Unbalanced Faults

Analysis of Unbalanced Faults
GRID
Technical Institute
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Fault Types
Line - Ground (65 - 70%)
Line - Line - Ground (10 - 20%)
Line - Line (10 - 15%)
Line - Line - Line (5%)
Statistics published in 1967 CEGB Report, but are similar today

all over the world.
> Analysis of Unbalanced Fults
Fault Incidence
85% of faults are overhead line faults.
50% of these due to lightning strikes.
Unbalanced Faults (1)

X In three phase fault calculations, a single phase
representation is adopted
X 3 phase faults are rare
X Majority of faults are unbalanced faults
X UNBALANCED FAULTS may be classified into
SHUNT FAULTS and SERIES FAULTS
SHUNT FAULTS
z
z
z
Line to Ground
Line to Line
Line to Line to Ground
SERIES FAULTS
z
z
Single Phase Open Circuit

Double Phase Open Circuit

X LINE TO GROUND
X LINE TO LINE
X LINE TO LINE TO GROUND
Causes :
1)
Insulation Breakdown
2)
3)
Lightning Discharges and other Overvoltages

Mechanical Damage
XOPEN CIRCUIT OR SERIES FAULTS

Causes :
1) Broken Conductor
2) Operation of Fuses
3) Maloperation of Single Phase Circuit Breakers
DURING UNBALANCED FAULTS, SYMMETRY OF SYSTEM

IS LOST
SINGLE PHASE REPRESENTATION IS NO LONGER VALID
Analysed using :X Symmetrical Components

X Equivalent Sequence Networks of Power System
X Connection of Sequence Networks appropriate to Type
of Fault
Symmetrical Components
Fortescue discovered a property of unbalanced phasors
n phasors may be resolved into :X
(n-1) sets of balanced n-phase systems of phasors, each set

having a different phase sequence
plus
X
1 set of zero phase sequence or unidirectional phasors

VA = VA1 + VA2 + VA3 + VA4 - - - - - VA(n-1) + VAn
VB = VB1 + VB2 + VB3 + VB4 - - - - - VB(n-1) + VBn
VC = VC1 + VC2 + VC3 + VC4 - - - - - VC(n-1) + VCn
VD = VD1 + VD2 + VD3 + VD4 - - - - - VD(n-1) + VDn
-----------------------------------------Vn = Vn1 + Vn2 + Vn3 + Vn4 - - - - - Vn(n-1) + Vnn
(n-1) x Balanced
1 x Zero
Sequence
Unbalanced 5-Phase System of Voltages (1)
This can be resolved into :-
VA2
VA1
VE1
VB1 VC2
VD1
VE2
VC1
First Set of Balanced

Phasors
VD2
VB2
Second Set of
Balanced Phasors
VA4
VA3
VD
VC3
VB4
VE4
3
4
VB3
VE3
Third Set of Balanced
Phasors
10
VC4
VD4
Fourth Set of
Balanced Phasors
Fifth Set of Zero

Sequence Phasors
11
VA5
VB5
VC5
VD5
VE5

This can be resolved into :-
VA2
VA1
120
VC1
VB1
First Set of Balanced
Phasors
12
240
VB2
VC2
Second Set of
Balanced Phasors
Third Set of Zero

Sequence Phasors
VA3
VB3
VC3
13
Unbalanced 3-Phase System (1)

VA = VA1 + VA2 + VA0
VB = VB1 + VB2 + VB0
VC = VC1 + VC2 + VC0
VA2
VA1
120
VB1
VC1
Positive Sequence
14
240
VC2
VB2
Negative Sequence
Unbalanced 3-Phase System (2)
Zero Sequence
VA0
VB0
VC0
15
Phase Positive + Negative + Zero
VA
VB = VB1 + VB2 + VB0
VC = VC1 + VC2 + VC0
VC
VB
VA1
VA0 VB0 VC0
VA2
+
VC1
VB1
16
VC2
VB2
VB1 = a2 VA1
VB2 = a VA2
VB0 = VA0
VC1 = a VA1
VC2 = a2 VA2
VC0 = VA0
Converting from Sequence Components

