfamiliar with the ecclesiastical hierarchy when he mentioned churchmen whom they are accustomed to
call clerics. In his letter to the vicar he claimed to have learned that
you too are a worshipper of the highest God. Even if Constantine
was associating the vicars religion with his own, this statement was not
a firm indication of devotion to Christianity. The emperors stilted language seemed to imply that he was only just beginning to learn details
about Christianity.35
Constantine apparently attended the council at Arles in August 314,
joining more than thirty bishops as well as two priests and two deacons
sent by Silvester, the new bishop of Rome. The bishops and their
attendant clerics formed a microcosm of the regions that now made up
his empire, including Britain, Gaul, Spain, Italy, Sicily, Africa, and even
Dalmatia on the eastern coast of the Adriatic Sea. In Constantines new
western Mediterranean empire Arles was the geographical center. Even
if Arles did not become an important residence for Constantine, it still
seemed to be a better situated hub for a western empire that emphasized
both the northern frontier on the Rhine and now North Africa. The
city soon acquired a special association with the Constantinian dynasty.
Constantine himself quite likely imported the obelisk that was erected
34
35
Letter to bishop Chrestus of Syracuse: Eusebius, HE 10.5.2123. Letter to vicar Aelafius:

Optatus, Appendix 3.29b, our Africa, 30a, I replied, 30b, altercations.
Eusebius, HE 10.5.20, divinity of the great God, 6.5, divinity of the great God, 7.2, clerics,
deity. Optatus, Appendix 3.30a, omnipotent God, 30b, worshiper.

in the circus, and in 316 his son Constantine II was born in Arles. Not
surprisingly, Arles too, like other cities, eventually acquired a new name,
Constantina, derived from the emperors name. As an occasional
imperial residence, Arles would seem to have become an alternative
western capital, a miniature Rome in Gaul.36
Despite the gravity of the issues, the emperor apparently enjoyed the
sessions at the council. He was eager to attend their debates and to sit
together with the bishops. Without his bodyguards, he was on his own,
one [participant] in the midst of many. Afterward the bishops wrote
to bishop Silvester of Rome about their decisions. Their deliberations
had included ecclesiastical issues, such as the celebration of Easter and
the consecration of bishops, and the treatment of problematic converts,
such as soldiers, chariot drivers in the circus races, theatrical performers,
and magistrates. In addition, they again vindicated Caecilianus. Some
opponents reconciled with Caecilianus on the spot. Others, the most
stubborn and the most litigious, appealed yet again to the emperor.
In response, this time Constantine simply ended the proceedings. He
was weary and ordered everyone to return to their sees.37
Soon afterward Constantine sent a general letter to the catholic
bishops. This letter served several purposes. It was a compliment to
the bishops for a decision rendered through the very bright light
of catholic law. It was a small, rambling sermon about the eternal
and incomprehensible religious piety of our God and the victorious
providence of Christ the Savior. It was also a personal confession about
the emperors own religious journey. After noting that God offered
36
37
Birth of Constantine II at Arles: Epitome de Caesaribus 41.4. Charron and Heijmans (2001),
and Heijmans (2004) 243, assign the erection of the obelisk to early in Constantines reign.
Arles as Constantina: Leo I, Ep. 65.3 (PL 54.882a) = Epistolae Arelatenses 12, ed. Gundlach
(1892) 19, with Grunewald (1990) 3638, suggesting that Constantine may have resided at
Arles during the early years of his reign, and Heijmans (2006), for a survey of the monuments
at Arles. Miniature Rome: Ausonius, Ordo urbium nobilium 10.2, Gallula Roma.
Eager: Eusebius, Vita Constantini 1.44.2, on the assumption that this description of the
emperors attendance at a council refers to the council of Arles: so Barnes (1981) 58, but
disputed by Cameron and Hall (1999) 221. Optatus, Appendix 4.31a, letter to Silvester, 31b,
other decisions, 32a, weary. Most stubborn: Augustine, Ep. 88.3. For the complete lists of the
twenty-two canons and of the bishops and clerics in attendance, see Munier (1963) 922.
179
a way of salvation, Constantine admitted his dependency: I have

learned this from many examples, and I measure these same [gifts]
by my own experiences. He then summarized the trajectory of his
religious development. Initially there were in me [characteristics] that
seemed to lack justice, and I thought that a higher power did not see
anything that I did within the secrets of my heart. . . . But omnipotent
God, who resides in the heights of heaven, gave [me] what I did not
deserve. Certainly what he bestowed through his celestial benevolence
upon me, his servant, cannot be mentioned or enumerated.38
In this letter Constantine had mastered Christian terminology, and
his confession seemed to use the language of a Christian conversion
experience. Now the emperor was characterizing himself as Gods servant. Now he was referring to Jesus. For the first time we find the
name of Christ in an imperial letter. The significant turning point
in Constantines awareness of his Christian beliefs was not a vision
or his victory at the Milvian Bridge two years earlier, but instead his
participation in the council at Arles.39
This council established precedents for Constantines subsequent
reign. He socialized with bishops and began to identify himself with
these most beloved brothers. He apparently relished talking about
theology, he sent letters to bishops urging his doctrinal preferences,
and he used Christian language to articulate his lifes trajectory. He
increasingly associated himself with the life of Jesus. He also failed in his
hope for ecclesiastical harmony. Constantine thought that the verdict
of bishops should end ecclesiastical disputes. The judgment of bishops
ought to be regarded as if the Lord himself was sitting in judgment.
He was dismayed to discover that the Donatists instead considered this
episcopal tribunal similar to a secular court, whose decisions could be
appealed. The furious audacity of madness! As is customary to happen
in the cases of pagans, they have introduced an appeal. In addition, the
disgruntled Donatists attacked the emperor personally. They demand
38
39
Optatus, Appendix 5.32a, piety, confession, 32b, catholic law, providence, with Chapter 6,
on the possible influence of Lactantius ideas.
Quotation about name of Christ translated from Maier (19871989) 1:168n.5.
180
judgment for me; I myself anticipate the judgment of Christ. Despite

this failure and this criticism, Constantine remained an optimist. Eleven
years later he would again participate with the bishops at the council
of Nicaea. Not surprisingly, the outcome was similarly inconclusive.40
As long as he remained in the West, Constantine continued his
involvement in the ecclesiastical disputes in North Africa. His concern may have been more pragmatic than strictly religious, however.
Because his empire now included Rome, his magistrates were responsible for supplying the capital with grain and olive oil from North
Africa. Even after his return to Trier, he could not avoid issuing instructions about shipmasters in Africa and bread makers at Rome. He also
wanted to prevent any feuding among churchmen that might grow
into a challenge to his authority and disrupt the supply of food to
Rome. Dealing with churchmen tested his patience, and over the years
Constantine repeatedly complained about their stubbornness and
insanity. He ordered the competing factions to appear before him
again during his visit to Rome in the summer of 315. After some of the
antagonists failed to attend, he heard their case instead at Milan during
the autumn and again pronounced Caecilianus completely innocent.
He issued an edict ordering the confiscation of Donatist properties.
At one point he hoped to travel to Africa to demonstrate to both
Caecilianus and his opponents the proper form of veneration for the
highest . . . divinity.41
Eventually Constantine began to disengage. He conceded his ineffectiveness: the reasoning of our policy was not able to subdue the
force of that innate wickedness. He was also thinking about other
priorities. His victory over Maxentius in 312 had immediately involved
him in the civil and religious affairs of North Africa; the outcome of a
40
41
Optatus, Appendix 5.32a, brothers, 32b, judgment for me, judgment of bishops, 33a, audacity.
Some of Constantines quips were repeated in Optatus, Contra Donatistas 1.23.1, 25.1.
Regulations from Trier: CTh 11.30.4, 13.5.23, apparently all excerpted from the same constitution issued in June 314; for the date, see Seeck (1919) 98. The recipient, Amabilianus,
is apparently the first attested praefectus annonae Africae: see PLRE 1:49, Amabilianus.
Optatus, Appendix 6.33b, stubbornness, 7.34a, insanity, when I arrive in Africa, 9.35a,
reasoning. Augustine, Ep. 43.7.20, Rome and Milan, 88.3, edict.
181
subsequent civil war presented new concerns elsewhere in the empire,

including the supply of a new capital city and participation in another
controversy over ecclesiastical doctrines. After his victory over Licinius
in 324, Constantine spent most of his time in the East. Now he was less
involved with Rome and the Donatist controversy and more involved
with Constantinople and the Arian controversy. Now he had to worry
about his authority in Egypt, a flashpoint for theological disputes but
also the primary source of grain for Constantinople. The common
denominator was a concern over effective administration. First Rome
and North Africa, then Constantinople and Egypt: again the supply
of food for a capital city may have guided his involvement in religious
affairs.42
In 330 Constantine replied once more to the African bishops. They
had written to complain that Donatists had seized the church at
Constantina that the emperor himself had once ordered to be constructed. As compensation they asked for an imperial estate. Constantine agreed, and he also ordered the construction of a new church
at imperial expense. At the same time he wrote to the governor of
Numidia with instructions to exempt the clerics whom the injustice
of the heretics had compelled to serve on municipal councils. Almost
twenty years earlier, at the beginning of his involvement with churchmen in North Africa, the emperor had used his beneficence as leverage.
Now, because of his engagement in eastern affairs, because of his realistic assessment of the complexity of resolving this ecclesiastical dispute,
generosity was all he had left to offer these African bishops.43
The Arch at Malborghetto

During the late summer and early autumn of 312 Constantine and his
army had marched from northern Italy to Rome on the Flaminian Way.
After crossing the western Alps into northern Italy earlier in the year, he
42
43
Reasoning: Optatus, Appendix 9.35a.

Church at Constantina, imperial estate, new church: Optatus, Appendix 10.36b; injustice:
CTh 16.2.7. Both the letter to the bishops and the edict to the governor were sent from
Serdica on February 5, 330.
183
had advanced east across the Po River valley and seized the cities of Susa,
Turin, Milan, and Brescia. After defeating Maxentius troops stationed
at Verona, he would have moved south to link up with the Flaminian
Way at Rimini, still about 150 miles from Rome. From Rimini he would
have marched along the coast to Fanum Fortunae (modern Fano) and
then followed the highway into the interior almost due south across the
Apennine Mountains. North of Rome the Flaminian Way crossed the
Tiber on the Milvian Bridge and then followed the curve of the river
for almost two miles before entering the capital through the Aurelian
Wall by way of the Flaminian Gate.
The Flaminian Way had been constructed in the later third century
b.c. to connect the capital with the cities of northeastern central Italy
and new settlements on the north Adriatic coast, and to provide access
to the Po valley. Originally this great highway had assisted the expansion
of Roman hegemony into northern Italy; subsequently it also served
as a site for celebrating emperors overseas successes. After his decisive
victory at the battle of Actium in 31 b.c., Augustus had decided to
commemorate the end of the civil wars by enhancing the Flaminian
Way. While his generals were to fund the repaving of the other roads in
Italy with their booty, he himself paid for improvements to the entire
length of the Flaminian Way. At Rome he erected a statue of himself on
an honorific arch on the Milvian Bridge, that is, perhaps on a gateway
arch at one end of the bridge or on a double arch in the center of
the bridge. At Narnia (modern Narni) he built a bridge supported on
famously high arches. At Rimini he erected another statue of himself on
a commemorative arch. In return the senate and people of Rome had
a dedication engraved on the arch at Rimini that complimented the
emperor for rebuilding the Flaminian Way and the other very famous
roads of Italy with his foresight and his funds. Decades later Augustus
was still maintaining this connection with central and northern Italy
through his generosity. He paid for improvements to the Aemilian
Way that led northwest from Rimini to the Po valley, and toward
the end of his life he donated funds for the construction of a wall at
Fanum Fortunae. A dedication in honor of Augustus munificence was
184
engraved on an arch at Fanum Fortunae. Immediately after his final

victory in the civil wars, and then subsequently throughout his entire
reign until his death in a.d. 14, Augustus had reasserted his patronage
for the towns of central and northeastern Italy along the entire length
of the Flaminian Way.44
When emperors returned to Rome from their campaigns on the
northern frontiers, they followed the Flaminian Way south through
central Italy, trailing a long plume of dust. All of Rome would
come out to greet them on the highway. Because the Flaminian Way
was so vital to travelers between northern Italy and Rome, subsequent
emperors maintained and improved the highway to leave monuments
and dedications as public mementos of their accomplishments. Vespasian constructed a remarkable tunnel at Intercisa, and Trajan repaired
a bridge over the Metaurus River. Almost two centuries later Diocletian and his fellow emperors again repaired apparently the same bridge.
Maxentius appointed a superintendent to look after the Flaminian Way;
his maintenance may ironically have paved the way for Constantine to
advance on Rome. In addition, because many estates and tombs lined
the road outside Rome, especially in the suburbs, private landowners
may also have contributed to upkeep.45
About eight miles north of the Milvian Bridge a huge commemorative monument was constructed near the Flaminian Way at the modern
44
45
Repaving of roads, Flaminian Way: Suetonius, Augustus 30.1. Augustus improvements:

Augustus, Res gestae 20.5, during my seventh consulship [in 27 b.c.] I restored the Flaminian
Way from the city [of Rome] to Rimini. Bridge at Narnia: Procopius, Bella 5.17.11. Statues
and arches at Rome and Rimini: Dio, Historiae Romanae 53.22.12, with De Maria (1988)
26062, no. 48, arch at Rimini, 269, no. 58, discussing coins minted in Spain that might have
depicted the arch on the Milvian Bridge. Dedication at Rimini: ILS 1:24, no. 84. Milestone
near Bologna on Aemilian Way: ILS 2.2:cxxvii, no. 9371, dated 21 b.c. Wall and arch at
Fanum Fortunae: ILS 1:27, no. 104, dated a.d. 910, with De Maria (1988) 24243.
Dust, all of Rome: Martial, Epigrammata 10.6.56, describing the anticipation of Trajans
arrival in 99. Vespasians tunnel: Epitome de Caesaribus 9.910. ILS 1:78, no. 299, Trajans
bridge, 267, no. 1217, dedication to C. Vettius Cossinius Rufinus, curator viae Flaminiae,
2.1:449, no. 5900, Diocletians bridge, with PLRE 1:777, C. Vettius Cossinius Rufinus 15.
Tombs: Juvenal, Saturae 1.17071, with Ashby and Fell (1921), surveying the monuments
along the entire highway. For a large villa near Aqua Viva, about twenty-five miles north of
Rome, that was owned by the family of Junius Bassus, consul in 331, see Evrard (1962).
185
site of Malborghetto. This monument was a quadrifrons arch, a bulky

structure with an archway on each of its four sides. Although its footprint was more square than rectangular, in terms of its height and the
area of its base the arch was comparable in size to the arch of Constantine inside Rome. The four-way arch was not quite square, almost
fifty feet wide on the north and south faces, and almost forty feet wide
on the faces parallel to the Flaminian Way. The four corner piers were
each about fifteen feet by eleven feet at their bases; the front and back
archways were each almost twenty feet wide, and the side archways a
few feet narrower; each of the archways was more than thirty feet high.
Over the archways a decorated ledge encircled the monument, topped
by a massive attic. The entire monument was almost sixty feet high.
The facades of the archways, including the faces of the piers and the
attic, were covered most likely with a veneer of marble panels or blocks,
some probably carved to depict scenes, and large statues most likely
stood on top of the monument. But excepting a few fragments, all of
this sheathing and the decorations have disappeared, and today only
the brick core remains.46
This massive arch was constructed in the early fourth century, at
about the same time as the gigantic Baths of Diocletian, located in a
northern residential neighborhood of Rome between the Viminal and
Quirinal Hills, and the large Basilica Nova (also known as the Basilica of
Maxentius or the Constantinian Basilica), located on the northern edge
of the Forum. Constantine was the one emperor of this period who had
a specific personal interest in constructing a memorial arch at a location
46
For the dimensions of the arch at Malborghetto, see Toebelmann (1915) 28; because of subsequent modifications, the height is uncertain. For a reconstruction, see Toebelmann (1915)
Tafel XIII, reprinted in Messineo and Calci (1989) 71 fig. 62; but considered largamente
ipotetico by De Maria (1988) 243. The arch at Malborghetto was hence larger even than the
quadrifrons arch in the Forum Boarium west of the Palatine Hill, sometimes known as the
arch of Janus. The arch of Janus was constructed (or reconstructed) in the early fourth
century and is usually identified with the arch of the divine Constantine mentioned in
Curiosum and Notitia, ed. Nordh (1949) 91: see De Maria (1988) 31920, and Richardson
(1992) 208. Coarelli (2007) 321, suggests that Constantius II erected this arch in the Forum
Boarium during his visit to Rome in 357.

on the Flaminian Way outside Rome. The obvious association would
be a connection with his victory in the battle against Maxentius.47
One possibility is that the arch commemorated the spot where he and
his army had witnessed the vision of the cross in the sky. In fact, this is a
most improbable interpretation. The first known account of this vision
was Constantines own story, which he could have told to Eusebius and
other bishops in the East only in 325 at the earliest, and perhaps not
until much later. Even the emperor himself did not talk about his vision
until later in his reign. In the West knowledge about the witnessing of
the cross was even more tardy. It finally entered common circulation
only in the early fifth century after Rufinus had included a story about
the emperors dream in his translation of Eusebius History. The arch at
Malborghetto was the wrong sort of monument to commemorate the
witnessing of the cross, and it was constructed far too early.48
Another, much more likely possibility is that this arch memorialized
not a moment of religious insight but a military success. For an army
heading south toward Rome this section of the Flaminian Way in the
southern foothills of the Apennines offered opportunities to rest and
resupply. In 69, troops loyal to Vespasian had stopped at Carsulae, where
47
48
Messineo and Calci (1989) 8183, date the arch to the early fourth century on the basis of
construction techniques, architectural details, and the bricks. A stamp on a brick used in
the vault of the south archway implies a date during the reign of Tetrarchic emperors: see
Messineo and Calci (1989) 52, 82 fig. 73, off cr avgg et caess nn in a circle, i.e.,
Off(icina) Cr(?) Augg(ustorum) et Caess(arum) nn(ostrorum) (= workshop of/at Cr(?)
belonging to our two Augusti and two Caesars), and sr in the center, i.e., s(ummae)
r(ei) (= belonging to the state treasury). A brick with an identical stamp was found on
the Esquiline Hill: see CIL 15.1:393, no. 1564.2, dated between 293 and 305 during the reign of
Diocletian and his fellow Tetrarchs. Steinby (1986) 117, 152, suggests that cr referred to the
name of the workshop or a magistrate, perhaps Cr(escentis). Frothingham (1915) 159, also
found a brick from the arch with the fragmentary stamp dd nn, i.e., dd(ominorum)
nn(ostrorum) (= belonging to our two lords). One block in the arch was a recycled
gravestone engraved with a fragmentary dedication: see CIL 11.2.2:1360, no. 7774, with
Messineo and Calci (1989) 87, 89 fig. 89, dating the dedication to the first century a.d.
For the arch as a commemoration of the vision, see Toebelmann (1915) 31, with Chapters 3,
on Rufinus translation, and 4, on Constantines later memory of his vision. Also unlikely
is the suggestion of Girardet (2006b) 74, that the arch marked the spot where Constantine
decided to use the chi-rho symbol as an emblem on his soldiers shields.
187
their proximity to other very prosperous cities guaranteed safe access

to supplies. Subsequently those troops marched farther south along
the Flaminian Way to Narnia, Ocriculum, and Saxa Rubra, before some
of them crossed the Milvian Bridge to enter Rome. In 193 Septimius
Severus had met a delegation of senators at Interamna. In 307 Galerius
and his troops likewise had camped at Interamna on their way to
Rome. In 312 Constantine and his troops may have advanced a bit
farther before setting up camp. This arch at Malborghetto may have
commemorated the site of his armys final encampment before the battle
against Maxentius, perhaps even the exact spot of the commanders
tent.49
If so, then the arch was similar in function to the monument that
Augustus had erected at the site of his final encampment in western
Greece before the battle of Actium in 31 b.c. Augustus memorial was a
large open terrace surrounded on three sides by a stoa. An altar and large
statues stood in the middle of the terrace, bronze rams from captured
49
Vespasians troops: Tacitus, Historiae 3.60, 7879, 82. Septimius Severus: SHA, Severus 6.2.
Galerius troops: Origo Constantini imperatoris 3.6. For the arch as a marker of the final
encampment, see Kuhoff (1991) 157; of the emperors tent, Coarelli (2007) 435, precisely at
the location of the praetorium in Constantines camp. According to Zosimus, Historia nova
2.16.1, Constantine advanced to Rome with his army and encamped in a field that was in
front of the city, open, and suitable for his cavalry; but Zosimus also implied that this field
was the site of the final battle.
Aurelius Victor, De Caesaribus 40.23, located Maxentius defeat at Saxa Rubra (Red
Rocks, near modern Grottarossa), on the Flaminian Way a few miles north of the Milvian
Bridge, just south of Prima Porta, and several miles south of Malborghetto. Kuhoff (1991)
157, suggests that Saxa Rubra was the site of only an initial skirmish, but Barnes (1981)
305n.144, dismisses the battle by claiming that Aurelius Victor confused the invasion of 312
with Septimius Severus invasion of 193 (see Aurelius Victor, De Caesaribus 19.4). As another
contribution to revisionist history, note that in 1912 a dedication commemorating the 1600th
anniversary of Constantines victory was erected at Prima Porta under the auspices of pope
Pius X. This dedication identified the site of the victory as Saxa Rubra: for the text, see
Kuhoff (1991) 157n.80.
Another possibility, of course, is that the arch at Malborghetto had nothing to do with
Constantines victory. Frothingham (1915) 15960, argues that this sort of four-way arch
was associated with topographical boundaries and not primarily with triumphs, and that
the arch marks the boundary of the jurisdiction of the urban magistrates in Diocletians
reorganization of Italy.
188
ships were displayed as trophies on the front facade, and a dedicatory

inscription commemorated the victory in the war he waged on behalf
of the Republic. Nearby Augustus founded a new city whose name
celebrated his victory, Nicopolis.50
If the arch at Malborghetto can be associated with Constantine, it
was most likely constructed in time for him to celebrate its dedication
during his visit to Rome in 315 or in 326. The arch inside Rome
anticipated Constantines transformation into a civilian emperor. In
contrast, this arch in the suburbs most likely explicitly honored his
military victory. Only his victory at the Milvian Bridge had made it
possible for him to celebrate his tenth and his twentieth anniversaries
at Rome, and Constantine knew that he had owed that victory to his
troops. Malborghetto was perhaps Constantines equivalent of a city
of victory.
The arch at Malborghetto was not the only monument on the
Flaminian Way that commemorated Constantine. In early 313 the
emperor left Rome to return to northern Italy, almost certainly by
marching north on the Flaminian Way. During his subsequent visits to
Rome he again traveled along the Flaminian Way. In 315 on his way to
Rome he passed through Aqua Viva, a town north of Malborghetto;
in 326 he passed through Spoletium (modern Spoleto) on his return
trip. Various towns along the Flaminian Way set up dedications and
monuments in his honor. In the mid-330s the people of Hispellum
asked Constantine for permission to construct a new temple in honor
of the emperors Flavian dynasty and to establish a new festival that
included theatrical shows and gladiator games. They also requested that
he bestow on their city a new name derived from his dynastic name.
Constantine agreed with their requests, and he allowed the city to be
renamed as Flavia Constans, to commemorate both his familys dynastic
Flavian name and the name of his youngest son, Constans. The people of Hispellum were presumably readying their city in anticipation
50
Monument at Nicopolis: Strabo, Geographia 7.7.6, Suetonius, Augustus 18.2, Dio, Historiae
Romanae 51.1.23, with Zachos (2003), for an excellent survey of the archaeology of the
monument and a revised text of the dedication, and Lange (2009) 95123.
189
of Constantines expected return to Rome to celebrate the thirtieth

anniversary of his accession. By reminding the emperor that their city
was adjacent and next to the Flaminian Way, perhaps they were hinting that the emperor might like to stop and visit the new temple. At
Fanum Fortunae the dedication on the arch in honor of Augustus generosity, then more than three centuries old, would be revised in honor
of Constantine. Because this new dedication celebrated Constantine as
divine, it had been added after his death in 337. At some time Fanum
Fortunae also added Flavia to its name. Previously it had been a
Julian city, named after Augustus imperial dynasty; now it too was
renamed after Constantines Flavian dynasty.51
The connection between the cities on the Flaminian Way and the
Constantinian imperial dynasty lingered into the next generation.
When Constantius visited Rome in 357, he of course traveled on the
Flaminian Way. On his trip to the capital he stopped at Ocriculum,
in the foothills of the Apennines, and he made a contribution, in the
name of himself and his cousin Julian, his fellow emperor, to repair the
bathhouse that had burned down at Spoletium. Monuments and dedications commemorated Constantine and his Flavian imperial dynasty
along the entire length of the Flaminian Way, from Fanum Fortunae
in the north to Malborghetto in the south.52
The original patron of the highway, Gaius Flaminius, had been a
consul and a famous general in the later third century b.c. Augustus
patronage had promoted support for his Julian dynasty. But now, with
51
52
Aqua Viva: CTh 8.18.1, with the emendation in Seeck (1919) 163. Spoletium: CTh 16.5.2.
Favors for Hispellum: Van Dam (2007) 23129, 36367. New inscription at Fanum Fortunae:
ILS 1:159, no. 706 = Grunewald (1990) 216, no. 234, with De Maria (1988) 215, on rededicating
Augustus arch. Flavia Fanestri: Consultatio veteris cuiusdam iurisconsulti 9.4, in an edict
issued in 365.
Note also a tombstone at Spoletium for a protector, a junior officer, from the Legio II
Italica Divitiensis: see ILS 1:549, no. 2777. This legionary unit presumably took its name
from Castellum Divitia (modern Deutz), a fortified camp established by Constantine on the
east bank of the Rhine: see Chapter 10. Jones (1964) 1084n.43, suggests that this protector
was serving at Constantines court during the invasion of 312.
Ocriculum: Ammianus Marcellinus, Res gestae 16.10.4. Baths at Spoletium: ILS 1:166,
no. 739 = Conti (2004) 14445, no. 124.

