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The parts of speech | The Writing Center
The parts of speech

Traditional grammar classifies words based on eight parts of speech: the
verb, the noun, the pronoun, the adjective, the adverb, the preposition, the
conjunction, and the interjection.
Each part of speech explains not what the word is, but how the word is
used. In fact, the same word can be a noun in one sentence and a verb or
adjective in the next. The next few examples show how a word's part of
speech can change from one sentence to the next, and following them is a
series of sections on the individual parts of speech, followed by an exercise.
Books are made of ink, paper, and glue.
In this sentence, "books" is a noun, the subject of the sentence.
Deborah waits patiently while Bridget books the tickets.
Here "books" is a verb, and its subject is "Bridget."
We walk down the street.
In this sentence, "walk" is a verb, and its subject is the pronoun "we."
The mail carrier stood on the walk.
In this example, "walk" is a noun, which is part of a prepositional phrase
describing where the mail carrier stood.
The town decided to build a new jail.
Here "jail" is a noun, which is the object of the infinitive phrase "to build."
The sheriff told us that if we did not leave town immediately he
would jail us.
Here "jail" is part of the compound verb "would jail."
They heard high pitched cries in the middle of the night.
In this sentence, "cries" is a noun acting as the direct object of the verb
"heard."
The baby cries all night long and all day long.
But here "cries" is a verb that describes the actions of the subject of the
sentence, the baby.
The next few sections explain each of the parts of speech in detail. When
you have finished, you might want to test yourself by trying the exercise.
Written by Heather MacFadyen
What is a verb?
The verb is perhaps the most important part of the sentence.
A verbor compound verb asserts something about the subject of the
sentence and express actions, events, or states of being. The verb or
compound verb is the critical element of the predicate of a sentence.
In each of the following sentences, the verb or compound verb
ishighlighted:
Dracula bites his victims on the neck.
The verb "bites" describes the action Dracula takes.
In early October, Giselle will plant twenty tulip bulbs.
Here the compound verb "will plant" describes an action that will take place
in the future.
My first teacher was Miss Crawford, but I remember the janitor Mr.
Weatherbee more vividly.
In this sentence, the verb "was" (the simple past tense tense of "is")
identifies a particular person and the verb "remember" describes a mental
action.
Karl Creelman bicycled around the world in 1899, but his diaries and
his bicycle were destroyed.
In this sentence, the compound verb "were destroyed" describes an action
which took place in the past.
What is a noun?
A noun is a word used to name a person, animal, place, thing, and abstract
idea. Nouns are usually the first words which small children learn.
The highlighted words in the following sentences are all nouns:
Late last year our neighbours bought a goat.
Portia White was an opera singer.
The bus inspector looked at all the passengers' passes.
According to Plutarch, the library at Alexandria was destroyed in 48
B.C.
Philosophy is of little comfort to the starving.
A noun can function in a sentence as a subject, a direct object, an indirect
object, a subject complement, an object complement, an appositive, an
adjective or an adverb.
Noun Gender
Many common nouns, like "engineer" or "teacher," can refer to men or
women. Once, many English nouns would change form depending on their
gender -- for example, a man was called an "author" while a woman was
called an "authoress" -- but this use of gender-specific nouns is very rare
today. Those that are still used occasionally tend to refer to occupational
categories, as in the following sentences.
David Garrick was a very prominent eighteenth-century actor.
Sarah Siddons was at the height of her career as an actress in the
1780s.
The manager was trying to write a want ad, but he couldn't decide
whether he was advertising for a "waiter" or a "waitress"
Noun Plurals
Most nouns change their form to indicate number by adding "-s" or "-es", as
illustrated in the following pairs of sentences:
When Matthew was small he rarely told the truth if he thought he was
going to be punished.
Many people do not believe that truths are self-evident.
As they walked through the silent house, they were startled by an
unexpected echo.
I like to shout into the quarry and listen to the echoes that return.
He tripped over a box left carelessly in the hallway.
Since we are moving, we will need many boxes.
There are other nouns which form the plural by changing the last letter
before adding "s". Some words ending in "f" form the plural by deleting "f"
and adding "ves," and words ending in "y" form the plural by deleting the "y"
and adding "ies," as in the following pairs of sentences:
The harbour at Marble Mountain has one wharf.
There are several wharves in Halifax Harbour.
Warsaw is their favourite city because it reminds them of their
courtship.
The vacation my grandparents won includes trips to twelve
European cities.
The children circled around the headmaster and shouted, "Are you
a mouse or a man?"
The audience was shocked when all five men admitted that they were
afraid of mice.
Other nouns form the plural irregularly. If English is your first language, you
probably know most of these already: when in doubt, consult a good
dictionary.
Possessive Nouns
In the possessive case, a noun or pronoun changes its form to show that it
owns or is closely related to something else. Usually, nouns become
possessive by adding a combination of an apostrophe and the letter "s."
You can form the possessive case of a singular noun that does not end in "s"
by adding an apostrophe and "s," as in the following sentences:
The red suitcase is Cassandra's.
The only luggage that was lost was the prime minister's.
The exhausted recruits were woken before dawn by the drill
sergeant's screams.
The miner's face was covered in coal dust.
You can form the possessive case of a singular noun that ends in "s" by
adding an apostrophe alone or by adding an apostrophe and "s," as in the
following examples:
The bus's seats are very uncomfortable.
The bus' seats are very uncomfortable.
The film crew accidentally crushed the platypus's eggs.
The film crew accidentally crushed the platypus' eggs.
Felicia Hemans's poetry was once more popular than Lord Byron's.
Felicia Hemans' poetry was once more popular than Lord Byron's.
You can form the possessive case of a plural noun that does not end in "s"
by adding an apostrophe and a "s," as in the following examples:
The children's mittens were scattered on the floor of the porch.
The sheep's pen was mucked out every day.
Since we have a complex appeal process, a jury's verdict is not
always final.
The men's hockey team will be playing as soon as the women's team
is finished.
The hunter followed the moose's trail all morning but lost it in the
afternoon.
You can form the possessive case of a plural noun that does end in "s" by
adding an apostrophe:
The concert was interrupted by the dogs' barking,
the ducks' quacking, and the babies' squalling.
The janitors' room is downstairs and to the left.
My uncle spent many hours trying to locate the squirrels' nest.
The archivist quickly finished repairing the diaries' bindings.
Religion is usually the subject of the roommates' many late night
debates.
Using Possessive Nouns

When you read the following sentences, you will notice that a noun in the
possessive case frequently functions as an adjective modifying another
noun:
The miner's face was covered in coal dust.
Here the possessive noun "miner's" is used to modify the noun "face" and
together with the article "the," they make up the noun phrase that is the
sentence's subject.
The concert was interrupted by the dogs' barking,
the ducks' quacking, and the babies' squalling.
In this sentence, each possessive noun modifies a gerund. The possessive
noun "dogs"' modifies "barking," "ducks"' modifies "quacking," and "babies"'
modifies "squalling."
The film crew accidentally crushed the platypus's eggs.
In this example the possessive noun "platypus's" modifies the noun "eggs"
and the noun phrase "the platypus's eggs" is the direct object of the verb
"crushed."
My uncle spent many hours trying to locate the squirrels' nest.
In this sentence the possessive noun "squirrels"' is used to modify the noun
"nest" and the noun phrase "the squirrels' nest" is the object of the infinitive
phrase "to locate."
Types Of Nouns
There are many different types of nouns. As you know, you capitalise some
nouns, such as "Canada" or "Louise," and do not capitalise others, such as
"badger" or "tree" (unless they appear at the beginning of a sentence). In
fact, grammarians have developed a whole series of noun types, including
the proper noun, the common noun, the concrete noun, the abstract noun,
the countable noun (also called the count noun), the non-countable noun
(also called the mass noun), and the collective noun. You should note that a
noun will belong to more than one type: it will be proper or common,
abstract or concrete, and countable or non-countable or collective.
If you are interested in the details of these different types, you can read
about them in the following sections.
Proper Nouns
You always write a proper noun with a capital letter, since the noun
represents the name of a specific person, place, or thing. The names of days
of the week, months, historical documents, institutions, organisations,
religions, their holy texts and their adherents are proper nouns. A proper
noun is the opposite of a common noun
In each of the following sentences, the proper nouns are highlighted:
The Marroons were transported from Jamaica and forced to build the
fortifications in Halifax.
Many people dread Monday mornings.
Beltane is celebrated on the first of May.
Abraham appears in the Talmud and in the Koran.
Last year, I had a Baptist, a Buddhist, and a Gardnerian Witch as
roommates.
Common Nouns
A common noun is a noun referring to a person, place, or thing in a

