www.kms.matrik.edu.

my/physics

PHYSICS

CHAPTER 18

CHAPTER 18:
Electric current and directcurrent circuits
(7 Hours)

www.kms.matrik.edu.my/physics

PHYSICS
CHAPTER 18
Learning Outcome:
18.1

Electrical conduction (1 hour)

At the end of this chapter, students should be able to:

Describe microscopic model of current.

Define and use electric current formulae,

dQ
dt

PHYSICS

CHAPTER 18

18.1 Electrical conduction

18.1.1 Electric current, I

Consider a simple closed circuit consists of wires, a battery and

a light bulb as shown in Figure 18.1.

Fe

Area, A

Figure 18.1
3

PHYSICS

CHAPTER 18

From the Figure 18.1,

Direction of electric field or electric current :
Positive to negative terminal
Direction of electron flows :
Negative to positive terminal
The electron accelerates because of the electric force
acted on it.

is defined as the total (nett) charge, Q flowing through the

area per unit time, t.
Mathematically,

Q
t

average current

OR

dQ
dt

instantaneous current
4

PHYSICS

CHAPTER 18

It is a base and scalar quantities.

The S.I. unit of the electric current is the ampere (A).
1 ampere of current is defined as one coulomb of charge
passing through the surface area in one second.
OR

1 ampere

1 coulomb
1 second

1C s

Note:
If the charge move around a circuit in the same direction
at all times, the current is called direct current (dc), which is
produced by the battery.

PHYSICS

CHAPTER 18

18.1.2 Current density, J

is defined as the current flowing through a conductor per

unit cross-sectional area.
Mathematically,

J
where

I
A

I : electric current
A : cross - sectional area of the conductor

It is a vector quantity.
Its unit is ampere per squared metre (A m 2)
The direction of current density, J always in the same
direction of the current I. e.g. in Figure 18.2.
Area, A

J 0

J max
Figure 18.2

PHYSICS

CHAPTER 18

18.1.3 Electrical conduction in metal

In metal the charge carrier is free electrons and a lot of free

electrons are available in it.
They move freely and randomly throughout the crystal lattice
structure of the metal but frequently interact with the lattices.
When the electric field is applied to the metal, the freely
moving electron experience an electric force and tend to
drift with constant average velocity (called drift velocity)
towards a direction opposite to the direction of the field as
shown in Figure 18.3.

Note:
The magnitude of the
drift velocity is much
smaller than the
random velocities of
the free electron.

vd

vd

Figure 18.3

Then the electric current is flowing in the opposite direction

of the electron flows.
7

PHYSICS

CHAPTER 18

18.1.4 Drift velocity of charges, vd

Consider a metal rod of length L and cross-sectional area A,
which is applied to the electric field as shown in Figures 18.4.

vd

L I

A vd

Figure 18.4
Suppose there are n free electrons (charge carrier) per unit
volume in the metal rod, thus the number of free electron, N is
given by
N
and V
n
AL

V
N
AL

nAL
8

PHYSICS

CHAPTER 18

The total charge Q of the free electrons that pass through the
area A along the rod is

Q Ne
Q nAL e

The time required for the electron moving along the rod is

L
t

L
vd

vd
t
Q
Definition
then the drift velocity vd is given by
Since I
t
I
nAL e
J
vd
I
nAevd
vd
OR
nAe
ne
L
I
and
vd
J
where

n : number of free electron

(charge carrier) per unit volum e
e : charge of the electron

Density of the
free electron
9

PHYSICS

CHAPTER 18

Example 18.1 :
A silver wire carries a current of 3.0 A. Determine
a. the number of electrons per second pass through the wire,
b. the amount of charge flows through a cross-sectional area of the
wire in 55 s.
(Given charge of electron, e = 1.60
Solution : I 3.0 A

10

19

C)

a. By applying the equation of average current, thus

I
I
b. Given

Q
and Q Ne
t
N 1.60 10
Ne
3.0
t
t

19

t 55 s , thus the amount of charge flows is given by

Q It
Q 3.0 55

10

PHYSICS

CHAPTER 18

Example 18.2 :
A copper wire of radius 900 m carries a current of 17 mA. The wire
contains 8.49 1028 free electrons per cubic meter. Determine
a. the magnitude of the drift velocity in the wire,
b. the current density in the wire.
(Given charge of electron, e = 1.60 10 19 C)
Solution : r 900 10 6 m; I 17 10 3 A; n

8.49 10 28 m

a. By applying the equation of the drift velocity, thus

vd
vd

I
and A r 2
nAe
17 10 3
I
vd
2
28
6 2
n r e
8.49 10 900 10
1.60 10

b. The current density is given by

I
r 2

17 10

900 10

11

19

PHYSICS

CHAPTER 18

Example 18.3 :
A high voltage transmission line with a diameter of 3.00 cm and a
length of 100 km carries a steady current of 1500 A. If the conductor
is copper wire with a free charge density of 8.49 1028 electrons m-3,
calculate the time taken by one electron to travel the full length of the
line. (Given charge of electron, e = 1.60 10 19 C)
Solution : d 3.00 10 2 m; L 100 103 m; I 1500 A;

n 8.49 10 28 m

By applying the equation of the drift velocity, thus

vd
vd

I
d 2
and A
nAe
4
4 1500
4I
vd
2
n d e
8.49 10 28 3.00 10

2 2

1.60 10

Therefore the time taken by one electron to travel the line is

L
vd

100 103
1.56 10 4

12

19

PHYSICS

CHAPTER 18

Example 18.4 :
Explain how electrical devices can begin operating almost
immediately after you switch on, even though the individual
electrons in the wire may take hours to reach the device.
Solution :

Each electron in the wire affects its neighbours by exerting

a force on them, causing them to move.
When electrons begin to move out of a battery or source
their motion sets up a propagating influence that moves
through the wire at nearly the speed of light, causing
electrons everywhere in the wire begin to move.

13

www.kms.matrik.edu.my/physics

PHYSICS
CHAPTER 18
Learning Outcome:
18.2

Resistivity and Ohms law ( hour)

At the end of this chapter, students should be able to:

State Ohms law.

Define and use resistivity formulae,

RA
l

14

PHYSICS

CHAPTER 18

18.2.1 Ohms law

States that the potential difference across a metallic

conductor is proportional to the current flowing through it if
its temperature is constant.
Mathematically,
V I where T constant
Then

V
where

(18.4)

IR

R : resistance of a conductor

Ohms law also can be stated in term of electric field E and

current density J.