the construction of all of the Constantinian monuments during the
fourth century, the entire Flaminian Way might well have been renamed
after Constantines imperial dynasty as the Flavian Way.
A Dedication, a Statue, and a Hand

When Constantine entered Rome on October 29, the day after his
victory over Maxentius, a crowd welcomed him as redeemer, savior, and
benefactor. Eusebius described this ceremonial arrival in the edition
of his Ecclesiastical History published already in late 313 or 314. To
compose this description so soon after the battle, he had clearly relied
on an anonymous written source. His narrative continued by claiming
that the emperor acknowledged the compliments from the crowd and
soon ordered that a commemoration of the Saviors suffering should
be erected in the hand of a statue of himself. This statue was set up at
a site that was as public as any in Rome.53
After his entry into Rome many statues of Constantine were erected
in the most distinguished locations; most were of gold or silver. The
statue that Constantine ordered to be erected is commonly identified
with the colossal marble statue that was on display in the apse at the
west end of the Basilica Nova. Maxentius had initiated construction
of this huge basilica on the ridge between the Forum and the Colosseum. Because the basilica was not yet completed in 312, Constantine
had an opportunity to supervise some remodeling. In fact, after he
subsequently completed the basilica, it came to be known as Basilica
Constantiniana, the Constantinian Basilica. In addition, the senate
sanctioned the rededication of this basilica to the merits of Flavius,
that is, to Constantine, whose official imperial name, as inscribed on
the nearby commemorative arch, was Flavius Constantinus. By appropriating the name of this basilica and receiving credit for its construction, Constantine had stolen a centerpiece of Maxentius monumental
legacy.54
53
54
Acclamations, site: Eusebius, HE 9.9.10, with Chapter 5, for discussion of Eusebius source.
Statues: Aurelius Victor, De Caesaribus 40.28, with La Rocca and Zanker (2007), discussing
the large marble head of Constantine recently found in the Forum of Trajan. For the
191
He may also have stolen Maxentius statue. Today all that survives
of the colossal statue are several huge fragments, including most
famously the head and the right hand, as well as the right upper arm
and elbow, the right knee, the right shin and calf, the right foot, a piece
of the lower left leg, and the left foot. The fragments were discovered
in the ruins of the Basilica Nova in the later fifteenth century but subsequently moved to the Capitoline Hill, where they are on display in
the courtyard of the Palazzo dei Conservatori. In the mid-twentieth
century another fragment, a piece of the left chest and shoulder, was
also discovered in the Basilica Nova, and other fragments might still be
identified.55
This statue was huge, and the head alone, from crown to chin, was
about six feet high. One possibility is that the statue was an original
of Constantine, sculpted after his initial arrival at Rome and placed
in the basilica. Another, much more likely possibility is that it had
originally been a statue of a god such as Jupiter or Apollo or of an
earlier emperor such as Domitian, Trajan, Hadrian, or Commodus,
previously on display elsewhere in the capital but moved to the basilica
and recut with the face of Constantine. Yet another possibility is that it
had previously been a statue of Maxentius, itself recut from an earlier
statue and already intended for display in his new basilica. Depictions
of Maxentius head and face, on statues and on coins, typically followed
the blocklike style of the Tetrarchic emperors, with a stubble beard and
staring eyes. Recutting his face into the leaner clean-shaven face of
Constantine would have been straightforward.56
55
56
identification of the statue mentioned by Eusebius with the colossal statue, see LOrange
(1984) 75, Curran (2000) 82, widely regarded as being the statue which Eusebius of Caesarea
described, and Lenski (2008) 2067. Basilica Constantiniana: Curiosum and Notitia, ed.
Nordh (1949) 78, 100. Merits of Flavius: Aurelius Victor, De Caesaribus 40.26, with Van
Dam (2007) 8688.
See Presicce (2007), for the discovery and early displays of the fragments.
Modification of the head: see Presicce (2007) 128, Das Gesicht zeigt unbestreitbare Anze
ichen fur eine Uberarbeitung;
with Van Dam (2007) 89n.12, for various suggestions about
the origin of the colossal statue. For the availability of huge statues in Rome, note that
the emperor Severus Alexander was thought to have honored earlier deified emperors by
erecting colossal statues, some nude and on foot, others on horseback, in the Forum of

In his History Eusebius noted that Constantine furthermore gave
directions for the people who had erected [his statue] to engrave this
very inscription in these words in the language of the Romans, that is,
in Latin. Although he had most likely acquired this information about
the inscription in Latin from his anonymous source, in his own narrative
Eusebius nevertheless cited the dedication in a Greek version. Almost
a century later in his translation of Eusebius History, however, Rufinus
cited a Latin version of the dedication that was not an exact translation of Eusebius Greek version. Instead, his version was most likely
copied from the actual dedication that was still on display in Rome.
Because Rufinus had lived in Rome as a student during the 360s, and
because he had certainly visited Rome again in the late fourth century
before starting his translation, he could have seen the dedication. Elsewhere in his translation he occasionally updated Eusebius comments
about Rome with more contemporary information. In this case too,
rather than merely translating Eusebius Greek version of the dedication
back into Latin, Rufinus had most likely cited the original.57
In the Latin version of the dedication Constantine proclaimed his
recent success. In this exceptional symbol, which is a token of true
excellence, I restored the city of Rome, which has been rescued from
the yoke of a tyrants domination, as well as the senate and the Roman
people to [their] original liberty and nobility. Two characteristics of
the dedication are noteworthy. One is the use of the conventional
terminology of earlier emperors like Augustus who had claimed to have
restored the Republic. In this dedication Constantine mentioned the
senate and people of Rome, their liberty and nobility, and his defeat
57
Nerva: see SHA, Severus Alexander 28.6. For the similarities between the emperors heads,
see Evers (1992) 17, Mit ihrer Haartracht nehmen die Maxentius-Portrats diejenigen Konstantins und seiner Nachfolger vorweg, and R. R. R. Smith (1997) 185, on Maxentius, a
less aged, more vigorous tetrarchism, and Constantine from the early 310s, a taller, more
thin-faced profile, a clean-shaven, youthful, handsome face.
Directions: Eusebius, HE 9.9.10, with Pietri and Pietri (19992000) 2:192540, for an
overview of Rufinus life. For the suggestion that Rufinus cited the original Latin text of
this dedication, see Moreau (1954) 2:444, Christensen (1989) 300, Grunewald (1990) 71, and
Heim (2001) 208, La formule de Rufin nest pas une retroversion.
193
of a tyrant. Even though he had grown up with Tetrarchic notions

of imperial rule, once he arrived at Rome he quickly adopted more
traditional Republican terminology. A few years later in 315 the senate
and people would use the inscriptions and the iconography on the
arch as a medium to remind Constantine of how they hoped he would
behave like a conventional emperor at Rome. In the primary dedication,
for instance, they would praise him for having saved them from a tyrant
and his faction. But as Constantines own dedication already indicated,
he did not need much reminding. Immediately after his arrival at the
capital he was already presenting himself as a Republican emperor.58
A second notable characteristic of the Latin version of the dedication
is the absence of any explicit allusion to Christianity. The referent of
this exceptional symbol remains unclear. Even though Eusebius had
clearly linked the dedication with a statue planned by Constantine,
Rufinus did not mention any statue that the emperor initiated. His
surrounding narrative was again not a direct translation of Eusebius
account. Rufinus noted instead that the senate had decided to erect
images in honor of him [Constantine] as he celebrated a triumph.
Because Constantine had concluded that his success was due not to
his own excellence but to a divine gift, he suggested that a standard
of the Lords cross be depicted in his right hand and that [the words of
the dedication] be inscribed underneath. In Rufinus telling, the senate
took the initiative in setting up statues, and Constantine suggested only
the addition of a dedication and a depiction of a cross. The exceptional
symbol mentioned in the dedication was a token of true excellence,
that is, the excellence that he would not attribute to himself. Even if the
emperor ordered the depiction of a cross in the hand of a statue, this
exceptional symbol was not necessarily a reference to a cross. Instead,
in the original Latin text of this dedication, as quoted by Rufinus,
Constantine seemed more interested in establishing his credentials as
58
Text of dedication in Rufinus, HE 9.9.11: In hoc singulari signo, quod est verae virtutis
insigne, urbem Romam senatumque et populum Romanum iugo tyrannicae dominationis
ereptam pristinae libertati nobilitatique restitui, with Eder (2005) 17, on Augustus: an
abiding component of his actions: his respect of the power of republican traditions.

a traditional Republican emperor, not as an overtly Christian emperor.
This dedication was designed for a local audience that included senators,
not specifically for Christians at Rome or throughout the empire.59
Eusebius had interpreted the dedication differently, however. At the
end of 312 Maximinus, the emperor in the East, had notified his prefect
about a new policy of religious toleration. If anyone, by his own choice,
decides that the worship of the gods must be observed, it is appropriate
to welcome such people; but if others wish to observe their own worship,
you should leave [the decision] to their authority. Because his see of
Caesarea was a provincial capital, Eusebius had apparently seen a copy
of this letter that the prefect distributed to the provincial governors. At
about the same time he learned from his anonymous source that after
the battle at the Milvian Bridge, Constantine had communicated with
Maximinus. Even though Constantine was perhaps only announcing
his victory to a fellow emperor, Eusebius nevertheless concluded that
Maximinus had adopted his new policy of toleration in response to pressure from Constantine. Because Maximinus had previously promoted a
harsh persecution of Christians, Eusebius furthermore concluded that
an opponent of Maximinus was not just a supporter of Christianity
but a Christian himself. With this image of a Christian Constantine
in mind, Eusebius hence interpreted the Latin text of this dedication
as another example of Constantines public announcement of his own
Christianity.60
Eusebius seems to have known nothing about Constantines reign
as an emperor in the West until he read this anonymous source. Most
likely the entire source was written in Latin. It certainly seems to have
quoted Constantines dedication in Latin. Eusebius provided two Greek
59
60
Rufinus, HE 9.9.1011. Gregoire (1932) 14041, suggests that the statue was holding a
vexillum, a military standard consisting of an upright spear and a crossbar, offered by the
senate as a sign of triumph: it netait pas encore chretien ni christianisant (p. 143); Kuhoff
(1991) 171, argues that in the political situation after the battle at the Milvian Bridge the
erection of a statue and a dedication with the Christian symbols described by Eusebius
would be unthinkable.
Eusebius, HE 9.9.12, correspondence of Constantine and Licinius with Maximinus, 9a.8,
Maximinus letter.
195
translations of the dedication, one published soon afterward in his

History, and the other published decades later in his Life of Constantine.
In the early version the emperor was construed to claim that he had
rescued the city from the yoke of the tyrant, in the later version
from the tyrannical yoke. Because the two Greek versions were not
verbatim the same, presumably Eusebius or one of his secretaries had
reread the original text and retranslated it for citation in Life. These
small verbal discrepancies indicate that Eusebius did not have a fixed
Greek text of the dedication available. Instead, the text of the dedication
in the anonymous source that he or his secretary first translated for
History, and then translated again for Life, had been in Latin. In the
process of offering a Greek translation of that Latin dedication, however,
Eusebius simultaneously provided an interpretation based on a string
of inferences about Constantines Christianity.61
In particular, the Greek translation (in both versions) rendered this
exceptional symbol as this symbol of salvation. This ingenious translation transformed the bland and indeterminate reference to an exceptional symbol in the original Latin dedication into a more specifically
religious symbol of salvation. Eusebius furthermore interpreted the
symbol of salvation as a cross and then concluded that the dedication
was referring to an actual cross in the hand of a statue of the emperor.
He claimed that Constantine had ordered the people of Rome to erect a
61
Text of dedication in Eusebius, HE 9.9.11: tot t swthridei shme t lhqe

lgc tv ndreav tn plin mn p zugo to turnnou diaswqesan leuqrwsa, ti mn ka tn sgklhton ka tn dmon Rwmawn t rca pifane ka
lamprthti leuqersav pokatsthsa. Text of dedication in Eusebius, Vita Constantini 1.40.2, same as the version in HE 9.9.11, with the exception of one phrase: . . . tn plin
mn zugo turanniko diaswqesan . . . Hall (1993) 254, suggests that the later version in
Life was more generic to allude to the victory over Licinius too: Maxentius is not the only
tyrant.
Two additional issues are relevant. One is Eusebius knowledge of Latin, which was minimal at best. Most likely his secretaries provided the Greek translations of Latin documents
in History and Life: see Van Dam (2007) 19495. Another is his technique for reading and
excerpting texts. Eusebius probably presided over a roomful of deacons, who acted as his
secretaries. After they read and copied the texts, Eusebius offered his own comments, which
were also recorded: for this model, see Mras (1954) lviilviii, elaborated by Grafton and
Williams (2006) 21215.

statue of himself holding a commemoration of the Saviors suffering.
Afterward they set him [the statue] up holding the symbol of salvation
in his right hand. On the basis of a mistranslation of the dedication,
a misunderstanding of its connection to a statue, and an inference
about Constantines Christianity, Eusebius equated the symbol of salvation mentioned in his translation of the dedication with a symbol
of salvation in the statues hand. Although Constantine had wanted
to present himself in this dedication at Rome as a traditional Republican emperor, Eusebius concluded that he had represented himself as an
overtly Christian emperor, and he adjusted his translation and narrative
accordingly.62
Eusebius misreading and Rufinus subsequent lack of clarity raise the
question whether Constantine had intended the dedication to accompany a statue at all. Perhaps he built a different sort of monument, or
possibly erected only the dedication. Even if he did erect a statue of
himself to accompany the dedication, it would more likely have been
in the guise of a traditional emperor. The cross in its hand was most
likely a figment of Eusebius creative translation.63
on the other hand

Modern scholars have often reinforced (although perhaps unwittingly)
Eusebius distinctive interpretation of the dedication in their own interpretations of another colossal right hand. This other right hand was
found during work on a wall below the Capitoline Hill and is almost
identical in size and appearance to the right hand found with the other
fragments of the colossal statue in the Basilica Nova. It too is on display
in the same courtyard of the Palazzo dei Conservatori but set against
62
63
Eusebius, HE 9.9.10, commemoration, t swtrion shmeon, with Winkelmann (2004)

6367, rejecting the addition of stauro or to stauro, the symbol of salvation of the
cross, in some Greek manuscripts as later glosses. Note that in the index of Greek words for
their dual edition of Eusebius HE and Rufinus HE, Schwartz and Mommsen (19031909)
3:203, indicate that the Latin equivalent of Eusebius swthridhv was salutaris. Conversely,
as the Greek equivalent of Rufinus singularis, Gregoire (1932) 142, suggests xaretov.
For a suggestion that Constantine had responded to the acclamations with an order to erect
only the dedication, see Christensen (1989) 290.
197
the opposite wall. One possibility is that this other hand had been the
original right hand of the colossal statue and that it had been replaced
when the statue had been recast as Constantine. According to one
modern interpretation, because this original hand had been designed
to hold an object similar to a rod that only pointed up, perhaps like
a traditional scepter, it had been discarded and replaced by another
hand that could hold an object with a shaft that extended from the
ground to the hand and then above the hand, perhaps like a flagstaff.
In this case, recycling the statue as Constantine had also required the
replacement of the right hand to hold a cross.64
This theory of a replacement hand has furthermore encouraged speculation about the timing. The hand may have been replaced immediately when the statue was transformed into Constantine soon after his
victory over Maxentius. Another interpretation suggests that the colossal statue originally depicted Constantine in the guise of a pagan god,
Jupiter for instance, holding a scepter. Only after his victory in 324
over Licinius, his last imperial rival, did Constantine have the scepter
replaced by a cross, a more obviously Christian symbol, in the grip of
a new right hand. In both cases Eusebius misreading of the dedication
has provided modern scholars with a rationale for the replacement of
the hand. Holding a cross required a new right hand.65
64
65
The hand found with the head and other fragments in the Basilica Nova is the famous hand
often depicted in books about Constantine. This hand was broken off at the wrist. The
other right hand was broken off across the palm at the bottom of the ball of the thumb.
For descriptions and photographs of the two hands, see LOrange (1984) 7174 with Tafeln
5051, and Stuart Jones (1926) 1112 with Plate 5. Quotations about scepter and flagstaff
translated from LOrange (1984) 73, who argues that the hand from the Basilica Nova was a
replacement for the other, original hand.
At some time a metal diadem might have been added to the head: see LOrange (1984)
7677. Portraits of Constantine wearing a diadem first appeared on his coins during his war
with Licinius in 324: see Bruun (1966) 4445, 147, 660, and Bastien (19921994) 1:14366.
For the suggestion that the original hand was likewise replaced after 324, see Kolb (2001)
2068.
After examining various early drawings of the fragments, Presicce (2007) 119, concludes
that the extended index finger on the right hand found in the Basilica Nova was a restoration apparently of the seventeenth century and claims that it did not correspond to the
original pose. As a result, the beautiful reconstruction of the colossal statue in Demandt

Replacing the entire hand is nevertheless an implausible explanation,
if only for practical considerations. If a sculptor could recut the head
as Constantine, he could certainly also recut the hand to fit a new
implement. In addition, a new staff, whether a cross or not, would
presumably have been constructed from wood or metal, and it would
have been much easier to make a new staff fit an existing hand than to
carve an entirely new huge hand from a marble block.66
Another, more likely possibility is that originally there had been two
similar colossal seated statues, one of which was recast as Constantine
(or first as Maxentius and then as Constantine), while the other was
eventually discarded. A model for such a pair of seated statues would
be the life-size statues of Hadrian and Marcus Aurelius at each end
of the Rostra, as depicted in a panel on the arch of Constantine. The
statue of Hadrian in particular was holding a floor-length scepter in
his left hand and a globe in his right hand. This statue of Hadrian was
apparently a close mirror image of the colossal statue of Constantine.
The other right hand should hence not be used to support the modern
conjecture that the original colossal statue had been remodeled to
hold a cross. Rather than having been the original hand of a single
statue, it seems more likely that this other right hand had belonged
to a second colossal statue. Only the hand has survived of this second
statue.67
66
67
and Engemann (2007) 131, depicts all the fingers of Constantines right hand curled around
a floor-length staff (not a cross!). On the other hand, however, although the index finger
and three other fingers had to be reattached, this original index finger was extended up. By
analogy, perhaps the extended index finger on the hand from the Basilica Nova was indeed
restored correctly.
Fittschen and Zanker (1985) 148, dismiss LOranges interpretation of a replacement hand:
Leider ist diese geistreiche Kombination rein hypothetisch. Hannestad (2007) 101, also
questions the need to replace the hand: dann ware es aber ein kleinerer Eingriff gewesen,
einfach das Zepter durch ein Kreuz auf derselben Hand zu ersetzen.
For the possibility of a second statue, see Stuart Jones (1926) 12, suggesting that the other
right hand appears to have belonged to a colossal statue similar to that of Constantine.
An examination of the types of marble cannot resolve the connection between the head and
the right hands; note Stuart Jones (1926) 13n.2, it appears that different qualities of marble
were used for different parts of the statue. Both hands were carved from marble from Luna
in northern Italy, while the head was carved from Pentelic marble from Attica.
199
In the account of Constantines dedication and monuments at Rome

published in the first edition of his History, Eusebius had interpreted
and translated the information in the anonymous Latin source in a
distinctive way that reinforced his inferences about Constantine. In his
later writings Eusebius referred to the monuments three more times,
and he also supplied more details. The inclusion of the additional
details does not imply that over the years Eusebius had acquired more
information to corroborate his first account. Instead, as he became
more certain about Constantines Christianity, he also seems to have
become more certain about the Christian character of the monuments
at Rome. Eusebius reinforced his earlier interpretation with repetition
and supposition, not more research.
Shortly after publishing the first edition of History Eusebius delivered
an oration at Tyre, perhaps in 315, to celebrate the dedication of a rebuilt
church. In this oration he praised the contemporary emperors who
supported Christianity. These unnamed emperors were Constantine
and Licinius, who both recognize Christ, the Son of God, as the allpowerful Emperor of everything. Eusebius then praised their public
acknowledgment of the Christian God. On tablets they call him Savior,
and in an imperishable record, in imperial letters in the middle of the
city that rules over the cities throughout the world, they inscribe his
successes and his victories over the impious. Even though Eusebius
mentioned the initiative of both emperors, he was certainly alluding to
Constantines dedication and monuments at Rome. But now, within
a year or two of publishing his initial description, he was much more
explicit about their Christian character. In the version in the first edition
of History Eusebius had noted that Constantine himself had been hailed
as savior on entering Rome; in the version in this oration he claimed
that Constantine (and, nominally, Licinius) had set up dedications in
honor of Jesus Christ the Savior. Eusebius subsequently included this
oration as part of a new final tenth book for the edition of History
published before October 316.68
68
Oration at Tyre: Eusebius, HE 10.4.16, with Barnes (1981) 162, for the date of the oration,
and Chapter 5, for the editions of History.
200
Twenty years later Eusebius returned to this story. In a panegyric

celebrating the thirtieth anniversary of Constantines reign in July 336,
he again mentioned the emperors construction of a monument of
commemoration and a series of dedications at Rome. This time there
was no hint of participation by Licinius. Through prudent reasoning
he [Constantine] returned a prayer of gratitude to the cause of this
victory. With a loud voice and on [inscribed] tablets he proclaimed
to all men the symbol that brought victory. In the middle of the
ruling city he erected this huge memorial against all enemies, this
distinctly imperishable symbol of salvation for the Roman empire and
this protection for the entire kingdom. In this account Eusebius did
not mention a statue and provided no details about the large memorial,
although its description as a symbol of salvation might imply that
he thought it was a cross. He delivered this oration in the emperors
presence in the imperial palace at Constantinople. Perhaps by then he
had already heard Constantines memories about his vision, his dream,
and the construction of his military standard. If so, then the emperors
stories about the importance of the cross in his military campaigns
would certainly have strengthened Eusebius original interpretation of
the dedication at Rome.69
But it is also possible to think about the influence in the opposite
direction. According to Eusebius, the emperor truly enjoyed the oration. While he listened, the friend of God resembled a happy man.
Afterward the emperor hosted a banquet and expressed his appreciation. After listening, he said as much while he dined and talked with
the bishops who were in attendance. This banquet might have been
an appropriate occasion for Constantine finally to share his memories
of his earlier campaigns. Perhaps it was hearing Eusebius description
of his behavior at Rome that revived his memories of the events so
long before. If so, then Eusebius recycled account of the events of
312 may have helped prompt and shape Constantines own memories. In this case the emperors memories about his vision, his dream,
and the military standard were not a source for Eusebius account but
69
Eusebius, De laudibus Constantini 9.8, swtrion tout shmeon.
201
rather a consequence of hearing Eusebius account of his monuments

at Rome. Constantine may have finally decided to share his memories
only after hearing Eusebius account in the panegyric of the monuments
at Rome.70
After Constantines death in 337, Eusebius returned once more to the
emperors monuments at Rome. This final version in Life combined
his first version in History (then more than twenty years old) with his
most recent version in the anniversary panegyric. Eusebius first quoted
from History his extended narrative of the battle and Constantines
victorious entry into Rome. He then inserted a description of the
emperors construction of a memorial that closely, but not exactly,
repeated his account in the panegyric. He immediately returned a
prayer of gratitude to the cause of victory. In a great text and on
[inscribed] tablets he proclaimed to all men the symbol of salvation.
In the middle of the ruling city he erected this huge memorial against
the enemies, and in distinctly imperishable letters he engraved this sign
of salvation for the Roman empire and this protection for the entire
kingdom. Eusebius followed that description with an account of the
emperors statue that closely, but not exactly, repeated his account in
History. At a site that was on the public properties at Rome they
erected a tall shaft in the form of a cross in the hand of a statue of
himself made in the appearance of a man. Immediately he ordered
them to engrave this very inscription in these words in the language of
the Romans. Eusebius concluded by quoting again a Greek version of
the dedication.71
In Life this account of monuments and a dedication at Rome
remained as the conclusion to Eusebius narrative of Constantines
campaign against Maxentius in 312. Much of that narrative had been
recycled from History. But the account of monuments could serve as a
proper pendant, because in Life Eusebius had introduced his narrative
70
71
Listened, dined: Eusebius, Vita Constantini 4.46.

