ELECTRONIC DEVICES

Electronic Devices
Quick Review
1.
Semiconductors have four valence electrons. With increase in temperature, more free electrons are
made available and make semiconductors a better conductor. Resistivity of semiconductors reduce with
increase in temperature.
2.

Based on energy bands, materials are classified as

Conductor
If band gap is absent or over lapping conduction and valence band.
Semiconductor Gap of 1 eV between the conduction and valence band.
Insulator
Gap of the order of 6 eV or 3 eV.

3.

In the band gap between the conduction and the valence band, electrons are absent. Identified by the
non-availability of a real wave function for these energies.

4.

Intrinsic semiconductors are pure form of semiconductors. The intrinsic carrier concentration ni is given
by nenh = ni2 where nn and nh refer to the number of electrons and holes per unit volume respectively. In
this form ne = nh = ni .

5.

Extrinsic semiconductors are impurity added form of semiconductors. The imparity added can be a
pentavalent e.g., As, Sb etc., producing a n-type semiconductor (ne>> nh) or a Even here nenh = ni2 holds
good. Both are neutral and not changed.
n-type semiconductor

6.

p-type semiconductor

(i) Doping with pentavalent element

(i) Doping with trivalent element

(ii) ne >> nh

(ii) nh >> ne

(iii) Electrons are majority carriers

(iii) Holes are the majority carriers

(iv) Donor energy level is just below

the conduction band ( ~ 0.01 eV).

(iv) Acceptor energy level is just above the

velence band ( ~ 0.05 eV)

7.
8.

Conduction in semiconductors is due to both electrons and holes. So the net current I = Ie + Ih.
Electrical conductivity of semiconductors is given by s= e(neme + nhmh) where me and mh are the mobilities
of electron and hole.

9.

Mobility is the velocity possessed by the charged particle per unit electric field. Its S.I. unit is C m/N s
or m2V1 s1.

10.

A single brick of a p and n type material with a space-charge region in between is called a pn-junction.
On the p-side, there will be electrons and on the n-side there will be holes in the space-charge region.
The space-charge region depletes the movement of majority carries across the junction. So it is called
depletion region. Since there exists a uniform electric field there is a potential gradient which acts as a
barrier. It is called Potential barrier.

11.

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12.

ELECTRONIC DEVICES
When the p-side is connected to positive and n-side is connected to the negative terminal it is called
forward biasing. The barrier reduces causing movement of majority carriers. With increased forward
bias, the current grows as shown in the figure given (Silicon diode).
I(mA)

13.

V(volts)

0.6 0.8

When the p-side is connected to negative and n-side is connected to the positive terminal, it is called
reverse biasing. The barrier grows in size and the potential difference increases causing a block to the
majority carriers.
With increased reverse bias, the barrier further grows, but there will be a slight current due to the
majority carriers flowing across the junction as shown for silicon diode in the given figure.
V(mV)

80

I( A)

14.

Knee voltage : The forward voltage at which the current through the junction increases rapidly is called
Knee voltage.

15.

Breakdown voltage : The reverse voltage at which the current due to minority conduction increases
rapidly is called Breakdown voltage.

16.

Dynamic resistance : The ratio between the small change in voltage DV to a small change in current D
I is the pn-junction in called dynamic resistance. rd =

17.

A pn-junction diode [represented in circuits as

DV
.
Dl

] is used to rectify ac. For a given ac, the

half-wave (one cycle rectified) and a full-wave ( both cycle rectified) are shown below.
a.c. input
Half-wve rectified output
Full-wave rectified output
The device which does this is called a rectifier. If the frequency of a.c. is f, the frequency of the half-wave
and full-wave rectified output are f and 2f respectively.
18.

Zener diode : A special purpose diode, operated under reverse bias close to breakdown is called zener
diode. It is a heavily doped diode used for regulating voltage. It is represented as

19.

in

circuits. Over a wide range of current variation it maintains a constant voltage called Zener voltage is
reverse bias.
Photodiode is a special purpose diode operated in reverse bias and allows current flow when the
junction made with transparent window receives light of suitable energy. The intensity of the light decides
the current.

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3
20.
Lightemitting diode is a heavily doped pn-junction operated in forward bias to emit light when proper
bias conditions exits. LEDs are biased to have higher light emitting efficiency. They have higher Knee
voltage depending on the wavelength of light and a lower reverse breakdown voltage.
21.

LEDs are having the advantage over incandescent low power lamps by
(i) having lower operating potential and less power
(ii) faster and instantaneous action
(iii) almost monochromatic or lower band width
(iv) having longer life and durability.

22.

Solar cells are pn-junctions generating emf when sun light falls on it. To get more power output, the
junction are is kept more.

23.

Transistor is a three terminal, two pn-junctioned semiconductor device. It can be pnp or npn with three
terminals named as emitter, base and collector.

24.

For basic functioning of a transistor,

(i) The emitter should be densely doped
(ii) The base should be thin and very lightly doped
(iii) The collector should be moderately doped
(iv) The emitter should be forward biased
(v) The collector should be reverse biased.

25.

From the conservation of charge, ie = ib + ic holds good as a transistor in conduction

26.

Transistors are used as amplifiers in three configuration common-base, common emitter and Commoncollector, as an Oscillator and as a Switch.
In CE-common emitter configuration

27.

Di

c
c
The current gain is b = Di or i
b
b

DV

i R

a
c l
The voltage gain is A n = DV = i R
i
b t

The power gain is

28.

2 Rl
= bA v = b R

Oscillator produces Oscillations using d.c. energy. It is a positive feedback amplifier. The frequency of
the oscillation produced is f =

1
2p LC

where L and C are the inductance and capacitance in the tank

circuit, where energy varies sinusoidally between the electrical and magnetic from.
29.

Transistor in CE configuration has 180 phase difference between the output and the input.

30.

when transistor is in forward bias in CE format, there will be saturation conduction making the output
zero.
When there is not bias in emitter, the transistor remains cut-off and so there will be an output which is
non-zero.
Thus a transistor can behave as a switch in two states.

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31.