general sense -- usually, you should write it with a capital letter only when it
begins a sentence. A common noun is the opposite of a proper noun.
In each of the following sentences, the common nouns are highlighted:
According to the sign, the nearest town is 60 miles away.
All the gardens in the neighbourhood were invaded
by beetles this summer.
I don't understand why some people insist on having six
different kinds of mustard in their cupboards.
The road crew was startled by the sight of three
large moose crossing the road.
Many child-care workers are underpaid.
Sometimes you will make proper nouns out of common nouns, as in the
following examples:
The tenants in the Garnet Apartments are appealing the large and
sudden increase in their rent.
The meals in the Bouncing Bean Restaurant are less expensive than
meals in ordinary restaurants.
Many witches refer to the Renaissance as the Burning Times.
The Diary of Anne Frank is often a child's first introduction to the
history of the Holocaust.
Concrete Nouns
A concrete noun is a noun which names anything (or anyone) that you can
perceive through your physical senses: touch, sight, taste, hearing, or smell.
A concrete noun is the opposite of a abstract noun.
The highlighted words in the following sentences are all concrete nouns:
The judge handed the files to the clerk.
Whenever they take the dog to the beach, it spends hours
chasing waves.
The real estate agent urged the couple to buy the
second house because it had new shingles.
As the car drove past the park, the thump of a
disco tune overwhelmed the string quartet's rendition of a minuet.
The book binder replaced the flimsy paper cover with a sturdy,
cloth-covered board.
Abstract Nouns
An abstract noun is a noun which names anything which you
can not perceive through your five physical senses, and is the opposite of a
concrete noun. The highlighted words in the following sentences are all
abstract nouns:
Buying the fire extinguisher was an afterthought.
Tillie is amused by people who are nostalgic about childhood.
Justice often seems to slip out of our grasp.
Some scientists believe that schizophrenia is transmitted genetically.
Countable Nouns
A countable noun (or count noun) is a noun with both a singular and a
plural form, and it names anything (or anyone) that you can count. You can
make a countable noun plural and attach it to a plural verb in a sentence.
Countable nouns are the opposite of non-countable nouns and collective
nouns.
In each of the following sentences, the highlighted words are countable
nouns:
We painted the table red and the chairs blue.
Since he inherited his aunt's library, Jerome spends
every weekend indexing his books.
Miriam found six silver dollars in the toe of a sock.
The oak tree lost three branches in the hurricane.
Over the course of twenty-seven years, Martha Ballad delivered just
over eight hundred babies.
Non-Countable Nouns
A non-countable noun (or mass noun) is a noun which does not have a
plural form, and which refers to something that you could (or would) not
usually count. A non-countable noun always takes a singular verb in a
sentence. Non-countable nouns are similar to collective nouns, and are the
opposite of countable nouns.
The highlighted words in the following sentences are non-countable nouns:
Joseph Priestly discovered oxygen.
The word "oxygen" cannot normally be made plural.
Oxygen is essential to human life.

Since "oxygen" is a non-countable noun, it takes the singular verb "is" rather
than the plural verb "are."
We decided to sell the furniture rather than take it with us when we
moved.
You cannot make the noun "furniture" plural.
The furniture is heaped in the middle of the room.
Since "furniture" is a non-countable noun, it takes a singular verb, "is
heaped."
The crew spread the gravel over the roadbed.
You cannot make the non-countable noun "gravel" plural.
Gravel is more expensive than I thought.
Since "gravel" is a non-countable noun, it takes the singular verb form "is."
Collective Nouns
A collective noun is a noun naming a group of things, animals, or persons.
You could count the individual members of the group, but you usually think
of the group as a whole is generally as one unit. You need to be able to
recognise collective nouns in order to maintain subject-verb agreement. A
collective noun is similar to a non-countable noun, and is roughly the
opposite of a countable noun.
In each of the following sentences, the highlighted word is a collective
noun:
The flock of geese spends most of its time in the pasture.
The collective noun "flock" takes the singular verb "spends."
The jury is dining on take-out chicken tonight.
In this example the collective noun "jury" is the subject of the singular
compound verb "is dining."
The steering committee meets every Wednesday afternoon.
Here the collective noun "committee" takes a singular verb, "meets."
The class was startled by the bursting light bulb.

In this sentence the word "class" is a collective noun and takes the singular
compound verb "was startled."

What is a pronoun?
A pronoun can replace a noun or another pronoun. You use pronouns like
"he," "which," "none," and "you" to make your sentences less cumbersome
and less repetitive.
Grammarians classify pronouns into several types, including the personal
pronoun, the demonstrative pronoun, the interrogative pronoun, the
indefinite pronoun, the relative pronoun, the reflexive pronoun, and the
intensive pronoun.
Personal Pronouns
A personal pronoun refers to a specific person or thing and changes its
form to indicate person, number, gender, and case.
Subjective Personal Pronouns

A subjective personal pronoun indicates that the pronoun is acting as
the subject of the sentence. The subjective personal pronouns are "I," "you,"
"she," "he," "it," "we," "you," "they."
In the following sentences, each of the highlighted words is a subjective
personal pronoun and acts as the subject of the sentence:
I was glad to find the bus pass in the bottom of the green knapsack.
You are surely the strangest child I have ever met.
He stole the selkie's skin and forced her to live with him.
When she was a young woman, she earned her living as a coal miner.
After many years, they returned to their homeland.
We will meet at the library at 3:30 p.m.
It is on the counter.
Are you the delegates from Malagawatch?
Objective Personal Pronouns
An objective personal pronoun indicates that the pronoun is acting as

an object of a verb, compound verb, preposition, or infinitive phrase. The
objective personal pronouns are: "me," "you," "her," "him," "it," "us," "you,"
and "them."
In the following sentences, each of the highlighted words is an objective
personal pronoun:
Seamus stole the selkie's skin and forced her to live with him.
The objective personal pronoun "her" is the direct object of the verb "forced"
and the objective personal pronoun "him" is the object of the preposition
"with."
After reading the pamphlet, Judy threw it into the garbage can.
The pronoun "it" is the direct object of the verb "threw."
The agitated assistant stood up and faced the angry delegates and
said, "Our leader will address you in five minutes."
In this sentence, the pronoun "you" is the direct object of the verb
"address."
Deborah and Roberta will meet us at the newest caf in the market.
Here the objective personal pronoun "us" is the direct object of the
compound verb "will meet."
Give the list to me.
Here the objective personal pronoun "me" is the object of the preposition
"to."
I'm not sure that my contact will talk to you.
Similarly in this example, the objective personal pronoun "you" is the object
of the preposition "to."
Christopher was surprised to see her at the drag races.
Here the objective personal pronoun "her" is the object of the infinitive
phrase "to see."
Possessive Personal Pronouns
A possessive pronoun indicates that the pronoun is acting as a marker of

possession and defines who owns a particular object or person.
The possessive personal pronouns are "mine," "yours," "hers," "his,"
"its," "ours," and "theirs." Note that possessive personal pronouns are very
similar to possessive adjectives like "my," "her," and "their."
In each of the following sentences, the highlighted word is a possessive
personal pronoun:
The smallest gift is mine.
Here the possessive pronoun "mine" functions as a subject complement.
This is yours.
Here too the possessive pronoun "yours" functions as a subject complement.
His is on the kitchen counter.
In this example, the possessive pronoun "his" acts as the subject of the
sentence.
Theirs will be delivered tomorrow.
In this sentence, the possessive pronoun "theirs" is the subject of the
sentence.
Ours is the green one on the corner.
Here too the possessive pronoun "ours" function as the subject of the
sentence.
Demonstrative Pronouns
A demonstrative pronoun points to and identifies a noun or a pronoun.
"This" and "these" refer to things that are nearby either in space or in time,
while "that" and "those" refer to things that are farther away in space or
time.
The demonstrative pronouns are "this," "that," "these," and "those." "This"
and "that" are used to refer to singular nouns or noun phrases and "these"
and "those" are used to refer to plural nouns and noun phrases. Note that
the demonstrative pronouns are identical to demonstrative adjectives,
though, obviously, you use them differently. It is also important to note that
"that" can also be used as a relative pronoun.
In the following sentences, each of the highlighted words is a

demonstrative pronoun:
This must not continue.
Here "this" is used as the subject of the compound verb "must not continue."
This is puny; that is the tree I want.
In this example "this" is used as subject and refers to something close to the
speaker. The demonstrative pronoun "that" is also a subject but refers to
something farther away from the speaker.
Three customers wanted these.
Here "these" is the direct object of the verb "wanted."
Interrogative Pronouns
An interrogative pronoun is used to ask questions. The interrogative
pronouns are "who," "whom," "which," "what" and the compounds formed
with the suffix "ever" ("whoever," "whomever," "whichever," and
"whatever"). Note that either "which" or "what" can also be used as
an interrogative adjective, and that "who," "whom," or "which" can also be
used as a relative pronoun.
You will find "who," "whom," and occasionally "which" used to refer to
people, and "which" and "what" used to refer to things and to animals.
"Who" acts as the subject of a verb, while "whom" acts as the object of a
verb, preposition, or a verbal.
The highlighted word in each of the following sentences is an interrogative
pronoun:
Which wants to see the dentist first?
"Which" is the subject of the sentence.
Who wrote the novel Rockbound?
Similarly "who" is the subject of the sentence.
Whom do you think we should invite?
In this sentence, "whom" is the object of the verb "invite."
To whom do you wish to speak?