Eusebius, Vita Constantini 1.39.340.1, derived from De laudibus Constantini 9.8; 1.40.2,
derived from HE 9.9.1011. Note that the translation of Vita Constantini 1.40.2 in Cameron
and Hall (1999) 85, overlooks the phrase about the site in Rome.
202
from History with new episodes based on Constantines own stories

about his vision, his dream, and the construction of his military standard. In Life the narrative of Constantines expedition against Maxentius
finally had a proper symmetry, neatly compressed between matching
bookends: a prelude of stories about Constantines vision of the cross
and dream about Jesus Christ, based on the emperors own belated
memories, and a postlude of stories about a monument, a statue, and
a dedication that honored the cross and the Savior, based on Eusebius
own early misunderstandings.
Eusebius had gradually accumulated a lifetime of inferences and
elaborations about Constantines monuments at Rome. Long ago he
had acquired information about Constantines activities at Rome in 312
from an anonymous Latin source. Initially in History he had interpreted
the dedication and the monuments in terms of his own conjectures (and
perhaps hopes) about Constantine as a Christian. Over the decades he
had expanded his account, not on the basis of additional information
but rather as a result of his increasing confidence in his initial deductions. Eusebius description develops from an assemblage of various
imaginary artistic and literary components into a new, non-historical
synthesis.72
In the account in Life his misinformation finally crowded out whatever trustworthy information still remained. By combining the elaborated account in the panegyric with his initial deductions in History,
Eusebius identified the huge memorial with a statue of the emperor.
He repeated his peculiar reading of the dedication and identified its
purpose as announcing the role of the sign of salvation, that is, the
cross, in protecting the empire. In his initial account in History Eusebius had already misconstrued his anonymous source. His subsequent
accounts of the monuments at Rome, including the final version in
Life, are even more unreliable as starting points for the discussions of
modern historians and art historians.
Modern scholars should instead rank Rufinus account of the monuments at Rome more highly. In contrast to Eusebius, Rufinus had
72
Quotation about Eusebius description translated from Kuhoff (1991) 171.
203
visited Rome and seen the monuments and the dedication. Eusebius
initial account was derivative, based on a faulty reading of a Latin
source; Rufinus account was based on personal inspection. In particular, modern scholars should cite and analyze Constantines dedication
in Rufinus Latin version rather than in Eusebius Greek translations.
Rufinus Latin version quite probably corresponded to the actual dedication. In an odd reversal of expectations, with regard to the dedication
Eusebius was the translator, not Rufinus.
Churches and Ritual Topography

During his long reign the emperor Augustus had accelerated the transformation of Republican Rome into imperial Rome. In the early empire
the capital was already enormous, with a population of about one million residents. Emperors guaranteed the import of huge amounts of
grain, olive oil, and wine, both for free distribution and for sale at
reduced prices. They financed and administered the utilitarian infrastructure with the construction and maintenance of long aqueducts and
vast underground drains. They transformed the monumental skyline
with the construction of large plazas and buildings, including temples, forums, baths, and entertainment venues such as the Colosseum.
They also contributed impressive memorials in honor of their own
achievements, including statues, decorated columns, and commemorative arches. Emperors were competing against the reputations of
their predecessors. The immense size and extravagance of the Baths
of Caracalla, constructed in the early third century, misled medieval
cartographers into thinking that the complex had been the imperial
palace. A century later the Baths of Diocletian could accommodate
almost twice as many bathers. By enhancing the capital and its amenities, emperors demonstrated their commitment to ancestral traditions,
in particular the heritage of the Republic, even as they flaunted their
own authority and wealth before large appreciative audiences. Rome
became a giant stage set for the display and performance of Republican
emperorship.73
73
Cartographers: DeLaine (1997) 41. Baths of Diocletian: Olympiodorus, Frag. 41.1, ed. Blockley (19811983) 2:204. For Rome and Republican emperorship, see Van Dam (2010) 1822.
205
The great size and magnificence of Rome were also meant to remind
provincials of their subordination to imperial rule. Most of the supplies
for Rome were imported from overseas provinces through the process
of tribute exaction as taxes and rents. The emperors agents supervised
the collection, transportation, storage, and distribution of grain from
Egypt, Sicily, and North Africa, of olive oil from Spain and North Africa,
and of wine from Gaul and Spain. They brought in colored marbles
from quarries all over the empire, at great expense and effort. They
arranged for the capture and transport of exotic animals from frontier
regions and borderlands, as well as the magnificent display of horses
from the provinces in the races in the circuses and the conspicuous
slaughter of wild animals during staged hunts in amphitheaters. In
303 the emperors Diocletian and Maximian brought thirteen elephants
with them to Rome, as well as six chariot drivers and 250 horses.
Early imperial Rome was a consumer capital whose incessant demands
ensured that the entire Mediterranean world was toiling to its rhythm.74
After his arrival at Rome, Constantine contributed more buildings
and more monuments. He renovated the Circus Maximus, the premier
arena for chariot racing and horse racing, with lofty porticoes and
red columns flecked with gold. He completed another bath complex
north of the imperial forums and repaired an aqueduct. In return, the
senate and people quickly accepted Constantine as the new patron of
Rome, in part by overtly shifting their allegiance from his predecessor.
Maxentius too had cultivated a special relationship with the capital. He
had most likely rededicated the colossal bronze statue of the sun god
Sol that stood next to the Colosseum in honor of his son. On a ridge
overlooking Sacred Street, leading into the Forum, he had also rebuilt
the Temple of Venus and Roma and constructed the Basilica Nova.
After Constantines victory at the Milvian Bridge, however, some of
Maxentius monuments were quickly dismantled or reassigned.75
74
75
Gifts: Chronographer of 354, Chronica urbis Romae, s.v. Diocletianus et Maximianus, ed.
Mommsen (1892) 148. For Rome as a symbol of imperialism, see Van Dam (2010) 13, 2224.
Porticoes: Panegyrici latini 4(10).35.5. Circus Maximus, bath complex: Aurelius Victor, De
Caesaribus 40.2728, with Humphrey (1986) 129, suggesting that Constantine enlarged the
seating area of the Circus. Aqueduct: ILS 1:158, no. 702 = Grunewald (1990) 219, no. 256.
For Maxentius monuments, see Chapter 9.
206
Because Constantine remodeled the Basilica Nova, the senate sanctioned the rededication of both it and the Temple of Venus and Roma
to the merits of Flavius, that is, to Flavius Constantine. Thereafter
the regionary catalogs referred to the basilica as the Constantinian
Basilica. In addition, Maxentius dedication of the colossal statue was
removed, and the plaque was reused backward as just another marble
block in the construction of the attic of the arch of Constantine. On
that arch one of the new panels depicted Constantine observing the
battle of the Milvian Bridge, with the goddess Roma at his side. The
attendance of Roma may have been an allusion to the rededication of
the Temple of Venus and Roma. Two other new panels on the arch
depicted Constantine behaving like an ideal emperor by delivering a
public speech on the Rostra in the Forum and distributing gifts to senators. The relationship between Constantine and the residents of Rome
seemed thoroughly conventional. Constantine by the Senates decision
took over the monumental center of Rome. The new emperor funded
new building projects and remodeled existing structures; in return, the
senate and people sanctioned his emplacement as a benefactor in the
monumental landscape of downtown Rome. The city of Rome now
supported Constantine.76
The urban topography of Rome was an incentive for emperors to
perform traditional ceremonies. When Diocletian and Maximian had
visited Rome in 303, they had met in the Temple of Jupiter on the
Capitoline Hill. This great temple was a focus of Roman religious
cults and a manifestation of the eternity of Rome. To commemorate
the twentieth anniversary of their rule the emperors also erected a
monument at the back of the Rostra in the old Forum. Their monument
consisted of five columns, four displaying statues of the guardian spirits
of the four current emperors, the middle one topped with a statue
of Jupiter. On the one surviving pedestal of this Monument of Five
76
Merits of Flavius: Aurelius Victor, De Caesaribus 40.26. Basilica Constantiniana: Curiosum

and Notitia, ed. Nordh (1949) 78, 100; also known as the Basilica of Constantine in the
mid-fifth century: see Polemius Silvius, Laterculus 4, s.v. Basilicae XI, ed. Mommsen (1892)
545. Quotation about monumental center from Krautheimer (1983) 26.
207
Columns reliefs depicted an emperor and senators participating in a

sacrifice. As professional soldiers who spent most of their reigns on
or near the frontiers Diocletian and his fellow Tetrarchic emperors
had little in common with Rome. But when they visited the capital,
they presented themselves as proper Roman emperors, mindful of the
traditions of the capital. Because they had already adopted Jupiter as
a patron deity of the Tetrarchy, in Rome they could now show their
respect for the Temple of Jupiter and participate in a communal festival
of sacrifice.77
Constantine had most likely accompanied Diocletian and his court
to Rome, and as a junior military officer he may have joined in these
ceremonies with the emperors. When he later returned as an emperor
himself, however, eventually he decided not to participate in an ancestral festival on the Capitoline Hill, presumably at the Temple of Jupiter.
At first, perhaps during his initial visit in 312, he had joined his soldiers
in celebrating these customs, but during a subsequent visit, most
likely his final visit in 326, he declined to attend the holy rituals. His
snub was deeply upsetting, and the senate and the people were said to
have reacted with hatred. Constantines withdrawal from an ancestral
festival suggests that he was already thinking about the capital in terms
of a different ritual topography and a different ceremonial landscape.
The traditional symbolic terrain of Rome was no longer adequate or
necessary for representing his imperial rule.78
Rome eventually was known for its churches, and several were associated specifically with Constantine and his family. One was the Lateran
Basilica, later known as the Church of St. John Lateran. Constantine
may well have decided to initiate construction in early November 312,
soon after his initial entry into Rome. This was a commodious church,
77
78
Meeting: Panegyrici latini 6(7).15.6. Romes eternity: Ammianus Marcellinus, Res gestae
22.16.12, with Grig (2009), on the abiding symbolic potency of the Capitoline Hill. For the
Monument of Five Columns, see Chapter 6.
For the likelihood of Constantines visiting Rome in 303, see Barnes (1981) 25. Ancestral
festival, hatred: Zosimus, Historia nova 2.29.5, with Chapters 3 and 6. Modern discussion
of the date and significance of this withdrawal is extensive; for an overview, see Paschoud
(19792000) 1:23840.

almost as large as Maxentius Basilica Nova, and it soon became the
official cathedral of the bishop of Rome. As an imperial foundation
this church too came to be known as a Constantinian Basilica. A
second Constantinian foundation was the Church of St. Peter on the
Vatican Hill, which was even larger than the Church of St. John Lateran. Although construction did not begin until later in Constantines
reign or perhaps soon afterward, the monumental complex eventually
included a porch and a large courtyard in front of the church. Inside the
church on the arch that separated the nave from the transept an inscription commemorated the emperors victories and recorded his gratitude
for Gods guidance: under your leadership the world has raised itself
triumphant to the stars. As a result, Constantine the victor has built
this hall for you. Accompanying this dedication was a mosaic depicting the emperor as he presented a model of the church to Jesus Christ
and St. Peter. Two other churches became burial sites for members of
Constantines family. His mother was buried in a mausoleum attached
to the Church of St. Marcellinus and St. Peter, and his two daughters
were buried in a mausoleum next to the Church of St. Agnes.79
Constantine and his family furthermore enriched the churches
with extensive endowments and lavish gifts. Constantine endowed the
Church of St. John Lateran and its adjacent baptistery with the revenues
from numerous estates in Italy, Sicily, and North Africa, the regions he
had recently acquired after his victory over Maxentius. He also presented the church and the baptistery with two near-life-size statues of
Jesus made of silver, four silver statues of angels, silver statues of the
apostles, numerous gold and silver chandeliers, liturgical goldware and
79
For discussion of these churches, see Curran (2000) 93115, Bowersock (2005), attributing
the construction of the Church of St. Peter to the emperor Constans, and Kinney (2005), on
the reuse of classical materials. Basilica Constantiniana: Liber pontificalis 34.9. Dedication in
Church of St. Peter: de Rossi (18571888) 2.1:20, no. 6 = Diehl (19251931) 1:340, no. 1752 =
Grunewald (1990) 221, no. 263. Mosaic: Frothingham (1883), and Krautheimer (19371980)
5:177. Two daughters: Ammianus Marcellinus, Res gestae 21.1.5. Other significant churches
that might be attributed to Constantines initiative include the Church of St. Sebastian on
the Appian Way, the Church of St. Paul outside the Wall on the Ostiensian Way, and the
Church of St. Lawrence outside the Wall on the Tiburtinian Way: see Odahl (2004) 13042,
MacMullen (2009) 13540, and Chapter 9.
209
silverware, and silver candlesticks. According to later traditions, the

gifts totaled more than 1,100 pounds of gold and more than 11,000
pounds of silver. To the Church of St. Peter, Constantine presented
the revenues from estates in Syria and Egypt, among the regions he
acquired after his final victory over Licinius in 324, as well as gold and
silver chandeliers and candlesticks and liturgical goldware and silverware, totaling almost 300 pounds of gold and more than 1,600 pounds
of silver. Later traditions would also claim that Constantine and his
mother, Helena, had donated a large cross of gold to the Church of
St. Peter. The gold and silver in the gifts to these two churches alone
represented the equivalent of almost 2,400 pounds of gold, or about
172,000 large gold coins. Gifts to other churches in Rome, as well as to
churches elsewhere in Italy, increased that total by about 40 percent.80
The gifts, even if amortized over several years, represented a considerable outlay, while the transfer of the revenues of the estates to the
churches at Rome and in Italy reduced the emperors annual income
by the equivalent of about 470 pounds of gold. Emperors consistently
supplemented the annual salaries of their soldiers with regular donatives
of gold and silver coins to celebrate their accessions and anniversaries.
It is not surprising that during the years following his victory at Rome,
Constantines donatives to his soldiers seem to have been a bit light.
He was instead beginning to spend his resources on churches.81
All of these churches at Rome were in the outskirts, either just inside
the Aurelian Wall or in outlying suburbs. Various factors had influenced the selection of the sites. After his victory at the Milvian Bridge,
Constantine inherited imperial houses and estates throughout the capital, including property located in the residential Lateran neighborhood
80
81
Liber Pontificalis 34.912, gifts and estates for Church of St. John Lateran, 1315, gifts and
estates for baptistery, 1620, cross, gifts, and estates for Church of St. Peter, 2133, gifts to
other churches, with Davis (2000) xxix, suggesting that this information was derived from
a source document . . . compiled near the end of Constantius IIs reign, and Bauer and
Heinzelmann (1999), for the Church of the Apostle Peter, Paul, and John the Baptist at
Ostia. The ratio of gold to silver was 1:14.4, and 72 solidi were minted from a pound of gold:
see Hendy (1985) 465, 48082.
For the diminished donatives, see Abdy (2006), and Tomlin (2006).
210
on the Caelian Hill next to the wall. Fausta, his wife, already owned
a house in this district. In this neighborhood the Church of St. John
Lateran was built squarely on top of the barracks of the equites singulares, an elite cavalry unit that had supported the emperor Maxentius.
In this case the foundation of the new church on the rubble of this
military camp clearly demonstrated the demolition of Maxentius military support. Two suburban churches likewise underscored the end of
Maxentius reign. The Church of St. Marcellinus and St. Peter, located
about two miles east of the citys wall on the Labicanan Way, displaced
a cemetery filled with graves of members of the equites singulares. The
Church of St. Agnes, located about one mile northeast of the wall on
the Nomentanan Way, displaced a cemetery used for members of the
praetorian guard, another military unit that had supported Maxentius.
The churches also honored saints shrines. The Church of St. Agnes
commemorated the tomb of an early martyr, buried in sight of the
towers. The Church of St. Peter commemorated the apostles tomb on
the Vatican Hill, west of the city. The availability of imperial property,
the acknowledgment of earlier traditions about the location of saints
tombs, and the desire for revenge on Maxentius military supporters
had combined to influence the shaping of ecclesiastical topography.82
82
Faustas house on the Lateran: Optatus, Contra Donatistas 1.23.2, with the overview of
imperial Lateran properties in Fried (2007) 7488; but Liverani (1995), suggests that this
Fausta was a daughter of Anicius Faustus, a former consul and prefect of Rome: see PLRE
1:329, Anicius Faustus 6. Destruction of praetorian camps: Zosimus, Historia nova 2.17.2,
with Speidel (1986), on the support of the equites singulares for Maxentius. Buried: Prudentius, Peristephanon 14.3. Krautheimer (1983) 740, argues that Constantine deliberately built
the Church of St. John Lateran in the outskirts of Rome to avoid offending the sensibilities
of senators: a policy of sparing pagan sentiment (p. 29); Curran (2000) 7090, sidesteps the
issue of paganism by stressing the single-mindedness of Constantine (p. 90) in promoting
himself in the traditional center of Rome; Bowes (2008) 589, emphasizes that the location
of churches was contingent on the vagaries of private donations.
Excavations in the Lateran neighborhood have uncovered a building with six frescoes and
their accompanying painted inscriptions: see the extensive discussion and photographs in
Scrinari (1991) 13649, frescoes, 16273, inscriptions. This building might be identified as
Faustas house. Although now faded and damaged, the frescoes apparently depicted members
of Constantines family, including Constantine himself; Fausta; his father, Constantius; and
his mother, Helena (perhaps replacing an image of Theodora, Constantius wife). The
211
In a Christian Rome this hinterland of new churches would become

more important than the old Republican and early imperial downtown. As a result, the increasing importance of the churches turned
the symbolic topography of Rome inside out. Senators publicized their
priorities through their preferences for ancestral ceremonies and monuments or for new churches. In the mid-fourth century an arrogant
pagan senator funded expensive traditional games but belittled the
beggars who had gathered on the Vatican Hill. By the end of the century a humble Christian senator hosted a large banquet for poor people
in the Church of St. Peter. Emperors faced the same options. After Constantine few emperors visited Rome during the fourth century. When
they did, however, they had to choose how to represent themselves, as
traditional Republican emperors who might participate in processions
with senators through the old downtown or as Christian emperors who
patronized bishops, their congregations, and their suburban churches.83
In 357 the emperor Constantius arrived with his troops and paraded
directly to the Forum, where he addressed senators in the senate house
and the people from the Rostra. During the remaining month of his
visit he tried to accommodate different expectations. As a traditional
emperor he toured the streets of the eternal city with senators as
his guides, and he was impressed at the vastness of the Forum of
Trajan. He viewed the Temple of Jupiter on the Capitoline Hill, and
he read the names of the gods inscribed on the facades of ancient
temples. He appointed senators to pagan priesthoods, and he retained
83
fragmentary inscriptions commemorated emperors and imperial women. Because the lines
of the inscriptions were often superimposed, G. Alfoldy, in CIL 6.8.2:455152, no. 40769,
suggests that the inscriptions and frescoes, or perhaps only some of them, were first painted
in 315 and subsequently revised until perhaps 350. An inscription that mentioned the fourth
consulship of Licinius in 315 presumably coincided with Constantines return to Rome to
celebrate the tenth anniversary of his emperorship. One line in this inscription is especially
suggestive: [in] signo [h]oc est patris victoria, in this symbol is the victory of the father.
The ambiguity of this line invites speculation. Was the father Constantine or God the
Father? Was this symbol a cross, the military standard in the shape of a cross, or something
else?
Games and contempt of C. Ceionius Rufius Volusianus: Ammianus Marcellinus, Res gestae
27.3.6. Banquet of Pammachius: Paulinus of Nola, Ep. 13.1113, with Grig (2006).
212
the privileges of the Vestal Virgins. At the same time, as a Christian

emperor he attempted to settle a dispute over the citys episcopacy
between two rivals, one now in exile, the other quite unpopular. This
dispute involved the use of churches, because the supporters of one
bishop would not enter a house of prayer when the other was inside.
Constantius decided that both bishops would jointly administer this
particular church.84
But when he announced this compromise in the Circus Maximus,
the crowd mocked his decision. The equivocation was bad enough.
In addition, the Circus was considered a temple for ancestral ceremonies. Various monuments and buildings in Rome were apparently
still reserved for specific expectations about emperors, and the celebration of games was the wrong venue for a serious proclamation
about ecclesiastical affairs. Perhaps to repair the damage to his image,
the emperor subsequently presented a huge obelisk from Egypt to be
erected in the Circus Maximus. His model as benefactor for such a gift
was Augustus. In the Circus, Constantius was still expected to appear
like a traditional Republican emperor, not a Christian emperor.85
According to one observer of Constantius visit, even though the
emperor had preferred other religious ceremonies, he had nevertheless supported the established priesthoods and rituals for the sake of
the empire. Subsequent emperors who visited Rome were less willing to balance these old traditions and their own religion, and they
increasingly tended to prioritize their images as Christian rulers. In
403 the emperor Honorius visited Rome to celebrate a triumph and to
assume a consulship for the next year. He had previously established his
84
85
Parade, tour: Ammianus Marcellinus, Res gestae 16.10. Streets, temples, priesthoods, virgins:
Symmachus, Relationes 3.7. Dispute between Liberius and Felix: Theodoret, HE 2.17.4,
house of prayer. This feud continued into the next generation, when the supporters of the
rivals Damasus and Ursinus fought over the Church of St. John Lateran and the Church
of St. Agnes: see Collectio Avellana 1.6, 12, with Curran (2000) 12942, on the dispute, and
Saghy (2000), for Damasus poems that redefined the churches and the martyrs.
Ammianus Marcellinus, Res gestae 17.4.1, erection of Constantius obelisk, 12, comparison
with Augustus, 28.4.29, temple. Theodoret, HE 2.17.5, circus, 6, mockery. Dedication of
obelisk: ILS 1:165, no. 736.
213
court in northern Italy, initially at Milan, then at Ravenna, and a few

years earlier he had ignored an invitation from the senate to celebrate
a consulship at Rome. When he did finally arrive, meeting the senate
and viewing the old monuments in central Rome were not his top
concerns. Instead, he passed by the grand mausoleum of Hadrian in
favor of visiting the Church of St. Peter, where he removed his diadem
and beat his breast [at the tomb] where the body of the fisherman is
buried. In order to pray for salvation from the Lord that pious and
Christian emperor hurried not to the grandiose temple of an emperor
but to the tomb of the fisherman. In 450 on the day after his arrival at
Rome the emperor Valentinian III likewise went directly to the Church
of St. Peter to celebrate a festival in honor of the apostle. Honorius and
Valentinian were more interested in presenting themselves as Christian
emperors paying their respects to St. Peter at a suburban church, than as
traditional emperors presiding over ancestral ceremonies in downtown
Rome.86
Even after emperors no longer resided in the West, the new priorities
remained influential for visiting rulers. Gelasius, the bishop of Rome,
once reminded king Theoderic of the Ostrogoths about the appropriate
relationship between rulership and Christianity. Although the king
certainly wanted to preserve the laws of the Roman emperors, for
the enhancement of his good fortune he also had to show reverence
for the blessed apostle Peter. In 500 Theoderic demonstrated that he
did indeed understand how to behave like a proper Christian ruler at
Rome. Upon his arrival he first visited the Church of St. Peter, where
86
Ceremonies, empire: Symmachus, Relationes 3.7. Invitation to Honorius in 397: Symmachus,