ELECTRONIC DEVICES
Logic
Function

Symbol

Logic
Equation

(i) OR

A
B

(ii) AND

A
B

(iii) NOT

A
B

(iv) NOR

A
B

(v) NAND

(vi) XOR

A
B

Y =A+ B

A
0
0
1
1

B
0
1
0
1

Y
0
1
1
1

Y = A.B

A
0
0
1
1

B
0
1
0
1

Y
0
0
0
1

Y =A

A B
0 1
1 0

Y =A+ B

A
0
0
1
1

B
0
1
0
1

Y
1
0
0
0

A
0
0
1
1

B
0
0
0
1

Y
1
1
1
0

A
0
0
1
1

B
0
1
0
1

Y
0
1
1
0

Y = A.B

Truth table

Y = AB + BA

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Solved Problems
1.
Sol.

Why is the base region of a transistor made very thin and lightly doped ?
Base contains a smaller number of majority charge carriers which reduces the recombination rate of
electrons and holes at the base - emitter junction. It reduces base current and increases both collector
current and current gain of the transistor.

2.

If the base region of a transistor is made large, as compared to a usual transistor, how does it
affect
(i) the collector current and
(ii) current gain to this transistor ?

3.

If the emitter and the base of a transistor have same doping concentration, how will the base
current and collector current be affected ?
The rate of recombination of electrons and holes increases as the majority charge carriers follow across
the emitter-base junction. So, the base current increases and collector current decreases.

Sol.

4.
Sol.

Can we interchange emitter and collector of a transistor ?

No, because (i) the doping level of emitter is higher than that of collector. (ii) The contact area of emittercollector junction is larger than that of emitter - base junction.

5.

In the working of a transistor, the emitter-base junction is forward biased while collector-base
junction is reverse biased. Why ?
If the emitter is reverse biased, no charge carriers will flow towrds the collector and hence no current will
flow thorugh the transistor.

Sol.

6.
Sol.

In a transistor, the forward bias is always smaller than the reverse bias. Why ?
If we apply a large forward biasing across the emitter, the majority charge carriers whould move from
emitter to collector thorugh the base with a high velocity. This would produce excessive heating which
would damage the transistor.

7.
Sol.

How would you test in a simple way whether the transistor is spoiled or in working order ?
For a transistor in working order, the forward biased emitter-base junction has a low resistance while the
reverse biased base - collector junction has a high resistance. In a spoiled transistor, the resistance is low
(or the path is conducting) in both situations.

8.
Sol.

Which one of the transistors p-n-p and n-p-n is more useful and why ?
n-p-n transistor is more useful than p-n-p transitor, as electrons are the main charge carriers in n-p-n and
electrons have higher mobility than holes.

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9.
1.

ELECTRONIC DEVICES
Give Conversion of decimal number to binary number :
Examples :
Binary equivalence of 2
2

2.

2
2 1

\ (2)10 = (10)2

Binary equivalence of 3
2

3.

3
2 1

\ (3)10 = (11)2

Binary equivalence of 12
2 12
2 6 0
2 3

2 1

1
1

4.

\ (12)10 = (1100)2

Binary equivalence of 13
2 13
2 6 1
2 3

2 1

1
1

\ (13)10 = (1101)2

Conversion of Binary number to decimal number :

Examples :
110 = 1 22 + 1 21 + 0 20 = 4 + 2 + 0 = 6
111 = 1 22 + 1 21 + 0 2 0 = 4 + 2 + 1 = 7
1101 = 1 2 3 + 1 2 2 + 0 21 + 1 2 0 = 8 + 4 + 0 + 1 = 13
1011 = 1 23 + 0 22 + 1 21 + 1 20 = 8 + 0 + 2 + 1 = 11
111101 = 1 25 + 1 24 + 1 23 + 1 2 2 + 0 21 = 32 + 16 + 8 + 4 + 0 + 1 = 61

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Ex.
Convert 37 into binary number.
2 37

Remainder

2 18

Therefore(37)10 = (100101)2

10

Is a n-type or a p-type semiconductor charged ? Give reason.

Sol.

No since they are made by doping element of different valency but neutral net charge is zero.

11.

Can an amplifier be used for all frequencies ?

Sol.

No, energy amplifier has a range of frequency in which it has better performance.

12

What is the property of a pn-junction that makes it to be used in a rectifier?

Sol.

Uni-directional property -conducting under forward bias only is used to make a rectifier.

13

Name three factors on which the resistivity of a semiconductor depend upon.

Sol.

Temperature, number density of electrons and holes and their mobilities affect the resistivity of
semiconductors.

14

A square input signal is given to a pn-junction diode as shown. Draw the output waveform.
D

input
+4

+4

RL

Sol.

The output waveform is shown.

15.

A diode is connected to 220 V a.c. in series with a capacitor as shown. What is the voltage V
across the capacitor ?
D
220 V a.c.

Sol.

Diode conducts only for half of the cycle. During half of the cycle capacitor is charged to the peak value
of supply voltage. Thus
V

= Erms

= 220 2 = 311.1 volt

16

Can the potential barrier of a p-n junction be measured by connecting a sensitive voltmeter
across the junctions?

Sol.

There are no free charges in the depletion region, so in the absence of forward biasing it offers infinite
resistance. Thus, voltmeter cannot measure the potential barrier.

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17

ELECTRONIC DEVICES
Write the truth table for the combination of gates shown.
A
B
Y1
Y
Y2

Sol.
A
0
0
1
1

18

Y1 = A + B
0
1
1
1

B
0
1
0
1

___

Y2 = A.B
1
1
1
0

The logic circuit shown in the figure yields the given truth table. Identify the gate marked X
in the circuit.
A

A
0
0
1
1

Sol.

Y = Y1.Y2
0
1
1
0

B
0
1
0
1

Y
0
1
1
1

From the truth table, we get

A+ B =Y
Y =A+ X
A+ X =A+ B

=A+ B . (A+ A )

[\ A + A = 1]

=A+ B . A+ B . A
_

= A .(1 + B ) + A . B
_

[Q A + A = 1]

=A+ A . B
_

Thus , A . B = X, which is AND gate with inputs A and B.

19.

Why in a transistor, the forward bias voltage is always smaller than the reverse bias voltage?

Sol.

On increasing forward bias voltage, the majority charge will move form the emitter to the collector
thorough the base with higher velocities. This would produce excessive heat and transistor might get
damaged.

20.

Depict height of the barrier potential

(i) Without biasing
(ii) With low forward biasing
(iii) With high forward biasing.

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9
1 (Without biasing)
2 (With low forward biasing)

Sol.

21.

Vo

3 (With high forward biasing)

Analyse the following circuit diagram and write answers to the questions
D3

D1

D2

D4 .