Here the interrogative pronoun "whom " is the object of the preposition "to."
Who will meet the delegates at the train station?
In this sentence, the interrogative pronoun "who" is the subject of the
compound verb "will meet."
To whom did you give the paper?
In this example the interrogative pronoun "whom" is the object of the
preposition "to."
What did she say?
Here the interrogative pronoun "what" is the direct object of the verb "say."
Relative Pronouns
You can use a relative pronoun is used to link one phrase or clause to
another phrase or clause. The relative pronouns are "who," "whom," "that,"
and "which." The compounds "whoever," "whomever," and "whichever" are
also relative pronouns.
You can use the relative pronouns "who" and "whoever" to refer to the
subject of a clause or sentence, and "whom" and "whomever" to refer to the
objects of a verb, a verbal or a preposition.
In each of the following sentences, the highlighted word is a relative
pronoun.
You may invite whomever you like to the party.
The relative pronoun "whomever" is the direct object of the compound verb
"may invite."
The candidate who wins the greatest popular vote is not always
elected.
In this sentence, the relative pronoun is the subject of the verb "wins" and
introduces the subordinate clause "who wins the greatest popular vote." This
subordinate clause acts as an adjective modifying "candidate."
In a time of crisis, the manager asks the workers whom she believes
to be the most efficient to arrive an hour earlier than usual.
In this sentence "whom" is the direct object of the verb "believes" and
introduces the subordinate clause "whom she believes to be the most
efficient". This subordinate clause modifies the noun "workers."
Whoever broke the window will have to replace it.
Here "whoever" functions as the subject of the verb "broke."
The crate which was left in the corridor has now been moved into the
storage closet.
In this example "which" acts as the subject of the compound verb "was left"
and introduces the subordinate clause "which was left in the corridor." The
subordinate clause acts as an adjective modifying the noun "crate."
I will read whichever manuscript arrives first.
Here "whichever" modifies the noun "manuscript" and introduces the
subordinate clause "whichever manuscript arrives first." The subordinate
clause functions as the direct object of the compound verb "will read."
Indefinite Pronouns
An indefinite pronoun is a pronoun referring to an identifiable but not
specified person or thing. An indefinite pronoun conveys the idea of all, any,
none, or some.
The most common indefinite pronouns are "all," "another," "any,"
"anybody," "anyone," "anything," "each," "everybody," "everyone,"
"everything," "few," "many," "nobody," "none," "one," "several," "some,"
"somebody," and "someone." Note that some indefinite pronouns can also be
used as indefinite adjectives.
The highlighted words in the following sentences are indefinite pronouns:
Many were invited to the lunch but only twelve showed up.
Here "many" acts as the subject of the compound verb "were invited."
The office had been searched and everything was thrown onto the
floor.
In this example, "everything" acts as a subject of the compound verb "was
thrown."
We donated everything we found in the attic to the woman's shelter

garage sale.
In this sentence, "everything" is the direct object of theverb "donated."
Although they looked everywhere for extra copies of the magazine,
they found none.
Here too the indefinite pronoun functions as a direct object: "none" is the
direct object of "found."
Make sure you give everyone a copy of the amended bylaws.
In this example, "everyone" is the indirect object of the verb "give" -- the
direct object is the noun phrase "a copy of the amended bylaws."
Give a registration package to each.
Here "each" is the object of the preposition "to."
Reflexive Pronouns
You can use a reflexive pronoun to refer back to the subject of the clause
or sentence.
The reflexive pronouns are "myself," "yourself," "herself," "himself," "itself,"
"ourselves," "yourselves," and "themselves." Note each of these can also act
as an intensive pronoun.
Each of the highlighted words in the following sentences is a reflexive
pronoun:
Diabetics give themselves insulin shots several times a day.
The Dean often does the photocopying herself so that the secretaries
can do more important work.
After the party, I asked myself why I had faxed invitations to
everyone in my office building.
Richard usually remembered to send a copy of his e-mail tohimself.
Although the landlord promised to paint the apartment, we ended up
doing it ourselves.
Intensive Pronouns
An intensive pronoun is a pronoun used to emphasise its antecedent.
Intensive pronouns are identical in form to reflexive pronouns.
The highlighted words in the following sentences are intensive pronouns:

I myself believe that aliens should abduct my sister.
The Prime Minister himself said that he would lower taxes.
They themselves promised to come to the party even though they
had a final exam at the same time.

What is an adjective?
An adjective modifies a noun or a pronoun by describing, identifying, or
quantifying words. An adjective usually precedes the noun or the pronoun
which it modifies.
In the following examples, the highlighted words are adjectives:
The truck-shaped balloon floated over the treetops.
Mrs. Morrison papered her kitchen walls with hideous wall paper.
The small boat foundered on the wine dark sea.
The coal mines are dark and dank.
Many stores have already begun to play irritating Christmasmusic.
A battered music box sat on the mahogany sideboard.
The back room was filled with large, yellow rain boots.
An adjective can be modified by an adverb, or by
a phrase or clausefunctioning as an adverb. In the sentence
My husband knits intricately patterned mittens.
for example, the adverb "intricately" modifies the adjective "patterned."
Some nouns, many pronouns, and many participle phrases can also act as
adjectives. In the sentence
Eleanor listened to the muffled sounds of the radio hiddenunder her
pillow.
for example, both highlighted adjectives are past participles.
Grammarians also consider articles ("the," "a," "an") to be adjectives.
Possessive Adjectives
A possessive adjective ("my," "your," "his," "her," "its," "our," "their") is

similar or identical to a possessive pronoun; however, it is used as an
adjective and modifies a noun or a noun phrase, as in the following
sentences:
I can't complete my assignment because I don't have the textbook.
In this sentence, the possessive adjective "my" modifies "assignment" and
the noun phrase "my assignment" functions as an object. Note that the
possessive pronoun form "mine" is not used to modify a noun or noun
phrase.
What is your phone number.
Here the possessive adjective "your" is used to modify the noun phrase
"phone number"; the entire noun phrase "your phone number" is a subject
complement. Note that the possessive pronoun form "yours" is not used to
modify a noun or a noun phrase.
The bakery sold his favourite type of bread.
In this example, the possessive adjective "his" modifies the noun phrase
"favourite type of bread" and the entire noun phrase "his favourite type of
bread" is the direct object of the verb "sold."
After many years, she returned to her homeland.
Here the possessive adjective "her" modifies the noun "homeland" and the
noun phrase "her homeland" is the object of the preposition"to." Note also
that the form "hers" is not used to modify nouns or noun phrases.
We have lost our way in this wood.
In this sentence, the possessive adjective "our" modifies "way" and the noun
phrase "our way" is the direct object of the compound verb"have lost". Note
that the possessive pronoun form "ours" is not used to modify nouns or noun
phrases.
In many fairy tales, children are neglected by their parents.
Here the possessive adjective "their" modifies "parents" and the noun phrase
"their parents" is the object of the preposition "by." Note that the possessive
pronoun form "theirs" is not used to modify nouns or noun phrases.
The cat chased its ball down the stairs and into the backyard.
In this sentence, the possessive adjective "its" modifies "ball" and the noun
phrase "its ball" is the object of the verb "chased." Note that "its" is the
possessive adjective and "it's" is a contraction for "it is."
Demonstrative Adjectives
The demonstrative adjectives "this," "these," "that," "those," and "what"
are identical to the demonstrative pronouns, but are used as adjectives to
modify nouns or noun phrases, as in the following sentences:
When the librarian tripped over that cord, she dropped a pile of books.
In this sentence, the demonstrative adjective "that" modifies the noun
"cord" and the noun phrase "that cord" is the object of the preposition
"over."
This apartment needs to be fumigated.
Here "this" modifies "apartment" and the noun phrase "this apartment" is
the subject of the sentence.
Even though my friend preferred those plates, I bought these.
In the subordinate clause, "those" modifies "plates" and the noun phrase
"those plates" is the object of the verb "preferred." In the independent
clause, "these" is the direct object of the verb "bought."
Note that the relationship between a demonstrative adjective and a
demonstrative pronoun is similar to the relationship between a possessive
adjective and a possessive pronoun, or to that between a interrogative
adjective and an interrogative pronoun.
Interrogative Adjectives
An interrogative adjective ("which" or "what") is like an interrogative
pronoun, except that it modifies a noun or noun phrase rather than standing
on its own (see also demonstrative adjectives and possessive adjectives):
Which plants should be watered twice a week?
Like other adjectives, "which" can be used to modify a noun or a noun
phrase. In this example, "which" modifies "plants" and the noun phrase
"which plants" is the subject of the compound verb "should be watered":
What book are you reading?
In this sentence, "what" modifies "book" and the noun phrase "what book" is
the direct object of the compound verb "are reading."
Indefinite Adjectives
An indefinite adjective is similar to an indefinite pronoun, except that it
modifies a noun, pronoun, or noun phrase, as in the following sentences:
Many people believe that corporations are under-taxed.
The indefinite adjective "many" modifies the noun "people" and the noun
phrase "many people" is the subject of the sentence.
I will send you any mail that arrives after you have moved to Sudbury.
The indefinite adjective "any" modifies the noun "mail" and the noun phrase
"any mail" is the direct object of the compound verb "will send."
They found a few goldfish floating belly up in the swan pound.
In this example the indefinite adjective modifies the noun "goldfish" and the
noun phrase is the direct object of the verb "found":
The title of Kelly's favourite game is "All dogs go to heaven."
Here the indefinite pronoun "all" modifies "dogs" and the full title is a subject
complement.