Ep. 6.52. Honorius visit in 403: Augustine, Serm. Mayence 61 = Serm. Dolbeau 25.26, ed.
Dolbeau (1996) 266, mausoleum, diadem, Serm. Mayence 55 = Serm. Dolbeau 22.4, ed.
Dolbeau (1996) 557, pray, with Liverani (2008) 1316, on the routes of emperors through
late antique Rome, and Chapter 10. After his death in 423 Honorius was buried in a rotunda
attached to the south end of the transept of the Church of St. Peter: see Paul the Deacon,
Historia Romana 13.7, with Koethe (1931). Festival of St. Peter on February 22: Valentinian
III, Ep. ad Theodosium Augustum = [bishop Leo of Rome], Ep. 55 (PL 54.857a860b). In
467 the Gallic aristocrat Sidonius arrived at Rome on the Flaminian Way and likewise first
visited the Church of St. Peter: see Sidonius, Ep. 1.5.9, before I reached the [citys] boundary,
I knelt at the triumphal thresholds of the apostles.

he met with the blessed Peter. At this suburban church outside the
city the king also met with the senate and the people, who were being
led by the bishop of Rome. Only then did Theoderic enter the city
to perform conventional imperial duties, such as visiting the senate
house, greeting the senate with remarkable courtesy, appointing new
magistrates, addressing the people in the Forum, entering the palace
in triumph, presiding over games in the Circus Maximus, distributing
grain, and restoring buildings.87
A Byzantine emperor from Constantinople likewise paid his respects
to the apostle in 663. After Constans II was greeted by the bishop of
Rome, clergymen, and other citizens outside the city, he first went to
the Church of St. Peter to pray. On two subsequent Sundays Constans
returned to the doors of the blessed Peter to celebrate mass, and
he presented a cloak woven with gold threads to the church. In 774
Charlemagne, king of the Franks, interrupted his campaign against
the Lombards in Italy to visit Rome. He arrived on Easter Saturday
and walked directly to the Church of St. Peter. There he kissed each of
the front steps before greeting bishop Hadrian, who was standing at the
doors of the church with his clerics and the people of Rome. Over the
following three days Charlemagne celebrated mass at various churches
in and near Rome. During late antiquity the performance of Christian
rulership at Rome typically started at the Church of St. Peter in the
suburbs and then expanded to include traditional imperial activities
and additional liturgical services in the city.88
This realignment of imperial ceremonial and symbolic topography
was an extended consequence of Constantines actions at Rome after his
victory at the Milvian Bridge. He had begun to fund the construction
87
88
Fragment of Gelasius letter, dated to 496: Epistulae Theodericianae variae 6, and ed. Thiel
(1868) 48990. Theoderic at Rome: Anonymus Valesianus, Pars posterior 12.6568, with
Heres (1982) 14346, on Theoderics building projects, Vitiello (2004), for an excellent
commentary on Theoderics patina di principato (p. 102), Vitiello (2005) 1338, on the
increasing importance of the Church of St. Peter for visiting rulers, and Arnold (2008), on
Theoderic as a Roman emperor. Courtesy: Cassiodorus, Chronica s.a. 500.
Constans II at Rome: Liber pontificalis 78.23. Doors: Paul the Deacon, Historia Langobardorum 5.11. Charlemagnes visit: Liber pontificalis 97.3540.
215
of suburban churches, most likely immediately after his arrival, and

sooner or later he had declined to visit the Temple of Jupiter on the
Capitoline Hill. As a result, Constantine initiated a shift of priorities
at Rome, in ceremonies from Republican emperorship to Christian
emperorship, in values from traditional munificence to Christian generosity, in topography from the old imperial center to the ecclesiastical
hinterland.
Historians quickly noticed. In the past the monumental layout of
Rome had virtually compelled emperors to show their respect for
Republican traditions in traditional ceremonies. With the construction of more churches and shrines, however, it became much easier
to act like Christian emperors. In a section of his Ecclesiastical History
composed before Constantines reign, Eusebius noted that St. Peter
and St. Paul had been commemorated in cemeteries. A century later,
however, in his translation of Eusebius History Rufinus omitted the
reference to mere cemeteries. After the extensive construction and the
enrichment of many churches through imperial patronage, he could
emphasize instead the most splendid monuments dedicated to the
saints.89
Constantine had hence used the city of Rome as a text, like
his letters and edicts, for publicizing his preferences. After his reign
Rome had a different look and a different identity, and Rome, the
idea of Rome, a different meaning. He, and subsequent Christian
rulers, had already started to rewrite imperial Rome into ecclesiastical
Rome.
Victory
Constantines victory at the battle of the Milvian Bridge posed an
uncomfortable dilemma. Because he had invaded Italy, because his
opponent had been another Roman emperor, his campaign seemed
upside down. Lactantius tart comment about Galerius earlier invasion
89
From cemeteries to monuments: Eusebius and Rufinus, HE 2.25.5, with the excellent survey
of Humphries (2007): there was an increased tendency to use the spaces of the church for
such displays by secular rulers (p. 49).
216
of Italy was again applicable: Roman soldiers were attacking Rome.

After the battle the emperors new subjects had an interest in softening
this inconvenient truth. Even though the people of Rome and the
residents of Italy and North Africa were ready to celebrate, they wanted
to affirm that the battle had marked a victory at Rome, not over Rome,
and that it had signaled liberation, not conquest.90
For Constantine too this was an awkward victory. In his guise as
a military commander he may have initiated construction of a commemorative arch at Malborghetto to honor his soldiers and their final
encampment. But in Rome an emperor was not expected to celebrate
a formal triumph for a victory over Roman blood in a civil war.
Instead, Constantine had to represent himself as more of a civilian
ruler, committed to the heritage of the capital. He erected a statue with
a dedication that announced his acceptance of ancestral traditions,
and he calmed the anxieties of aristocrats like Porfyrius with his display of reconciliation. He met with imperial magistrates from his newly
acquired provinces, and he responded to petitions from provincial leaders, including the bishop of Carthage. Through his patronage for the
construction of new churches he modified the symbolic topography of
the capital. Even as Constantine reinvented himself as an emperor at
Rome, he was reinventing Rome.91
Commemorating the battle at the Milvian Bridge was apparently not
to be included in this makeover, however. Long ago after defeating his
final rival Augustus claimed to have restored the Republic. His victory
at the battle at Actium in 31 b.c. became the birth-legend in the
mythology of the Principate. During that campaign he had presented
himself as the guardian of the interests of the whole of Italy as well
as the provinces in the West against the armies of Egypt and the East,
whose success, it was rumored, would have guaranteed the transfer of
the capital to Alexandria. After the battle Augustus returned to Rome
and decorated new buildings in the Forum with his trophies. He also
90
91
Roman soldiers: Lactantius, De mortibus persecutorum 27.3.

Roman blood: Ammianus Marcellinus, Res gestae 16.10.1, commenting on Constantius visit
to Rome in 357 after his victory over Magnentius.
217
instituted an Actian Festival to be celebrated at Rome every four years,

and the day of his victory became an annual public holiday.92
After his victory Constantine had a similar opportunity at Rome.
During the procession marking his triumphant entry the people surged
to mock the decapitated head of Maxentius and to see the new emperor.
During his residence the crowds were able to watch the emperor when
he joined in celebrating the days of entertainments and the eternal
games: everyone was happy with the duration of the spectacles. But
after the initial celebrations there were no subsequent festivals in honor
of the battle at the Milvian Bridge.93
In the mid-fourth century the people of Rome still celebrated the
Constantinian dynasty of emperors in a series of annual games and
festivals on state holidays. The celebrations commemorated military
victories over barbarians, the birthdays of emperors, and the dates of
their accessions to imperial rule. The celebration of Constantines victory over Maxentius was rather oblique, with festivals commemorating
the expulsion of the tyrant on October 28 and the arrival of the
divine [Constantine] on October 29. In these festivals the people were
celebrating not the battle but the ouster of a tyrant and the formal
entry of an emperor. Only one of Constantines imperial rivals was
mentioned by name at a commemorative festival. After his initial victory over Licinius at Hadrianople in early summer of 324, Constantine
had defeated him again, this time conclusively, two months later at
Chrysopolis. Thereafter the people of Rome celebrated on July 3 the
anniversary of Licinius, who was put to flight, and on September
18 extensive triumphal games. Because the triumphal games coincided
with the anniversary of the accession of the emperor Trajan, they were
celebrated with forty-eight races in the circus, twice the usual number.94
92
93
94
Quotation about birth legend from Syme (1939) 297. Italy: Augustus, Res gestae 25.2. Dio,
Historiae Romanae 50.4.1, Alexandria, 53.1.45, Actian Festival, with Lange (2009) 13234,
for the public holiday. For the Forum, see Zanker (1988) 79100, Actium was Augustuss
triumph over the so-called eastern barbarian (p. 84), and Lange (2009) 16066.
Panegyrici latini 12(9).18.3, mockery, 19.6, days.
Fasti Furii Filocali, July 3, Fugato Licinio, September 18, N(atalis) Traiani, Triumphales,
ed. Degrassi (1963) 251, 255. For the festivals of October 28 and 29, see Chapter 1.

Augustus could properly claim to have fought overseas on behalf
of Rome and Italy. But because Constantine had invaded Italy and
marched against a rival who was posing as the protector of Rome, his
victory seemed to contradict Augustus claim, and the Milvian Bridge
could not become the symbol of triumph that Actium had been for
Augustus. With his victory over Licinius, however, Constantine had
seemingly imitated Augustus by again connecting West and East and
reunifying the empire. In 312 Constantine had attacked Rome; in 324
he had defended Rome. As a result, at Rome the victory over Licinius
would seem more consequential and more worthy of remembrance
than the victory over Maxentius.
BACKWARD AND
FORWARD
CHAPTER EIGHT
iii
fter analysis and interpretation, a new narrative.

So far, however, this critique of ancient accounts of the battle at the Milvian Bridge has challenged the expectation of a
new master narrative of the battle and its consequences in two
related ways.
One is the emphasis on the constructed nature of the early accounts
of the battle and its aftermath. The anonymous orator of 313, the
designers and sculptors of the arch at Rome, the rhetorician Lactantius, the bishop Eusebius, the poet Porfyrius, the panegyrist Nazarius,
and Constantine himself all had their own agendas, which they could
promote through the medium of discussing the battle or the emperors
vision. For modern historians one important implication of this focus
on the construction of ancient texts should not be simply a reverse
emphasis on deconstruction, as if it were possible, through careful
scrutiny, to find true details or an accurate basic framework behind
the ancient authors agendas. Too often positivism is hypercritical and
hypercredulous at the same time. Instead, the lesson should be the
realization that our modern narratives are likewise constructed. We
historians need to acknowledge that we are both scholars, reading and
219
220
interpreting ancient texts, and authors, writing and constructing new

texts.
The second challenge to writing a new narrative is chronology, or
rather, the direction of the chronology. So far the discussion in this book
has proceeded essentially backward, starting with modern scholarship,
withdrawing to medieval and Byzantine perspectives and then to historical accounts derived from some of the earlier accounts, retreating
to very early accounts, and finally examining some of the immediate reactions. Such a backward discussion is stimulating to write but
also advantageous to think with. It still has a linear chronology but in
reverse. Rather than adding deposits of nuance, it brushes away layers
of speculation and misdirection. Rather than gathering and accruing,
it excavates and disperses. Best of all, a reverse narrative is not infected
with the hidden assumptions about inevitable outcomes that weaken
so many discussions of the development of Christianity and the rise of
a Christian emperor in the Roman world. In a reverse narrative there
can be no teleology.
The arrow of time should be as much of an issue for historians as
it is for physicists. A forward narrative does not match up with the
thinking of ancient people, who were aware of the weight of the past
and had hopes for the future but certainly could not anticipate the longterm outcomes of their actions. A forward narrative furthermore does
not match up with the way modern historians typically think about
topics in their fields, zooming backward and forward simultaneously.
Like archaeologists, historians often excavate the past in reverse but
then write up their findings from the bottom layer to the top, going
forward. A forward narrative is hence another rhetorical tactic used by
modern historians to confer authority on their analyses by leaving the
impression that they alone have been able to see the proper flow of past
events. A forward narrative of events appears to be more convincing
because its plot seems to replicate the original experience of those events.
A forward narrative can be compelling because it implies an implicit
inevitability, an embedded intelligent design, an unspoken preordained
outcome. But in fact, a narrative that moves forward chronologically
is no less artificial than a reverse narrative. Even a forward narrative is
backward and forward
221
an interpretive representation of past events, not an accurate portrayal.

It is simply our familiarity with forward narratives that makes them
appear to be less affected.
Constantine is a wonderful topic for thinking forward and backward about Roman history. Ancient Roman historians were already
classifying his reign as both an end and a beginning. Eusebius made
the emperors victory over Licinius the culmination of his narrative of
early Christianity; subsequent ecclesiastical historians made Constantine the first of an extended sequence of Christian emperors. Pagan
historians made him responsible for future misfortunes by blaming
him for initiatives that they thought had undermined the empire, such
as the promotion of barbarians as consuls and the withdrawal of troops
from the frontiers. In contrast, one historian implied that Constantines
behavior had degenerated by suggesting that during his reign he had
aged backward. For [the first] ten years he was truly extraordinary.
For the next twelve years he was a bandit. For the last ten years he was
a little boy, because of his unrestrained generosity. In this historians
perspective, during his emperorship Constantine had regressed from
mature adulthood to rebellious adolescence to innocent childhood.
Already in antiquity historians were using Constantines reign to look
both backward and forward.1
We modern historians likewise need to invent narrative techniques
that better reflect the contingencies and uncertainties of living in the
ancient world. To do so we might look sideways at contemporary
popular culture. Pop culture offers movies whose stories begin at the
end, go backward, and end at the beginning, or whose hero is born
as an old man and dies as a baby. The imagination of a novelist can
conjure up a topsy-turvy world in which, so to speak, times arrow
moves the other way. One thing led to another actually it was
more like the other way round. Contemporary television shows and
novels include both flashbacks and flash-forwards. On television some
of the reality shows are scripted, while some of the fictional dramas
1
Barbarians: Ammianus Marcellinus, Res gestae 21.10.8. Frontiers: Zosimus, Historia nova 2.34.
Regression: Epitome de Caesaribus 41.16.

are based on true events. To correspond to cinema verite perhaps
there should be histoire verite, veristic history, which would narrate the
battle of the Milvian Bridge as a movie, a television show, or a graphic
novel. Academics may indulge in highly technical postmodern analysis,
but pop culture is often so much more creative at using the rhetorical
strategies of postmodern society as effective narrative media.2
For us historians one way forward is to celebrate and profit from
the constructedness of our modern discussions. Rather than simply
analyzing the rhetorical strategies in ancient texts, we should embrace
those strategies in our own narratives. For ancient texts narratology
offers a framework for analysis and interpretation, but for our modern
texts it can offer techniques for composition and presentation. Whether
consciously or not, as both scholars of the past and authors in the present
we historians are all narratologists.3
A backward narrative can now segue into a forward narrative. Even
in a conventional forward narrative it is possible to tell the story of the
battle of the Milvian Bridge in a different way. The most important
requirement is to discard the obsession with Christianity. Over the past
few decades the field of early Christian studies has flourished along with
the blossoming of late antique studies. But the lingering weakness of
early Christian studies remains its single-minded focus on Christianity.
In early Christian studies all events and ideas from antiquity are typically
seen as somehow improving or obstructing the success of Christianity.
In fact, most events and ideas acquired their significance for Christianity only in retrospect. One such event was the battle at the Milvian
Bridge.
To imagine a different narrative we need to extract the battle from
the religious context that tends to dominate modern scholarship about
the age of Constantine. Already at the time the battle did have larger
implications. But the future of Christianity in the Roman world was not
2
3
Quotations from Amis (1991) 56, one thing, 95, world.

For history and narrative, see Prince (1995) 130: narratology has underlined the extent to
which narrative inhabits not only literary texts and ordinary language but also scholarly or
technical discourse.
backward and forward
223
necessarily the most consequential outcome. Instead, the battle at the

Milvian Bridge influenced the development of imperial authority and
the dynamics of the relationship between Rome and the frontiers. To
tell that story about emperorship and empire, however, we furthermore
need to look away from Constantine and remember another emperor.
REMEMBERING
MAXENTIUS
CHAPTER NINE
iii
ears afterward Constantine remembered the battle

at the Milvian Bridge as the moment when he had first used a
military standard constructed in the shape of a cross. Before the
battle, he claimed, both he and his army had witnessed a vision
of the cross in the sky, and Jesus Christ himself had appeared in a dream
to explain the vision and direct him to build a battle standard. In his
Life of Constantine Eusebius subsequently embedded those memories
in a religious context and transformed the vision and the battle into
moments of conversion to Christianity, of the emperor personally and
of the empire in general. In this process of remembering and recording,
however, both emperor and bishop had furthermore tried to forget
someone else. During the battle outside Rome another emperor had
also been present. But when Maxentius had fallen into the Tiber River,
he had at the same time slipped into oblivion.
Constantines memories and Eusebius reinterpretation of those
memories have set the tone for modern scholarship too, and overlooking Maxentius has reinforced the notion that the battle was all about
Constantine and Christianity. In contrast, focusing on Maxentius offers
224
remembering maxentius
225
an opportunity to avoid highlighting Christianity. The confrontation

between these two emperors instead emphasized other consequential
trends. One concerned the orientation of the Roman empire. Maxentius symbolized the conventional importance of Rome as the capital,
while Constantine represented the increasing significance of frontier
zones, in particular in the north along the Rhine and the Danube.
A second trend concerned the nature of Roman emperorship. At the
time Maxentius seemed to be reviving an older, traditional Republican
image of emperors, while Constantine seemed to continue the newer
Tetrarchic model of divine emperors, but within Christianity rather
than in opposition.
In the early fourth century both the contours of empire and the
nature of imperial rule were contested, and Maxentius and Constantine
represented alternative possibilities. One was a civilian emperor residing at Rome, and the other was a military emperor campaigning on the
frontiers. To evaluate these contrasting notions of empire and emperorship, it is necessary to remember Maxentius at the Milvian Bridge.
Empire
In 306 Maxentius was living in a public villa a few miles east of Rome.
He was then in his early twenties and already married to Valeria Maximilla, the daughter of Galerius and most likely the granddaughter of
Diocletian. Because her father was a ruling emperor, Valeria Maximilla
would be acclaimed in a dedication as a most noble woman. Maxentius too was the offspring of an emperor. But his father, Maximian, had
recently retired, and Maxentius had been passed over for promotion as
a new junior emperor. Once, when he had been hailed as the divine
and immortal offspring of Maximian, he had appeared to be the heir
apparent to membership as a new emperor in the Tetrarchy. Now he
was simply a private citizen. As a result, Maxentius seems to have identified himself with the senate at Rome. Another dedication would hail
him with a traditional title of senatorial rank as a most distinguished
man. The nominal dedicator of both inscriptions was Valerius Romulus, his infant son. By giving his son the name of the legendary founder