to Phase Values
VB = VB1 + VB2 + VB0 = a2VA1 + a VA2 + VA0
VC = VC1 + VC2 + VC0 = a VA1 + a2VA2 + VA0
VA0
VA
VA2
VA1
VC0
VC
VC1
VC2
VB1
VB
VB0
VB2
17
Converting from Phase Values

to Sequence Components
VA1 = 1/3 {VA + a VB + a2VC}
VA2 = 1/3 {VA + a2VB + a VC}
VA0 = 1/3 {VA + VB + VC}
VA
VB
3VA0
VA0
18
VC
Add VA, VB, VC vectorially

=
VA
VA1
VA2
VA0
VB
a2V
A1
a VA2
VA0
VC
a VA1
a2VA2
VA0
3VA0
VB
VC )
VA + VB + VC =
VA0
= 1/3 (VA
Add VA, aVB and a2VC vectorially

VA
VA1
VA2
VA0
a VB
VA1
a2VA2
a VA0
a2VC
VA1
a VA2
a2VA0
3VA1
= 1/3 (VA
a VB
a2 VC )
VA + aVB + a2VC =
VA1
19
Add VA, a2VB and aVC vectorially

VA
VA1
VA2
VA0
a2VB
a VA1
VA2
a2VA0
a VC
a2VA1
VA2
a VA0
1/3 (VA
VA + a2VB + VC
20
VA2
3VA2 +
a2VB
aVC )
21
VA
VA1
VA2
VA0
VB
a2 VA1
a VA2
VA0
VC
a VA1
a2 VA2
VA0
IA
IA1
IA2
IA0
IB
a2 IA1
a IA2
IA0
IC
a IA1
a2
IA2
IA0
VA1
1/3 {VA
a VB
a2 VC }
VA2
1/3 {VA
a2 VB
a VC }
VA0
1/3 {VA
VB
VC }
IA1
1/3 { IA
a IB
a 2 IC }
IA2
1/3 { IA
a 2 IB
a IC }
IA0
1/3 { IA
IB
IC }
Residual Current
Used to detect earth faults
IA
IB
IC
IRESIDUAL = IA + IB +
IC
E/F
* IRESIDUAL is zero for :Balanced Load
3 Faults
/ Faults
22
= 3I0
* IRESIDUAL is present for :/E Faults

//E Faults
Residual Voltage
Used to detect earth faults
Residual voltage is measured from
Open Delta or Broken Delta VT
secondary windings.
VRESIDUAL is zero for:Healthy unfaulted systems
3 Faults
/ Faults
VRESIDUAL is present for:VRESIDUAL
/E Faults
= VA + VB +VC
//E Faults
= 3V0
Open Circuits (on supply

side of VT with earthed source)
23
Example
Evaluate the positive, negative and zero sequence components

for the unbalanced phase vectors :
VA = 10
VC
VB = 1.5 -90
VC = 0.5 120
VA
VB
24
Solution
VA1
1/3 (VA + aVB + a2VC)
1/3 [ 1 + (1 120) (1.5 -90)

+ (1 240) (0.5 120) ]
VA2
0.965 15
1/3 (VA + a2VB + aVC)
1/3 [ 1 + (1 240) (1.5 -90)

+ (1 120) (0.5 120) ]
VA0
25
0.211 150
1/3 (VA + VB + VC)
1/3 (1 + 1.5 -90 + 0.5 120)
0.434 -55
Positive Sequence Voltages