Consider a uniform conductor of length l and cross-sectional

area A as shown in Figure 18.5.

Figure 18.5

l
AI

15

PHYSICS

CHAPTER 18

A potential difference V is maintained across the conductor

sets up by an electric field E and this field produce a current
I that is proportional to the potential difference.
If the field is assumed to be uniform, the potential difference
V is related to the field through the relationship below :

Ed

From the Ohms law,

V IR where

El

JA

El
JA and R

l
A
OR

l
A

(18.5)

and

16

PHYSICS

CHAPTER 18

Figures 18.6a, 18.6b, 18.6c and 18.6d show the potential

difference V against current I graphs for various materials.

Gradient, m
=R

I
Figure 18.6a : metal

I
Figure 18.6b :
semiconductor
17

PHYSICS

CHAPTER 18
V

Figure 18.6c : carbon

Figure 18.6d : electrolyte
Note:
Some conductors have resistances which depend on the
currents flowing through them are known as Ohmic conductors
and are said to obey Ohms law.
Meanwhile, non-ohmic conductors are the conductors where
their resistance depend only of the temperature.
18

PHYSICS

CHAPTER 18

Example 21.7 :
A copper wire carries a current of 10.0 A. The cross section of the
wire is a square of side 2.0 mm and its length is 50 m. The density of
the free electron in the wire is 8.0 1028 m 3. Determine
a. the current density,
b. the drift velocity of the electrons,
c. the electric field intensity between both end of the wire,
d. the potential difference across the wire,
e. the resistance of the wire.
(Given the resistivity of copper is 1.68 10 8
m and charge of
electron, e = 1.60 10 19 C)
3
28
3
Solution : I 10.0 A; a 2.0 10 m; n 8.0 10 m ;

l 50 m
a. The current density is given by
I
2
and A a
J
A
10.0
I
J
J
2.0 10 3
a2

19

PHYSICS
Solution :

CHAPTER 18
I 10.0 A; a 2.0 10 3 m; n 8.0 1028 m 3 ;
l 50 m

d. By using the equation of drift velocity, thus

vd

vd

vd

I
and A
nAe
I
na 2 e

8.0 10

28

a2
10.0
2.0 10

3 2

1.60 10

19

c. The electric field intensity is

E
E

J
1.68 10

2.5 106
20

PHYSICS
Solution :

CHAPTER 18
I 10.0 A; a 2.0 10 3 m; n 8.0 1028 m 3 ;
l 50 m

d. By applying the relationship between uniform E and V, hence

V
V

El
0.042 50

e. From the ohms law, therefore

V IR
2.1 10.0R

21

PHYSICS

CHAPTER 18

18.2 Resistivity and Ohms law

18.2.1 Resistance, R

is defined as a ratio of the potential difference across an

electrical component to the current passing through it.
Mathematically,
V
(18.1)
R

where

V : potential difference (voltage)

I : current

It is a measure of the components opposition to the flow of

the electric charge.

It is a scalar quantity and its unit is ohm ( ) or V A 1

In general, the resistance of a metallic conductor increases
with temperature.

Note:

If the temperature of the metallic conductor is constant hence its

resistance also constant.
22

PHYSICS

CHAPTER 18

18.2.2 Resistivity and conductivity

Resistivity,
is defined as the resistance of a unit cross-sectional area per
unit length of the material.
Mathematically,

where

RA
l

(18.2)

l : length of the material

A : cross - sectional area

It is a scalar quantity and its unit is ohm meter ( m)

It is a measure of a materials ability to oppose the flow of
an electric current.
It also known as specific resistance.
Resistivity depends on the type of the material and on the
temperature.
A good electric conductors have a very low resistivities and
good insulators have very high resistivities.
23

PHYSICS

CHAPTER 18

From the eq. (18.2), the resistance of a conductor depends on

the length and cross-sectional area.
Table 5.1 shows the resistivity for various materials at 20 C.
Material

Resistivity,

m)

Silver

1.59

10

Copper

1.68

10

Aluminum

2.82

10

Gold

2.44

10

1010 1014

Glass

Table 18.1
Conductivity,
is defined as the reciprocal of the resistivity of a material.
Mathematically,

It is a scalar quantity and its unit is

(18.3)
1 m 1.

24

PHYSICS

CHAPTER 18

Example 18.6 :
Two wires P and Q with circular cross section are made of the same
metal and have equal length. If the resistance of wire P is three times
greater than that of wire Q, determine the ratio of their diameters.
Solution : P
Q ; lP lQ l
Given
l
and
RP 3RQ
R

P l P
AP
4 l
dP

dQ
dP

3
3

Q lQ

and

AQ

d 2
4

4 l
dQ

OR

dP
dQ

25

PHYSICS

CHAPTER 18

Example 18.7 :
When a potential difference of 240 V is applied across a wire that is
200 cm long and has a 0.50 mm radius, the current density is
7.14 109 A m 2. Calculate
a. the resistivity of the wire,
b. the conductivity of the wire.
Solution : V 240 V;l 2.00 m; r 0.50 10 3 m;

7.14 10 9 A m

a. From the definition of resistance, thus

l
V
where R
and I JA
A
I
240
V
2.00
JA
7.14 10 9

R
l
A

b. The conductivity of the wire is given by

1.68 10

26

PHYSICS

CHAPTER 18

Exercise 18.2 :
1.

A block in the shape of a rectangular solid has a crosssectional area of 3.50 cm2 across its width, a front to rear
length of 15.8 cm and a resistance of 935 . The material of
which the block is made has 5.33 1022 electrons m 3. A
potential difference of 35.8 V is maintained between its front
and rear faces. Calculate
a. the current in the block,
b. the current density in the block,
c. the drift velocity of the electron,
d. the magnitude of the electric field in the block.
(Fundamentals of Physics,6th edition, Halliday, Resnick &
Walker, Q24, p.631)

ANS. : 3.83

10 2 A; 109 A m 2; 1.28

10

m s 1; 227 V m

27

PHYSICS

CHAPTER 18

2.

Figure 18.7
Figure 5.7 shows a rod in is made of two materials. Each
conductor has a square cross section and 3.00 mm on a side.
The first material has a resistivity of 4.00 103 m and is
25.0 cm long, while the second material has a resistivity of
6.00 103 m and is 40.0 cm long. Determine the
resistance between the ends of the rod.
(Physics for scientists and engineers,6th edition,Serway&Jewett,
Q24, p.853)

ANS. : 378
28

PHYSICS
3.