What is an adverb?
An adverb can modify a verb, an adjective, another adverb, a phrase, or
a clause. An adverb indicates manner, time, place, cause, or degree and
answers questions such as "how," "when," "where," "how much".
While some adverbs can be identified by their characteristic "ly" suffix, most
of them must be identified by untangling the grammatical relationships
within the sentence or clause as a whole. Unlike an adjective, an adverb can
be found in various places within the sentence.
In the following examples, each of the highlighted words is an adverb:
The seamstress quickly made the mourning clothes.
In this sentence, the adverb "quickly" modifies the verb "made" and
indicates in what manner (or how fast) the clothing was constructed.
The midwives waited patiently through a long labour.
Similarly in this sentence, the adverb "patiently" modifies the verb "waited"
and describes the manner in which the midwives waited.
The boldly spoken words would return to haunt the rebel.
In this sentence the adverb "boldly" modifies the adjective "spoken."
We urged him to dial the number more expeditiously.
Here the adverb "more" modifies the adverb "expeditiously."
Unfortunately, the bank closed at three today.
In this example, the adverb "unfortunately" modifies the entire sentence.
Conjunctive Adverbs
You can use a conjunctive adverb to join two clauses together. Some of
the most common conjunctive adverbs are "also," "consequently," "finally,"
"furthermore," "hence," "however," "incidentally," "indeed," "instead,"
"likewise," "meanwhile," "nevertheless," "next," "nonetheless," "otherwise,"
"still," "then," "therefore," and "thus." A conjunctive adverb is not strong
enough to join two independent clauses without the aid of a semicolon.
The highlighted words in the following sentences are conjunctive adverbs:
The government has cut university budgets; consequently, class
sizes have been increased.
He did not have all the ingredients the recipe called for;therefore, he
decided to make something else.
The report recommended several changes to the ways the corporation
accounted for donations; furthermore, it suggested that a new
auditor be appointed immediately.
The crowd waited patiently for three hours; finally, the doors to the
stadium were opened.
Batman and Robin fruitlessly searched the building; indeed, the Joker
had escaped through a secret door in the basement.
What is a preposition?
A preposition links nouns, pronouns and phrases to other words in a
sentence. The word or phrase that the preposition introduces is called
the object of the preposition.
A preposition usually indicates the temporal, spatial or logical relationship of
its object to the rest of the sentence as in the following examples:
The book is on the table.
The book is beneath the table.
The book is leaning against the table.
The book is beside the table.
She held the book over the table.
She read the book during class.
In each of the preceding sentences, a preposition locates the noun "book" in
space or in time.
A prepositional phrase is made up of the preposition, its object and any
associated adjectives or adverbs. A prepositional phrase can function as a
noun, an adjective, or an adverb. The most common prepositions are
"about," "above," "across," "after," "against," "along," "among," "around,"
"at," "before," "behind," "below," "beneath," "beside," "between," "beyond,"
"but," "by," "despite," "down," "during," "except," "for," "from," "in,"
"inside," "into," "like," "near," "of," "off," "on," "onto," "out," "outside,"
"over," "past," "since," "through," "throughout," "till," "to," "toward,"
"under," "underneath," "until," "up," "upon," "with," "within," and "without."
Each of the highlighted words in the following sentences is a preposition:
The children climbed the mountain without fear.
In this sentence, the preposition "without" introduces the noun "fear." The
prepositional phrase "without fear" functions as an adverb describing how
the children climbed.
There was rejoicing throughout the land when the government was
defeated.
Here, the preposition "throughout" introduces the noun phrase "the land."
The prepositional phrase acts as an adverb describing the location of the
rejoicing.
The spider crawled slowly along the banister.
The preposition "along" introduces the noun phrase "the banister" and the
prepositional phrase "along the banister" acts as an adverb, describing
where the spider crawled.
The dog is hiding under the porch because it knows it will be
punished for chewing up a new pair of shoes.
Here the preposition "under" introduces the prepositional phrase "under the
porch," which acts as an adverb modifying the compound verb "is hiding."
The screenwriter searched for the manuscript he was certain was
somewhere in his office.
Similarly in this sentence, the preposition "in" introduces a prepositional
phrase "in his office," which acts as an adverb describing the location of the
missing papers.

What is a conjunction?
You can use a conjunction to link words, phrases, and clauses, as in the
following example:
I ate the pizza and the pasta.
Call the movers when you are ready.
Co-ordinating Conjunctions
You use a co-ordinating conjunction ("and," "but," "or," "nor," "for," "so,"
or "yet") to join individual words, phrases, and independent clauses. Note
that you can also use the conjunctions "but" and "for" as prepositions.
In the following sentences, each of the highlighted words is a co-ordinating
conjunction:
Lilacs and violets are usually purple.
In this example, the co-ordinating conjunction "and" links two nouns.
This movie is particularly interesting to feminist film theorists,for the
screenplay was written by Mae West.
In this example, the co-ordinating conjunction "for" is used to link two

independent clauses.
Daniel's uncle claimed that he spent most of his youth dancing on
rooftops and swallowing goldfish.
Here the co-ordinating conjunction "and" links two participle
phrases ("dancing on rooftops" and "swallowing goldfish") which act
as adverbs describing the verb "spends."
Subordinating Conjunctions
A subordinating conjunction introduces a dependent clause and indicates
the nature of the relationship among the independent clause(s) and the
dependent clause(s).
The most common subordinating conjunctions are "after," "although," "as,"
"because," "before," "how," "if," "once," "since," "than," "that," "though,"
"till," "until," "when," "where," "whether," and "while."
Each of the highlighted words in the following sentences is a subordinating
conjunction:
After she had learned to drive, Alice felt more independent.
The subordinating conjunction "after" introduces the dependent clause "After
she had learned to drive."
If the paperwork arrives on time, your cheque will be mailed on
Tuesday.
Similarly, the subordinating conjunction "if" introduces the dependent clause
"If the paperwork arrives on time."
Gerald had to begin his thesis over again when his computer crashed.
The subordinating conjunction "when" introduces the dependent clause
"when his computer crashed."
Midwifery advocates argue that home births are safer becausethe
mother and baby are exposed to fewer people and fewer germs.
In this sentence, the dependent clause "because the mother and baby are
exposed to fewer people and fewer germs" is introduced by the
subordinating conjunction "because."
Correlative Conjunctions
Correlative conjunctions always appear in pairs -- you use them to link
equivalent sentence elements. The most common correlative conjunctions
are "both...and," "either...or," "neither...nor,", "not only...but also,"
"so...as," and "whether...or." (Technically correlative conjunctions consist
simply of a co-ordinating conjunction linked to an adjective or adverb.)
The highlighted words in the following sentences are correlative
conjunctions:
Both my grandfather and my father worked in the steel plant.
In this sentence, the correlative conjunction "both...and" is used to link the
two noun phrases that act as the compound subject of the sentence: "my
grandfather" and "my father".
Bring either a Jello salad or a potato scallop.
Here the correlative conjunction "either...or" links two noun phrases: "a Jello
salad" and "a potato scallop."
Corinne is trying to decide whether to go to medical school orto go to
law school.
Similarly, the correlative conjunction "whether ... or" links the two infinitive
phrases "to go to medical school" and "to go to law school."
The explosion destroyed not only the school but also the
neighbouring pub.
In this example the correlative conjunction "not only ... but also" links the
two noun phrases ("the school" and "neighbouring pub") which act as direct
objects.
Note: some words which appear as conjunctions can also appear as
prepositions or as adverbs.