of Rome, Maxentius was presumably advertising another link to the
ancient traditions of the capital.1
Rome had long been a privileged city in the empire. The enormous
population of the capital was supported at the expense of provinces
throughout the Mediterranean through the requisition and delivery of
grain and other supplies. The residents of Italy likewise enjoyed exceptional privileges, including freedom from the stationing of troops and
immunity from the payment of direct taxes. For centuries Italy had
been a civilian region, mostly outside the framework of the imperial
administration: Italy was not treated like a province. At the end of
the third century, however, Diocletian and his fellow emperors in the
Tetrarchy initiated an administrative reorganization. One notable innovation was the division of the current provinces into smaller provinces.
By approximately doubling the number of provinces, Diocletian doubled the number of provincial magistrates who were responsible for the
assessment and collection of taxes. In Italy he furthermore completed
the reorganization of the current regions into districts that were the
equivalents of provinces. He also extended the oppressive evil of taxes
to a part of Italy, that is, northern Italy, where Maximian and his
court took up residence in Milan and Aquileia during the mid-290s.
A new law was imposed for the payment of taxes, so that the army
and the emperor, who are always or usually there, could be supplied.
Under the Tetrarchs the districts of northern Italy were being treated
like outlying provinces and were expected to pay taxes.2
Diocletian retired in 305, and in the following year Galerius, one
of the new senior emperors, decided to impose taxes on peninsular
Italy and to register even the people of Rome. Galerius was a native of
the province of Dacia, and one observer claimed that he still nursed a
1
Villa: Eutropius, Breviarium 10.2.3, and Epitome de Caesaribus 40.2, with Barnes (1982) 38,
on Valerias mother. Offspring: Panegyrici latini 10(2).14.1. Dedications on Labicanan Way,
outside Praeneste: ILS 1:152, nos. 66667. Maxentius as a privatus: Lactantius, De mortibus
persecutorum 18.11.
Quotation about Italy from Millar (1986) 296, with Van Dam (2007) 2327, 7078, (2010)
533, on Romes privileged standing in the empire. Oppressive evil, new law: Aurelius Victor,
De Caesaribus 39.31.
227
grudge for the defeat of the Dacian kingdom north of the Danube by
the emperor Trajan almost two centuries earlier! Galerius was thought
to have dreamed about promoting the centrality of his native region in
the Balkans by replacing the Roman empire with a Dacian empire.
He hence hoped to reverse the relationship of priority between capital
and provinces: the [burdens] that Romans had long ago imposed on
the defeated by right of war, that man dared to impose on Romans
and their subjects. To implement his directive he sent census-takers
to the capital. Not surprisingly, the people of Rome revolted. Because
Galerius also tried to eliminate the camp of the praetorian guards, the
solders killed some of the magistrates. On October 28, 306, the people
and the soldiers at Rome invested Maxentius as their emperor.3
Maxentius was certainly not a passive participant in this coup. He
had already enlisted the support of the three tribunes of the urban
cohorts, he was prepared to kill the vicar of Rome who opposed him,
and he promised to reward his supporters with substantial gifts. The
slight of being overlooked when new emperors had been selected in
the previous year was perhaps one motivation. Another may have been
envy on seeing the portrait of one particular new emperor. Constantine
was another son of an emperor in the original Tetrarchy, but he too
had been sidelined in the selection of new emperors in the previous
year. In July 306, however, after the death of his father, Constantius, the
troops in Britain had readily hailed him as emperor. Constantine had
immediately sent a portrait of himself to Galerius, who had reluctantly
acknowledged him as a new Caesar. In anticipation of imposing his new
regulations on peninsular Italy, Galerius may in turn have sent portraits
of the revamped Tetrarchy for display at Rome, in accordance with
custom.4
3
Lactantius, De mortibus persecutorum 23.5, right of war, 26.23, census takers, revolt, 27.8,
Dacian empire. Aurelius Victor, De Caesaribus 40.5, proclamation by vulgus turmaeque
praetoriae, with Speidel (1986) 25657, interpreting turmae praetoriae as the equites singulares,
an elite cavalry unit.
Portrait to Galerius: Lactantius, De mortibus persecutorum 25.13. Envy and portrait at Rome,
custom, tribunes, gifts: Zosimus, Historia nova 2.9.23, with Paschoud (19792000) 1:2078,
on the tribunes.
228
A display of imperial portraits that included Constantine would have

been hard for Maxentius to tolerate. Constantine may have been about a
decade older than Maxentius, and a year later he would become Maxentius brother-in-law. But at the time of their respective coups, Maxentius
likely still thought of his rival as a lesser relative. Although Constantines
father, Constantius, may have been an emperor, his mother, Helena, had
a suspect background. Supposedly Maxentius dismissed Constantine as
the son of an ignoble woman. In addition, because Constantius had
subsequently married Theodora, Maxentius half sister, Maxentius had
previously become something like a stepuncle to Constantine. Now,
however, the nephew had surpassed the uncle. Maxentius responded by
destroying statues of Constantine and defacing his portraits.5
The proclamations of first Constantine and then Maxentius as local
emperors had challenged the disregard for hereditary succession that
characterized the Tetrarchic system. In 305 these two sons of emperors
had been passed over in the selection of new emperors to replace the
retiring Diocletian and Maximian. In the next year, however, Constantine had muscled his way into the Tetrarchy by intimidating Galerius
into accepting him as a replacement for his father with the title of
Caesar. Initiative and priority had its rewards, because three months
later Galerius would not do the same for Maxentius. The symmetry
of the Tetrarchy implied that he could not appoint three Caesars.
Galerius was even thought to have said that Maxentius, his own sonin-law, was simply not worthy of becoming an emperor.6
Instead, Maxentius adopted a different tactic that posed yet another
challenge to Tetrarchic emperorship. In contrast to the Tetrarchic
5
Woman: Zosimus, Historia nova 2.9.2. Statues and portraits: Panegyrici latini 4(10).12.2. For
the relationships and ages, see Barnes (1982) 3437, arguing that Theodora was the daughter,
not stepdaughter, of Maximian and that Maxentius had been born in circa 283, 3942, that
Constantine had been born in 272 or 273. Perhaps Maxentius also objected to Constantine
to protect the succession rights of his nephews, that is, Constantius sons with Theodora: see
Van Dam (2007) 109, 302, for Constantines half brothers.
Lactantius, De mortibus persecutorum 18.11, not worthy, 26.4, three Caesars, with Van Dam
(2007) 1034, for the Tetrarchic disregard of hereditary succession, and Leadbetter (2009)
177205, on Galerius politicking with Maxentius and Constantine between 306 and 308.
229
emperors, who had demoted the significance of Rome and Italy by

imposing taxes, Maxentius presented himself as the guardian of Rome,
its traditions, and its prerogatives. The other emperors, predictably,
did not share his aggrandizement of himself or of Rome. Early in
307 Galerius sent Severus, the other senior emperor, to invade Italy.
In anticipation of this attack initiated by his father-in-law, Maxentius
had quickly summoned Maximian, his father, back from retirement by
hailing him as Augustus for a second time. When Severus appeared
at the wall of Rome, his troops defected to Maximian, their former
commander, and Severus was forced to retreat to Ravenna. In late
summer Galerius himself invaded Italy and marched on Rome, with
the expectation of extinguishing the senate and slaughtering the people. His invasion was another attempt to demonstrate that Rome
and central Italy were no longer the hub of the empire. During his
march on Rome he treated Italy like a war zone and its residents
like non-Romans. Along the Flaminian Way his troops pillaged livestock from the Italians, as if from barbarians. By behaving like a
destroyer of Italy, Galerius seemed to have forfeited his title of Roman
emperor.7
Soon, however, Galerius too was forced to retreat back north to the
Balkans, defeated by his own ignorance. Because he had never seen
Rome before, he thought it was not much larger than the cities he
already knew, and he did not bring enough troops to conduct a proper
siege. In addition, Rome had become an enormous fortified garrison.
During the early 270s the emperor Aurelian had initiated construction of a massive new wall, which eventually extended twelve miles in
circumference and enclosed more than five square miles. Perhaps as a
response to the invasions of Severus and Galerius, Maxentius began
the digging of a ditch, and he partially reconstructed the wall. In a
significant reversal, central Italy had become a battle zone, and the
wall of Rome now seemed to define a frontier boundary, similar to
7
Invasion of Severus: Lactantius, De mortibus persecutorum 26, Zosimus, Historia nova 2.10.1;
of Galerius: Lactantius, De mortibus persecutorum 27. Plundering of Flaminian Way: Origo
Constantini imperatoris 3.7.
230
Hadrians Wall in northern Britain. In fact, because Maxentius did

not go out to fight Severus or Galerius, his entire empire seemed
to consist only of Rome: he was an emperor inside the security of
the wall.8
Maxentius imperial rule did include more than Rome and central
Italy, since he also controlled northern and southern Italy, Sardinia, Corsica, Sicily, and much of North Africa. In North Africa the legends on
coins minted at Carthage hailed him as the defender of his Africa and
the defender of his Carthage. In 308, however, local troops revolted
and proclaimed the vicar Domitius Alexander as emperor in Africa.
Alexander may have already been serving as vicar for a few years before
Maxentius accession. As a result, because he had not been appointed
by Maxentius, as emperor he seems to have considered himself to be a
colleague of Constantine, not of Maxentius. The legends on his coins
minted at Carthage furthermore suggested that he was offering himself
as a protector of the senate and people of Rome. From his base in
Africa, Alexander seems to have implied that he would save Rome from
Maxentius.9
Alexanders revolt certainly led to a disruption in the supply of grain
to Rome, and Maxentius was even compelled to levy a tax on the
people of Rome, in particular on senators. Imposing this new tax was
8
Cities: Lactantius, De mortibus persecutorum 27.2. Moat: Chronographer of 354, Chronica urbis
Romae, ed. Mommsen (1892) 148, fossatum aperuit, sed non perfecit, with Coarelli (2007)
1827, on the Aurelian Wall. The extensive renovation of the wall attributed to Maxentius by
Richmond (1930) 25156, was instead completed during the reign of Honorius in the early
fifth century: see Heres (1982) 1035, 131, 20311. Security: Panegyrici latini 12(9).14.4.
For the extent of Maxentius empire, note Panegyrici latini 12(9).25.23: by defeating Maxentius, Constantine was credited with conquering Italy, Rome, Africa, and the islands of
the Sea of Africa. Maxentius coins at Carthage: Sutherland (1967) 41719, and Cullhed
(1994) 46. Alexanders revolt: Aurelius Victor, De Caesaribus 40.1718, Epitome de Caesaribus
40.2, 6, Zosimus, Historia nova 2.12, 14, with PLRE 1:43, L. Domitius Alexander 17, and
Barnes (1982) 1415, for the chronology. Alexander had been serving as vicar since 303 if he
can be identified with Valerius Alexander: see PLRE 1:44, Val. Alexander 20. Dedication
to Alexander and Constantine, found perhaps near Sicca Veneria: ILS 2.2:xxiii, no. 8936 =
Grunewald (1990) 44, 211, no. 197. Alexanders coins: Sutherland (1967) 420, this bold claim
to represent the central will and favour of Rome, 434, no. 72, s p q r optimo principi.
231
an ironical necessity, because it was precisely opposition to taxes that

had led to his proclamation as emperor. But in the following year
Maxentius troops were able to regain control in North Africa. He still
ruled a mini-Mediterranean empire with its capital at Rome.10
Maxentius did not behave like a Mediterranean emperor, however,
or even a western Mediterranean emperor. His only trips outside Rome
were to his large estate on the Appian Way, less than two miles south
of the citys wall. This complex included an expansive villa, a dynastic
mausoleum, and a circus for racing. Maxentius remodeled the villa
to incorporate a large hall in the shape of a basilica, including an
apse. Such a great hall was common for hosting audiences in imperial
palaces. Maxentius also added the circus. This circus was sizable, more
than 1,600 feet long, and quite commodious, with seating for about
ten thousand spectators. It was also elaborately decorated. The barrier
down the center of the racetrack displayed a series of monuments,
including an obelisk in the middle as well as statues of Victory and
various deities.11
A palace and a circus were the characteristic buildings of cities that
served as imperial residences, such as Rome itself. The Tetrarchic emperors and their successors had constructed palaces and circuses at their
favorite residences, including Nicomedia, Sirmium, and Trier. Eventually these new imperial cities would come to supersede Rome. Maxentius estate on the Appian Way was his equivalent of the new imperial
residences, his alternative to the old capital, but with one significant
difference. Those other residences were typically near the frontiers, far
away on the periphery of the empire; Maxentius replacement capital, his New Rome, was on the periphery only of Rome itself. In
10
11
Disruption of grain supply: Panegyrici latini 12(9).4.4. Famine and tax of gold: Chronographer of 354, Chronica urbis Romae, ed. Mommsen (1892) 148. Levy on senators: Aurelius
Victor, De Caesaribus 40.24, with Chapter 7, discussing the involvement of Porfyrius.
For recent excavations of Maxentius villa, see Conlin, Haeckl, and Ponti (2006/2007);
Frazer (1966), emphasizes the associations with Hercules. Mausoleum: see Johnson (2009)
8693, a copy of the Pantheon in its general plan and form (p. 90). Circus: see Humphrey
(1986) 28287, decorations on barrier, 582602, evaluation of remains.
232
Maxentius empire the frontier zone was effectively just outside the
wall of Rome, and his new frontier capital was merely in the suburbs.12
In contrast, Constantine was a true frontier emperor. During a campaign with his father in Scotland he had even seen the Ocean that was
thought to encircle the outer rim of the known world. After his fathers
death in 306 Constantine was acclaimed as emperor at York, about
seventy-five miles south of Hadrians Wall and far from the Mediterranean core of the Roman world. Proclamation in northern Britain was
such an obvious stigma that one orator had to resort to an ingenious
assertion. He argued that Constantines acclamation in the regions that
are next to the sky had been a blessing in disguise, because it had been
easier for the gods to send an emperor from the end of the world.13
Constantine soon relocated to the Rhine frontier, and during his early
years he campaigned primarily in northern Gaul, with an occasional
visit or two back to Britain. Even though he repeatedly fought against
Franks and other barbarians, he also formed various alliances with the
inhabitants of the farthest edge of barbarian regions. Some of his first
supporters included a king of the Alamans along the upper Danube
frontier and a king of the Franks in northern Gaul. One encampment
was at Noviomagus (modern Nijmegen), near the mouth of the Rhine,
which generations later was still remembered as the famous camp
of the divine Constantine. His preferred residence was Trier, where
he constructed or completed buildings that were characteristic of an
imperial capital, including an enormous basilica to host receptions
and a circus that was compared to the Circus Maximus at Rome.
Constantines early power base was in the North, and his new imperial
residence was in an actual frontier zone in northern Europe.14
12
13
14
Note Humphrey (1986) 601: we should see the whole complex palace, circus and mausoleum as the equivalent of imperial residences at the tetrarchic capitals; also Coleman
(2000) 218: the association of palace and circus which developed for the Circus Maximus
is replicated by . . . Maxentius.
Panegyrici latini 6(7).7.2, Ocean, 9.5, world and sky.
Panegyrici latini 6(7).22.5, buildings at Trier, 12(9).25.2, farthest edge. King Crocus and
Alamans: Epitome de Caesaribus 41.3, with Drinkwater (2007) 146. King Bonitus and Franks:
Ammianus Marcellinus, Res gestae 15.5.33. Noviomagus: Ausonius, Mosella 11.
233
The invasion of Italy was hence a diversion from Constantines campaigns on the Rhine frontier. In the maneuvering among the emperors
after Galerius death in 311, Maximinus seized Asia Minor and threatened Licinius, then ruling in the Balkans. Maxentius declared war
on Constantine. His ostensible justification was revenge for the death
of his father, which he blamed on his rival. Perhaps Maxentius had
also concluded that Constantine, because he was so far away, was a
safe opponent whom he would never need to confront in battle. As
a result, he stationed his troops at Verona in expectation of an attack
from Licinius, but perhaps also with the intention of marching north
toward the Danube or of invading the Balkans himself. Despite his
declaration of war against Constantine, Maxentius seems to have been
concerned more about the boundary between Italy and the Balkans and
less about the boundary between Gaul and Italy. He was apparently not
anticipating an invasion from Gaul.15
For Maxentius and his supporters Constantines invasion was therefore not only unexpected. It also revived alarming memories for the
people of central Italy and Rome. Long ago Celtic peoples from Gaul
had expanded into Italy and threatened Roman interests. In 390 b.c.
they had even captured Rome itself. This moment of humiliation lingered as a powerfully unsettling myth about the potential for attacks
from the north. According to Livys history of early Rome, the Gauls
generated a huge terror because of the memory of this earlier disaster.
This collective myth in turn branded the people of Gaul, especially of
central and northern Long-Haired Gaul, with disparaging prejudices.
As barbarians they deserved to be attacked and defeated by Roman
generals such as Julius Caesar, who campaigned in Gaul, crossed the
Rhine into Germany, and sailed to Britain during the 50s b.c.16
After their incorporation under Roman rule the people of Gaul might
still be considered with suspicion as potential rebels. In the confusion
15
16
Maxentius declaration of war: Lactantius, De mortibus persecutorum 43.4. For the suggestion
that Maxentius wanted to invade Raetia or the Balkans, see Zosimus, Historia nova 2.14.1.
Terror: Livy, Ab urbe condita 6.42.7, with Drinkwater (1983) 48, on the deep-seated Roman
fear of Gauls which was always lurking under the surface ready to bedevil Gallo-Roman
relations.
234
of the civil war of a.d. 69, Gallic and Germanic peoples along the
lower Rhine revolted against imperial rule and briefly established an
independent Gallic empire in northern Gaul. During the 260s and
early 270s local rulers established another temporary Gallic empire
that was centered in northern and central Gaul and acquired support
also in Britain and Spain. At the time the frontiers were under pressure,
and the Gallic emperors were seemingly trying to sustain the illusion of
Roman rule by characterizing themselves as defenders of the Roman
name. They represented their Gallic empire as an attempt to remain
Roman, not to secede from Roman rule. But from the perspective of
the emperors in the center, these Gallic emperors had been merely
breakaway usurpers.17
Constantines invasion of Italy revitalized those entrenched fears
about a threat from northern Europe. His objective in invading Italy
may have been simply to forestall Licinius advance from the Balkans
rather than to confront Maxentius. Whatever his intentions, his invasion nevertheless appeared to pose another threat to Italy from Gaul.
Barbarians from the North were again threatening the classical civilization of the South. According to a later historian, although Maxentius hoped to defend Italy with a Mediterranean army that included
Romans, Italians, Sicilians, and Carthaginians, Constantines
army had been enlisted from barbarians, including Germans, other
Celtic peoples, and recruits from Britain, and he appeared to be the
renegade commander of an army of Gauls. The Gallic terror had
reappeared, and another barbarian army of Gauls and Germans was
marching against Rome.18
The battle at the Milvian Bridge underscored the tension about the
long-standing uneasiness between northern Europe and Mediterranean
Europe, and more generally about the changing dynamics between core
and periphery in the empire. The reign of Maxentius had represented
17
18
Gallic empire of first century: Tacitus, Historiae 4.58; of third century: Eutropius, Breviarium 9.9.3. Defenders: SHA, Tyranni triginta 5.5.
Armies of Maxentius and Constantine: Zosimus, Historia nova 2.15. Army of Gauls: Libanius,
Orat. 30.6.
235
an empire that was still focused on Rome. In his perspective the other
emperors were fighting battles on the frontiers on his behalf. Perhaps
he thought of Constantine as one of those subordinate emperors who
would campaign on the remote northern frontier in the name of the old
capital and its emperor. One dedication to Maxentius in North Africa
in fact hailed him as a senior emperor, unconquered, pious, fortunate
Augustus, but Constantine as only a junior emperor, most noble
Caesar. As an emperor who resided at Rome, Maxentius seemed to
think that he could claim priority over the other emperors: Maxentius
benefited from the majesty of his city.19
In contrast, even after 312 Constantines empire was still not focused
on Rome. After his victory over Maxentius he did not take up residence
in Rome, or even in a city in northern Italy. During his entire reign of
thirty-one years he spent a total of about five months in Rome, divided
among three separate visits. After each short visit he soon returned to
the Celts and the Gauls or to the Balkans. Constantine spent almost all
of his long reign on the extended northern frontier that stretched from
Britain along the Rhine through northern Italy and the Balkans along
the Danube to Constantinople. He resided for more than ten years at
Trier and other cities near the Rhine, more than seven years in Sirmium
and Serdica in the Balkans, and about seven years in Constantinople.
Constantine was a distinctly frontier emperor. His reign was the logical
extension of the separatist Gallic empire of the late third century and
Galerius fantasy of a Dacian empire in the Balkans, combined with
his own later ambition of establishing an eastern empire centered at
Constantinople.20
In Constantines Roman empire the imperial capital had changed
its address to a northern frontier zone. According to a third-century
19
20
Panegyrici latini 12(9).3.7, majesty, 14.6, battles. Dedication: Grunewald (1990) 213, no. 208,
found in Africa Proconsularis. Unless Constantines title was a deliberate slight, it can help
date this dedication to 307. Maxentius started using the title of Augustus probably in early
307, while Constantine regained his title of Augustus only later in 307: see Barnes (1982) 5,
13.
Celts and Gauls: Zosimus, Historia nova 2.17.2, with Van Dam (2007) 3578, discussing the
orientation of Constantines empire.
236
historian, Rome is wherever the emperor is. Not surprisingly, Constantine thought of Constantinople as New Rome, he called Serdica
my Rome, and Trier would be known as Belgian Rome. In addition, during his reign Constantine never visited any of the provinces in
the great arc around the southern Mediterranean that extended from
Aquitania in southwestern Gaul through Spain, North Africa, and
Egypt to Palestine and southern Syria, including southern Italy, the
Greek peninsula, and western Asia Minor. As a result, his empire was
the opposite of Maxentius empire. Maxentius empire had consisted
almost exclusively of Rome alone, with some authority also in the rest of
Italy, western Mediterranean islands, and North Africa; Constantines
Roman empire seemed not to include Rome at all. In his empire of the
North, the Mediterranean had become a frontier zone and Rome was
a peripheral city.21
During the early fourth century the favored status of Rome and central Italy was fading while frontier regions were becoming more prominent. Through his dream of a Dacian empire the emperor Galerius
had reaffirmed the increasing significance of the Balkan regions along
the Danube frontier. Alexanders revolt in North Africa against Maxentius might have conjured up memories of the ancient prominence of
Carthage and its bygone wars with Rome. The reign of Constantine
raised questions initially about the autonomy of northern Gaul and
the Rhine frontier regions, and subsequently about the possibility of a
distinct eastern empire with its capital at Constantinople.
In the long perspective of Roman history this folding of space seemed
to be accompanied by a reversal in the flow of time. The kinetic interactions of the later Roman empire were reverting far back to the older
dynamics of the Mediterranean and its neighbors before Roman imperial expansion. The overseas expansion of Italian armies during the
21
Rome and emperor: Herodian, Historiae 1.6.5. New Rome: Sozomen, HE 2.3.5. My Rome:
Anonymus post Dionem (= Dio Continuatus), Fragmenta 15.1, ed. Muller (1851) 199. Belgian
Rome: Vollmer and Rubenbauer (1926). After his visit to Rome in 326 Constantine may
have initiated repairs for roads across northern Italy, perhaps in anticipation of his trip from
the Balkans to Trier in 328: see Herzig (1989), for milestones.
237
third, second, and first centuries b.c. that had led to the political
unification of the Mediterranean, the formation of the Roman empire,
and the centrality of Rome was being challenged. Outlying regions
such as northern Europe, the Balkans, North Africa, and the Greek
East seemed to be spinning away to become separate, even replacement, empires. Whatever his success at defending frontiers, Constantines victory at Rome marked another reversal of Roman imperialism.
The Mediterranean was no longer central to Roman imperial rule.22
Constantines reign would reshape the political and cultural dynamics of the Mediterranean world in general and of Europe in particular.
The battle at the Milvian Bridge heralded the interaction between
North and South that would dominate the history of medieval Europe.
Maxentius empire seemed to look back to an early narrative of Roman
imperial history that was still focused on Rome, Italy, and the Mediterranean, while Constantines empire looked forward to the trends of
medieval European history. His victory was a preview of the eventual
dominance of northern continental Europe over southern Mediterranean Europe.
Emperorship
Over the centuries, Rome had become the largest heritage site in the
ancient world. In late antiquity its hills and forums were so crowded
with dedications and commemorative buildings that the number of
statues was thought to match the size of the population of residents. The
capital had become a stable for vast herds of equestrian monuments.
Looking after all the historical relics would have been a full-time job
for the municipal magistrate with the indecorous, but utilitarian, title
of tribune in charge of the shiny stuff.23
This shiny stuff recalled over a millennium of heroes and their epic
deeds. At the western end of the old Forum, near the senate house,
22
23
Note Whittaker (1994) 241: In the fourth and fifth centuries we witness the reverse process
of the conquests that had begun with Julius Caesar and Augustus; and Miles (2003) 13940,
for reviving memories of the Punic Wars.
Cassiodorus, Variae 7.13.1, herds, 15.3, number of statues. Tribunus rerum nitentium:
Notitia Dignitatum in partibus Occidentis 4.17.