CHAPTER 18
A 2.0 m length of wire is made by welding the end of a 120 cm
long silver wire to the end of an 80 cm long copper wire. Each
piece of wire is 0.60 mm in diameter. A potential difference of
5.0 V is maintained between the ends of the 2.0 m composite
wire. Determine
a. the current in the copper and silver wires.
b. the magnitude of the electric field in copper and silver
wires.
c. the potential difference between the ends of the silver
section of wire.
(Given (silver) is 1.47
10 8 m)

10

m and

(copper) is 1.72

(University physics,11th edition, Young&Freedman, Q25.56,

p.976)

ANS. : 45 A; 2.76 V m 1, 2.33 V m 1; 2.79 V

29

www.kms.matrik.edu.my/physics

PHYSICS
Learning Outcome:
18.3

CHAPTER 18

Variation of resistance with temperature

(1 hour)

At the end of this chapter, students should be able to:

Explain the effect of temperature on electrical resistance

in metals and superconductors

Define and explain temperature coefficient of resistivity, .

Apply resistance :

R0 1

T0

30

PHYSICS

CHAPTER 18

18.3 Variation of resistance with

temperature
18.3.1 Effect of temperature on resistance
Metal
When the temperature increases, the number of free
electrons per unit volume in metal remains unchanged.
Metal atoms in the crystal lattice vibrate with greater
amplitude and cause the number of collisions between the
free electrons and metal atoms increase. Hence the resistance
in the metal increases.
Superconductor
Superconductor is a class of metals and compound whose
resistance decreases to zero when they are below the
critical temperature Tc.
31

PHYSICS

CHAPTER 18

Table 18.2 shows the critical temperature for various

superconductors.
Material

Tc( K)

Lead

7.18

Mercury

4.15

Tin

3.72

Aluminum

1.19

Zinc

0.88

Table 18.2
When the temperature of the metal decreases, its resistance
decreases to zero at critical temperature.
Superconductor have many technological applications such as
magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)
Video 18.1
magnetic levitation of train
faster computer chips
Video 18.2
32
powerful electric motors and etc

PHYSICS

CHAPTER 18

18.3.2 Temperature coefficient of resistivity,

is defined as a fractional increase in resistivity of a

conductor per unit rise in temperature.
OR

(18.6)

0 T

where

Since

: change in the resistivit y

T : temperat ure change T T0
0 : initial resistivit y
=

then

0 1 T
where : final resistivit y

(18.7)

The unit of
is C 1 OR K 1.
From the equation (18.7), the resistivity of a conductors
varies approximately linearly with temperature.

33

PHYSICS

CHAPTER 18

From the definition of resistivity, thus

then the equation (18.7) can be expressed as

R R0 1 T
where

(18.8)

R0 : initial resistance
R : final resistance

Table 18.3 shows the temperature coefficients of resistivity for

various materials.

( C 1)

Material
Silver

4.10

10

Mercury

0.89

10

Iron

6.51

10

Aluminum

4.29

10

Copper

6.80

10

Table 18.3

34

PHYSICS

CHAPTER 18

Figures 18.7a, 18.7b, 18.7c and 18.7d show the resistance R

against temperature T graphs for various materials.

R0
0 Figure 18.7a : metal T

Figure 18.7b : semiconductor

Tc

Figure 18.7c : superconductor

Figure 18.7d : carbon35

PHYSICS

CHAPTER 18

Example 18.8 :
A copper wire has a resistance of 25 m at 20 C. When the wire is
carrying a current, heat produced by the current causes the
temperature of the wire to increase by 27 C.
a. Calculate the change in the wires resistance.
b. If its original current was 10.0 mA and the potential difference
across wire remains constant, what is its final current?
(Given the temperature coefficient of resistivity for copper is
6.80 10 3 C 1)
Solution : R0 25 10 3 ;T0 20 C; T 27 C
a. By using the equation for temperature variation of resistance, thus

R R0 1 T
R R0 R0 T and R R0
R R0 T
R 25 10 3 6.80 10

R
3

27
36

PHYSICS

CHAPTER 18

R0 25 10 3 ;T0
3
b. Given I 0 10.0 10 A
Solution :

20 C; T

27 C

By using the equation for temperature variation of resistance,

thus
V
V
where
and
R
R
R R0 1 T

V
I
1
I

V
1 T
I0
1
1
3
10.0 10

I0

6.80 10

27

37

www.kms.matrik.edu.my/physics

PHYSICS
CHAPTER 18
Learning Outcome:
18.4

Electromotive force (emf), potential

difference and internal resistance ( hour)

At the end of this chapter, students should be able to:

Define emf,
Explain the difference between emf of a battery and
potential difference across the battery terminals.
Apply formulae,

Ir

38

PHYSICS

CHAPTER 18

18.4 Electromotive force (emf), potential

difference and internal resistance
18.4.1 Emf,

and potential difference, V

Consider a circuit consisting of a battery (cell) that is connected

by wires to an external resistor R as shown in Figure 18.8.

Battery (cell)

Figure 18.8
39

PHYSICS

CHAPTER 18

A current I flows from the terminal A to the terminal B.

For the current to flow continuously from terminal A to B, a
source of electromotive force (e.m.f.), is required such as
battery to maintained the potential difference between point A
and point B.

Electromotive force (emf), is defined as the energy provided

by the source (battery/cell) to each unit charge that flows
through the external and internal resistances.

Terminal potential difference (voltage), V is defined as the work

done in bringing a unit (test) charge from the negative to
the positive terminals of the battery through the external
resistance only.
The unit for both e.m.f. and potential difference are volt (V).

When the current I flows naturally from the battery there is an

internal drop in potential difference (voltage) equal to Ir. Thus
the terminal potential difference (voltage), V is given by
40

PHYSICS

CHAPTER 18

then
where

Ir

and

I R r

(18.9)

IR
(18.10)

: e.m.f.
V : terminal potential difference (voltage)
Ir : internal drop in potential difference OR Vr
R : total external resistance
r : internal resistance of a cell (battery)

Equation (18.9) is valid if the battery (cell) supplied the

current to the circuit where V

For the battery without internal resistance or if no current

flows in the circuit (open circuit), then equation (18.9) can be
written as V

41

PHYSICS

CHAPTER 18

18.4.2 Internal resistance of a battery, r

is defined as the resistance of the chemicals inside the

battery (cell) between the poles and is given by

Vr
I

when the cell (battery) is used.

where V

: potential difference across internal resistance

I : current in the circuit
r

The value of internal resistance depends on the type of

chemical material in the battery.
The symbol of emf and internal resistance in the electrical circuit
are shown in Figures 18.9a and 18.9b.