What is an interjection?
An interjection is a word added to a sentence to convey emotion. It is not
grammatically related to any other part of the sentence.
You usually follow an interjection with an exclamation mark. Interjections

are uncommon in formal academic prose, except in direct quotations.
The highlighted words in the following sentences are interjections:
Ouch, that hurt!
Oh no, I forgot that the exam was today.
Hey! Put that down!
I heard one guy say to another guy, "He has a new car, eh?"
I don't know about you but, good lord, I think taxes are too high!
The parts of the sentence | The Writing

Center
The Parts of the Sentence

The parts of the sentence are a set of terms for describing how people
construct sentences from smaller pieces. There is not a direct
correspondence between the parts of the sentence and the parts of speech - the subject of a sentence, for example, could be a noun, a pronoun, or
even an entire phrase or clause. Like the parts of speech, however, the parts
of the sentence form part of the basic vocabulary of grammar, and it is
important that you take some time to learn and understand them.
Written by Frances Peck
Subject and Predicate
Every complete sentence contains two parts: a subject and a predicate.
The subject is what (or whom) the sentence is about, while the predicate
tells something about the subject. In the following sentences, the predicate
is enclosed in braces ({}), while the subject is highlighted.
Judy {runs}.
Judy and her dog {run on the beach every morning}.
To determine the subject of a sentence, first isolate the verb and then make
a question by placing "who?" or "what?" before it -- the answer is the
subject.
The audience littered the theatre floor with torn wrappings and spilled
popcorn.
The verb in the above sentence is "littered." Who or what littered? The
audience did. "The audience" is the subject of the sentence. The predicate
(which always includes the verb) goes on to relate something about the
subject: what about the audience? It "littered the theatre floor with torn
wrappings and spilled popcorn."
Unusual Sentences
Imperative sentences (sentences that give a command or an order) differ
from conventional sentences in that their subject, which is always "you," is
understood rather than expressed.
Stand on your head. ("You" is understood before "stand.")
Be careful with sentences that begin with "there" plus a form of the verb "to
be." In such sentences, "there" is not the subject; it merely signals that the
true subject will soon follow.
There were three stray kittens cowering under our porch steps this
morning.
If you ask who? or what? before the verb ("were cowering"), the answer is
"three stray kittens," the correct subject.
Simple Subject and Simple Predicate

noun or pronoun (or more) that, when stripped of all the words that modify
it, is known as the simple subject. Consider the following example:
A piece of pepperoni pizza would satisfy his hunger.
The subject is built around the noun "piece," with the other words of the
subject -- "a" and "of pepperoni pizza" -- modifying the noun. "Piece" is the
simple subject.
Likewise, a predicate has at its centre a simple predicate, which is always
the verb or verbs that link up with the subject. In the example we just
considered, the simple predicate is "would satisfy" -- in other words, the

verb of the sentence.
A sentence may have a compound subject -- a simple subject consisting of
more than one noun or pronoun -- as in these examples:
Team pennants, rock posters and family photographs covered the
boy's bedroom walls.
Her uncle and she walked slowly through the Inuit art gallery and
admired the powerful sculptures exhibited there.
The second sentence above features a compound predicate, a predicate
that includes more than one verb pertaining to the same subject (in this
case, "walked" and "admired").

Objects and Complements
Objects
A verb may be followed by an object that completes the verb's meaning.
Two kinds of objects follow verbs: direct objects and indirect objects. To
determine if a verb has a direct object, isolate the verb and make it into a
question by placing "whom?" or "what?" after it. The answer, if there is one,
is the direct object:
Direct Object
The advertising executive drove a flashy red Porsche.
Direct Object
Her secret admirer gave her a bouquet of flowers.
The second sentence above also contains an indirect object. An indirect
object (which, like a direct object, is always a noun or pronoun) is, in a
sense, the recipient of the direct object. To determine if a verb has an
indirect object, isolate the verb and ask to whom?, to what?, for whom?,
or for what? after it. The answer is the indirect object.
Not all verbs are followed by objects. Consider the verbs in the following
sentences:
The guest speaker rose from her chair to protest.
After work, Randy usually jogs around the canal.
Transitive and Intransitive Verbs

Verbs that take objects are known as transitive verbs. Verbs not followed
by objects are called intransitive verbs.
Some verbs can be either transitive verbs or intransitive verbs, depending
on the context:
Direct Object
I hope the Senators win the next game.
No Direct Object
Did we win?
Subject Complements
In addition to the transitive verb and the intransitive verb, there is a third
kind of verb called a linking verb. The word (or phrase) which follows a
linking verb is called not an object, but a subject complement.
The most common linking verb is "be." Other linking verbs are "become,"
"seem," "appear," "feel," "grow," "look," "smell," "taste," and "sound,"
among others. Note that some of these are sometimes linking verbs,
sometimes transitive verbs, or sometimes intransitive verbs, depending on
how you use them:
Linking verb with subject complement
He was a radiologist before he became a full-time yoga instructor.
Linking verb with subject complement
Your homemade chili smells delicious.
Transitive verb with direct object
I can't smell anything with this terrible cold.
Intransitive verb with no object
The interior of the beautiful new Buick smells strongly of fish.
Note that a subject complement can be either a noun ("radiologist",
"instructor") or an adjective ("delicious").
Object Complements
(by David Megginson)
An object complement is similar to a subject complement, except that
(obviously) it modifies an object rather than a subject. Consider this
example of a subject complement:
The driver seems tired.

In this case, as explained above, the adjective "tired" modifies the noun
"driver," which is the subject of the sentence.
Sometimes, however, the noun will be the object, as in the following
example:
I consider the driver tired.
In this case, the noun "driver" is the direct object of the verb "consider," but
the adjective "tired" is still acting as its complement.
In general, verbs which have to do with perceiving, judging, or changing
something can cause their direct objects to take an object complement:
Paint it black.
The judge ruled her out of order.
I saw the Prime Minister sleeping.
In every case, you could reconstruct the last part of the sentence into a
sentence of its own using a subject complement: "it is black," "she is out of
order," "the Prime Minister is sleeping."
Punctuation | The Writing Center

Punctuation
The following sections will help you understand and use different types
of punctuation more effectively in your writing. This chapter begins with
the comma, the punctuation mark which usually causes writers the most
trouble, before turning to other types of punctuation.

The Comma
Comma usage is in some respects a question of personal writing style:

some writers use commas liberally, while others prefer to use them
sparingly. Most modern North American style guides now recommend using
fewer commas rather than more, so when faced with the option of using a
comma or not, you may find it wise to refrain.
For instance, the use of a comma before the "and" in a series is usually
optional, and many writers choose to eliminate it, provided there is no
danger of misreading:
We bought scarves, mittens and sweaters before leaving for Iceland.
(comma unnecessary before "and")
We ate apples, plums, and strawberry and kiwi compote. (comma
needed before "and" for clarity)
Comma Usage
1. Use a comma before a co-ordinating conjunction that joins independent
clauses (unless the independent clauses are very short):
I wrapped the fresh fish in three layers of newspaper, but my van still
smelled like trout for the next week. (commas with two independent
clauses)
She invited him to her party and he accepted. (comma unnecessary
with short clauses)
2. Use a comma after an introductory adverb clause and, often, after an
introductory phrase (unless the phrase is very short):
After the hospital had completed its fund-raising campaign, an
anonymous donor contributed an additional $10,000. (after
introductory adverb clause)
From the east wall to the west, her cottage measures twenty feet.
(after introductory prepositional phrase)
In the bottom drawer you will find some pink spandex tights. (no
comma with short, closely related phrase)
3. Use a comma to separate items in a series:
Playing in a band can be exciting, but many people do not realize the
hardships involved: constant rehearsals, playing until 2 a.m., handling
drunken audience members, and transporting heavy equipment to and
from gigs. (the comma preceding "and" is optional unless needed to