(i) Choose from the option below the diodes which are in forward bias when the switch is ON.
(a) D2, D4
Sol.

(b) D1 D3

(c) D1, D3,

(d) D2, D3, D4

(i) (d) D2, D3, D4

(ii) When the p-end of a diode is connected to the positive pole and the p-end to the negative pole of a
cell, the diode is said to be forward biased.
(iii) diode is used as rectifier and detractor.

22.
Sol.

Explain Biasing of p-n Junction in two ways

(i) Forward biasing
(ii) Reverse biasing
(i) Forward Biasing : A p-n junction is said to be forward biased if the +ve teminal of extenal battery is
connected to p-side & ve terminal to the n-side of p-n junction diode. As a result of forward biasing :
1. The applied forward bias voltage V opposes the potential barrier VB. Due to it. potential barrier is
reduced & the depletion layer becomes thin.
2. The majority carriers, electrons in the n-region are repelled by ve terminal of the battery & move
towards the p-n junction. Similarly, the majority carriers, holes in the p-region are repelled by the +ve
terminal & move towards the junction. On crossing the junction, the number of electrons & holes will
combine each other. For each electron - hole combination, a covalent band near the +ve termianl the the
battery is broken & the liberated electron enters the +ve terminal of the battery. At the same time, an
electron from the ve terminal of the battery enter the n-region to replace the lost electron due to the
combination with the hole at the junction. Thus an electric current will flow due to the migration of
majority carriers across the p-n junction, which is called forward current.
3. Since the small increase in forward voltage shows large increase in forward current, hence the resistance
of p - n junction is low to the flow of forward current.
VB

+
+
+

+
+
+
+
+

+
+

+
V

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1.

2.

3.

ELECTRONIC DEVICES
(ii) Reverse biasing : A p -n junction is said to be reverse biased if the +ve terminal of the external
battery is connected to n - side & ve terminal to the p-side of the p-n jucntion diode. As a result of
reverse biasing.
The reversebias voltage (i.e. potential of external battery) supports the potential barrier VB. The majority
carrier are repelled away from the junction & the depletion layer becomes thick. There is no conduction
across the juction due to majority carriers.
However, a few minority carriers (hole in n-section & electrons in p-section) of p-n junction does cross
the junction after being accelerated by high reverse bias voltage. They constitute a current that flows in
the opposite direction. This is called reverse current.
Since the large increase in reverse voltage shows small increase in reverse current, hence the resistance
of p-n junction is high to the flow of revese current. If the reverse bias is increased to a high value, the
covalent bonds near the junction break down and a large number of electron hole pairs are liberated.
Thus, the reverse current increase abruptly to a very high value. This phenomenon is called break down
and this value of revese voltage is called zener voltage.
VB

+
+

+
+
+
+
+

+
V

Note : Potential barrier opposes the forward current, while it aids the reverse current.
23.
Sol.

Explain Characteristic of p-n junction diode in

(i) Forward bias (ii) Reverse bias
The variation of current with the applied voltage across the junction diode is known as the characteristic
of p-n junction dipole. Two types of characteristic curve of diode are :
(i) Forward characteristics (ii) Reverse characteristics
(i) Forward Characteristics : The +ve pole of the battery is connected to the p-section & the ve pole
to the n-section of the diode. When the battery voltage is zero, diode does not conduct and the diode
current is zero. As the battery voltage increases, the barrier potential starts decreasing and a small
current begins to flow. The forward current increases slowly at first but as soon as the batery voltage
beocmes geater than the barier potential VB, the forward currrent inceases rapidly. The battery voltage
at which the forward curent starts increasing repidly is known as knee voltage. After the knee voltage,
the variation of current with the applied voltage across the junction is almost linear.
Knee Voltage : It is the forward voltage beyound which the current through the junction starts increasing
rapidly with voltage, showing the linear variation. Below the knee voltage, the variation is non-linear.

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11
p

+ mA

+ v

I
(mA)

DI
Dv
Knee voltage

v
(mv)

Dynamic resistance or AC resistance of junction diode : It is defined as the ratio of small change in
applied voltage DV to the corresponding small change in junction current DI i.e. Rd =

DV
DI

Reverse Characteristics : If p-section is connected to ve terminal & n-section to the +ve terminal of
the battery, the junction diode is said to be reverse biased. For a given reverse bias voltage a reverse
current flows through micro ammeter due to the migration of minority carriers across the p-n junction.
Plotting a graph between reverse bias volage & reverse current we get the reverse characteristics.
Initially, the reverse current is small but attains its maximum or saturation value immediately and becomes
independent of reverse voltage. It depends on the temperature of the junction diode. The reverse bias
voltage at which the current through p-n junction increases abruptly is known as break down voltage or
Zener voltage.
p n

mA +

v (mv)

v +
Saturated
voltage

24.
Sol.
(a)

I (mA )

B +

What is a Rectifier. Explain Principle, working of :

(a) Half wave rectifier
(b) Full wave rectifier
Junction Diode as a rectifier : Rectifier is a device used for converting alternating current/voltage into
direct current/voltage. It can be used in two ways : (a) Half wave rectifier
(b) Full wave rectifier
Junction diode as a half wave rectifier : The rectifier which converts only one half of ac into dc is called
half wave rectifier.
Principle : It is based on the fact that resistance of p-n junction becomes low when forward biased &
becomes high when reverse biased.
Circuit : AC to be rectified is connected to primary P1P2 of a step down transformer. S1S2 is the
secondary coil of the same transformer. S1 is connected to p-section & S2 to n-section of junction diode.
Output is taken across the load resistance RL.
P1

S1
RL

Input ac ~
P2

S2

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Output

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Working : During the +ve half cycle of the input ac thorugh the primary coil, an induced emf is set up in
the secondary coil due to mutual induction. The direction of induced emf is such that the upper end of the
secondary coil becomes positive and lower end becomes negative. So the p-n junction diode is forward
biased during the positive half of input ac. The resistance of p-n junction becomes low. The forward
current flows in the direction shown by arrow head. Thus we get output across load. During the negative
half cycle of theinput ac thorugh the primary coil, again induced emf is set up across the secondary coil
due to mutual induction such that the p-n junction becomes reverse biased. It offers high resistance &
hence there is no flow of current & thus no output across the load. The process is repeated. In the output
we have current obtained. It is not of much use.