VC1 = aVA1
15
VB1 =
a2VA1
26
VA1 =
0.96515
VA2 =
0.211150
VC2 = a2 VA2
-55
150
VA0 = 0.43455
VB0 =
VC0 =
VB2 = a VA2
Negative Sequence
Voltages
27
Zero Sequence
Voltages
VC2
VC0
VC1
VC
VA2
VC2
VA2
VA1
VA0
VA
VB2
VB1
VB2
VB0
28
VB
V0
Example (1)
Evaluate the phase quantities IA, IB and IC from the
sequence components
IA1
0.6 0
IA2
-0.4 0
IA0
-0.2 0
IA
IA1 + IA2 + IA0 = 0
IB
a2IA1 + aIA1 + IA0
0.6240 - 0.4120 - 0.20 = 0.91-109
aIA1 + a2IA2 + IA0
0.6120 - 0.4240 - 0.20 = 0.91+109
Solution
IC
29
Example (2)
IC
109
109
IB
30
IA1
POSITIVE
IC1
IB1
IA1
IC1
IB1
IC2
IA2
NEGATIVE
IB2
IC2
IA2
IB2
31
IA0
IB0
ZERO
IC0
IA0
IB0
IC0
IC
IB
PHASE
IC
IB
32
Sequence Components (1)

Any 3 phase system of vectors may be represented as the sum of
3 sets of symmetrical vectors :EQUIVALENT SYMMETRICAL COMPONENTS
3 PHASE
VECTORS
POSITIVE PHASE
NEGATIVE PHASE
SEQUENCE (PPS)
SEQUENCE (NPS)
I2
I1
I0
IA1
IA
IC
IB
IC1
BALANCED LOAD
OR 3-PHASE FAULT
/IA/ = /IB/ = /IC/ = IF
33
ZERO PHASE
SEQUENCE
IB1
I2 = 0
I1 = IF
I0 = 0
IA1
IA
IA2
IC1
IC2
IB1
IB
PHASE-PHASE
FAULT /IA/=/IB/ = IF
34
IB2
I1 = IF
I2 = IF
I0 = 0
IA2
IA1
IA
IC1
IB1
IB2
IC1
PHASE-EARTH
FAULTS
/IA/ OR /IC/ = IF
35
IC2
IB2
IA1
IC
IA0 IB0 IC0
IB1
IA0 IB0 IC0

IA2
IC2
I1 = IF
I2 = IF
I0 = IF
Sequence Networks
It can be shown that providing the system impedances are

balanced from the points of generation right up to the fault, each
sequence current causes voltage drop of its own sequence only.
Regard each sequence current flowing within its own network

thro impedances of its own sequence only, with no
interconnection between the sequence networks right up to the
point of fault.
36
Unbalanced Voltages and Currents acting on

Balanced Impedances
VA
VB
VC
IA
ZS
IB
ZS
ZM ZM
IC
ZS
ZM
VA
IAZS
IBZM
ICZM
VB
IAZM
IBZS
ICZM
VC
IAZM
IBZM
ICZS
In matrix form
VA
VB
VC
37
ZS
ZM
ZM
IA
ZM
ZS
ZM
IB
ZM
ZM
ZS
IC
Resolve V & I phasors into symmetrical components

1
V0
a2
V1
a2
V2
ZS
ZM
ZM
I0
ZM
ZS
ZM
a2
I1
ZM
ZM
ZS
a2
I2
Multiply by [A]-1
V0
ZS
ZM
ZM
I0
a2
ZM
ZS
ZM
a2
I1
V2
a2
ZM
ZM
ZS
a2
I2
V0
ZS
ZM
ZM
I0
V1
V1
= 1/3
V2
V0
V1
V2
= 1/3
ZM
ZS
ZM
I1
a2
ZM
ZM
ZS
a2
I2
ZS + 2ZM
ZS + 2ZM
ZS + 2ZM
ZS -
ZM + a ZS + a2 ZM
ZM + aZM + a2 ZS
ZM
ZS 1
38
-1
ZM
1
2
ZM + a ZS + a ZM
1
I0
I1
a2
I2
ZM + a2 ZM + a ZS
V0
ZS + 2ZM
V1
V2
V0
V1
V2
I0
I1
ZS - ZM
I2
ZS - ZM
0
Z0
I0
Z1
I1
Z2
I2
The symmetrical component impedance matrix is a

diagonal matrix if system is symmetrical.
The sequence networks are independent of each other.
The three isolated sequence networks are
interconnected when an unbalance such as a fault or
unbalanced loading is introduced.
39
Phase Sequence Equivalent Circuits (1)
Positive Sequence Impedance
E
a2E
aE
I
a2 I
aI
Z1 = E/I
P1
40
Q1