prevent misreading)
4. Use commas to set off non-restrictive elements and other parenthetical
elements. A non-restrictive modifier is a phrase or clause that does not
restrict or limit the meaning of the word it is modifying. It is, in a sense,
interrupting material that adds extra information to a sentence. Even though
removing the non-restrictive element would result in some loss of meaning,
the sentence would still make sense without it. You should usually set off
non-restrictive elements with commas:
The people of Haiti, who for decades have lived with grinding poverty
and mind-numbing violence, are unfamiliar with the workings of a true
democracy.
A restrictive modifier is a phrase or clause that limits the meaning of what
it modifies and is essential to the basic idea expressed in the sentence. You
should not set off restrictive elements with commas:
Those residents of Ottawa who do not hold secure, well-paying jobs
must resent the common portrayal of the city as a land of opportunity.
Note that you can use two other punctuation marks to set off non-restrictive
elements or other parenthetical information: parentheses and dashes.
Enclosing parenthetical information in parentheses reduces the importance
of that information:
Mr. Grundy's driving record (with one small exception) was exemplary.
5. Placing parenthetical information between dashes has the opposite effect: it
emphasises the material:
Mr. Grundy's driving record -- with one exception -- was exemplary.
Nevertheless, you should usually set off parenthetical information with
commas.
Superfluous Commas
Equally important in understanding how to use commas effectively is
knowing when not to use them. While this decision is sometimes a matter of
personal taste, there are certain instances when you should definitely avoid
a comma.
Do
not use a comma to separate the subject from its predicate:

[WRONG] Registering for our fitness programs before September 15,
will save you thirty percent of the membership cost.
[RIGHT] Registering for our fitness programs before September 15 will
save you thirty percent of the membership cost.
Do
not use a comma to separate a verb from its object or its subject
complement, or a preposition from its object:
[WRONG] I hope to mail to you before Christmas, a current snapshot
of my dog Benji.
She travelled around the world with, a small backpack, a bedroll, a
pup tent and a camera.
[RIGHT] I hope to mail to you before Christmas a current snapshot of
my dog Benji.
[RIGHT] She travelled around the world with a small backpack, a
bedroll, a pup tent and a camera.
Do
not misuse a comma after a co-ordinating conjunction:

[WRONG] Sleet fell heavily on the tin roof but, the family was used to
the noise and paid it no attention.
[RIGHT] Sleet fell heavily on the tin roof, but the family was used to
the noise and paid it no attention.
Do
not use commas to set off words and short phrases (especially
introductory ones) that are not parenthetical or that are very slightly so:
[WRONG] After dinner, we will play badminton.
[RIGHT] After dinner we will play badminton.
Do
not use commas to set off restrictive elements:

[WRONG] The fingers, on his left hand, are bigger than those on his
right.
[RIGHT] The fingers on his left hand are bigger than those on his right.
Do
not use a comma before the first item or after the last item of a series:
[WRONG] The treasure chest contained, three wigs, some costume

jewellery and five thousand dollars in Monopoly money.
[WRONG] You should practice your punches, kicks and foot sweeps, if
you want to improve in the martial arts.
[RIGHT] The treasure chest contained three wigs, some costume
jewellery and five thousand dollars in Monopoly money.
[RIGHT] You should practice your punches, kicks and foot sweeps if
you want to improve in the martial arts.

The Semicolon
You will usually use the semicolon to link independent clauses not joined by
a co-ordinating conjunction. Semicolons should join only those independent
clauses that are closely related in meaning.
Abdominal exercises help prevent back pain; proper posture is also
important.
The auditors made six recommendations; however, only one has been
adopted so far.
Do not use a semicolon to link a dependent clause or a phrase to an
independent clause.
[WRONG] Although gaining and maintaining a high level of physical
fitness takes a good deal of time; the effort pays off in the long run.
[RIGHT] Although gaining and maintaining a high level of physical
fitness takes a good deal of time, the effort pays off in the long run.
Generally, you should not place a semicolon before a co-ordinating
conjunction that links two independent clauses. The only exception to this
guideline is if the two independent clauses are very long and already contain
a number of commas.
[WRONG] The economy has been sluggish for four years now; but
some signs of improvement are finally beginning to show.
[RIGHT] The economy has been sluggish for four years now, but some
signs of improvement are finally beginning to show.
It may be useful to remember that, for the most part, you should use a
semicolon only where you could also use a period.
There is one exception to this guideline. When punctuating a list or series of

elements in which one or more of the elements contains an internal comma,
you should use semicolons instead of commas to separate the elements from
one another:
Henry's mother believes three things: that every situation, no matter
how grim, will be happily resolved; that no one knows more about
human nature than she; and that Henry, who is thirty-five years old,
will never be able to do his own laundry.

The Colon
Writers often confuse the colon with the semicolon, but their uses are
entirely different.
When to Use a Colon

The colon focuses the reader's attention on what is to follow, and as a
result, you should use it to introduce a list, a summation, or an idea that
somehow completes the introductory idea. You may use the colon in this
way, however, only after an independent clause:
He visited three cities during his stay in the Maritimes: Halifax, Saint
John and Moncton.
Their lobbying efforts were ultimately useless: the bill was soundly
defeated.
My mother gave me one good piece of advice: to avoid wasting time
and energy worrying about things I cannot change.
When Not to Use a Colon

You should not place a colon between a verb and its object or subject
complement, or between a preposition and its object:
[WRONG] His neighbour lent him: a pup-tent, a wooden canoe, and a
slightly battered Coleman stove. (colon between verb and objects)
[RIGHT] His neighbour lent him a pup-tent, a wooden canoe, and a
slightly battered Coleman stove.
[WRONG] Her three goals are: to improve her public speaking skills, to
increase her self-confidence and to sharpen her sales techniques.
(colon between verb and subject complement)
[RIGHT] Her three goals are to improve her public speaking skills, to
increase her self-confidence and to sharpen her sales techniques.
[WRONG] We travelled to: London, Wales and Scotland. (colon
between preposition and objects)
[RIGHT] We travelled to London, Wales and Scotland.

End Punctuation
The punctuation marks that signal the end of a sentence are the period, the
question mark and the exclamation mark.
You use the period, by far the most common of the end
punctuation marks, to terminate a sentence that makes a statement. You
may also use periods with imperative sentences that have no sense of
urgency or excitement attached:
Without a doubt, Lady Emily was much happier after her divorce.
Turn right at the stop sign.
Bring me a cup of coffee and a cheese danish.
When you want to express a sense of urgency or very strong emotion, you
may end your imperative sentences and statements with an exclamation
mark:
Look out below!
Leave this house at once!
I hate him!
Exclamation marks are, however, rare in formal writing. Use them sparingly,
if at all.
You should use the question mark at the end of a direct question:
Who's on first?
Where is my flowered cape?
Be careful not to use a question mark at the end of an indirect question.
Indirect questions are simply statements, and therefore end with a period:
I wonder who was chosen as Harvest King in the county fair.
She asked if she could play pinball.
The teacher asked who was chewing gum.

Quotation Marks
The exact rules for quotation marks vary greatly from language to
language and even from country to country within the English-speaking
world. In North American usage, you should place double quotation marks
(") before and after directly quoted material and words of dialogue:
One critic ended his glowing review with this superlative: "It is simply
the best film ever made about potato farming."
May replied, "This is the last cookie."
You also use quotation marks to set off certain titles, usually those of minor
or short works -- essays, short stories, short poems, songs, articles in
periodicals, etc. For titles of longer works and separate publications, you
should use italics (or underlined, if italics are not available). Use italics for
titles of books, magazines, periodicals, newspapers, films, plays, long
poems, long musical works, and television and radio programs.
Once when I was sick, my father read me a story called "The Happy
Flower," which was later made into a movie entitled Flower Child,
starring Tiny Tim.
Sometimes, you will use quotation marks to set off words specifically
referred to as terms, though some publishers prefer italics:
I know you like the word "unique," but do you really have to use it ten
times in one essay?
"Well" is sometimes a noun, sometimes an adverb, sometimes an
adjective and sometimes a verb.
Quotations Marks with Other Punctuation

One question that frequently arises with quotation marks is where to place
other punctuation marks in relation to them. Again, these rules vary from
region to region, but North American usage is quite simple:
1. Commas and periods always go inside the quotation marks.
I know you are fond of the story "Children of the Corn," but is it an
appropriate subject for your essay?
"At last," said the old woman, "I can say I am truly happy."
2. Semicolons and colons always go outside the quotation marks.

She never liked the poem "Dover Beach"; in fact, it was her least
favourite piece of Victorian literature.
He clearly states his opinion in the article "Of Human Bondage": he
believes that television has enslaved and diminished an entire
generation.
3. Question marks, exclamation marks, and dashes go inside quotation marks
when they are part of the quotation, and outside when they do not.
Where is your copy of "The Raven"?
"How cold is it outside?" my mother asked.
Note that in North American usage, you should use single quotation marks
(') only to set off quoted material (or a minor title) inside a quotation.
"I think she said `I will try,' not `I won't try,'" explained Sandy.