Figure 18.9a

OR

Figure 18.9b

42

PHYSICS

CHAPTER 18

Example 18.9 :
A battery has an emf of 9.0 V and an internal resistance of 6.0 .
Determine
a. the potential difference across its terminals when it is supplying a
current of 0.50 A,
b. the maximum current which the battery could supply.
Solution : 9.0 V; r 6.0
a. Given I 0.50 A
By applying the expression for emf, thus

V
9.0 V

Ir
0.50 6.0

b. The current is maximum when the total external resistance, R =0,

therefore

I R r
9.0 I max 0 6.0

43

PHYSICS

CHAPTER 18

Example 18.10 :
A car battery has an emf of 12.0 V and an internal resistance of
1.0 . The external resistor of resistance 5.0 is connected in series
with the battery as shown in Figure 18.10.
V

r
R
A

Figure 18.10
Determine the reading of the ammeter and voltmeter if both meters
are ideal.
44

PHYSICS

CHAPTER 18

Solution : 12.0 V; r 1.0 ; R 5.0

By applying the equation of e.m.f., the current in the circuit is

I R r
12.0 I 5.0 1.0
Therefore the reading of the ammeter is
.
The voltmeter measures the potential difference across the
terminals of the battery equal to the potential difference across
the total external resistor, thus its reading is

V
V

IR
2.0 5.0

45

www.kms.matrik.edu.my/physics

PHYSICS
CHAPTER 18
Learning Outcome:
18.5

Electrical energy and power ( hour)

At the end of this chapter, students should be able to:

Apply power,

P VI
and
electrical energy

VIt

46

PHYSICS

CHAPTER 18

18.5.2 Power, P

is defined as the energy liberated per unit time in the

electrical device.

The electrical power P supplied to the electrical device is given

by
W VIt

t
IV

t
(18.11)

When the electric current flows through wire or passive resistor,

hence the potential difference across it is

IR

then the electrical power can be written as

I R

OR

V2
R

It is a scalar quantity and its unit is watts (W).

(18.12)

47

PHYSICS

CHAPTER 18

Example 18.11 :

R
Figure 18.11
In Figure 18.11, a battery has an emf of 12 V and an internal
resistance of 1.0 . Determine
a. the rate of energy transferred to electrical energy in the battery,
b. the rate of heat dissipated in the battery,
c. the amount of heat loss in the 5.0 resistor if the current flows
through it for 20 minutes.
48

PHYSICS

CHAPTER 18

Solution : 12.0 V; r 1.0 ; R

The current in the circuit is given by

5.0

12.0 I 5.0 1.0

I 2.0 A

I R r

a. The rate of energy transferred to electrical energy (power) in the

battery is
P I
P 2.0 12.0
b. The rate of heat dissipated due to the internal resistance is
2
2

P I r

2.0 1.0

c. Given t
20 60 1200 s
The amount of heat loss in the resistor is

I Rt

2.0 5.0 1200

49

PHYSICS

CHAPTER 18

18.5 Electrical energy and power

18.5.1 Electrical energy, E

Consider a circuit consisting of a battery that is connected by

wires to an electrical device (such as a lamp, motor or battery
being charged) as shown in Figure 18.12 where the potential
different across that electrical device is V.
Electrical device

Figure 18.12

50

PHYSICS

CHAPTER 18

A current I flows from the terminal A to the terminal B, if it flows

for time t, the charge Q which it carries from B to A is given by

It

Then the work done on this charge Q from B to A (equal to the

electrical energy supplied) is

QV

E VIt

(18.13)

If the electrical device is passive resistor (device which

convert all the electrical energy supplied into heat), the heat
dissipated H is given by

H W VIt
OR

I 2 Rt

(18.14)

51

PHYSICS

CHAPTER 18

18.5.3 Combination of cells

Cells in series
Consider two cells are connected in series as shown in Figure
18.13.

Note:

The total emf,

r1

r2

Figure 18.13
and the total internal resistance, r are given by
(18.15)
1 2
and

r r1 r2

(18.16)

If one cell, e.m.f. 2 say, is turned round in opposition to the

others, then 1 2 but the total internal resistance remains
unaltered.
52

PHYSICS

CHAPTER 18

Cells in parallel
Consider two equal cells are connected in parallel as shown in
Figure 18.14.
r1

The total emf,

1
and
Note:

r1

Figure 18.14
and the total internal resistance, r are given by
(18.17)

1 1 1
r r1 r1

(18.18)

If different cells are connected in parallel, there is no simple

formula for the total emf and the total internal resistance where
Kirchhoffs laws have to be used.

53

PHYSICS

CHAPTER 18

Exercise 18.3 :
1.

A wire of unknown composition has a resistance of 35.0

when immersed in the water at 20.0 C. When the wire is
placed in the boiling water, its resistance rises to 47.6 .
Calculate the temperature on a hot day when the wire has a
resistance of 37.8 .
(Physics,7th edition, Cutnell & Johnson, Q15, p.639)

ANS. : 37.8 C
2. a. A battery of emf 6.0 V is connected across a 10 resistor.
If the potential difference across the resistor is 5.0 V,
determine
i. the current in the circuit,
ii. the internal resistance of the battery.
b. When a 1.5 V dry cell is short-circuited, a current of 3.0 A
flows through the cell. What is the internal resistance of the
cell?
ANS. : 0.50 A, 2.0 ; 0.50
54

PHYSICS

CHAPTER 18

3.

An electric toy of resistance 2.50 is operated by a dry cell of

emf 1.50 V and an internal resistance 0.25 .
a. What is the current does the toy drawn?
b. If the cell delivers a steady current for 6.00 hours, calculate
the charge pass through the toy.
c. Determine the energy was delivered to the toy.
ANS. : 0.55 A; 1.19 104 C; 16.3 kJ
4. A wire 5.0 m long and 3.0 mm in diameter has a resistance of
100 . A 15 V of potential difference is applied across the
wire. Determine
a. the current in the wire,
b. the resistivity of the wire,
c. the rate at which heat is being produced in the wire.
(College Physics,6th edition, Wilson, Buffa & Lou, Q75, p.589)

ANS. : 0.15 A; 1.40

10

m; 2.30 W
55

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PHYSICS
CHAPTER 18
Learning Outcome:
18.6

Resistors in series and parallel (1 hour)

At the end of this chapter, students should be able to:

Deduce and calculate effective resistance of resistors

in series and parallel.