Negative Sequence Impedance
For static non-rotating plant :- Z2 = Z1
aI
aE
a2 I
a2E
Z2 = E/I
P2
41
Q2

Zero Sequence Impedance
3I
Z0 = E/I
P0
42
Q0
Sequence Networks
X +ve, -ve and zero sequence networks are drawn for a

reference phase. This is usually taken as the A phase.
X Faults are selected to be balanced relative to the reference
A phase.
e.g.
For /E faults consider an A-E fault

For / faults consider a B-C fault
X Sequence network interconnection is the simplest for the

reference phase.
43
Positive Sequence Diagram
E1
Z1
N1
1.
Start with neutral point N1

-
2.
44
Phase-neutral voltage
Impedance network
-
4.
All generator and load neutrals are connected to N1
Include all source EMFs

-
3.
F1
Positive sequence impedance per phase
Diagram finishes at fault point F1
Example
Generator
Line
Transformer
N
R
E
E1
N1
ZG1
ZT1
ZL1
I1
F1
V1
(N1)
45
V1
Positive sequence /N voltage at fault point
I1
Positive sequence phase current flowing into F1
V1
E1 - I1 (ZG1 + ZT1 + ZL1)
Negative Sequence Diagram
Z2
N2
1.
Start with neutral point N2

-
2.
46
No negative sequence voltage is generated!
Impedance network
-
4.
All generator and load neutrals are connected to N2
No EMFs included
-
3.
F2
Negative sequence impedance per phase
Diagram finishes at fault point F2
Example
Generator
Transformer
Line
N
R
System Single Line

Diagram
E
ZG2
N2
ZT2
ZL2
I2
F2
V2
Negative Sequence Diagram
47
(N2)
V2
Negative sequence /N voltage at fault point
I2
Negative sequence phase current flowing into F2
V2
-I2 (ZG2 + ZT2 + ZL2)
Zero Sequence Diagram (1)
For In Phase (Zero Phase Sequence) currents to flow in each

phase of the system, there must be a fourth connection (this is
typically the neutral or earth connection).
IA0
IB0
IC0
IA0 + IB0 + IC0 = 3IA0
48
Zero Sequence Diagram (2)
Resistance Earthed System :-
3A0
Zero sequence voltage between N & E given by
V0 = -3A0 . R
Zero sequence impedance of neutral to earth path
Z0 = V0 = 3R
-A0
49
Transformer Zero Sequence Impedance
ZT0
a
a
P
N0
50
General Zero Sequence Equivalent Circuit

for Two Winding Transformer
Primary
Terminal
Z T0
'a'
'a'
Secondary
Terminal
'b'
'b'
On appropriate side of transformer :

Earthed Star Winding
Close link a
Open link b
Delta Winding
Open link a
Close link b
Unearthed Star Winding

51
Both links open
Zero Sequence Equivalent

Dy Tx (1)
I0
I0
I0
No zero sequence
in line connection
on side
3I0
52
Zero Sequence Equivalent

Dy Transformer (2)
Thus, equivalent single phase zero sequence diagram :-
side
terminal
ZT0
side
terminal
I0
N0
(E0)
53
Zero Sequence Equivalent Circuits (1)

P
P0
ZT0
b
N0
54
S0

P
P0
ZT0
S0
N0
55

P
P0
ZT0
b
N0
56
S0

P
P0
ZT0
S0
N0
57
Zero Sequence Diagram

Generator
Transformer
Line
N
RT
System Single Line

Diagram
E
ZG0
N0
3R
ZL0
I0
F0
V0
3RT
E0
58
ZT0
Zero Sequence Network
N0
V0
Zero sequence PH-E voltage at fault point
I0
Zero sequence current flowing into F0
V0
-I0 (ZT0 + ZL0 + 3RT)
Zig-Zag Earthing Transformers (1)

P
R
E
Positive (and negative) sequence impedance is very high.