The Apostrophe
You should use an apostrophe to form the possessive case of a noun or to
show that you have left out letters in a contraction. Note that you should
not generally use contractions in formal, academic writing.
The convertible's engine has finally died. (The noun "convertible's" is
in the possessive case)
I haven't seen my roommate for two weeks. (The verb "haven't" is a
contraction of "have not")
To form the possessive of a plural noun ending in "s," simply place an
apostrophe after the "s."
He has his three sons' futures in mind.
In many suburbs, the houses' designs are too much alike.
Possessive pronouns -- for example, "hers," "yours," and "theirs" -- do not
take apostrophes. This is the case for the possessive pronoun "its" as well:
when you write "it's" with an apostrophe, you are writing a contraction for "it
is."
The spaceship landed hard, damaging its radar receiver. ("its" is the
possessive pronoun)
It's your mother on the phone. ("it's" is the contraction of "it is")

The Dash
As noted in the section on commas, you can use a dash at the beginning
and end of parenthetical information. Usually, you will use dashes when you
want to emphasise the information, but you might also use them if the
parenthetical information is too long or abrupt to be set off with commas.
I think you would look fine wearing either the silk blouse -- the one
with the blue pattern -- or the angora sweater. (abrupt interruption)
The idea of returning to the basics in the classroom -- a notion which,
incidentally, has been quietly supported for years by many respected
teachers -- is finally gaining some currency with school administrators.
(lengthy interruption containing internal commas)
You can use a dash to conclude a list of elements, focusing them all toward
one point.
Chocolate, cream, honey and peanut butter -- all go into this
fabulously rich dessert.
Dashes also mark sharp turns in thought.
We pored over exotic, mouth-watering menus from Nemo Catering,
Menu du Jour, Taste Temptations, and three other reputable caterers - and rejected them all.
Using pronouns | The Writing Center
Using Pronouns
Pronoun Reference
Pronouns usually refer to other words, called their antecedents because

they (should) come before the pronoun. A pronoun's antecedent may be
either a noun or another pronoun, but in either case, it must be clear what
the antecedent is. Consider this example:
Micheline told Ruth that she would take Jerry to the barn dance.
It is not clear whether the pronoun "she" in this sentence refers to Ruth or
Micheline. Unless pronouns refer unmistakably to distinct, close, and single
antecedents, the reader will never be sure who's going to the square dance
with whom.
A pronoun should have only one possible antecedent

If there is more than one possible antecedent for a personal pronoun in a
sentence, make sure that the pronoun refers only to one of them:
[WRONG] Jerry found a gun in the trousers which he wore.
"Which he wore" could modify "trousers" or "gun."
[WRONG] Jerry called Steve twelve times while he was in Reno.
The pronoun "he" could refer either to "Jerry" or to "Steve."
A pronoun should not refer to an implied idea

Make sure that the pronoun refers to a specific rather than to an implicit
antecedent: When you leave the antecedent implied instead of stating it
explicitly, the reader has to try to guess your sentence's meaning:
[WRONG] John put a bullet in his gun and shot it.
The pronoun "it" can refer either to the noun "gun" or to the implied object
of the verb "shot."
[WRONG] If I told you had a beautiful body would you hold it against
me?
The pronoun "it" can refer to the noun "body" or to the entire statement.
[WRONG] The craftspersons' union reached an agreement on Ruth's
penalty, but it took time.
The pronoun "it" can refer to the noun "union" or to the implied process of
decision making.
A pronoun should not refer to adjectives or

possessive nouns
You should not use adjectives, or nouns or pronouns in the possessive case,
as antecedents. Although they may imply a noun, reference to them will be
ambiguous:
In Ruth's apology she told Jerry she'd loved him for years.
In this case, the pronoun "she" seems to refer to the noun phrase "Ruth's
apology," though it was probably meant to refer to possessive noun
"Ruth's."
Jerry wore those blasted green knickers; it was his favourite colour.
In this example, the pronoun "it" seems to refer to the noun "knickers,"
though it was probably meant to refer to the adjective "green."
A pronoun should not refer to a title

When you start your paper, do not write as if the title itself were part of the
body of the paper. Often, the title will appear on a separate page, and your
opening will be confusing. Imagine, for example, a paper entitled "How to
Sew Green Knickers": you should not begin the first paragraph with a
sentence like
This is not as easy as it looks.
The writer probably wanted the pronoun "this" to refer to the idea of sewing
knickers, but since the idea is not in the body of the paper itself, the
reference will not make sense.
Use "it," "they," and "you" carefully

In conversation people often use expressions such as "It says in this book
that ..." and "In my home town they say that ...". These constructions are
useful for information conversation because they allow you to present ideas
casually, without supporting evidence; for academic writing, however, these
constructions are either too imprecise or too wordy:
[WRONG] In Chapter four of my autobiography it says that I was born
out of wedlock.
In Chapter four, what says that the speaker was born out of wedlock?
[WRONG] In the restaurant they gave me someone else's linguini.

Who gave the speaker someone else's linguini?
It would be better to rewrite these two sentences as follow:
[RIGHT] Chapter four of my autobiography states that I was born
out of wedlock.
[RIGHT] In the restaurant, the server gave me someone else's
linguini.
In these revised sentences, there is no doubt about who is doing what.
The same basic rule applies to the pronoun "you." In informal conversation
and in instructional writing (like HyperGrammar), English speakers often use
the pronoun to mean something like "a hypothetical person" or "people in
general"; academic writing, however, needs to be more precise, and you
should use "you" only when you want to address the reader directly (as I am
doing here). Consider this example:
[WRONG] In the fourteenth century, you had to struggle to survive.
In this case, "you" obviously does not refer to the reader, since the reader
was not alive during the seventeenth century. It would be better to rewrite
the sentence so that it expresses your idea more precisely; for example
[RIGHT] In the fourteenth century, people had to struggle to survive.
Or even better yet,
[RIGHT] In the fourteenth century, English peasant farmers had to
struggle to survive.
Use "it" consistently within a sentence

There are three common uses of the pronoun "it":
As an idiom
"It is snowing";
To postpone the subject
"It is untrue that a rhinoceros can run faster than my tights"; and
As a personal pronoun
"I wanted a rhinoceros for my birthday, but did not get it."
You may use all of these in academic writing, but to avoid awkwardness, you
should not use more than one within a single sentence:
[WRONG] When it is my birthday, I hope to receive a rhinoceros, and I

will walk it often.
It would be better to eliminate the first (idiomatic) "it":
On my birthday, I hope to receive a rhinoceros, and I will
walk it often.
Use "who," "which," and "that" carefully

Historically, writers, editors, and publishers have had difficulty establishing a
clear guideline for using the relative pronouns "who," "which," and "that," in
formal writing, but over the last fifty years or so they have come a loose
standard. According to this standard, the pronoun "who" usually refers to
people, but may also refer to animals that have names:
My mother, who gave me the rhino, must love me very much. My
rhino, whom I call Spike, wanders at will through the house.
The pronoun "which" refers to animals and things:
The rhino, which is a much maligned and misunderstood animal, is
really quite affectionate. Its horn is a matt of hair which is sort of
stuck to its snout.
Finally, the pronoun "that" refers to animals and things and occasionally to
persons when they are collective or anonymous:
The rhino that hid behind the television was missing for days.
Rhinos that like to swim cause both plumbing and enamelling
problems for their owners.
The answer that everyone missed was "Etruscan."
Written by Dorothy Turner
Tricky Points of Pronoun Usage
This section covers some relatively tricky points which are no longer
standard in spoken English, though many people still insist upon them in
formal writing.
Pronouns in Apposition
A pronoun should also be in the subject case when it is in apposition to a
subject or subject complement, and in the object case when it is in
apposition to the object of a verb, verbal, or preposition:
[RIGHT] Three craftspeople -- Mary, Albert, and he -- made the

accessory for Jerry.
The phrase "Mary, Albert, and he" is in apposition to "craftspeople," the
subject of the sentence.
[RIGHT] The accessory was made by three craftspeople, Mary, Albert,
and him.
The phrase "Mary, Albert, and him" is still in apposition to the noun
"craftspeople," but that noun has become the object of the preposition "by,"
so the pronoun "him" is in the object case.
[RIGHT] The three craftspeople involved were Mary, Albert, and she.
The pronoun "she" is part of the subject complement, so it is in the subject
case.
"Us" and "we" before a Noun