was the Lapis Niger, the Black Stone that was thought to mark the
grave of Romulus, the legendary founder of the city during the eighth
century b.c. On the Capitoline Hill was the Temple of Jupiter, whose
looming presence guaranteed the eternity of Rome. In 303 Diocletian
and Maximian had met in this temple when they visited the capital
to celebrate a triumph. In honor of the twentieth anniversary of their
reign they erected a new Monument of Five Columns on the back edge
of the Rostra, the speakers platform located in the Forum at the foot of
the Capitoline Hill. The reliefs on the one surviving pedestal depicted
an emperor and senators participating together in a sacrifice. Jupiter
was already the most important of the patron deities of the Tetrarchic
emperors; but highlighting the veneration of Jupiter on this monument
furthermore honored the expectation of cooperation between emperors
and senators that had long characterized imperial rule at Rome.24
In fact, Tetrarchic rule was antithetical to the expectations of learned
senators concerning traditional emperorship at Rome. Diocletian and
Maximian had instituted the Tetrarchy in 293 to accommodate four
concurrent emperors and to define an order of succession as senior
emperors were replaced by junior emperors. In their legislation the
Tetrarchic emperors seemingly tried to disguise the novelty of their
collegiate rule by presenting themselves as guardians of old laws and
the public discipline of the Romans. One of them, Galerius, even
celebrated an illustrious victory by lauding himself as a second Romulus, the new founder of Rome. In reality, however, the emperors were
all career soldiers, and they had not received an extensive education
in classical culture and ancient history. Lactantius, the same rhetorician who recorded these emperors attempts at presenting themselves
as champions of ancient traditions, also mocked Galerius for his total
lack of refinement: the barbarity in this beast was innate, and his
24
Temple of Jupiter and eternity of Rome: Ammianus Marcellinus, Res gestae 22.16.12. For
the Monument of Five Columns, see Chapter 6. For the contribution of Diocletian and
Maximian to the reconstruction of the Forum and the area around the senate house,
see Chronographer of 354, Chronica urbis Romae, s.v. Diocletianus et Maximianus, ed.
Mommsen (1892) 148, with the overview of Machado (2006) 16168.
239
savagery was foreign to Roman blood. At least one of the emperors

returned the slight. Licinius was thought to have been outright hostile
to learning and rhetoric, which he considered a poison and a public
pestilence.25
Their absence from Rome was another indication of their disregard
of conventional expectations. Of the Tetrarchic emperors, Diocletian
visited Rome once, perhaps twice, and Maximian at least twice. Constantius, Maximinus, and Licinius never visited; Galerius and Severus
showed up outside the wall only to besiege the city. Despite its traditions and its reputation, despite its monumental grandeur and scenic
attractions, Rome was not important to Tetrarchic emperors.
Tetrarchic emperorship also disregarded the ideology of equality
between emperors and senators. Diocletian was subsequently credited
with modifying the appearance and image of emperors. He had his
robes and his shoes decorated with gemstones. He had people greet
him as Lord in public, and he allowed himself to be worshipped
and addressed as god. He also introduced the practice of adoration,
a public display of obeisance to emperors by their subjects. When he
and Maximian met at Milan in late 290, the entourage of dignitaries
admitted to greet them in the palace, including perhaps the leading
senators who had come from Rome, was expected to adore their sacred
faces.26
Traditionalists were predictably upset at the novelties of Tetrarchic
emperorship. In the mid-fourth century the senator Eutropius, for
instance, was quite miffed, and in his overview of Roman history he did
not disguise his dismay. In his opinion the rule of Tetrarchic emperors
had promoted the wrong political model by reviving aspects of the
original kings at Rome and undermining the improvements of the
Republic. Not only were Tetrarchic innovations characteristic of the
custom of kings. They also contradicted the notion of Roman liberty
25
26
Lactantius, De mortibus persecutorum 9.1, barbarity, 9, second Romulus, 34.1, old laws.
Poison: Epitome de Caesaribus 41.8.
Gemstones: Eutropius, Breviarium 9.26. Lord, god: Aurelius Victor, De Caesaribus 39.4.
Meeting at Milan: Panegyrici latini 11(3).11.1, adore, 3, dignitaries, 12.2, senators.
240
that Eutropius identified as the essence of the Republic. In this sort of

Republican narrative, when Julius Caesar had ignored the custom of
Roman liberty and humiliated the senate, Eutropius characterized his
actions as those of a king, almost a tyrant. Diocletian likewise had not
tolerated the liberty of the Roman people during his visit to Rome.
Eutropius preferred instead to highlight the importance of the senate
for safeguarding these traditions and expectations. In his estimation,
the reputation of emperors was contingent on their attitudes toward
senators. Bad emperors treated senators badly, while good emperors
treated them fairly. The early emperors who had acquired reputations
for having treated senators with respect included Augustus and Trajan.
In the later empire the highest praise senators could bestow on an
emperor was to proclaim him more fortunate than Augustus, better
than Trajan.27
Maxentius had shared this traditionalist perspective by pointedly
snubbing high Tetrarchic ceremonial. In particular, he declined to adore
Maximian or Galerius, perhaps in part because one was his father and
the other his father-in-law. After his accession as emperor in 306 he
did not seek entrance into the Tetrarchy or recognition from Galerius,
the more influential of the senior emperors. Even after Galerius had
invaded Italy, Maxentius seems to have declined an overture to reach
a peaceful settlement. Likewise the legends on coins minted in regions
he controlled did not mention Galerius reign. Instead, on his coins
Maxentius associated himself with the emperors Maximian, Galerius,
and Constantius only after they had died. The legends on the coins
emphasized not his connections with them as Tetrarchic emperors
but rather his dynastic relationships with his father, father-in-law, and
brother-in-law. In various ways Maxentius rejected Tetrarchic emperors
and Tetrarchic emperorship.28
27
28
Eutropius, Breviarium 6.25, Julius Caesar, 8.5.3, acclamation, 9.26, kings, liberty. Roman
people: Lactantius, De mortibus persecutorum 17.2, with Rees (2004) 50: Long gone is
Augustus Republican charade of first among equals.
No adoration: Lactantius, De mortibus persecutorum 18.9. Overture from Galerius: Origo
Constantini imperatoris 3.7. For the coins commemorating Maximian, Galerius, and Constantius, see Cullhed (1994) 7679.
241
From the beginning of his reign Maxentius represented himself

instead as an heir to Augustus, who claimed to have revived the institutions and traditions of the Republic. The legends on Maxentius coins
immediately styled him as princeps invictus, unconquered first man.
Although princeps was typically not part of the official titulature of
emperors, it was commonly applied to emperors, primarily because it
had been the title preferred by Augustus. Even though Maxentius subsequently assumed the common title of Augustus, senior emperor,
the legends on his gold coins nevertheless continued to style him princeps imperii Romani. Maxentius standing as first man of the Roman
empire was an affront not only to the other emperors but also to
the underlying Tetrarchic expectations of harmony and cooperation.
Ruling as princeps implied that there could be no other emperors of
similar authority and status. A first man seemed to rank over all other
emperors.29
The legends on his coins also presented Maxentius as conservator
urbis suae, the defender of his city. His piety toward ancient customs
at Rome was apparent in different formats. One was his appointment
of senators from distinguished families at Rome as prefects of the capital. Gaius Annius Anullinus was already serving as prefect of Rome
when he supported Maxentius proclamation as emperor in October
306. He had previously served as a consul and as governor of Africa
Proconsularis. His successor as prefect of Rome was Attius Insteius Tertullus, who had previously held a suffect consulship and perhaps served
as governor of Africa Proconsularis. Aurelius Hermogenes, another of
Maxentius prefects of Rome, had previously served as governor of the
province of Asia. Gaius Ceionius Rufius Volusianus had already served
as governor of Africa Proconsularis when Maxentius sent him as praetorian prefect to deal with a revolt in North Africa. After his successful
29
See Sutherland (1967) 4952, for the legends on Maxentius coins, and Cullhed (1994) 3644,
for an excellent discussion of the policies implicit in the legends, with Hekster (1999) 724, a
constant return to traditional Roman values in Maxentius policies. For the possibility that
renovation of the friezes on Augustus Altar of Peace might be dated to Maxentius reign,
see Hannestad (1994) 6667.
242
campaign he served as prefect of Rome and held a consulship. His fellow consul, Aradius Rufinus, subsequently served as prefect of Rome.
Because senators still dominated the political and social life of Rome,
Maxentius needed their support. By promoting them, he could also
show his support for ancestral customs.30
A second strategy of traditionalism was his patronage for construction
projects that enhanced the Forum and the area next to the Colosseum.
Toward the west end of the Forum, Maxentius rebuilt the Basilica
Aemilia, first constructed in the second century b.c. More of his construction was concentrated toward the east end of the Forum. He rebuilt
the Temple of Venus and Roma, which had been damaged recently in
a fire. He initiated construction of the vast Basilica Nova, which may
have served the juridical and administrative duties of the prefects of
Rome. The location of this basilica on the Velian ridge was perhaps an
attempt to recall the tomb of Publius Valerius Publicola, a legendary
founding father of the Republic. Near Sacred Street leading to the
Forum, Maxentius may have rededicated the ancient circular Temple
of Jupiter Stator in honor of his son Romulus. He apparently rededicated the colossal bronze statue that stood next to the Colosseum in
honor of his son, perhaps with the intention that it would become the
architectural pivot of a new imperial forum. Not surprisingly, he also
appointed a curator of sacred sanctuaries to look after the shrines of
Rome.31
30
31
For the details of the careers of Maxentius prefects of Rome, see Chastagnol (1962) 4562,
and PLRE 1:79, C. Annius Anullinus 3, 424, Aurelius Hermogenes 8, 775, Aradius
Rufinus 10, 88384, Attius Insteius Tertullus 6, 97678, C. Ceionius Rufius Volusianus
4.
For Maxentius projects, see Cullhed (1994) 4957, Curran (2000) 5463, Van Dam (2007)
8182, and Leppin and Ziemssen (2007) 52105. Basilica Nova: Coarelli (1986) 20, connection
with P. Valerius Publicola, 2231, judicial hall, and Giavarini (2005), a comprehensive survey
of the impressive construction techniques. The identification of the rotunda on Sacred
Street as the Temple of Romulus is contested: see Coarelli (2007) 8991, associating it
with the Temple of Jupiter Stator; Richardson (1992) 33334, and Papi (1999), for alternative
identifications; and the excellent survey of Dumser (2006), suggesting that the rotunda was
an audience hall. Quotation about pivot from Ensoli (2000) 87. Curator: ILS 2.2:xxiii, no.
8935, with PLRE 1:638, Furius Octavianus 4.
243
Yet another strategy was apparent in the images and legends on

Maxentius coins. One common image depicted the goddess Roma,
the personification of the city, seated in a temple (perhaps the Temple
of Venus and Roma that he was rebuilding). Another image depicted
the wolf that had suckled the twins Romulus and Remus. With these
images Maxentius was honoring the deified personification of the city
and some very old traditions. In return, some images depicted Roma
handing the emperor a globe, the symbol of universal rule. One legend
described eternal Roma as the promoter of our Augustus. Another
proclaimed Mars, the father of Romulus and Remus, as the propagator of our Augustus. On his coins Maxentius was claiming to be
the heir of traditions that went all the way back to the founding of
Rome.32
During his reign Maxentius set up a dedication in honor of Mars and
his sons, Romulus and Remus, precisely on April 21, the anniversary of
the citys foundation. The statue base with this dedication was found
at the west end of the Forum, near the senate house and the Black
Stone marking the legendary site of Romulus grave. The dedication
commemorated Mars as unconquered father and his sons as the
founders of their eternal city. Nearby in the Forum one of Maxentius
praetorian prefects set up two dedications, and perhaps also statues,
in honor of the emperor. Another dedication honored Maxentius for
his display of old-fashioned oversight and exceptional piety. Maxentius made a point of identifying himself as a conventional Republican
emperor associated with Rome and its traditions.33
32
33
Maxentius monuments might also have included an initial version of what became the
arch of Constantine. For the debate over whether the arch was new for Constantine, new
for Maxentius, or a remodeled version of an earlier Flavian or Hadrianic arch, see Van Dam
(2007) 89n.12. Marlowe (2006), highlights the visual and ideological associations between
the arch and the nearby colossal statue of the sun god Sol, which Maxentius had apparently
rededicated to his son.
For the images and legends on the coins, see Cullhed (1994) 4649, with the excellent
photographs in Leppin and Ziemssen (2007): Kein Kaiser hat so wie er auf die stadtromische
Tradition gesetzt (p. 32).
Dedication to Mars: ILS 2.2:xxiii, no. 8935. Dedications to Maxentius by Manlius Rusticianus: ILS 2.2:xxiii, no. 8934, and CIL 6.8.2:4538, no. 40726, with PLRE 1:787, Manlius
244
After his victory at the Milvian Bridge, Constantine likewise briefly

assumed characteristics of a Republican emperor. His initial celebratory
dedication used traditional terminology, and he appointed senators
(including some of Maxentius former supporters) to high offices. He
banned weapons and military uniforms from the city. While at Rome,
Constantine too apparently tried to follow the paradigm of Augustus.
But this was also the paradigm of Maxentius. As a result, to enhance his
new credentials as a Republican emperor, Constantine had to redefine
Maxentius and his emperorship. Once his rival, now Maxentius had to
become his opposite.34
Constantines propaganda hence highlighted Maxentius similarity to
Romulus not as a founder but as a murderer who had killed his brother
to become the legendary first king of Rome. Maxentius too had been the
murderer of the city. Another perspective favorable to Constantine
condemned Maximian, Maxentius father, as Tarquin the Proud, the
last hated king of Rome whose overthrow had marked the establishment
of the Republic. By classifying his rival as a king, Constantine could
pose as the new founder of the Republic. The establishment of his rule
now marked another transition from monarchy to Republic at Rome.
Not surprisingly, the legends on Constantines coins hailed him as the
liberator of his city and the restorer of his city.35
But overall Constantine never fully identified with Rome and its traditions. Instead, the legacy of the Tetrarchy remained more important.
Tetrarchic emperors had defined their political legitimacy and power
in terms of a religious idiom. Diocletian and Maximian had soon identified themselves with Jupiter (or Zeus), the lord of the gods, and his
34
35
Rusticianus 3. Dedication to Maxentius: CIL 6.4.2:3477, no. 33857; the reference to censura vetus in this fragmentary dedication might be a compliment for reinstating an old
assessment, that is, restoring the exemption from taxation at Rome.
Weapons and uniforms: Aurelius Victor, De Caesaribus 40.25, with Chapter 6.
Murderer: Panegyrici latini 12(9).18.1. Tarquin: Lactantius, De mortibus persecutorum 28.4.
Coins: Sutherland (1967) 38788, nos. 3034, 312. Note that at Volsinii in Tuscia the head on
a statue of Augustus was recut as Constantine: see Giuliano (1991), dating the transformation
between 312 and 315, and Van Dam (2007) 2734, on Constantines support for a pagan
festival at Volsinii.
245
assistant Hercules by adding Jovius and Herculius to their official

imperial names; in 305 Diocletian retired from emperorship in the presence of a statue of Jupiter perched on a column outside Nicomedia.
Their successors likewise added the names of Jovius and Herculius.
Even Constantine, during the years when he was allied with Maximian, added the name of Herculius. Tetrarchic emperors articulated
their rulership not through their reverence for the ancestral traditions
of the Republic but through a symbolic identification with powerful
gods.36
Constantine of course eventually discarded the affiliations with pagan
gods. But he seems to have retained the underlying religious framework
of Tetrarchic emperorship. Even as an emperor who supported Christianity he relied on an association with, even an identification with, a
deity to legitimate his imperial power. For this sort of ideology Old
Rome was not the best venue, as Diocletian had already discovered.
When Diocletian had no longer been able to tolerate the people of
Rome, he had immediately left for Ravenna. For his own new religious
imperial ideology Constantine likewise preferred a new capital that was
isolated from the traditions of the old Republic. The past history of
Old Rome was an obstacle; in contrast, Constantinople, New Rome,
could be a capital without the constraints of ancestral traditions.37
At Constantinople, Constantine highlighted his intimacy with Jesus
Christ. In the center of a new forum he erected a giant statue of himself
on top of a tall column, in which he was thought to have placed a
relic of the True Cross, the cross on which Jesus had been crucified.
Over an entrance to the palace he hung a portrait of himself and his
sons, with a cross overhead and a serpent underfoot, that recalled his
victory over Licinius and hinted at his role as a savior who had defeated
evil. His mausoleum contained a niche for his sarcophagus surrounded
by twelve cenotaphs that represented the twelve apostles. This shrine
36
37
For Constantine at Rome, see Chapters 67. Jovius and Herculius: see Van Dam (2007)
8485, Constantine, 23051, Tetrarchs.
Diocletians departure: Lactantius, De mortibus persecutorum 17.23. For the rewriting of the
histories of Rome and Constantinople in late antiquity, see Van Dam (2010) 3341, 6271.

evoked the site of Jesus tomb at Jerusalem, located next to the Church
of the Holy Sepulcher in which the twelve columns encircling the apse
commemorated the twelve apostles. The monuments at the new capital
highlighted Constantines standing as the equivalent of Jesus Christ.
Not surprisingly, some residents of Constantinople offered prayers to
the statue of Constantine as if to a god.38
Churchmen likewise contributed to the making of this image of
Constantine as an analogue of Jesus Christ. In his panegyrics and his
Life of Constantine Eusebius in particular had emphasized the affiliation
between the emperor and Jesus Christ. One of his goals, of course, was
to use an image of Constantine as a medium for promoting his
own theology. To fulfill this theological objective he emphasized the
similarity between the emperor and Jesus Christ. In the confession of
faith at the beginning of Ecclesiastical History Eusebius had described
Jesus Christ as the angel of great guidance. In Life he described
the emperor as a heavenly angel of God. His recollection of the
anniversary banquet that Constantine had hosted for churchmen after
the council of Nicaea was especially ecstatic: one might think that an
image of Christs kingdom was becoming apparent. At the ceremony
of dedication for the Church of the Holy Sepulcher in 335, one of the
bishops in attendance announced that Constantine, because he had
been worthy of imperial rule in this life, would in the future reign with
the Son of God.39
By then both Eusebius and Constantine were far from thinking about
imperial rule in terms of the traditional expectations about acting like a
Republican emperor. Eusebius and other churchmen had survived the
persecutions of the Tetrarchic emperors to see the appearance of a Christian emperor. But their ideas about emperorship had obviously been
shaped by Tetrarchic ideas. Tetrarchic emperors had been identified
38
39
Statue and relic: Socrates, HE 1.17. Eusebius, Vita Constantini 3.3, portrait, 4.5860, mausoleum, with Van Dam (2007) 297300, on the Church of the Holy Sepulcher. Prayers:
Philostorgius, HE 2.17.
Eusebius, HE 1.2.3, angel, Vita Constantini 3.10.3, heavenly angel, 15.2, Christs kingdom,
4.48, reign with Son, with Chapter 4, for the theological implications.
247
with pagan gods; a Christian emperor was now identified with Jesus
Christ. Even though the association of imperial rule with pagan cults
was moribund, the identification of emperors with a divinity lingered
in these early ideas about Christian emperorship. Maxentius emperorship emphasized Rome and its senatorial and Republican traditions;
Constantines emperorship continued Tetrarchic notions about divine
rule but in a Christian guise.
Their relationships with the army provided one more distinctive contrast between Constantine and Maxentius. Constantine was a lifetime
soldier. Long before they married, Fausta had once presented Constantine with a helmet that glistened with gold and jewels and that was
decorated with the feathers of a beautiful bird. Fausta had already
realized that the way to her future husbands heart was through the
toys of war. As a young man Constantine had served in the army as a
junior officer. He had accompanied Galerius during an invasion of the
Persian empire, and he had fought in the cavalry against the Sarmatians
on the Danube frontier. As an emperor he led many of his campaigns
in person. At the end of his life, when he was in his sixties, he was still
preparing for another campaign against the Persian empire. Even after
demonstrating his support for Christianity, Constantines first priority
remained the army and military campaigns. From his youthful military
service to his final plans for one more grand campaign, Constantine
had always been a warrior.40
In contrast, Maxentius had no military experience either before or
during his imperial rule. Once, it was thought, he had intended to
march into Raetia, a frontier zone along the upper Danube. Once he
had planned to cross to North Africa to deal with a potential revolt.
Instead, he relied on substitute commanders. When he had faced an
actual revolt by a usurper in North Africa, he sent his troops under the
command of his praetorian prefect. In Italy he had declined to engage
the armies of Severus or Galerius, trusting instead to shelter behind the
wall of Rome. A rhetorician criticized Maxentius for failing to attack
40
Panegyrici latini 6(7).3.3, soldier, 7(6).5.3, tribunates, 6.2, helmet. Sarmatians: Origo Constantini imperatoris 2.3.
248
as Galerius had retreated from Italy, and a historian simply dismissed

him as a coward, not inclined to war.41
Maxentius reign instead seemed to personify the ideals of an emperor
as subsequently recommended by some of the panels in the frieze on
the arch of Constantine. He was a civilian emperor who wore a toga,
not a military emperor dressed in armor or a generals cloak. Not only
did he not go out on campaigns, but inside Rome he did not even train
as a soldier. He did not pant in the Campus [Martius], and he did not
practice with weapons. Maxentius notion of a military expedition
was to visit the luxurious Gardens of Sallust in a northern district of
Rome, but still well inside the citys wall.42
Constantines invasion hence exposed the inadequacy of Maxentius
as a military commander and his limitations as an emperor at Rome.
When Constantine entered northern Italy, Maxentius was still in Rome.
His troops at Verona were being commanded instead by very brave
generals and a very tenacious prefect. As Constantine approached
Rome, Maxentius army at first prepared to fight without an emperor.
When Maxentius still remained inside the wall, the people mocked
him as a deserter. Constantines invasion also forced Maxentius to
choose his true capital, either Old Rome or his New Rome at his
villa in the suburbs. A few days before the final battle Maxentius sent
his family to safety in a private residence. Because Constantine was
approaching from the north, it would have been sensible to seek shelter
in the emperors villa south of the city. But as a result, by leaving
the palace in Rome, Maxentius was thought to have abdicated his
imperial rule.43
Like most other emperors of late antiquity, in the end Maxentius too
seemed to have abandoned Rome for an alternative imperial residence.
41
42
43
Zosimus, Historia nova 2.12.2, North Africa, 14.1, Raetia, 2, prefect Rufius Volusianus.
Aurelius Victor, De Caesaribus 40.18, prefect Rufius Volusianus, 20, pavidus et imbellis.
Galerius retreat: Lactantius, De mortibus persecutorum 27.4.
Campus, military expedition: Panegyrici latini 12(9).14.4.
Panegyrici latini 12(9).8.1, generals, prefect, 16.5, private residence, abdicated rule, with
PLRE 1:713, Ruricius Pompeianus 8. Lactantius, De mortibus persecutorum 44.6, without,
7, deserter; also 44.1: initially Maxentius troops against Constantine were commanded by
capable generals.
249
His attempt to make amends by facing his rival was no compensation.