Equivalent Circuit :
P1
N1
59
Zig-Zag Earthing Transformers (2)
Zero sequence impedance is very low.

Equivalent Circuit
P0
ZT0
3R
N0
(E0)
60
Summary of Sequence Diagrams (1)
TRANSFORMER
GENERATOR
LINE
System Single Line Diagram
61
N1
E1
ZG1
ZT1
ZL1
I1
F1
V1
(N1)
Positive Sequence
62
ZG2
N2
ZT2
ZL2
I2
F2
V2
(N2)
Negative Sequence
63
ZG0
N0
ZT0
3R
ZL0
I0
F0
V0
E0(N0)
Zero Sequence
64
Interconnection of Sequence Networks

Consider sequence networks as blocks with fault terminals F & N for
external connections.
I1 F1
POSITIVE
SEQUENCE
NETWORK
V1
I2
N1
F2
NEGATIVE
SEQUENCE
NETWORK
V2
I0
N2
F0
ZERO
SEQUENCE
NETWORK
V0
N0
65
Interconnection of Sequence Networks
For any given fault there are 6 quantities to be considered at the fault point
i.e.
VA
VB
VC
IA
IB
IC
Relationships between these for any type of fault can be converted into an
equivalent relationship between sequence components
V1, V2, V0 and I1, I2 , I0
This is possible if :1)
Any 3 phase quantities are known (provided they are not all
voltages or all currents)
or
2)
2 are known and 2 others are known to have a specific

relationship.
From the relationship between sequence Vs and Is, the manner in

which the isolation sequence networks are connected can be determined.
The connection of the sequence networks provides a single phase
representation (in sequence terms) of the fault.
66
To derive the system constraints at the fault terminals :-
A
B
C
IA
VA
IB
VB
IC
VC
Terminals are connected to represent the fault.

67
Phase to Earth Fault on Phase A
A
B
C
IA
IB
IC
At fault point :-
VA
68
VB
VC
VA
VB
VC
=
=
=
0
?
?
IA
IB
IC
Phase to Earth Fault on Phase A

At fault point
VA
0 ; IB = 0 ; IC = 0
but
VA
V1 + V2 + V0
V1
V2 + V0 = 0
I0
1/3 (IA + IB + IC )
I1
1/3 (IA + aIB + a2IC) = 1/3 IA
I2
1/3 (IA + a2IB + aIC) = 1/3 IA
I1 = I2 = I0 = 1/3 IA
------------------------- (1)
= 1/3 IA
------------------------- (2)
To comply with (1) & (2) the sequence networks must be connected in series :-
I1 F1
+ve
Seq
N/W
V1
N1
I2
-ve
Seq
N/W
F2
V2
N2
I0
Zero
Seq
N/W
F0
V0
N0
69
Example : Phase to Earth Fault

SOURCE
LINE
A-G
FAULT
ZL1 = 10
ZL0 = 35
132 kV
2000 MVA
ZS1 = 8.7
ZS0 = 8.7
10
8.7
IF
I1
F1
N1
10
8.7
I2
F2
N2
35
8.7
I0
F0
N0
Total impedance = 81.1

I1 = I2 = I0 = 132000
= 940 Amps
3 x 81.1
IF = IA = I1 + I2 + I0 = 3I0 = 2820 Amps
70
Earth Fault with Fault Resistance
IA
IB
VA ZF
71
VB
IC
At fault point :-
VC
VA
IAZF
VB
VC
IA
IB
IC
Earth Fault with Fault Resistance
At fault point
VA =
I0 = 1/3 (IA + IB + IC)
1/3 IA
a2I
I1
1/3 (IA + aIB +
I2
1/3 (IA + a2IB + aIC) = 1/3 IA
C)
POSITIVE
SEQUENCE
NETWORK
I2
NEGATIVE
SEQUENCE
NETWORK
IAZF :-
N1
F2
V2
N2
I0 F0
V1 + V2 + V0 = (I1 + I2 + I0) ZF
= 3I0ZF
V1
= 1/3 IA
I1 = I2 = I0 ------------------------- (1)
Since VA
I1 F
1
IAZF ; IB = 0 ; IC = 0
V1 + V2 + V0 = 3I0ZF ------------ (2)
ZERO
SEQUENCE
NETWORK
V0
N0
72
3ZF
Phase to Phase Fault :- B-C Phase
IA
IB
VA
73
IC
VB
At fault point :VA
VB
VC
IA
IB + IC =
VC
Phase to Phase Fault :- B-C Phase