56

PHYSICS

CHAPTER 18

18.6 Resistors in series and parallel

18.6.1 Resistors in series

The symbol of resistor in an electrical circuit can be shown in

Figure 18.15.

OR

Figure 18.15
Consider three resistors are connected in series to the battery
as shown in Figure 18.16.

R1

R2

R3

V1

V2

V3

V
Figure 18.16

57

PHYSICS

CHAPTER 18

Characteristics of resistors in series

The same current I flows through each resistor where

I1

I2

I3

Assuming that the connecting wires have no resistance, the

total potential difference, V is given by

V V1 V2 V3

(18.19)

From the definition of resistance, thus

V1

IR1 ;V2

IR2 ;V3 IR3 ;V IReff

Substituting for V1, V2 , V3 and V in the eq. (18.19) gives

where

IReff

IR1 IR2

IR3

Reff

R1 R2

R3

(18.20)

Reff : effective (equivalen t) resistance

58

PHYSICS

CHAPTER 18

18.6.2 Resistors in parallel

Consider three resistors are connected in parallel to the battery
as shown in Figures 18.17a and 18.17b.

I3

R3

I2

V3
R2

I1

V2
R1
V1

V
Figure 18.17a

I3

I
I1

I2
R2

V1 R V
1
2

R3

V3

I
Figure 18.17b

59

PHYSICS

CHAPTER 18

Characteristics of resistors in parallel

There same potential difference, V across each resistor

where

V V1 V2 V3

The charge is conserved, therefore the total current I in the

circuit is given by

I1 I 2

I3

(18.21)

From the definition of resistance, thus

V
V
V
V
I1
; I2
; I3
;I
R1
R2
Reff
R3
Substituting for I1, I2 , I3 and I in the eq. (18.21) gives

V
Reff

1
Reff

V
R1

V
R2

V
R3

1
R1

1
R2

1
R3

(18.22)
60

PHYSICS
Example 18.15 :

CHAPTER 18
4.0

12
2.0

8.0 V
Figure 18.18
For the circuit in Figure 18.18, calculate
a. the effective resistance of the circuit,
b. the current passes through the 12 resistor,
c. the potential difference across 4.0 resistor,
d. the power delivered by the battery.
The internal resistance of the battery may be ignored.
61

PHYSICS

CHAPTER 18

Solution :
a.

R1 4.0 ; R2 12 ; R3

R1

2.0 ;V

8.0 V
R12

R2
R3

R3

The resistors R1 and R2 are in series, thus R12 is

R12

R1 R2

R12 4.0 12
R12 16

Since R12 and R3 are in parallel, therefore Reff is given by

1
Reff

1
R12

1
R3

1
Reff

1
16

1
2

62

PHYSICS

CHAPTER 18

Solution :

R1 4.0 ; R2 12 ; R3

2.0 ;V

8.0 V

b. Since R12 and R3 are in parallel, thus

V12 V3 V

8.0 V

Therefore the current passes through R2 is given by

V12
R12

I2

8.0
16

I2

c. Since R1 and R2 are in series, thus

I1

I2

0.50 A

Hence the potential difference across R1 is

V1

I1 R1

V1

0.50 4.0

d. The power delivered by the battery is

V2
Reff

8.0
1.78

63

PHYSICS

CHAPTER 18

Example 18.16 :

20
A
10

10

5.0

5.0

Figure 18.19

For the circuit in Figure 18.19, calculate the effective resistance

between the points A and B.
Solution : R
5.0 ; R 5.0 ; R 10 ; R 20 ;
1
R5

10

R3

R4

R5

R4

R5

R1

R3

R12

R2
B

64

PHYSICS

CHAPTER 18

Solution :

R1 5.0 ; R2
R5 10

5.0 ; R3 10 ; R4

20 ;

R1 and R2 are connected in series, thus R12 is

R12
A

R5

R1 R2

R12 5.0 5.0 10

R4

Since R12 and R3 are connected in

parallel , thus R123 is given by

R123

B
A

1
R12

1
R3

1
1 1
R123 10 10
R123 5.0

R123 and R4 are connected in series ,

thus R1234 is given by

R5
B

1
R123

R1234

R1234 R123 R4

R1234 5.0 20
R1234 25
65

PHYSICS
Solution :

CHAPTER 18
R1 5.0 ; R2
R5 10

5.0 ; R3 10 ; R4

20 ;

Reff
B
Since R1234 and R5 are connected in parallel , therefore the
effective resistance Reff is given by

1
Reff
1
Reff

R1234
1
1
25 10

1
R5

66

PHYSICS

CHAPTER 18

Exercise 18.4 :
1.

Determine the equivalent resistances of the resistors in

Figures 18.20, 18.21 and 18.22.

2.0

6.0
2.0

2.0

10
4.0

2.0

6.0

8.0
Figure 18.20

Figure 18.21

16

20

16

9.0
Figure 18.22
ANS. : 0.80

; 2.7

18
; 8.0

6.0
67

PHYSICS

CHAPTER 18

2.

7.1

1.0
3.2

4.5

12 V

5.8

Figure 18.23
The circuit in Figure 18.23 includes a battery with a finite
internal resistance, r = 0.50 .
a. Determine the current flowing through the 7.1 and 3.2
resistors.
b. How much current flows through the battery?
c. What is the potential difference between the terminals of
the battery?
(Physics,3th edition, James S. Walker, Q39, p.728)

ANS. : 1.1 A, 0.3 A; 1.4 A; 11.3 V

68

PHYSICS

CHAPTER 18

3.

Figure 18.24
Four identical resistors are connected to a battery as shown in
Figure 18.24. When the switch is open, the current through
the battery is I0.
a. When the switch is closed, will the current through the
battery increase, decrease or stay the same? Explain.
b. Calculate the current that flows through the battery when
the switch is closed, Give your answer in terms of I0.
(Physics,3th edition, James S. Walker, Q45, p.728)

ANS. : U think

69

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PHYSICS
CHAPTER 18
Learning Outcome:
18.7

Kirchhoffs laws (1 hour)

At the end of this chapter, students should be able to:

State and use Kirchhoffs Laws.