Finally he decided to emerge from behind the citys wall: he marched
out to battle dressed in armor. The Tiber now seemed to mark the
northern boundary of his empire, and by crossing the river he was seemingly initiating his own campaign beyond a frontier. The only military
battle Maxentius ever commanded in person was against Constantine
in 312. That battle ended in disaster.44
Forgetting Maxentius
The Tiber was a river of oblivion. The bodies of executed criminals were
dumped in the Tiber; so might be the bodies of disgraced or unpopular
emperors. When the news of Tiberius death was announced in 37, some
witty residents of Rome shouted, Tiberius to the Tiber! Vitellius was
executed in 69 and his corpse dragged into the Tiber; in 222, soldiers
decapitated Elagabalus and dunked his body in sewers before throwing
it in the Tiber. After the battle at the Milvian Bridge, Constantines
soldiers retrieved Maxentius body from the river and paraded into
Rome carrying his wicked head on a spear.45
Constantine himself was guilty of identity theft. With the approval
of the senate he commandeered Maxentius buildings and monuments
at Rome. He may have confiscated his rivals estate in the suburbs to
erect a statue of Claudius Gothicus, an earlier emperor whom he was
advertising as an ancestor, on the center barrier of the circus. He also
appropriated Maxentius family. Fausta, Maxentius sister and Constantines wife, was blended into Constantines dynasty of Flavian emperors
with the official name of Flavia Maxima Fausta. After Eutropia, Maxentius mother and Constantines mother-in-law, supposedly announced
44
45
In armor: Panegyrici latini 12(9).8.6. For the Tiber as a frontier, note Procopius, Bella
5.19.23: during their siege of Rome in 537 the Ostrogoths worried that destruction of the
Milvian Bridge would separate their encampments on the left bank inside the river from
access to the right bank outside the river as far as the [Mediterranean] sea.
Suetonius, Tiberius 75.1, Vitellius 17.2. Elagabalus: Dio, Historiae Romanae 80.20.2, Herodian, Historia 5.8.89, SHA, Antoninus Elagabalus 33.7. Head and procession: Panegyrici
latini 12(9).18.3, and Zosimus, Historia nova 2.17.1. In the panel on the arch of Constantine
depicting the battle at the Milvian Bridge, Speidel (1986) 258, suggests that the soldier shown
drowning in the river at the feet of Constantine was Maxentius himself.
250
that Maximian had not been Maxentius father, Constantine rehabilitated Maximian, his father-in-law, as his own ancestor. Eutropia subsequently visited Palestine and recommended that Constantine construct
a church at an important biblical site. Maxentius had become emperor
with the support of his familys reputation; now his father, his mother,
and his sister had become props for Constantines imperial rule. As a
son and a brother Maxentius had been disinherited.46
As an emperor he was also discarded. Once Maxentius had tried
to suppress a revolt in North Africa by sending a portrait of himself to Carthage; after the battle Constantine soon sent Maxentius
head to Africa as proof that his rivals reign was over. According to a
panegyrist, people happily preferred this new image: mighty Africa,
how you exulted! A portrait marked the beginning of imperial rule;
the emperors head marked the end. When he fell into the Tiber,
Maxentius lost his empire, his monuments, and his family. Now he
had been forgotten.47
In its own anonymous way Maxentius reign nevertheless previewed
and contributed to some future trends at both Rome and Constantinople. At Rome his reign accelerated the increasing importance of the
suburbs. Long before Maxentius began to expand his villa complex,
Christians had been developing the same area along and near the
Appian Way. From the late second or early third century they had established new cemeteries and catacombs. Eventually they added shrines
and churches dedicated to martyrs and bishops. Even as Maxentius was
developing his estate as an alternative imperial residence, it was already
being surrounded by Christian sites. In fact, across from his estate on
the other side of the Appian Way a large church was constructed over
the catacombs, later known as the Church of St. Sebastian. The layout
of this church suggests that it was built in the first half of the fourth
46
47
Statue in circus: Humphrey (1986) 28687, 601, with Chapter 7, for Claudius as an ancestor
of Constantine. Denial of Maximians paternity: Panegyrici latini 12(9).3.4, 4.34, Epitome
de Caesaribus 40.13, Origo Constantini imperatoris 4.12. Eutropia in Palestine: Eusebius, Vita
Constantini 3.52, with Van Dam (2007) 3012.
Portrait: Zosimus, Historia nova 2.12.1. Head in Africa: Panegyrici latini 4(10).32.68.
251
century and that it might be attributed to the initiative of Constantine

himself. Maxentius development of his suburban estate had previewed
the support of Constantine and subsequent Christian emperors for suburban churches. In this perspective the unintended heirs of Maxentius
reign were the Christian community and the bishops of Rome.48
Maxentius reign also marked the limits, even the end, of Republican emperorship. Subsequent emperors defined themselves instead as
Christian emperors. The one conspicuous exception was, of course,
Julian, who did appeal to the traditions of Rome during his civil war
against Constantius. In a letter to the senate in 361 he censured his
uncle Constantine as an innovator and a disturber of ancient laws
and traditional custom, and to restore ancient law he subsequently
abolished some of Constantines edicts. Like earlier emperors, he furthermore showed his respect for Rome by providing grain from his own
resources, by making concessions to senators, and perhaps by aligning
himself with the ancient cults of the capital. He even had Helena,
his wife and Constantines daughter, buried in Rome. One historian
thought that Julian himself should subsequently have been buried in
the eternal city next to the monuments of earlier deified [emperors].
For a brief moment Julian was posing as a Republican emperor.49
On the other hand, Julian too never visited Rome. He seems to have
promoted the traditions of the old capital simply as another way of
annoying his Christian opponents. The guiding principles of his reign
were instead his support for pagan cults and his devotion to Greek
culture. After emerging as sole emperor, he visited Constantinople.
As the new eastern capital, New Rome superficially resembled Old
Rome, with its customary buildings and its own senate. One important
48
49
See Spera (2003), for the development of a new, Christianized panorama along the Appian
Way (p. 39). For the uncertainty over the dating of the Church of St. Sebastian, see Curran
(2000) 9799, with Nieddu (2009) 14048, suggesting Constantines reign.
Ammianus Marcellinus, Res gestae 21.1.5, burial of Helena, 10.78, Julians letter, 12.2425,
concessions, 25.10.5, Julians fantasy burial. Ancient law: CTh 2.5.2, 3.1.3. Grain: Panegyrici
latini 3(11).14.12. For cults, see Ehling (2001) 295: In hoherem Grade als seine unmittelbaren
Vorganger und Nachfolger hat sich Kaiser Julian um die romische Senatsaristokratie und
die Stadt Rom bemuht.

difference, however, was its historical backstory. The new capital had
no burdensome traditions inherited from Roman history or unrealistic
expectations about the Republic to complicate or restrain emperors
behavior. New Rome could instead develop into a Christian capital,
following the lead of Constantine, and a Greek capital, following the
lead of Julian. At Constantinople eastern emperors could eventually
act like Greek Christian emperors without even having to pretend to
behave like Republican emperors.50
As an attempt to revive a traditional Republican emperorship and an
earlier perspective on the centrality of Rome in the empire, Maxentius
reign was a dead end. But as a preview of various aspects of the future,
his reign can claim some significance. The oddity, of course, is that
his reign became prescient precisely because he was defeated. Without
Constantines victory at the Milvian Bridge, Maxentius reign might
not be so memorable.
50
For Julians preferences, see Van Dam (2002) 16380, 195202, (2007) 2008; for the development of Greek Christian emperorship at Constantinople, see Van Dam (2010) 5762.
BACK WORD:
THE BRIDGE
CHAPTER TEN
iii
efore the battle in 312 the milvian bridge had already

been in use for more than five hundred years. The bridge was
first attested in 207 b.c. when a crowd went out from Rome to
greet messengers bringing news of a victory over a Carthaginian
army in Italy. The recent construction of the Flaminian Way had no
doubt increased traffic between Rome and northern Italy. This new
highway was named after Gaius Flaminius, who had instigated its
construction during his censorship in 220 b.c.; the Mulvian namesake
behind the construction of the bridge is unknown. Over the centuries
renovations were sometimes necessary for the bridge, organized under
the Republic by magistrates such as the censors and subsequently by
emperors such as Augustus.1
Two features distinguished the neighborhoods in this northern suburb around the bridge. One was the presence of large villas on both
1
Victory over Hasdrubal: Livy, Ab urbe condita 27.51.2, with Messineo (2006), for a historical
summary of the Milvian Bridge. Repairs of Marcus Aemilius Scaurus, censor in 109 b.c.:
De viris illustribus 72.8, and Ammianus Marcellinus, Res gestae 27.3.9; for Augustus, see
Chapter 7.
253
254
sides of the river. The other was a reputation for scandal and debauchery. Marcus Antonius once stopped to drink in a tavern at Saxa Rubra,
north of the bridge. Nero enjoyed the nightlife in the vicinity of the
bridge, where he might indulge in lewd behavior more easily outside
the city. From the bridge Wide Street ran in a straight line into the
center of Rome. On this Broadway young men liked to show off by
spinning the wheels of their chariots.2
The construction of the Aurelian Wall in the late third century
left this district around the Milvian Bridge as a reception area on the
outskirts of the city. The bridge marked a convenient staging point
where delegations could greet dignitaries arriving from the north and
escort them to the city center. After his victory Constantine entered
Rome in the company of a retinue of senators who led his chariot
through the dense crowds of people. In 403 the emperor Honorius
traveled from Ravenna on the Flaminian Way to visit Rome. When he
reached the Tiber, presumably at the Milvian Bridge, he performed a
libation of greeting. As he entered the capital, people stood on rooftops
along the streets from the Milvian Bridge to the Palatine Hill. In 799,
long after emperors had vanished in Italy, bishop Leo III returned after
a trip to appeal for the assistance of the Frankish king Charlemagne in
northern Gaul. Clerics, aristocrats, soldiers, and the people of Rome
welcomed their bishop at the bridge with spiritual hymns. Then they
accompanied him, not downtown as in the past, but to a focal point of
Christian Rome, the Church of St. Peter in the western suburbs.3
Remembering the Bridge

Before his invasion of Italy, Constantine had fought against the Franks
and other peoples in northern Gaul. During his campaign he constructed a bridge across the Rhine linking Cologne with Deutz, a fort
on the barbarian east bank. The construction of bridges had long
2
3
Villas: Cicero, Orat. in Catilinam 3.2.5. Marcus Antonius: Cicero, Orat. Philippicae 2.31.77.
Nero: Tacitus, Annales 13.47. Chariots: Juvenal, Saturae 1.5862.
Constantines arrival: Panegyrici latini 12(9).19.1. Honorius: Claudian, De sexto consulatu
Honorii 520, libation, 54345, arrival. Leo III: Liber pontificalis 98.19.
back word: the bridge
255
been publicized as an important achievement of military operations

along the Rhine and Danube frontiers. During his campaigns in Gaul
during the mid-first century b.c., Julius Caesar had constructed two
bridges across the Rhine to terrorize the Germans. For his campaigns
against the Dacians in the early second century, the emperor Trajan had
built a lengthy stone bridge across the Danube, whose massive foundations were a permanent reminder that human creativity could build
anything. Bridges defined emperors. One of Trajans contemporaries
thought that an epic poem about the emperors triumphs in his Dacian
campaigns should certainly mention the new bridges constructed over
the rivers. In his later discussion of Christian emperors and the traditional priesthoods of Rome the historian Zosimus would revive an
ancient etymology that associated pontifex, priest, with pons, bridge.
As pontifex maximus, highest priest, each emperor, including Christian emperors, could be imagined not only as the head of the priestly
colleges but also as the greatest bridge-builder. Bridging rivers had
become a sign of success for both emperors and the Roman state.4
According to the dedicatory inscription at the fort in Deutz, Constantine himself had crossed the Rhine to supervise construction. In
addition to its strategic utility, this garrison staked a symbolic claim to
these territories across the Rhine, as if they had already been appropriated for Roman rule. The bridge likewise was meant to confirm the
permanence of Roman rule, with its foundations of impressive bulk
providing a reliable, stable footing. By constructing this bridge at
Cologne, an orator announced to Constantine, you taunt the remnants of a damaged tribe. According to this panegyrist, Constantines
sturdy bridge was much more impressive than the temporary pontoon
Barbarian: Panegyrici latini 6(7).13.2. Terrorize: Julius Caesar, Bellum Gallicum 4.19. Trajans
bridge: Dio, Historiae Romanae 68.13.5. Epic poem: Pliny the Younger, Ep. 8.4.2. Constantine
was also credited with the construction of a stone bridge across the Danube: Aurelius Victor,
De Caesaribus 41.18, and Chronicon Paschale s.a. 328. Etymology of pontifex: Zosimus, Historia
nova 4.36, with Hallett (1970), for the transition in meaning from bridge-builder to priest,
and the discussion in Rupke (2008) 6165, including the evidence for Constantine as pontifex
maximus.

bridges constructed by a Persian king long ago across the Hellespont
and by the emperor Gaius across the bay of Baiae.5
In anticipation of Constantines invasion Maxentius had constructed
just such a pontoon bridge across the Tiber. His new bridge was presumably a tactical replacement for the Milvian Bridge. Denying access
across the Milvian Bridge, perhaps by destroying a span, would have
been too time consuming in the frenzy of battle, whereas a pontoon
bridge could be easily cut loose. This stratagem backfired, however, as
Maxentius was caught in his own trap. His pontoon bridge was most
likely swept away too.
Why did Maxentius engage Constantine and his army in direct
combat? Another strategy was available, and it had already proved its
value. In previous years Maxentius had prevailed over invasions by rival
emperors simply by remaining inside the massive wall of Rome. In 307
the emperor Severus had advanced to the wall of the city. Then his
troops defected, and he had to flee back to Ravenna. Later in 307 the
emperor Galerius marched into Italy. He approached Rome supposedly
with the intention of slaughtering the senate and people. But once he
saw the enormity of the capital, he realized that his army was not large
enough to enforce a siege. Because the soldiers were also upset about
having to assault fellow Romans, Galerius soon retreated before his
entire army could defect. As Constantine approached Rome in 312,
Maxentius had already stockpiled supplies for a long siege. He could
again have stayed safely inside the citys wall.6
Instead, he eventually emerged. Because Maxentius decision to join
his troops seems to have been unexpected, contemporaries were a bit
puzzled about his motives. One orator concluded that a god had turned
against him. Lactantius emphasized the discontent at Rome. The people were mocking Maxentius as a deserter, and they seemed to be
5
Dedication: ILS 2.1:xxiv, no. 8937 = Grunewald (1990) 183, no. 15, with Grunewald (1989)
174, discussing the survival of the dedication. As if: Ammianus Marcellinus, Res gestae 29.6.2,
commenting on Valentinians garrison across the Danube. Panegyrici latini 6(7).13.1, constructing, 3, foundations, 4, other bridges.
Lactantius, De mortibus persecutorum 26.811, Severus, 27.28, Galerius. Preparation for siege:
Panegyrici latini 12(9).16.1.
back word: the bridge
257
shifting their support to his rival: in unison the people shouted that
Constantine could not be conquered. In addition, the senators who
inspected the Sibylline books offered what Maxentius understood to
be a favorable oracle. So he marched out to the battle. After he crossed
the Tiber, the bridge was severed behind him.7
A famous episode in Roman historical mythology may also have
influenced Maxentius. Long ago at the end of the sixth century b.c.
an ally of the last king of Rome had been prevented from entering the
city by the stubborn defiance of a single Roman soldier. According to
legend, first with a few companions, then single-handedly, Horatius
Cocles had defended the Sublician Bridge. Once his comrades had
destroyed the bridge behind him, Horatius jumped into the Tiber and
swam to safety. Through his heroism he had saved the new Republic.
In his honor the people erected a statue, located adjacent to the Forum.
This statue of Horatius remained on view for centuries.8
During the late Republic and the early empire the valor of Horatius
was a standard archetype. In one of his philosophical treatises Cicero
hailed Horatius as an exemplar of courage. In his great epic poem about
the founding of the Roman state, Virgil included the moment when
[Horatius] Cocles dared to cut the bridge as one important episode
in a short summary of Italian affairs and the triumphs of Romans.
The poet Propertius cited Horatius defense of the bridge to reassure
the people of Rome about their security: the gods built these walls,
and the gods are also defending them.9
The legend of Horatius lived on in late antiquity. In 313 an orator referenced Horatius in a panegyric before Constantine. A fourth-century
compilation of biographies of great heroes from the Republic and
empire summarized the story and mentioned the statue. In the early
7
8
9
God: Panegyrici latini 4(10).28.1. Lactantius, De mortibus persecutorum 44.7, deserter, in

unison, 9, bridge.
Horatius at the bridge, statue in Comitium: Livy, Ab urbe condita 2.10. Statue: Pliny the
Elder, Historia naturalis 34.11.22.
Cicero, De officiis 1.18.61. Virgil, Aeneis 8.626, Italian affairs, 650, bridge. Propertius, Elegi
3.11.63, bridge, 65, walls, with Roller (2004) 1028, on Horatius as a model for imitation
during the late Republic and early empire.
258
fifth century a poet compared a recent victory over a Visigothic army

in northern Italy to Horatius defense of Rome: he crossed the Tiber
[while carrying] the shield with which he had protected the city.10
During his reign Maxentius had represented himself as the defender
of Rome, his city. Perhaps it is possible to imagine that at a moment of
crisis he had looked for inspiration to the legends about the foundation
of the city and the establishment of the Republic. Because he and
Constantine were brothers-in-law, their imminent confrontation would
be a replay of the quarrel between the brothers Romulus and Remus
over the foundation of Rome. By defeating Constantine, Maxentius
would confirm his reputation as the new founder of the city. In the
process, he could in addition become the new savior of the Republic. He
would be the new Horatius defending another bridge. Remembering
history may have contributed to Maxentius defeat at the battle of the
Milvian Bridge.
10
Reference: Panegyrici latini 12(9).18.2. Summary: De viris illustribus 11, with Schmidt (1989a),
for the date of the treatise. Shield: Claudian, De sexto consulatu Honorii 486.
EDITIONS AND TRANSLATIONS

iii
In this book all translations from Greek and Latin texts are by the author. In this list
of editions and translations, full references for books already cited in the notes are in
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Ambrosiaster, Quaestiones veteris et novi testamenti: ed. A. Souter, Pseudo-Augustini
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Anonymus post Dionem (= Dio Continuatus), Fragmenta: ed. and tr. [Latin] Muller
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Anonymus Valesianus, Pars posterior: ed. and tr. J. C. Rolfe, Ammianus Marcellinus,
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Augustine
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259
260
editions and translations
Cassiodorus
Chronica: ed. T. Mommsen, Chronica minora saec. IV. V. VI. VII, Vol. 2. MGH,
Auctores antiquissimi 11 (1894), pp. 12061.
Variae: ed. T. Mommsen, Cassiodori Senatoris Variae. MGH, Auctores antiquissimi
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Cicero
De officiis: ed. and tr. W. Miller, Cicero, De officiis. LCL (1913).
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Zanker, P. (1988). The Power of Images in the Age of Augustus, tr. A. Shapiro. Jerome
Lectures 16. Ann Arbor, Mich.
INDEX
iii
Ablabius, Flavius (prefect), 31
Abraham (patriarch), 61
Achaea, 158
Achilleus, Aurelius (usurper), 3
Actium, 157, 183, 187, 216, 218. See also
Augustus (emperor)
Adriatic Sea, 177, 183
Aelafius (vicar), 177
Aemilian Way, 183
Africa, 3, 48, 53, 90, 107, 122, 145, 170181,
205, 208, 216, 230, 235, 236, 241, 247,
250
Africa Proconsularis, 92, 171, 172, 241
Alamans, 232
Albinus, Ceionius Rufius (prefect of Rome),
163, 167
Alexander the Great, 102
Alexander, Domitius (emperor), 3, 170,
230231, 236
Alexandria, 22, 60, 216
Allectus (emperor), 3
Alps, 1, 52, 183
Altar of Peace (at Rome), 241
Amabilianus (prefect of grain supply),
180
Anastasius (emperor), 41
Andromachus (sophist), 107
Antioch, 10, 22, 33, 41, 59, 61, 93, 96
Antonius, Marcus, 254
Anullinus (governor), 172173, 174, 176
Anullinus, Gaius Annius (prefect of Rome),
129, 172, 241
Apennine Mountains, 183, 186, 189
Apollo, 11, 12, 35, 95, 126, 134, 135, 156, 162,
191
Appian Way, 208, 231, 250
Aqua Viva, 184, 188
Aquileia, 44, 52, 104, 226
Aquitania, 236
arch at Malborghetto. See Malborghetto,

arch at
Arch of Constantine (at Rome), 6, 7, 14, 102,
124, 243
Arch of Janus (at Rome), 185
Areobindus, Georgius, 54
Arian Christianity (Arianism), 76, 181
Arius (priest), 20, 43, 55, 59, 60, 76
Arles, 92, 118, 176
council in 314, 92, 176178
Asia Minor, 13, 57, 59, 233, 236
Athanasius (bishop of Alexandria), 60
Athens, 34, 101, 102, 107
Augustus (emperor), 30, 35, 127128,
183184, 187188, 189, 192, 203, 212,
216217, 218, 240, 241, 244, 253
Aurelian (emperor), 229
Aurelian Wall, 127, 183, 209, 229230, 254
Autun, 176
Baiae, 255
Balkan Mountains, 1, 48, 57, 61, 70, 82, 142,
151, 153, 227, 229, 233, 235
Basil (bishop of Caesarea), 120
Basil I (emperor), 54
Basilica Aemilia (at Rome), 242
Basilica Nova (at Rome), 185, 190191, 196,
205, 207, 242
Basilica of Maxentius. See Basilica Nova
(at Rome)
Bassus, Caesonius (consul), 158
Bassus, Junius (consul), 158, 184
Baths of Caracalla (at Rome), 203
Baths of Diocletian (at Rome), 185, 203
Bemarchius (sophist), 102
Bernini, Gian Lorenzo (sculptor), 1920
Bethlehem, 81
Bithynia, 3, 107. See also Hierocles, Sossianus
(governor of Bithynia)
289
290
index
Black Stone (at Rome), 238, 243

Boniface VIII (bishop of Rome), 22
Bonitus (king of Franks), 232
Brescia, 143, 183
Britain, 1, 3, 57, 58, 70, 101, 155, 177, 227, 232,
233, 234, 235
Brittany, 48
Burckhardt, Jacob (historian), 15
Byzacena, 171
Byzantium, 27, 34, 101. See also
Constantinople
Caecilianus (bishop of Carthage), 173, 174,
175177, 178, 180
Caelian Hill, 124, 209
Caesarea (in Palestine), 3, 56, 67, 78, 194
Campania, 115
Campus Martius, 53, 127, 248
Capitoline Hill, 23, 36, 130, 131, 136, 141, 150,
191, 196, 206, 211, 215, 238
Cappadocia, 9, 40
Carausius (emperor), 3
Carsulae, 186
Carthage, 92, 170, 216, 230, 234, 236, 250,
253
Castellum Divitia. See Deutz
Celts, 101, 233, 234, 235
Chalcedon, 26, 30, 34
Charlemagne (king of Franks and emperor),
20, 23, 214, 254
chi-rho symbol, 3, 31, 49, 63, 117118
Chrestus (bishop of Syracuse), 177
Christianity, 34, 74, 102, 109, 137, 158, 168,
193, 220, 222223, 250
persecution, 69, 73, 90, 107, 130
christogram, 3, 48, 51, 117118, 168169
Chrysopolis, 217
Church of St. Agnes (at Rome), 208, 210
Church of St. John Lateran (at Rome),
207209
Church of St. Lawrence outside the Wall
(at Rome), 208
Church of St. Marcellinus and St. Peter
(at Rome), 208, 210
Church of St. Paul outside the Wall