Input ac voltage O

Output dc voltage

Junction diode as full wave rectifier : Full wave rectifier rectifies both halves of ac input signal.
Circuit : For full wave rectification, two p-n junction diodes are used. It works on the principle that a
junction diode offers low resistance during forward bias & high resistnace when reverse biased. The ac
input signal is fed to the primary coil of the transformer. The p-regions of both the diodes D1 and D2 are
connected to the two ends of the secondary coil. The load resistance RL across which output is obtained
is connected between common point of n regions and central tapping of the secondary coil.
D1
P1
Input ac

S1

Output
RL

P2

S2
D2

Working : During the +ve half of the input ac thorugh the primary coil, induced emf is set up in the
secondary coil due to mutual induction. The direction of induced emf is such that the upper end of the
secondary coil becomes positive while the lower end becomes negative. Thus, the upper diode D1 is
forward biased & the lower diode D2 is reverse biased. The forward current flows due to majority
carriers of D2 across RL. During both halves current through RL. flows in the same direction. The ouput
has dc & ac components of voltage . It can be converted into purely dc voltage by filtering through filter
circuit using large capacitors, before it can be put to any use.
Input ac voltage

Output dc voltage

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13
25.
Give different Types of Junction Diodes :
Sol.
1.
Zener Diode : Specially designed p-n junction diode which can operate in the reverse break down
voltage region continuously without being damaged is called Zener diode. In Zener diode both p and n
sections are heavily doped due to which depletion layer formed in very thin (106m), so electric field is
very high. Its symbols is

In the reverse break down region, the voltage across the

Zener diode remains constant even if the current through Zener diode increases considerably. V - I
characteristics of Zener diode is as shown :
Forward current

Reverse Voltage
Forward Voltage

Zener Breakdown
voltage

Reverse Current

Zener Diode as Voltage Regulator : Important use of Zener diode is in making constant voltage
power supply. Zener diode is connected in reverse bias to the fluctuating dc voltage through a resistance
Rs. Thus the voltage gets divided between Rs and Zener diode. If the input voltage increases, the current
thorugh Rs and Zener diode increases to high value. This increases the voltage across Rs without any
change in voltage across Zener diode. This is because in breakdonw region, Zener voltage remains
constant. Similarly, if input voltage decreases, the current through Rs decreases without any change in the
voltage across Zener diode. Hence, the voltage across Zener diode is constant. As load resistance RL is
connected to Zener diode, so voltage across RL remains constant.
Rs
Input fluctuating
voltage

RL

2.

Constant output
voltage

Photo Diode : A photo diode is a reverse biased p-n junction semiconductor diode made of photo
sensitive semiconductor material. When this diode is illuminated with light of energy greater than energy
gap which is allowed to fall from a transparent window, the e-hole pairs are generated in the depletion
layer or near the junction due to absorption of photons. These charge carriers are separated by the
junction lied and made to flow across the junction. The value of reverse saturation current increases with
the increase in intensity of incident light. When no light is incident i.e. at I0, some current flows through the
photodiode called as dark current. The V-I characteristics of a photodiode are shown in the figure.
hn

Reverse voltage

n
mA

I0
I1
I2
I3

Reverse
Photodiode
current
I3 > I2 > I1

Uses : (i) In photo detecton for optical signals. (ii) In electronic counters.
(iii) They are used as light operated switches (iv) In optical communication equipments.

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3.

ELECTRONIC DEVICES
Light Emitting diode (LED) : A p-n junction diode which emits light energy when forward biased is
called as light emitting diode. When p-n junction is forward biased, electrons move from n to p and holes
from p to n. Due to the recombination of electrons & holes, energy is liberated in the form of heat & light.
In Ge & Si p-n junction, a larger % of the energy is given in the form of het i.e. emits infrared radiations.
But in some semicondcutors like gallium phosphide (GaP), gallium arsenide phosphide (GaAsP) a greater
% of energy is released in the form of visible light (red, green, organe etc.) LEDs emit no light when
reverse biased, they will be destroyed.
Light
RL
+

Uses : (i) In Burglar alarm systems & remote control shcemes

(ii) In calculators & digital watches.
(iii) In the field of optical communication.
Advantages of LED over other power lamps :
(i) They work at low operational voltage and low power.
(ii) Fast action and no warm up time required.
(iii) Fast on - off switching capability.
(iv) LEDs are easily manufactured
(v) They have a longer life.
4.

Solar Cell : It is p-n junction device which converts solar energy into electrical energy. It works on the
same principle as the photodiode, but here no external bias is applied and the junction area is kept much
larger for solar radiation to be incident. A p-type Si wafer of nearly 300 mm thickness is taken over
which a thin n-layer of thickness nearly 0.3 mm is grown by diffusion process. The other side of p-type
is coated with a metal called as back constact. On the top of n-type layer, metal finger electrode is
deposited. This acts as front contact. This metal grid occupies a small fraction of cell area so that the light
can be incident on the a larger part of the cell. The generation of emf by a solar cell, when light falls on it
is due to the following three preocesses: generation, separation and collection.
(i) Generation: generation of electron-hole pairs takes place close to the juction due to the light incident
of energy greater than energy gap.
(ii) Separation : separation of electron and holes due to electric field of the depletion region. Here
electrons move towards n-side and holes to p-side.
(iii) Collection : electrons reaching n-side are collected by front contact and holes reaching p-side are
collected by back contact. Thus p-side becomes positive and n-side becomes negative giving rise to
photovoltage.
When an external load is connected a photo current 'IL' flows thorugh the load. The output power
depends on the intensity of incident light.
Uses :
1. For charging storage batteries in day time which can supply power during night.
2. Used to power electronic devices in satallites and space vehicles.
3. Used in calculators, wrist watches.