At fault point
VB
VC ; IA = 0 ; IB + IC
I0
1/3 (IA + IB + IC ) = 0
I0
I1
I2
1/3 (IA + aIB + a2IC )
1/3 (a - a2 )IB
1/3 (IA + a2IB + aIC)
-1/3 (a - a2 )IB
I1 + I2 = 0
---- (1)
------- (2)
V1
1/3 (VA + aVB + a2VC ) = 1/3 (VA - VB)
V2
1/3 (VA + a2VB + aVC ) = 1/3 (VA - VB)
V1
V2
------------------------ (3)
From equations (1), (2) and (3) the positive and negative sequence networks are
connected in parallel and the zero sequence network is unconnected.
I1
+ve
Seq
N/W
74
I2
F1
V1
N1
-ve
Seq
N/W
I0
F2
V2
N2
Zero
Seq
N/W
F0
V0
N0
Phase to Phase Fault Current Level
EA
EB
I1
Z2
I2
IC
EC
Z1
For a / Fault ,assuming Z1 = Z2 :I1 = -I2 = E

2Z1
IA = I1 + I2 + I0 = 0
IB = a2I1 + aI2 + I0 = (a2 - a)I1 = -j3 . E
2 Z1
IC = aI1 + a2I2 + I0 = (a - a2)I1 = j3 . E
2 Z1
IF(/) = 0.866 IF(3)
75
Example : Phase to Phase Fault

SOURCE
132 kV
2000 MVA
ZS1 = ZS2 = 8.7
132000
3
LINE
F
B-C
FAULT
ZL1 = ZL2 = 10
8.7
I1
10
F1
N1
8.7
I2
10
F2
N2
Total impedance = 37.4

I1
= 132000 = 2037 Amps

3 x 37.4
I2
76
-2037 Amps
IB
a2I1 + aI2
a2I1 - aI1
(a2 - a) I1
=
=
(-j) . 3 x 2037
3529 Amps
Phase to Phase Fault with Resistance
IC
IB
IA
At fault point :-
ZF
VA
77
VC
VB
VA
VB - VC
IBZF
IA
IB + IC
Phase to Phase Fault with Resistance

At fault point
IA = 0 ; IB + IC = 0 ; VB - VC = IBZF
I0
1/3 (IA + IB + IC ) = 0
I1
1/3 (IA + aIB + a2IC) = 1/3 (a - a2 ) IB
I2
1/3 (IA + a2IB + aIC) = - 1/3 (a - a2 ) IB
I0 = 0
----------- (1)
I1 + I2 = 0
IB
a2I1 + aI2 + I0 = (a2 - a) I1
VB - VC = (a2V1 + aV2 + V0) - (aV1 + a2V2 + V0)

= (a2 - a) V1 - (a2 - a) V2
but VB - VC = IBZF = (a2 - a) I1ZF
(a2 - a) I1ZF = (a2 - a) V1 - (a2 - a) V2
V1 - V2 = I1ZF ------------ (2)
ZF
I1
+ve
Seq
N/W
78
I2
F1
V1
N1
-ve
Seq
N/W
F2
V2
N2
I0
Zero
Seq
N/W
F0
V0
N0
Phase to Phase to Earth Fault :- B-C-E
IA
IB
VA
79
IC
At fault point :-
VC
VB
VA
VB
VC
IA
IB
IC
Phase to Phase to Earth Fault :- B-C-E