70

PHYSICS

CHAPTER 18

18.7 Kirchhoffs laws

18.7.1 Kirchhoffs first law (junction or current law)

states the sum of the currents entering any junctions in a

circuit must equal the sum of the currents leaving that
junction.
OR
(18.23)
I
I
in

For example :

I1
A

I2
I1 I 2

I3

out

I3

I3
Figure 18.26

I in

I out

I4
B

I5
I3

I4

I5
71

PHYSICS

CHAPTER 18

18.7.2 Kirchhoffs second law (loop or voltage law)

states in any loop, the sum of emfs is equal to the sum of

the products of current and resistance.
OR In any loop,

IR

(18.24)

Sign convention

For emf, :
direction of loop

direction of loop

- +

+ -

72

PHYSICS

CHAPTER 18

For product of IR:

direction of loop

direction of loop

R
I

IR

IR

18.7.3 Problem solving strategy (Kirchhoffs Laws)

Choose and labeling the current at each junction in the circuit

given.
Choose any one junction in the circuit and apply the
Kirchhoffs first law.
Choose any two closed loops in the circuit and designate a
direction (clockwise OR anticlockwise) to travel around the
loop in applying the Kirchhoffs second law.
Solving the simultaneous equation to determine the unknown
currents and unknown variables.
73

PHYSICS

CHAPTER 18

For example, Consider a circuit is shown in Figure 18.25a.

E
I1

D
I3

I1

I2

I1 F

Loop 1 I1
R2

I2

Loop 3

Loop 2 I 3
R3

R1

I3 B

I3

Figure 18.25a
At junction A or D (applying the Kirchhoffs first law) :

I in

I1

I out

I2

I3

(1)

74

PHYSICS

CHAPTER 18

For the closed loop (either clockwise or anticlockwise), apply

the Kirchhoffs second law.
FEDAF
From Loop 1

E
I1

I1

R1

I1 F
I1

Loop 1
I2

R2

I2

Figure 18.25b

IR

1 2

I 2 R2

I1R1

(2)
75

PHYSICS

CHAPTER 18

From Loop 2

I2

ABCDA

I2

Loop 2

I3
R3

R2

A
I3

3
I3 B

I3
Figure 18.25c

IR
2 3

I 2 R2

I 3 R3

(3)

76

PHYSICS

CHAPTER 18

From Loop 3

FECBF

I1

R1

I1 F

Note:
From the calculation,
sometimes we get
negative value of
current. This negative
sign indicates that
the direction of the
actual current is
opposite to the
direction of the
current drawn.

I1

I1

Loop 3
I3

R3

I3
I3 B

I3
Figure 18.25d

1 3

I 3 R3

I1R1

(4)

By solving equation (1) and any two equations from the

closed loop, hence each current in the circuit can be
determined.
77

PHYSICS

CHAPTER 18

Example 18.17 :

8.50

11.5 V, 2

15.0 V, 4

6.22

15.1
Figure 18.26
For the circuit in Figure 18.26, Determine the current and its direction
in the circuit.

78

PHYSICS

CHAPTER 18

Solution :

8.50

11.5 V, 2

I
15.0 V, 4

Loop 1

6.22

I
15.1
By applying the Kirchhoffs 2nd law, thus

IR

15.0 11.5 15.1I 6.22 I 2I 8.50 I 4I

79

PHYSICS

CHAPTER 18

Example 18.18 :

6.7

3.9

1.2

12 V

I1

9.8

9.0 V

I2

Figure 18.27
For the circuit in Figure 18.27, determine

a. the currents I1, I2 and I,

b. the potential difference across the 6.7 resistor,
c. the power dissipated from the 1.2 resistor.
80

PHYSICS

CHAPTER 18

Solution :
a.

I 1 A I 2 6.7

3.9

Loop 1 Loop 2
1.2

12 V

9.8

9.0 V

I1

II
2

B
At junction A, by using the Kirchhoffs 1st law, thus

I1

I in
I2

I out
I

(1)

By using the Kirchhoffs 2nd law,

From Loop 1:

IR

13.7 I1

12 3.9 I1 1.2I 9.8I1

(2)
1.2I 12

81

PHYSICS

CHAPTER 18

Solution :
a. From Loop 2:

6.7 I 2

IR
9.0 6.7 I 2 1.2 I
1.2 I 9.0

(3)

By solving the simultaneous equations, we get

I1 0.72 A; I 2 1.03 A; I 1.75 A

b. The potential difference across the 6.7

V
V

resistor is given by

I2R
1.03 6.7

c. The power dissipated from the 1.2

resistor is

P I 2R
2
P 1.75 1.2

82

PHYSICS

CHAPTER 18

Exercise 18.5 :
1.

For a circuit in Figure 18.28,

I1

R1

R2

I2
R3

Figure 18.28

Given 1= 8V, R2= 2 , R3= 3 , R1 = 1

and I = 3 A.
Ignore the internal resistance in each battery. Calculate
a. the currents I1 and I2.
b. the emf,

2.

ANS. : 1.0 A, 4.0 A; 17 V

83

PHYSICS

CHAPTER 18
4.0

2.

4.0

5.0 V
10 V

5.0 V

4.0

Figure 18.29
Determine the current in each resistor in the circuit shown in
Figure 18.29.
(College Physics,6th edition, Wilson, Buffa & Lou, Q57, p.619)

ANS. : 3.75 A; 1.25 A; 1.25 A

84

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PHYSICS
CHAPTER 18
Learning Outcome:
18.8

Potential divider ( hour)

At the end of this chapter, students should be able to:

Explain the principle of a potential divider.

Apply equation of potential divider,

V1

R1
R1

R2

85

PHYSICS

CHAPTER 18

18.8 Potential divider

A potential divider produces an output voltage that is a fraction

of the supply voltage V. This is done by connecting two
resistors in series as shown in Figure 18.30.

V
I

R1

R2

V1

V2

Figure 18.30
Since the current flowing through each resistor is the same,
V
thus

and

Reff

Reff

R1 R2

R1

R2
86

PHYSICS

CHAPTER 18

Therefore, the potential difference (voltage) across R1 is given

by

V1

IR1

Similarly,

V2

R1

V1

R1 R2

R2

(18.25)

R1 R2

(18.26)

Resistance R1 and R2 can be replaced by a uniform

homogeneous wire as shown in Figure 18.31.