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ELECTRONIC DEVICES

15
hn

Back
contact

n
p

n
p

Deplection layer

Metallised finger electrode

RL

V-I characteristic curve for a solar cell is as shown :

open circuit voltage
V
short circuit
current
I

26.
Sol.

Draw block diagram and logic symbol of p-n-p & n-p-n Transistors and give its working
A transistor is a three terminal semiconductor device. A junction transistor is obtained by growing a thin
layer of one type of semiconductor in between two thick layers of othe similar type semiconductors.
Two types of transistors are n-p-n junction transistor & p-n-p junction transistor. In n-p-n transistor, the
p-section is sandwiched between two n-section. In p-n-p transistor, the n-section is sand wiched between
two psections. The three sections of the transistor are called emitter (E), base (B), & collector (C)
Emitter : The left region of transistor is known as emitter. It suplies majority charge carriers to the base
region. Emitter region is heavily doped.
Collector : The right region of transistor is known as collector. It is also heavily doped. The collector
collects the majority charge carriers.
Base : The middle region of the transistor is known as base. The base is very thin as compared to the
emitter and collector regions and it is lightly doped.
n

npn

E
B

n-p-n transistor

pnp

E
B

B
p-n-p transistor

Here arrowhead points hole current i.e. conventional current. In n-p-n transistor the arrowhead on the
emitter points away from the base, while in p-n-p transistor arrowhead points towards the base.
Action of n-p-n transistor : The emitter - base junction is forward biased i.e. +ve role of emitter base
battery V EB is connected to base & ve pole to emitter. The resistance of emitter base junction is very
low. The collector - base junction is reverse biased i.e. +ve pole of collector base battery VCB is connected
to collector & ve pole to base. The resistance of this junction is very high, electrons which are majority
carries in emitter are repelled towards base by ve potential of VEB resulting emitter current IE. The base
being thin & lightly doped has low number density of holes. When electrons enter in the base region, then
only a few electrons (say 5%) get neutralized by the electron-hole combination, resulting base current IB.
The remaining 95% electrons pass over to the collector, due to +ve potential of VCB, resulting collector
current IC.

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ELECTRONIC DEVICES
n

p
+

npn
C

E
+

IE

IE

IC

IC
IB

IB
VEB

VEB

VCB

VCB

As one electron reaches the collector, it flows to the +ve terminal of VCB, At the same time one electron
flows from negative terminal of VCB to +ve terminal of VEB & one electron flows from ve terminal of VEB
to emitter. Thus, in n-p-n transistor, the current is carried inside the transistor as well as in external circuit
by electron. So the direction of conventional current is opposite to direction of flow of electrons.
Thus,
IE = IB + IC
Action of p-n-p transistor : The emitter-base junction is forward b ased i.e. +ve pole of emitter base
battery VEB is connected to emitter & ve pole to base. Colector-base junction is reverse biased i.e.
ve pole of collector base battery VCB is connected to collector & its +ve pole to the base. The resistance
of emitter base junction is very low & the resistance of collector base junction is very high.
Holes which are majority carries in emitter are repelled by +ve potential of VEB and move towards base
resulting emitter current I1. The base being thin & lightly doped has low number density of electrons.
When holes from emitter enter the base, only a few holes (say 5%) get neutralized by the electron - hole
combination, resulting base current IB. The remaining 95% holes pass to collector due to +ve potential of
VCB, resulting collector current Ie. As one hole reaches the collector, one electron from ve terminal of VCB
flows to the collector. At the same time a covalent bond in emitter is broken, electron released goes to
+ve terminal of VEB & hole moves towards the base. Thus the current in p-n-p transistor is carried by
holes & at the same time concentration is maintained. Thus, IE = IB + IC
p

n
+

pnp
IE

IE

IC

IB

IB

27.
Sol.

IC

VEB

VCB

VEB

VCB

Give Transistor characteristies in common emitter configuration

In common emitter configuration, emitter teminal of transistor is common between input and output
circuits.

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17
IC
C
IB +
mA

npn

+
v

vBE

VBE +

mA

VCE

Vcc

IB

+
v

IE

Input characteristics : These characteristics represent the variation of base current IB with base emitter voltage VBE, keeping collector-emitter voltage VCE constant.
Input Resistance : It is defined as the ratio of small charge in base - emitter voltage to the small change
produced in base current at constant collector - emitter voltage
DV
Rinput = BE
DIB

VCE =cons tan t

VCE = 2V
VCE = 4V

IB (mA)

VCE = 6V

VBE (volts)

Output characteristics : These characteristics represent the variation of collector current IC with collector
mitter voltage VCE, keeping base current IB constant.
Output resistance : It is defined as the ratio of small change in collector-emitter voltage to small change
produced in collector current at constant base current.
DV
Routput = CE
DIC

I B =cons tan t

Saturation region
IC(mA)

IB = 30mA
IB = 20mA
IB = 10mA

Active
region

IB = 0
Cut off region
Vc(volts)

Output characteristics of a transistor in common - emitter configuration are divided into three regions :
(i) Active-region : Active region lies above IB = 0. In this region, collector junction is reverse biased and
emitter junction is forward biased. For a given value of IB, collector current increases as VCE increases.
A transistor is operated in active region if it is used as an amplifier.
(ii) Cut off region : Cut off region lies below IB = 0. The collector current has finite value. In order to cut
off the transistor, the emitter junctions has to be made slightly reverse biased in addition to IB = 0
(iii) Saturation region : Saturation lies close to zero voltage axis where all the curves coincide. In this
region, collector current is independent of the base current.

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28.
Sol.

ELECTRONIC DEVICES
Explain p-n-p transistor as common emitter amplifier
Emitter is common to both input & output circuit. The input (emitter-base) circuit is forward biased with
battery VBB & the output (collector-emitter) circuit is reverse biased. Due to which the resistance of
input circuit is low & that of output circuit is high. A load resistance RL is connected in series in the
collector circuit.
B

IB

IC

C
pnp
E

RL

ICRL

VCE
Input
singal

IE

output
signal

VCC
+

+ I
VBB B

IC

When no ac signal is applied to the input circuit, then according to Kirchhoff's 1st law
IE = IB + IC ..................(1)
If we assume that 5% of emitter current appears as base current due to electron-hole combination in
base, then 95% of the emitter current flows as collector current.
IB = 5% of IE = 0.05 IE
IC = 95% of IE = 0.95 IE
IC flows through the load resistance RL which produces a potential drop ICRL which is in opposition to
VCC net collector voltage VCE = VCC ICRL
...(2)
where VCE is the potential difference between collector & emitter. When the input signal is fed to the
emitter base circuit, it will change the emitter voltage & hence the emitter current which in turn will
change the collector current [from equation (1)]. Due to which the net collector voltage VCE varies in
accordance with equation (2). These variations in collector voltage appear as amplified output.
Phase relationship between input & output signals :
Amplification of positive half of input signal. The +ve half cycle of the input signal opposes the
forward biasing of base-emitter circuit. Due to the decreases in forward bias, the emitter current &
hence the collector current decreases. This decreases the potential drop ICRL. From equation (2) VCE
increases. In other words input signal, the negative half cycle of output signal is obtained.
Amplification of negative half of input signal :
The ve half cycle of input signal supports the forward biasing of base-emitter circuit. Due to increase in
forward bias, the emitter current & hence the collector current inccreases. This increases the potential
drop ICRL. From equation (2) VCE decreases. In other words collector becomes les negative. So positive
output signal is obtained. Thus, for negative half cycle of input signal, the +ve half cycle of output signal
is obtained. When p-n-p transistor is used as common emitter amplifier, the output & input signals are
180 out of phase.
Various gains in Common Emitter Amplifier :
1. Current gain : It is of two types :
(i) d.c. current gain : It is defined as the ratio of collector current (IC) to the base current (IB). It is
denoted by b.
b=

IC
I
= C
IB IE - IC

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(ii) a.c. circuit gain : It is defined as the ratio of change in collector current (DIC) to the change in base
current (DIB) at constant collector-emitter voltage. It is denoted b ac.
DI
b ac = C
DIB VCE

2.