(at Rome), 209
Church of St. Peter (at Rome), 19, 24, 208,
209, 210, 211, 213214, 254
Church of St. Polyeuctus
(at Constantinople), 26
Church of St. Sebastian (at Rome), 208, 250
Church of the Apostle Peter, Paul, and John
the Baptist (at Ostia), 209
Church of the Holy Apostles
(at Constantinople), 29, 81, 245
Church of the Holy Sepulcher
(at Jerusalem), 60, 246
Cicero, 157, 257
Cillium, 171
Cinna, 157
Circus Maximus (at Rome), 140, 144, 205,
212, 214, 232
Cirta, 171. See also Constantina
Claudius (emperor), 35
Claudius Gothicus (emperor), 137, 156, 165,
249
Clovis (king of Franks), 30
Cologne, 176, 255
Colosseum, 124, 141, 147, 190, 203, 205,
242
Commodus (emperor), 191
Constans (emperor and son of Constantine),
47, 48, 153, 188
Constans II (emperor), 214
Constantia (daughter of Constantius II), 51
Constantin imaginaire, 14, 39
Constantina, 171, 172, 181. See also Cirta
Constantina (daughter of Constantine), 48,
51
Constantine (emperor), 1, 251
baptism, 20, 2223, 26, 57, 81
battle at Milvian Bridge, 12, 34, 4547,
64, 8587, 101, 104, 143144, 155, 215
colossal statue and dedication at Rome,
17, 190203
council of Arles, 176180
and Diocletian, 109110
and Galerius, 109110, 114, 227
index
letters, 5759, 6061, 68, 9192, 94,
172174, 175176
and Licinius, 3, 5, 27, 3435, 52, 6465,
7273, 92, 9395, 99, 103, 119124,
147
and Maxentius, 227228, 233, 235,
243244, 249250
and Maximian, 3, 11, 114, 155157,
244245, 249
stories about vision and dream, 78, 911,
7576, 77, 200201, 224
vision of Apollo, 11, 134
vision of cross, 35, 7, 1920, 6266, 186
Constantine II (emperor and son of
Constantine), 47, 63, 142143, 153,
165, 178
Constantine VII (emperor), 54
Constantinian Basilica. See Basilica Nova
(at Rome)
Constantinople, 7, 8, 16, 21, 22, 52, 53, 54,
62, 66, 81, 151, 167, 181, 200, 214, 235,
236, 245246, 250, 251
legends about Constantine, 2529
relics of Constantine, 2930
Constantius I (emperor and father of
Constantine), 3, 57, 6971, 85,
8889, 98, 110, 114, 143, 145, 156, 165,
174, 227, 228, 239, 240
Constantius II (emperor and son of
Constantine), 40, 4751, 135, 141, 153,
189, 211212, 251
Constantius, Julius (half brother of
Constantine), 48
Constitution of Constantine, 2225
Corduba, 37, 175
Cornacchini, Agostino (sculptor), 20
Corsica, 230
Crispus (emperor and son of Constantine),
37, 53, 94, 111112, 118, 122, 142143,
147, 148, 153, 166, 168
Crocus (king of Alamans), 232
cross, vision of, 35, 1920, 186
military standard, 3, 29, 6266, 7274
Cyril of Jerusalem (bishop), 5051
291
Cyrrhus, 44
Dacia and Dacians, 70, 124, 226, 235, 236,
255
Dalmatia, 108, 177
Damasus (bishop of Rome), 21, 212
Danube River, 28, 48, 82, 108, 165, 226, 232,
235, 247, 255
David (king), 41
Demetrianus (student of Lactantius), 121
Deutz, 189, 255
Diana, 126
Didyma, 95
Diocletian (emperor), 2, 3, 36, 57, 58, 69, 79,
84, 85, 95, 101, 113, 119, 130, 136, 149,
184, 205, 206207, 225, 226, 238, 239,
244, 245
court at Nicomedia, 107112. See also
Lactantius (rhetorician)
Domitian (emperor), 36, 135, 191
Domitianus, Domitius (emperor), 3
Donation of Constantine, 2125, 29
Donatist Christianity (Donatism), 174181
Donatus (bishop of Carthage), 174, 176
Donatus (friend of Lactantius), 108, 111, 120
Easter, 61
Egypt, 3, 37, 44, 57, 59, 60, 68, 73, 80, 86,
118, 181, 205, 209, 212, 216, 236
Elagabalus (emperor), 249
Ephesus, 41
Eudocia (wife of Huneric), 53
Eugenius (emperor), 52
Eunapius (sophist and historian), 3839
Eunomius (heresiarch), 9
Europe, 234
Eusebius of Caesarea (bishop), 3, 4, 12, 40,
149, 186, 195196, 219
Ecclesiastical History, 6, 13, 17, 33, 42, 43,
44, 5468, 8385, 9597, 121, 215, 221.
See also Rufinus (historian)
first edition, 8488, 106, 190203
second edition, 8893, 199
third edition, 9395
292
index
Eusebius of Caesarea (bishop) (cont.)

Life of Constantine, 3, 6, 7, 13, 16, 33,
5457, 6874, 8283, 97, 200202,
224
Martyrs of Palestine, 84, 85, 88
meetings with Constantine, 5860
panegyric of 325, 7
panegyric of 336, 8, 60, 7879, 97,
199201
theology, 7579, 80, 246
Eusebius of Nicomedia (bishop), 20
Eusignius (martyr), 28
Eutropia (wife of Maximian), 249
Eutropius (historian), 239240
Evagrius (historian), 4142, 54
Fanum Fortunae, 183, 189
Fausta (wife of Constantine), 37, 148, 209,
247, 249
Faustus, Anicius (consul), 210
Flaminian Gate, 128, 135, 183
Flaminian Way, 1, 127, 150, 181185, 229,
253254
Flaminius, Gaius (consul), 189, 253
Flavia Constans. See Hispellum
Flavianus, Junius (prefect of Rome), 90
Flavius (grammarian), 107
Forty Martyrs, 13
Forum (at Rome), 124, 130, 132, 133, 135, 138,
150, 185, 190, 205, 206, 211, 217, 238,
242, 243, 257
Forum Boarium (at Rome), 185
Forum of Nerva (at Rome), 192
Forum of Trajan (at Rome), 129, 141, 163, 211
Franks, 23, 48, 103, 104, 166, 232, 254
Frederick II (emperor and king of Sicily), 22
Frigidus River, 52
Gaius (emperor), 255
Galerius (emperor), 70, 85, 95, 98, 101, 110,
113, 114, 155, 187, 216, 225, 228, 233,
235, 236, 238239, 240241, 247, 256
invasion of Italy, 226228, 229230
Galla (wife of Theodosius), 51, 53
Gallicanus, Ovinius (prefect of Rome), 143

Gallus (emperor), 51
Gardens of Sallust (at Rome), 248
Gaul, 1, 3, 48, 49, 57, 60, 70, 82, 110, 111, 114,
118, 133, 134, 145, 153, 155, 174, 177,
205, 232, 233234, 235
Geiseric (king of Vandals), 53
Gelasius (bishop of Rome), 213
Germans, 101, 106, 233, 234, 255
Germanus (bishop of Constantinople), 55
Gibbon, Edward (historian), 15
Golgotha, 50
Gratian (emperor), 51
Greece, 187, 236
Greek culture, 9, 251
Gregory (bishop of Antioch), 41
Gregory IX (bishop of Rome), 22
Gregory of Nyssa (bishop), 120
Guidi-Vita, 27
Hadrian (bishop of Rome), 24, 214
Hadrian (emperor), 126, 127, 137, 138, 139,
191, 198, 213
Hadrianople, 217
Hadrians Wall, 229, 232
Hasdrubal (Carthaginian general), 253
Helena (daughter of Constantine), 51, 251
Helena (mother of Constantine), 37, 208,
209, 228
Hellespont, 255
Heraclius (emperor), 30
Hercules, 52, 109, 126, 156, 244
Hermogenes, Aurelius (prefect of Rome), 241
Hesperus (evening star), 154
Hierocles, Sossianus (governor of Bithynia),
108
Hilderic (king of Vandals), 53, 54
Hispellum, 150, 188
Homer (poet), 159
Honorius (emperor), 47, 212213, 230, 254
Horatius Cocles, 157, 253, 257
Interamna, 187
Intercisa, 184
index
Iol Caesarea, 89, 171
Israelites, 91, 118
Italy, 3, 34, 38, 44, 48, 57, 98, 106, 108, 125,
177, 208, 209, 216, 226, 229, 234, 247
Jerusalem, 22, 30, 50, 54, 60, 61, 81, 246
Jesus Christ, 3, 27, 31, 40, 45, 46, 50, 57, 59,
67, 72, 76, 77, 7879, 80, 168169,
179, 199, 208, 245, 246
John (evangelist), 52
John Chrysostom (bishop), 10
John Malalas (historian), 2627
Jordan River, 81
Jovian (emperor), 6
Julian (emperor), 28, 3941, 42, 51, 54, 189,
251252
Juliana, Anicia, 26
Julien imaginaire, 39
Julius Caesar, 157, 233, 240, 255
Jupiter, 35, 52, 109, 119, 136, 137, 156, 191, 197,
206, 238, 244
Justin II (emperor), 138
Justina (wife of Magnentius, then of
Valentinian I), 48, 51, 53
Justinian (emperor), 33, 54
labarum, 63
Labicanan Way, 210, 226
Lactantius (rhetorician), 6, 7, 14, 130, 132,
146, 149, 216, 219, 238, 256
at Constantines court, 112124
Deaths of the Persecutors, 110111, 113124
battle at Milvian Bridge, 114119
at Diocletians court, 107112
Divine Institutes, 108109, 112113, 122
Lambaesis, 171
Lapis Niger. See Black Stone (at Rome)
Lateran Basilica. See Church of St. John
Lateran (at Rome)
Lateran district (at Rome), 23, 209
Leo III (bishop of Rome), 254
Leo IX (bishop of Rome), 21
Leo X (bishop of Rome), 24
Lepcis Magna, 172
293
Libanius (teacher), 16, 40

Licinius (emperor), 1, 3, 12, 27, 44, 62, 84,
85, 87, 9596, 101, 140, 142, 165, 166,
197, 199, 217, 233, 234, 239, 245
and Constantine, 3, 5, 3435, 7273, 92,
9395, 99, 103, 119124, 147
Life of Constantine (Byzantine), 2728
Livy (historian), 233
Lombards, 214
Louis the Pious (emperor), 23
Luna (moon goddess), 125, 154
Lyon, 49, 118
Macarius (bishop of Jerusalem), 61
Magnentius (emperor), 4751
Malborghetto, arch at, 17, 181190, 216
Mamre, 61
Marcian (emperor), 30
Marcus Aurelius (emperor), 126, 127, 131,
137, 138, 139, 198
Marius, 157
Mars, 117, 243
Marseille, 156
Mauretania, 89, 170
Maurice (emperor), 41
Maxentius (emperor), 1, 3, 27, 28, 44, 62, 80,
140, 147, 155, 184, 225226
accession, 2, 227228
battle at Milvian Bridge, 12, 34, 46,
8587, 101, 104, 114119, 143144,
248249, 253, 256
and Constantine, 227228, 233, 235,
243244, 249250
estate outside Rome, 231232, 250251
rule at Rome, 7172, 8992, 144, 152,
159160, 190192, 205206, 228249,
250251
rule in North Africa, 170, 229231. See also
Alexander, Domitius (emperor)
Maximian (emperor), 3, 36, 85, 113, 114, 115,
130, 136, 170, 205, 206, 225, 226, 229,
238, 239, 240, 244
and Constantine, 3, 11, 155157, 249
Maximilla, Valeria (wife of Maxentius), 225
294
index
Maximinus (emperor), 3, 12, 44, 72, 84, 85,

87, 90, 92, 99, 111, 113, 115, 119120,
194, 233, 239
Mediterranean Sea, 226, 231, 232, 234,
236237
memories, 89, 1215, 74
Metaurus River, 184
Milan, 1, 5, 103, 104, 180, 183, 213, 226, 239
Miltiades (bishop of Rome), 21, 90, 175176
Milvian Bridge, 1, 27, 28, 30, 104, 127, 132,
134, 183, 187, 253
battle at, 12, 3, 10, 52, 8587, 114119,
143144, 234237, 248249
pontoon bridge, 2, 255256
Moesia, 48
Mommsen, Theodor (historian), 16
Monument of Five Columns (at Rome), 130,
136, 206, 238
Moses (lawgiver), 41, 57, 7072, 80118
Mount of Olives, 50
Mussolini, Benito, 30
Muzuc, 171
Narnia, 183, 187
narratology, 1011, 221
Nazareth, 46
Nazarius (rhetorician), 142146, 148, 166, 219
Nero (emperor), 31, 254
new Constantine, 30, 52
Nicaea, council of, 7, 20, 44, 57, 59, 61, 75,
76, 78, 93, 95, 96, 148, 180, 246
Nicene Christianity, 76
Nicephorus Phocas (emperor), 54
Nicomedia, 60, 79, 101, 107112, 117, 120,
121, 130, 148, 149, 231, 245. See also
Lactantius (rhetorician)
Nicopolis, 188
Nile River, 165
Nomentanan Way, 210
Noviomagus (Nijmegen), 232
Numidia, 171, 181
Ocriculum, 187, 189
October 28, celebration of, 2, 30, 217
October 29, celebration of, 2, 217
Olybrius, Anicius (emperor), 26, 5354

oral traditions, 910
Ossius (bishop of Corduba), 37, 175
Ostiensian Way, 208
Ostrogoths, 213
Palatine Hill, 124, 254
Palazzo dei Conservatori, 191, 197
Palestine, 3, 44, 57, 67, 81, 85, 94, 102, 106,
236, 250
Pammachius (proconsul), 211
Pamphilus (priest), 67
Pannonia, 48, 49
Pantheon (at Rome), 141
papacy, 16, 2025, 29
Paul (apostle), 23, 4647, 215
Paulinus, Anicius (prefect of Rome), 151
Penni, Gianfrancesco (artist), 24
Pepin (king of Franks), 23
Perpetuus, Betitius (priest), 130
Persian empire, 26, 30, 40, 48, 61, 81, 247
Peter (apostle), 23, 208, 213, 215
Philip (apostle), 52
Photius (bishop of Constantinople), 38, 55
Pius X (bishop of Rome), 187
Placidia (wife of Olybrius), 53
Po River, 1, 183
Pollentia, 47
Pompeius Strabo, 157
Pons Mulvius / Pons Milvius, 2, 27, 43, 253
Ponte Flaminio, 30
Ponte XXVIII Ottobre, 30
Porfyrius, Publilius Optatianus (poet and
prefect of Rome), 17, 158170, 216,
219
Porphyry of Tyre (philosopher), 109
Praeneste, 226
Praetextatus, Vettius Agorius (senator), 21
Praxagoras (historian), 101102, 110
Prima Porta, 187
Proba (descendant of Olybrius), 54
Propertius (poet), 257
Publicola, Publius Valerius, 242
Quirinal Hill, 185
index
Raetia, 247
Raphael (artist), 2425
Ravenna, 53, 213, 229, 245, 254, 256
Red Sea, 72, 86, 118
Remus (brother of Romulus), 243, 258
Republic, 14, 35, 127128, 131, 139, 141, 144,
146, 148, 150, 157158, 161, 192, 196,
203, 211, 215, 216, 239240, 241,
243244, 245, 251252, 257
Rhine River, 1, 11, 57, 61, 82, 103, 106, 111, 151,
175, 232, 234, 235, 255
Rimini, 183
Roma (goddess), 24, 134, 140, 206, 243
Roman empire, dynamics of, 224225, 229,
231232, 234237
Romano, Giulio (artist), 24
Rome, 1, 17, 38, 53, 92, 133, 203218, 225227,
237249, 251252
battle at Milvian Bridge, 12, 8587,
101102
colossal statue and dedication, 97,
190203
Romulus (founder of Rome), 238, 243, 244,
258
Romulus, Valerius (son of Maxentius), 89,
225, 242
Rostra (at Rome), 132, 133, 135137, 198, 206,
211, 238
Rufinus (historian), 4447, 54, 55, 186,
192196
Rufinus, Aradius (prefect of Rome), 129, 242
Rufinus, Gaius Vettius Cossinius (prefect of
Rome), 130, 145, 162, 184
Sabinus (prefect), 87
Sacred Street, 124, 205, 242
Saepinum, 149
Sardinia, 230
Sardis, 38
Sarmatians, 165, 247
Saul, 46. See also Paul (apostle)
Saxa Rubra, 187, 254
Scaurus, Marcus Aemilius (censor), 253
Schwartz, Eduard (historian), 16
Scipio, 157
295
Scotland, 232
Scythians, 28
Secular Games, 3537, 130
Seeck, Otto (historian), 16
senate and senators, at Rome, 127131,
137139, 140146, 147, 150151, 225,
239240, 241242, 251. See also
Porfyrius, Publilius Optatianus (poet
and prefect of Rome)
Septimius Severus (emperor), 36, 187
Serdica, 147, 235, 236
Severus (emperor), 3, 98, 115, 229, 239, 247,
256
Severus Alexander (emperor), 191
Severus, Acilius (prefect of Rome), 149
Sibylline oracles, 34, 35, 36, 115, 116, 119, 130,
162, 257
Sicily, 22, 177, 205, 208, 230, 234
Sidonius (bishop of Clermont), 213
Silvanus (god), 126
Silvester (bishop of Rome), 2025, 177, 178
legend of, at Constantinople, 2527
Sirmium, 51, 231, 235
Siscia, 117
Socrates (historian), 4243, 54
Sol (sun god), 117, 124, 125, 130, 134, 135, 168,
205
Sozomen (historian), 4344, 54
Spain, 37, 177, 205, 234, 236
Sparta, 159
Spoletium, 188, 189
Stephen II (bishop of Rome), 24
Sublician Bridge, 257
Sulla, 157
Susa, 1, 104, 143, 183
Symmachus (consul), 16
Syracuse, 92, 176
Syria, 44, 209, 236
Tarantinus, Manius Valerius, 36
Tarquin the Proud (king of Rome), 244
Tarsus, 119
Temple of Jupiter (at Rome), 23, 130, 131,
136, 141, 206207, 211, 215, 238
Temple of Jupiter Stator (at Rome), 242
296
index
Temple of Venus and Roma (at Rome), 124,

205, 242, 243
Tertullus, Attius Insteius (prefect of Rome),
241
Tetrarchy, 2, 79, 88, 98, 109, 119, 130, 136,
137, 138, 149, 155, 156157, 176, 191,
192, 207, 225, 227, 228, 231, 238241,
244247
Thalia (Muse), 164
Thamugadi, 171
Themistius (orator), 6
Theoderic (king of Ostrogoths), 213214
Theodora (wife of Constantius I), 228
Theodora (wife of Justinian), 54
Theodoret (bishop of Cyrrhus and
historian), 44, 54
Theodosius (emperor), 29, 45, 51, 53
battle at Frigidus River, 52
Thessalonica, 34, 51, 147
Thrace, 3, 34, 119
Tiber River, 2, 34, 36, 80, 103, 115, 127, 183,
249, 254
Tiberius (emperor), 249
Tiburtinian Way, 208
Ticinum, 117
Titianus, Titus Flavius Postumius (priest),
130
Trachala, 31
Trajan (emperor), 126, 127, 139, 184, 191, 217,
226, 240, 255
Trier, 1, 7, 48, 103, 111112, 115, 117, 153, 180,
231, 232, 235, 236. See also Lactantius
(rhetorician)
panegyric of 310, 155157
panegyric of 313, 103106, 125, 131,
145146, 157, 257
Tripolitania, 172
Triumphal Gate, 135
Triumphal Street, 135
Trojans, 119
True Cross, 30, 50, 245
Turin, 1, 104, 143, 183
Tyre, 60, 97, 199
Uccula, 171
Uchi Maius, 171
Umbria, 150
Ursinus (bishop), 21, 212
Valentinian I (emperor), 51, 256
Valentinian II (emperor), 51
Valentinian III (emperor), 26, 53, 213
Valeria (daughter of Diocletian), 113
Valerius, as imperial name, 36
Valesius, 36
Valla, Lorenzo (scholar), 25
Vandals, 53
Vatican Hill, 19, 208, 210, 211
Velia, 124, 242
Verona, 1, 104, 105, 143, 183, 233, 248
Vespasian (emperor), 184, 186
Vestal Virgins, 211
Vetranio (emperor), 4849
vexillum, 63
Via Appia. See Appian Way
Via Flaminia. See Flaminian Way
Via Lata. See Wide Street
Victory (deity), 11, 125, 126, 134, 140, 167, 231
Viminal Hill, 185
Vipava River, 52
Virgil (poet), 119, 159, 257
Visigoths, 38, 47, 258
visions, 2729, 5253
Vitellius (emperor), 249
Volsinii, 244
Volusianus, Gaius Ceionius Rufius (prefect
of Rome), 129, 130, 162163, 211, 241
Wide Street, 128, 254
Winkelmann, Friedhelm (historian), 16
York, 1, 232
Zeugma, 31
Zeus, 39, 244
Zosimus (historian), 3441, 255
and Evagrius, 4142

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Raymond Van Dam

cambridge university press

This publication is in copyright. Subject to statutory exception

2. The Afterlife of Constantine 7 19

6. Shaping Memories in the West 7 101

7. Rome after the Battle 7 155

8. Backward and Forward 7 219

10. Back Word: The Bridge 7 253

A book about memories of Constantine is also an album of memories

Ancient Christian Writers (Westminster)

CONSTANTINE AND EUSEBIUS OF CAESAREA (see next page)

BOTH [OR NEITHER]

337 May 22: death

325 March(?): council of Antioch (Chap. 4)

324 September 18: final victory over Licinius

315 July 21September 27: visit to Rome;

before autumn 316: second edition of

314 summer: council of Arles (Chap. 7)

312 October 29313 January: visit to Rome; Church

after October 312: anonymous source about

istory remembers constantines victory at the

For initial orientation to the increasingly voluminous modern bibliography on Constantine,

2 remembering constantine at the milvian bridge

foreword: visions of constantine

on the frontiers. Multiple emperors, large armies, and insecure frontiers

4 remembering constantine at the milvian bridge

foreword: visions of constantine

Memories, Traditions, Narratives

even if Maxentius or Licinius had defeated Constantine. For Constantine as a Christian

remembering constantine at the milvian bridge

been guaranteed a central place in all discussions of early Christianity

Jovian: Themistius, Orat. 5.70d.

foreword: visions of constantine

psychological event or the moment of psychological conviction.

remembering constantine at the milvian bridge

the stage at the council of Gods ministers to praise the gloriously

foreword: visions of constantine

community memories in promoting and transmitting versions of earlier

10 remembering constantine at the milvian bridge

foreword: visions of constantine

becoming a historical character, sometimes even a fictional character,

That Other Vision

12 remembering constantine at the milvian bridge

Thousands of visions: Eusebius, De laudibus Constantini 18.1.

foreword: visions of constantine

memories are hence a powerful medium for defining a self, shaping

Quotations from Miller (1994) 10.

14 remembering constantine at the milvian bridge

foreword: visions of constantine

16 remembering constantine at the milvian bridge

foreword: visions of constantine

18 remembering constantine at the milvian bridge

is horse is spooked and rears back, but constantine

20 remembering constantine at the milvian bridge

the afterlife of constantine

the earlier bishops had been martyred during persecutions. In contrast,

remembering constantine at the milvian bridge

received actual imperial power from Constantine. In the mid-thirteenth

the afterlife of constantine