I
A
Figure 18.31

I
l1

l2
C

V1

V2

B
87

PHYSICS

CHAPTER 18

The total resistance, RAB in the wire is

RAB
RAB
RAB

RAC

RCB and R

l1 l2
A
A

l1 l2
A

l
A

Since the current flowing through the wire is the same, thus

V
RAB

l1 l2
A
88

PHYSICS

CHAPTER 18

Therefore, the potential difference (voltage) across the wire with

length l1 is given by

V1

IRAC

V1

l1 l2
A

l1

V1

Similarly,

l2

V2

l1 l2

Note:
From Ohms law,

l1 l2

(18.27)

(18.28)

l
I
A

IR

l1
A

89

PHYSICS

CHAPTER 18

Example 18.19 :

8000
12 V

4000

Vout

Figure 18.32
For the circuit in Figure 18.32,
a. calculate the output voltage.
b. If a voltmeter of resistance 4000 is connected across the output,
determine the reading of the voltmeter.
90

PHYSICS

CHAPTER 18

Solution : R
4000
1 8000 ; R2
a. The output voltage is given by

Vout

R2
R1

R2

Vout

Vout

;V 12 V
4000
12
8000 4000
4.0 V

b. The connection between the voltmeter and 4000

parallel, thus the equivalent resistance is

1
Req

1
4000

1
4000

Req

resistor is

2000

Hence the new output voltage is given by

Vout

Vout

2000
12
8000 2000
2.4 V

Therefore the reading of the voltmeter is 2.4 V.

91

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PHYSICS
CHAPTER 18
Learning Outcome:
18.9

Potentiometer and Wheatstone bridge ( hour)

At the end of this chapter, students should be able to:

Explain principles of potentiometer and Wheatstone

Bridge and their applications.

Use related equations,

R1
R2

R3
Rx

Rx
R

lx
l

and

92

PHYSICS

CHAPTER 18

18.9 Potentiometer and Wheatstone bridge

18.9.1 Potentiometer

Consider a potentiometer circuit is shown in Figure 18.33.

V (Driver cell -accumulator)

I
I

G
+

Vx-

Jockey

Figure 18.33
The potentiometer is balanced when the jockey (sliding contact)
is at such a position on wire AB that there is no current
through the galvanometer. Thus
Galvanometer reading = 0
93

PHYSICS

CHAPTER 18

When the potentiometer in balanced, the unknown voltage

(potential difference being measured) is equal to the
voltage across AC.

Vx VAC
Potentiometer can be used to
compare the emfs of two cells.
measure an unknown emf of a cell.
measure the internal resistance of a cell.
Compare the emfs of two cells
In this case, a potentiometer is set up as illustrated in Figure
18.34, in which AB is a wire of uniform resistance and J is a
sliding contact (jockey) onto the wire.

An accumulator X maintains a steady current I through the wire

AB.
94

PHYSICS

CHAPTER 18
X

I
A

l1

l2

I
C

1
2

(1)
S

(2)

Figure 18.34
Initially, a switch S is connected to the terminal (1) and the
jockey moved until the emf 1 exactly balances the potential
difference (p.d.) from the accumulator (galvanometer reading is
zero) at point C. Hence
95

PHYSICS

CHAPTER 18
1 VAC
where
then

VAC

IRAC

I
l1
A

and

RAC

l1
A

(1)

After that, the switch S is connected to the terminal (2) and the
jockey moved until the emf 2 balances the p.d. from the
accumulator at point D. Hence

2 VAD
where
then

VAD

IRAD

I
l2
A

and

RAD

l2
A

(2)

96

PHYSICS

CHAPTER 18

By dividing eq. (1) and eq. (2) then

1
2

I
l1
A
I
l2
A

1
2

l1
l2

(18.29)

Measure an unknown emf of a cell

By using the same circuit shown in Figure 18.34, the value of
unknown emf can be determined if the cell 1 is replaced with a
standard cell.
A standard cell is one in which provides a constant and
accurately known emf. Thus the emf 2 can be calculated by
using the equation (18.29).

97

PHYSICS

CHAPTER 18

Measure the internal resistance of a cell

Consider a potentiometer circuit as shown in Figure 18.35.

l0

1 r
S

R
Figure 18.35
98

PHYSICS

CHAPTER 18

An accumulator of emf maintains a steady current I through

the wire AB.
Initially, a switch S is opened and the jockey J moved until the
emf 1 exactly balances the emf from the accumulator
(galvanometer reading is zero) at point C. Hence

1 VAC
where
then

VAC

IRAC

I
l0
A

and

RAC

l0
A

(1)

After the switch S is closed, the current I1 flows through the

resistance box R and the jockey J moved until the galvanometer
reading is zero (balanced condition) at point D as shown in
Figure 18.36.
99

PHYSICS

CHAPTER 18

I
D

I
I1

1 r

I1
S

I1

I1
I1

R
Figure 18.36

100

PHYSICS

CHAPTER 18

Hence

where
then

VAD

VAD

IRAD

I
l
A

and

l
A

RAD
(2)

From the equation of emf,

1 V
r

I1r

1 V
I1

and

1 V
R
V

I1

V
R
(3)

101

PHYSICS

CHAPTER 18

By substituting eqs. (1) and (2) into the eq. (3), we get

r
r

l0 l
R
l
l0
1 R
l

(4)

The value of internal resistance, r is determined by plotting

the graph of 1/l against 1/R .
Rearranging eq. (4) :

1
l
Then compare with

r 1
l0 R

1
l0

y m x

102

PHYSICS

CHAPTER 18

Therefore the graph is straight line as shown in Figure 18.37.

1
l
Gradient , m

1
l0

r
l0

1
R

0
Figure 18.37

103

PHYSICS

CHAPTER 18

Example 18.20 :
Cells A and B and centre-zero galvanometer G are connected to a
uniform wire OS using jockeys X and Y as shown in 18.38.

The length of the uniform wire OS is

1.00 m and its resistance is 12 .
When OY is 75.0 cm, the
S galvanometer does not show any
deflection when OX= 50.0 cm. If Y
touches the end S of the wire, OX =
62.5 cm when the galvanometer is
balanced. The emf of the cell B is 1.0
V. Calculate

Figure 18.38
a. the potential difference across OY when OY = 75.0 cm,
b. the potential difference across OY when Y touches S and the
galvanometer is balanced,
c. the internal resistance of the cell A,
104
d. the emf of cell A.