Its value lies between 15 to 50, for a transistor.

Trans-conductance(gm) : It defined as the ratio of change in collector current (DIC) to the change is
abse emitter voltage i.e. input voltage (DVi)
gm =

DIC DIC DIB

=

DVi DIB DVi

gm =

3.

DVi

Q R i =

DIB

bac
Ri

a.c. voltage gain (Av) : It is defined as the ratio of change in output voltage (DVC) to the change in input
voltage (DVi)
Av =

DVC DIC R 0
R
=
= b ac 0
DVi
DIB R i
Ri

A v = bac Re sis tan ce gain

Av =

b ac
R0
Ri

A v = gm R0

4.

a.c. power gain : It is defined as the ratio of change in output power to change in input power.
DP

DI2

0
C
0
Power gain = DP = DI2 R
i
i
B

Power gain = b 2ac resis tan ce gain

Power gain = bac A v

29.
Sol.

Explain working of transistor as Oscillator

Tank circuit consisting of an inductance L & a capacitor C, connected in parallel is the simplest type
electrical oscillating system. In this circuit electrical energy once given to the circuit, oscillates as magnetic
energy in the inductance & electrostatic energy in the capacitance. frequency of oscillations is given by
v=

1
2p LC

Here LC circuit is inserted in emitter-base circuit of transistor which is forward biased with battery B1.
The collector-emitter circuit is reverse biased with battery B2. A coil L1 is inserted in collector emiter
circuit. I is coupled with L in such a way that if increasing magnetic flux is linked with L it will support the
forward bias of emitter-base circuit & decreasing magnetic fiux will oppose the forward bias.

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L1

B2

npn
E
L

Bi

Working : When K is closed, the current starts rising due to L1. As a result magnetic flux linked with L1
increases & hence increases with L. Due to mutual induction; an emf is induced in L which will charge the
upper plate of the capacitor with positive charge which supports the forward biasing of base-emitter
circuit. This results in an increase in the emitter current & hence an increase in collector current. In this
way the collector current through L1 goes on increasing, till the induced emf across L attains a saturation
value.
30.
Sol.

Discribe Transistor as a switch

To understand the operation of the transistor as a switch (i.e. a device for the on and off the current in the
circuit), we use n-p-n transistor with common emitter transistor circuit as shown in the figure.
Ic

RB

IB B

Rc

C
npn

Output V0
Voltage

E
Input v1
voltage

VBB

vBE

IE

IB

VCC

IC

Using Kirchoof's voltage law ; for the input circuit we have

VBB + IB RB + VBE = 0
or VBB = IBRB + VBE ....(1)
For the output circuit, we have
VCC + IC RC + VCE = 0
or VCE = VCC IC RC ....(2)
We shall assume VBB as the d.c. input voltage Vi and VCE as the output voltage Vo. Then
From (1),
Vi = IBRB + VBE
........... (3)
From (2),
V0 = VCC ICRC
.............(4)
Now we shall try to understand how V0 changes as Vi increases from zero onwards.
In case of Si - transistor as long as Vi < 0. 7V, thr transistor will be in cut off state and current I C will be
zero.
The from (4), V0 = VCC
When Vi > 0.7 V, the transistor is in active state. There will be some current IC in the collector-emitter
circuit. From (3) we note that the value of output voltage V0 decreases as the term ICRC increases. With
the increase of VbIC increases of V0 with Vi becomes non-linear and transistor goes to saturation state.
With further increase in Vi, V0 is found to decrease further towards zero but never becomes zero.

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ELECTRONIC DEVICES

21
cut off
Region

v0

Active
Region

Saturation
Region

31.
Sol.

0.7 V

1.0 V

vi

From above, we note that a long as Vi is low (i.e. Vi < 0.7 V), V0 is high (=Vcc). The transistor is in cut
off state. It means the transistor is said to be in switched on state. If V i is high (i.e., Vi > 1.0 V), the
transistor is in saturation state, the V0 is low and is very near to zero. It means the transistor is not
conducting. In this situation the transistor is said to be in the switched off state.
If we define low and high states as below and above certain voltage levels corresponding to cut off and
saturation states of transistor, then we can say that a low input state switches the transistor on and a high
input state switches it off. It means the low input to transistor gives a high output and a high input gies a
low output. It shows that a transistor acts as a switch.
Explain OR AND and NOT gate used in digital circuit
Boolean algebra and logic operations :
George Boole developed algebra to solve the logical problems. This algebra is known as BOOLEAN
ALGEBRA. This logic is a binary or two valued logic. So this algebra allows only two values or states
for a variable. These two values or states represent either 'true' or 'false' ; 'ON' or 'OFF' ; 'closed' or
'open'; 'high' or 'low' etc. by 1 and 0 respectively.
Logic Gates :
The digital circuit that can be analysed with the help of Boolean algebra is called logic gate or logic
circuit. A logic gate has one or two input but only one output.
There are primarily three logic gates namely the OR gate, the AND gate and the NOT gate.
Truth table : The operation of a logic gate or circuit can be represented in a table which contains all
possible inputs and their corresponding output is called truth table.
The OR gate:
OR gate has two inputs (A and B) and only one ouput (Y). The relation between the output (Y) and the
inputs (A and B) is given by the Boolean expression.
Y = A + B and is read as
"Y equal A OR B"
Logic symbol of OR gate is shown as
A

OR gate used in digital circuit

OR gate consists of two diodes connected in such a way that their n-regions are connected at a common
point. The input applied to A or B is either 0 or 1. These diodes are assumed to be ideal (zero resistance).
A
1
0

1.