At fault point
VB =
0 ; VC = 0 ; IA = 0
V1 = 1/3 (VA + aVB + a2VC ) = 1/3 VA

V2 = 1/3 (VA + a2VB + aVC ) = 1/3 VA
V0 = 1/3 (VA + VB + VC )
V1 = V2 = V0 = 1/3 VA
= 1/3 VA
-------------------- (1)
IA = I1 + I2 + I0 = 0 ------------------------------- (2)
From equations (1) & (2) the sequence networks are connected in parallel.
I1
+ve
Seq
N/W
80
F1
V1
N1
I2
-ve
Seq
N/W
F2
V2
N2
I0
Zero
Seq
N/W
F0
V0
N0
Phase to Phase to Earth Fault

B-C-E with Fault Resistance
IA
VA
At fault point :-
IC
IB
ZF V
C
VB
IB + IC
81
VA
VB
VC
=
=
=
?
(IB + IC) ZF
(IB + IC) ZF
IA
IB
IC
=
=
=
0
?
?
Phase to Phase to Earth Fault

B-C-E with Resistance
At fault point
IA = 0 ; VB = VC = (IB + IC)ZF
IA = I1 + I2 + I0 = 0 --------------------- (1)
I0 = 1/3 (IA + IB + IC) = 1/3 (IB + IC)
IB + IC = 3I0
V1 = 1/3 (VA + aVB + a2VC ) = 1/3 [VA + (a2 + a)VB] = 1/3 (VA - VB)
V2 = 1/3 (VA + a2VB + aVC ) = 1/3 [VA + (a2 + a)VB] = 1/3 (VA - VB)
V1 = V2
--------------------- (2)
V0 = 1/3 (VA + VB + VC ) = 1/3 (VA + 2VB)

V0 - V1 = 1/3 (VA + 2VB ) - 1/3 (VA - VB)
= VB = (IB + IC)ZF = 3I0ZF
V1 = V0 - I0 (3ZF)
I1
+ve
Seq
N/W
82
3ZF
--------------------- (3)
I2
F1
V1
N1
-ve
Seq
N/W
I0
F2
V2
N2
Zero
Seq
N/W
F0
V0
N0
4-wire Representation of
/E Fault (1)
Consider an earthed source.
Total sequence impedances to fault
Z1, Z2, Z0
i.e. Source + line
EA
Z1, Z2, Z0
EB
B
EC
C
83
4-wire Representation of /E Fault (2)

E = 1 (Z1 + Z 2 + Z0 )
Sequence Networks
E
I1
Z1
Z2
I2
Z0
I0
4 Wire Equivalent Circuit

EA
Z1
EB
Z1
EC
Z + Z 2 + Z0
E = A 1
2Z + Z0
= A 1
Z Z1
= A Z1 + 0
E
A =
Z Z1
Z1 + 0
3
IF = IA =
Z1
where
ZN = Z0 - Z1
ZN =
3
84
A = 1 + 2 + 0 = 31
E
Z1 + ZN
Z0 - Z1
3
3 Versus 1 Fault Level (1)

E
XT
Xg
3
Xg
XT
F =
Z1
85
E
Xg + XT
E
Z1
IF
Xg1
XT1
Z1
Xg2
XT2
IF
Z2 = Z1
Xg0
XT0
Z0
86
IF =
3E
2Z1 + Z0
3 FAULT LEVEL =
E
3E
3E
=
=
Z1
3Z1
2Z1 + Z1
1 FAULT LEVEL =
3E
2Z1 + Z0
IF
Z0 < Z1
1 FAULT LEVEL >
87
3 FAULT LEVEL

Unbalanced Faults

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Unbalanced Faults

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Unbalanced Faults

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Analysis of Unbalanced Faults

Line - Ground (65 - 70%)

Line - Line - Ground (10 - 20%)

Line - Line (10 - 15%)

Line - Line - Line (5%)

Statistics published in 1967 CEGB Report, but are similar today

> Analysis of Unbalanced Fults

85% of faults are overhead line faults.

50% of these due to lightning strikes.

> Analysis of Unbalanced Fults