PHYSICS

CHAPTER 18

Solution : lOS
a. Given lOY1

I1

I1
O

1.00 m; ROS 12 ; B 1.0 V

0.75 m; lOX1 0.50 m

I1

Since wire OS is uniform thus

lOY1
lOX1
I1

ROX1
X

I1
G

ROX1
and ROY1

lOX1
ROS
lOS

0.50
12 6.0
1.00
0.75
12 9.0
1.00

When G = 0 (balance condition), thus

VOX1 B and VOX1 I1 ROX1

I1 ROX1

I1 6.0 1.0
I1 0.17 A

105

PHYSICS

CHAPTER 18

Solution : lOS 1.00 m; ROS 12 ; B 1.0 V

a. Therefore the potential difference across OY is given by

VOY1
b. Given lOY2

I2

VOY1

1.00 m; lOX2
I2

lOX2
I2

0.625 m
ROX2

I2
G

0.17 9.0

Since wire OS is uniform thus

lOY2

I2
O

I1 ROY1

ROX2
and

ROY2

lOX 2
ROS
lOS

0.625
12 7.5
1.00
1.00
12 12
1.00
106

PHYSICS

CHAPTER 18

Solution : lOS 1.00 m; ROS 12 ; B

b. When G = 0 (balance condition), thus
VOX2 B and VOX2 I 2 ROX2

I 2 ROX2

1.0 V

I 2 7.5 1.0
I 2 0.13 A

Therefore the potential difference across OY is given by

VOY2

I 2 ROY2

VOY2

0.13 12

c. The emf of cell A is given by

I R r

For case in the question (a) :

I1 ( ROY1 r )

0.17 9.0 r

(1)
107

PHYSICS

CHAPTER 18

Solution : lOS 1.00 m; ROS

c. For case in the question (b) :

A
A
(1) = (2):

12 ; B 1.0 V

I 2 ( ROY2 r )
0.13 12 r

0.17 9.0 r

(2)

0.13 12 r

d. The emf of cell A is

A
A

0.17 9.0 r
0.17 9.0 0.65

108

PHYSICS

CHAPTER 18

18.9.2 Wheatstone bridge

It is used to measured the unknown resistance of the

resistor.
Figure 18.39 shows the Wheatstone bridge circuit consists of a
cell of emf (accumulator), a galvanometer , know resistances
(R1, R2 and R3) and unknown resistance Rx.

I
I1
A

I2

R1

C I1

R3

D I2

R2
0

I
B

Rx

Figure 18.39
The Wheatstone bridge is said to be balanced when no current
flows through the galvanometer.
109

PHYSICS

Hence
then

CHAPTER 18
I AC

I CB

I1

and

I AD

I DB

I2

Potential at C = Potential at D

Therefore VAC VAD and

Since V
IR thus

I1R1

VBC VBD

I 2 R3 and I1R2

I 2 Rx

Dividing gives

I1 R1
I1 R2

Rx

I 2 R3
I 2 Rx

R2
R3
R1

(18.30)

110

PHYSICS

CHAPTER 18

The application of the Wheatstone bridge is Metre Bridge.

Figure 18.40 shows a Metre bridge circuit.
(Unknown
Rx resistance) R (resistance box)
Thick copper

I1

I1

strip

Jockey

0 G
A

I
Wire of uniform
resistance

l1

I2

l2

Accumulator
Figure 18.40

The metre bridge is balanced when the jockey J is at such a

position on wire AB that there is no current through the
galvanometer. Thus the current I1 flows through the resistance
Rx and R but current I2 flows in the wire AB.
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CHAPTER 18

Let Vx : p.d. across Rx and V : p.d. across R,

At balance condition,
Vx VAJ and V VJB
By applying Ohms law, thus
I1Rx I 2 RAJ and I1 R I 2 RJB
Dividing gives

I1Rx
I1 R

Rx
R

Rx

I 2 RAJ
where RAJ
I 2 RJB
l1
A
l2
A

l1
R
l2

l1
and RJB
A

l2
A

(18.31)
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CHAPTER 18

Example 18.21 :
An unknown length of platinum wire 0.920 mm in diameter is placed
as the unknown resistance in a Wheatstone bridge as shown in
Figure 18.41.

Figure 18.41
Resistors R1 and R2 have resistance of 38.0 and 46.0
respectively. Balance is achieved when the switch closed and R3 is
3.48 . Calculate the length of the platinum wire if its resistivity is
10.6 10 8 m.
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CHAPTER 18

Solution : d

R3

0.920 10 3 m; R1 38.0 ; R2
3.48 ; 10.6 10 8 m;

46.0 ;

At balance condition, the ammeter reading is zero thus the

resistance of the platinum wire is given by

Rx
R3

R2
R1

Rx
3.48

46.0
38.0

Rx

4.21

From the definition of resistivity, thus

d2
4

Rx A
and A
l
Rx d 2
10.6 10
4l

4.21

0.920 10
4l

3 2

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CHAPTER 18

Exercise 18.6 :
1.

In Figure 18.42, PQ is a uniform wire of length 1.0 m and

resistance 10.0 .
1 is an accumulator of emf 2.0 V
and negligible internal resistance.
S1
1
R1 is a 15 resistor and R2 is a
R1
5.0 resistor when S1 and S2
open, galvanometer G is balanced
when QT is 62.5 cm. When both S1
and S2 are closed, the balance
T
length is 10.0 cm. Calculate

R2

S2

a. the emf of cell

2.

b. the internal resistance of cell 2.

G
c. the balance length QT when S2
is opened and S1 closed.
d. the balance length QT when S1
Figure 18.42
is opened and S2 closed.

ANS. : 0.50 V; 7.5

; 25.0 cm; 25.0 cm

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PHYSICS
2.

CHAPTER 18
The circuit shown in Figure 18.43 is known as a Wheatstone
bridge.

R
Figure 18.43
Determine the value of the resistor R such that the current
through the 85.0 resistor is zero.
(Physics,3th edition, James S. Walker, Q93, p.731)

ANS. : 7.50
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PHYSICS
3.

CHAPTER 18
A potentiometer with slide-wire of length 100 cm and
resistance of 5.0 , is connected to a driver cell of emf 2.0 V
and negligible internal resistance. Calculate
a. the length of the potentiometer wire needed to balance a
potential difference of 1.5 V,
b. the resistance which must be connected in series with the
slide-wire to give a potential difference of 7.0 mV across
the whole wire,

c. the emf of a dry cell which is balanced by 80 cm of the

wire, setup as in part (b).
ANS. : 75.0 cm; 1424

; 5.6 mV

117

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PHYSICS

CHAPTER 18

Next Chapter
CHAPTER 19:
Magnetic Field

118