5v

D1
D2

Following cases may heppen :

When A = 0 and B = 0, both the diodes are revese biased. In this case, non of the diodes conducts and
hence there is no output i.e. Y = 0

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2.

3.

4.

ELECTRONIC DEVICES
When A = 0 and B = 1. In this case, D2 is forward biased and D1 is reverse biased. So diode D2
conducts. The whole input voltage (i.e. 5V) appers at the output as diode D2 is ideal one. The high
voltage (5V) is represented by 1, so the output Y = 1.
When A = 1 and B = 0. In this case, diode D1 is forward biased and diode D2 is reverse biased. So
diode D1 conducts. The whole input voltage (5V) appears at the output as diode D 1 is ideal. The high
voltage (i.e. 5V) is represented by 1. So output Y = 1
When A = 1 and B = 1. In this case, both the diodes are forward biased and hence both conduct. The
output voltages of two diodes obtained across R are in parallel, so the net ouput Y = 1 (i.e. 5V)
The truth table of OR gate is given below :

Inputs

Output

0
0
1
1

0
1
0
1

0
1
1
1

The operation OR can be understood with the help of the following example.
Consider a circuit having two parallel switches A and B and an electric bulb in the circuit will glow only
if either switch A or switch B or both are closed. If both the switches are open, the bulb will not low at
all.
A
B
Y
+

The AND Gate :

AND gate has two inputs and only one output. The relation between inputs (A and B) and the output (Y)
is Given by the Boolean expression.
Y = A. B and is read as "Y equal A AND B"
Logic symbol of the AND gate is shown as
A
B

The AND gate used in digital circuit

The AND gate consists of two diodes connected in such a way that their p-regions are connected at
common point. The diodes are assumed to be ideal.

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ELECTRONIC DEVICES

23
A

D1

1
B

D2

1
0

1.

2.
3.

4.

Following cases may happen :

When A = 0 and B = 0. In this case both the diodes are forward biased and hence they conduct. In this
case, terminals A and B both are actually grounded because they are connected to grounded terminal of
battery B1. The diodes being ideal, no voltage drop takes place across either diode and as such the
output is zero. i.e. output Y = 0
When A = 0 and B =1. In this case diode D1 is forward biased and diode D2 is reverse biased. So diode
D1 conducts. As the diodes are ideal, so ouput voltage is again zero i.e output Y = 0
When A = 1 and B = 0. In this case, diode D1 is reverse biased and diode D2 is forward biased. So
diode D2 conducts. As such output voltage is again zero i.e. output Y = 0
When A = 1 and B = 1. In this case both the diodes are reverse biased and hence do not conduct. So the
output voltage (Y) is equla to the battery voltage connected to the resistance R. Hence Y = 1.
The truth table of AND gate is given below :

Inputs

Output

0
0
1
1

0
1
0
1

0
0
0
1

The operation ANDcan be understood with the help of the following example.
Consider a circuit having switches A and B in series with a bulb. The bulb will glow only if both the
switches are closed. If any one of the switches is open, the bulb will not glow.
B

~Y
+

The NOT Gate :

The NOT has only one input and only one output.
The relation between input(A) and output (Y) is given by Boolean expression as Y = A and is read as Y
NOT equal to A.
This shows that if A = 0, Y = 1 and if A = 1, Y = 0. It means NOT gate inverts the input. Due to this
reason, NOT gate is also known as inverter.
NOT gate used in digital circuit :
Since input signal is to be inverted so a transistor amplifier in common-emitter configuration is used
instead of a diode. This type of transistor configuration changes the phase of the signal or introduces a
phase inversion. The NOT gate used in a digital circuit is shown in figure.

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ELECTRONIC DEVICES

RL

A
1

n-p-n
E

1.

2.

Following cases may happen :

When A = 0, the emitter - base junction is reverse biased and hence ther eis no collector current. The
transistor is cut - off. So there is no potential drop across RL. Thus, the output voltage (Y) is equal to
voltage of the battery connected to the collector. Since high voltage is represented by 1, so Y = 1.
When A = 1, the emitter - base junction is forward biased and hence large collector current flows
through RL. The transistor is saturated. The voltage drop across RL is equal to the voltage of the battery
connected to the collector. Hence Y = 0
The truth table of Not gate is given below :
Input
(A)

32.
Sol.

Output
(Y)
Y=A

What is Integrated circuts (IC) give advantage, limitation and its uses
Integrated circuit is an assembly of large number of transistors, capacitors and resistors joined
on a single piece (square or rectangel) of silicon, which may be very small in size. In other words,
integrated circuit is a collection of interconnected transistors, diodes, resistors and capacitors fabricated
onto a single piece of silicon, known as chip.
Advantages of IC's
1. The have low cost.
2. They are the more reliable because there is no solder joint inside IC's
3. IC's are smaller and hence the device formed by IC's is very compact.
4. A complex circuit of reasonable size can be designed by using IC's
5. They require low powe to operate.
6. Greater ability of operate at extreme values of temperature.
Limitations :
1. If any one component goes out of order, the whole IC has to be replaced.
2. It is not possible to produce high power (> 10 W) by 1 C's
3. It is not possible to fabricate inductors and transformers on the surface of the chip.
Uses :
IC technology is widely used in televisions, computers, amplifiers, radios, video recorders,
telecommunication equipments etc.

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ELECTRONIC DEVICES

25

Exercise1
1.

What is the ratio of number of holes to number of conduction electrons in (i) n-type (ii) p-type extrinstic
semiconductor ? It is more, less or equal to one.

2.

What is the ratio number of holes to number of conduction electrons in an intrinsic semiconductor ?

3.

Why is the conductivity of n-type semiconductor greater than that of the p-type semiconductor even
when both of these have same level of doping ?

4.

How does the energy gap vary with doping in a pure semiconductor ?

5.

Why Germanium is preferred over Silicon for making semiconductor devices.

6.

Why does the conductivity of a semiconductor increase with rise of temperature ?

7.

In a semiconductor the concentration of electrons is 8 1013 cm3 and that of holes is 5 1012 cm3. Is
it p-type or n-type semiconductor?

8.

Carbon and Silicon are known to have similar lattice structures. However, the four bonding electrons of
C are present in second orbit while those of Si are present in its third orbit. How does this difference
result in a difference in their electical conductivities ?

9.

A semiconductor has equal electron and hole concentration of 6 108 m3. On doping with a certain
impurity, electron concentation increases to 8 1012 m3. (i) Identify the new semiconductor obtained
after doping. (ii) Calculate the new hole concentration (iii) How does the energy gap vary with doping ?

10.

What is the net charge on (i) p-type (ii) n-type semiconductor ?

11.

Which of the diodes are forward biased and which are revese biased ? Give reason.
+5V

+10V
10V

+5V
(i)
12V
(iv)

(iii)

(ii)
R

R
5V

(v)

10V

12.

Two semiconductor mateials A and B made by doping Ge crystal with As and In

respectively. The two are joined end to end and connected to a battery as shown :
(i) Will the junction be forward biased or reverse biased ?
(ii) Sketch V - I graph for this arrangement.

13.

When a forward bias is applied to a p - n junction, it

(i) raises the potential barrier
(ii) reduces the majority carrier current to zero
(iii) lowers the potential barrier
(iv) none of the above

14.

A p-n photodiode is fabricated from a semiconductor with band gap of 2.8 eV. Can it detect a wavelength
of 600 nm?

15.

What is the phase relationship between collector and base voltage in common emitter configuration.

16.

Which type of biasing gives a semiconductor diode a very high resistance ?

17.

In a CE transistor amplifier, the current gain is 100, input resistance is 1kW, output resistance is 10kW.
Find the voltage gain of the circuit.

18.

A transistor has a current gain of 50. If the collector resistance is 5kW and the input resistance is 1kW.
Calculate the output voltage if the input voltage is 0.01 V.

19.

In a CE circuit, if VCE is changed by 0.2 V, collector current changes by 0.004mA. Calcualte the output
resistance.

20.

The current gain for CE amplifier is 59. If the emitter current is 6mA, find the base curent and collector
current.

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Exercise2
1.

Give the logic symbol of NOR gate.

[2009]

2.

(i) With the help of circuit diagrams, distinguish between forward biasing and reverse biasing of a p-n
junction diode.
[2009]
(ii) Draw V I characteristics of a p-n junction diode in (a) forward bias, (b) reverse bias.

3.

With the help of a suitable diagram, explain the formation of depletion region in a p-n junction. How does
its width change when the junction is (i) forward biased, and (ii) reverse biased?
[2009]

4.

Give a circuit diagram of a common emitter amplifier using an n-p-n transistor. Draw the input and output
waveforms of the signal. Write the expression for its voltage gain.
[2009]

5.

Explain with the help of a circuit diagram how a never diode works as a dC voltage regulator. Draw its
I V characteristics.
[2009]

6.

(i) Identify the logic gates marked P and Q in the given logic circuit.
A
B

[2010]

(ii) Write down the output at X for the inputs A = 0, B = 0 and A = 1, B = 1.

7.

8.

9.

10.

Draw a schematic diagram of a step-up transformer. Explain its working principle. deduce the expression
for the secondary to primary voltage in terms of the number of turns in the coils. In an ideal transformer,
how is this ratio related to the currents in the two coils?
How is the transformer used in large scale transmission and distribution of electrical energy over long
distances?
[2010]
(a) Draw the circuit diagrams of a n-n junction diode in (i) forward bias, (ii) reverse bias. How are these
circuits used to study the VI characteristics of a silicon diode? Draw the typical
V I characteristics.
(b) What is a light emitting diode (LED) ? Mention two important advantages of LEDs over conventional
lampls.
[2010]
(a) Draw the circuit arrangement for studying the input and output characteristics of an n-p-n transistor
in CE configuration.
(ii) Current amplification factor.
(b) Describe briefly with the help of a circuit diagram how an n-p-n transistor is used to produce selfsustained oscillations.
[2010]
(i) Identify the logic gates makred P & Q in the given logic circuit
P
Q

11.

(ii) Write down the output of x for inputs A = 0, B = 0 and A = 1, B = 1

[2010]
Describe briefly with the help of a circuit diagram, how the flow of current carriers in a p-n-p transistor
is regulated with emitter-base junction forward biased and base-collector junction reverse biased.
[2012]

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ELECTRONIC DEVICES
27
12.
(a) Explain briefly the principle on which a transistor amplifier works as an oscillator. Draw the necessary
circuit diagram and explain its working.
[2012]
(b) Identify the equivalent gate for the following circuit and write its truth table.
A
A'
Y
B'
B

The graph shown in figure represents a plot of current versus voltage for a given semiconductor. Identify
the region. if any, over which the semiconductor has a negative resistance.
[2013]
Current (mA)

13.

14.

16.

C
A
Voltage (V)

In the circuit shown in the figure, identify the equivalent gate of the circuit and make its truth table.
[2013]
A

15.

Y1

Y2

Draw typical output characteristics of an n-p-n transistor in CE configuration. Show how these
characteristics can be used to determine output resistance.
[2013]
Draw V - I characteristics of a p-n junction diode. Answer the following questions, giving reasons :
[2013]
(i) Why is the current under reverse bias almost independent of the applied potential upto a critical
voltage ?
(ii) Why does the reverse current show a sudden increase at the cirtical voltage ?
Name any semiconductor device which operates under the reverse bias in the breakdown region.

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ELECTRONIC DEVICES

Answer Key
Exercise1
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
13.
15.
20.

(i) Less than one

(ii) More than one
1:1
Under a given electric field, free electrons have higher mobility than holes.
Decreases
Because the energy gap for Ge is 0.72 eV where as for Si, it is 1.1 eV
When a semiconductor is heated, more and more electrons jump across the forbidden gap from VB to
CB where there are free to conduct electricity.
n-type
It is easier to eject electrons from third orbit than from second orbit, so conductivity of Si is higher than
that of C.
(i) n-type (ii) neni = ni2 nh = 4.5 104 m3 (iii) reduces the forbidden energy gap.
Zero, zero
(i) Reverse
(ii) Forward (iii) Reverse (iv) Forward (v) Forward 12. Reverse biased
(iii)
14. No.
180 out of phase
16. Reverse biasing
17. 1000
18. 2.5V
19. 50kW
0.1mA, 5.9mA

Exercise2
6.

(i)

P - Nand Gate

10.

(i) P = NOT Gate

Q = OR Gate

Q - Or gate

(ii)

A
1
1
0
0

B
1
0
1
0

X
0
1
1
1

B X'
1 1
0 1
1 1
0 1

(ii)

1
0

0
1

1
1

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