A first-person plural pronoun used with a noun takes the case of the noun. If
the noun functions as a subject, the pronoun should be in the subject case;
if the noun functions as an object, the pronoun should be in the object case:
We rowdies left the restaurant late.
The restaurant owner mumbled at all us slow eaters.
Using 'than' or 'as' in a Comparison

In elliptical comparisons, where the writer has left some words out of a
sentence, the case of the pronoun at the end of the sentence determines its
meaning. When a sentence ends with a subjective pronoun, the pronoun
must serve as the subject of the omitted verb. When a sentence ends with
an objective pronoun, the pronoun must serve as the object of the omitted
verb:
Elliptical
Ruth
Complete
Ruth
Elliptical
Ruth
Complete
Ruth
likes Jerry better than I.

likes Jerry better than I like Jerry.
likes Jerry better than me.
likes Jerry better than she likes me.
Using verbs | The Writing Center
Using Verbs
The verb is perhaps the most important part of the sentence. A verb or
compound verb asserts something about the subject of the sentence and
expresses actions, events, or states of being.
In each of the following sentences, the verb or compound verb appears
highlighted:
Dracula bites his victims on the neck.
The verb "bites" describes the action Dracula takes.
In early October, Giselle will plant twenty tulip bulbs.
Here the compound verb "will plant" describes an action that will take place
in the future.
My first teacher was Miss Crawford, but I remember the janitor Mr.
Weatherbee more vividly.
In this sentence, the verb "was" (the simple past tense of "is") identifies a
particular person and the verb "remembered" describes a mental action.
Compound Verbs
You construct a compound verb out of an auxiliary verb and another verb.
In particular, you may use an auxiliary verb (also known as a helping
verb) with the verb in order to create the many of the tenses available in
English.
In each of the following sentences, the compound verb appears highlighted:
Karl Creelman bicycled around the world in 1899, but his diaries and
his bicycle were destroyed.
The compound verb in this sentence is made up of the auxiliary "were" and
the past participle "destroyed."
The book Seema was looking for is under the sofa.
Here the compound verb is made up of the auxiliary verb "was" and the
present participle "looking."
They will meet us at the newest caf in the market.
In this example the compound verb is made up of the auxiliary verb "will"
and the verb "meet."
That dog has been barking for three hours; I wonder if someone will
call the owner.
In this sentence the first compound verb is made up of the two auxiliary
verbs ("has" and "been") and a present participle ("barking"). The second
compound verb is made up of the auxiliary verb "will" and the verb "call."

Auxiliary Verbs
The most common auxiliary verbs are "be," "do," and "have", and you may
also use these verbs on their own. You use "Will" and "shall" to express
future time.
In each of the following examples, a verb commonly used as an auxiliary
verb appears as a simple predicate:
She is the chief engineer.
The tea cups are in the china cabinet.
Garth does this kind of thing frequently.
My roommates and I do the laundry every second week.
I can't complete my assignment because he still has my notes.
They have several kinds of gelato in the display case.
Other common auxiliaries are "can," "could," "may," "might," "must,"
"ought," "should," "will," and "would." A verb like these is called a modal
auxiliary and expresses necessity, obligation, or possibility.
The highlighted word in each of the following sentences is a modal auxiliary:
Zora was pleased to learn that she could take several days off.
The small freckled girl told her neighbours that she would walk their
dog for an appropriate fee.
Henry told Eliza that she ought to have the hole in the bucket fixed.
The principal told the assembled students that the school
board might introduce a dress code next autumn.
According to the instructions, we must leave this goo in our hair for
twenty minutes.
Several words may intervene between the auxiliary and the verb which goes
with it, as in the following sentences:
They have not delivered the documents on time.
The treasure chest was never discovered.
The health department has recently decided that all high school
students should be immunised against meningitis.
Will you walk the dog tonight?
The ballet corps was rapidly and gracefully pirouetting about the
stage.

Transitive and Intransitive Verbs
Depending on the type of object they take, verbs may be transitive,
intransitive, or linking.
The meaning of a transitive verb is incomplete without a direct object, as
in the following examples:
INCOMPLETE
The shelf holds.
COMPLETE
The shelf holds three books and a vase of flowers.
INCOMPLETE
The committee named.
COMPLETE
The committee named a new chairperson.
INCOMPLETE
The child broke.
COMPLETE
The child broke the plate.
An intransitive verb, on the other hand, cannot take a direct object:
This plant has thrived on the south windowsill.
The compound verb "has thrived" is intransitive and takes no direct object in
this sentence. The prepositional phrase "on the south windowsill" acts as an
adverb describing where the plant thrives.
The sound of the choir carried through the cathedral.
The verb "carried" is used intransitively in this sentence and takes no direct
object. The prepositional phrase "through the cathedral" acts as an adverb
describing where the sound carried.
The train from Montreal arrived four hours late.
The intransitive verb "arrived" takes no direct object, and the noun phrase
"four hours late" acts as an adverb describing when the train arrived.
Since the company was pleasant and the coffee both plentiful and
good, we lingered in the restaurant for several hours.
The verb "lingered" is used intransitively and takes no direct object. The
prepositional phrase "in the restaurant for several hours" acts as an adverb
modifying "lingered."
The painting was hung on the south wall of the reception room.
The compound verb "was hung" is used intransitively and the sentence has
no direct object. The prepositional phrase "on the south wall of the reception
room" acts as a adverb describing where the paint hung.
Many verbs can be either transitive or intransitive, depending on their
context in the sentence. In the following pairs of sentences, the first
sentence uses the verb transitively and the second uses the same verb
intransitively:
transitive
According to the instructions, we must leave this goo in our hair for
twenty minutes.
In this example, the verb "leave" takes a direct object, the noun phrase "this
goo."
intransitive
We would like to stay longer, but we must leave.
In this example, the verb "leave" does not take a direct object.
transitive
The audience attentively watched the latest production of The Trojan

Women.
In this example, the verb "watch" is used transitively and takes the noun
phrase "the latest production of The Trojan Women" as a direct object.
intransitive
The cook watched while the new dishwasher surreptitiously picked up
the fragments of the broken dish.
In this example, the verb "watched" is used intransitively and takes no direct
object.
intransitive
The crowd moves across the field in an attempt to see the rock star
get into her helicopter.
Here the verb "moves" is used as an intransitive verb and takes no direct
object.
transitive
Every spring, William moves all boxes and trunks from one side of the
attic to the other.
In this sentence "moves" is used as a transitive verb and takes the noun
phrase "all the boxes and trunk" as a direct object.

Linking Verbs
A linking verb connects a subject to a subject complement which identifies
or describes the subject, as in the following sentences:
The play is Waiting for Godot.
In this sentence, the linking verb "is" links the noun phrase "the play" to the
identifying phrase "Waiting for Godot," which is called a subject complement.
Some of us thought that the play was very good.
In this sentence, the verb "was" links the subject complement "very good" to
subject "the play."
Others thought it became tedious after the first fifteen minutes.
In this sentence, the linking verb "became" links the subject "it" to the
subject complement "tedious." The phrase "after the first fifteen minutes"
functions as an adverb modifying the clause "it became tedious."
The cast appears disorganised and confused; perhaps Beckett
intended this.
Here "appears" is functioning as a linking verb that connects the subject "the
cast" to its subject complement "disorganised and confused."
The play seems absurd to me.
The subject "the play" is joined to its subject complement "absurd" by the
linking verb "seems."
Linking verbs are either verbs of sensation ("feel," "look," "smell," "sound,"
"taste") or verbs of existence ("act," "appear," "be," "become," "continue,"
"grow," "prove," "remain," "seem," "sit," "stand," "turn").
Many linking verbs (with the significant exception of "be") can also be used
as transitive or intransitive verbs. In the following pairs of sentences, the
first sentence uses the highlighted verb as a linking verb and the second
uses the same verb as either a transitive or an intransitive verb:
Linking
Griffin insists that the water in Winnipeg tastes terrible.
In this sentence, the adjective "terrible" is a subject complement that
describes a quality of the water.
Transitive
I tasted the soup before adding more salt.
Here the noun phrase "the soup" identifies what "I tasted." "The soup" is the
direct object of the verb "tasted."
Linking
My neighbour's singing voice sounds very squeaky despite several
hours of daily practice.
In this example, the phrase "very squeaky" is a subject complement that
describes or identities the nature of the "singing voice."
Transitive
Upon the approach of the enemy troops, the gate-keeper sounded his
horn.
Here the verb "sounded" takes a direct object, the noun phrase "his horn."
Linking
Cynthia feels queasy whenever she listens to banjo music.
In this sentence, the adjective "queasy" is a subject complement that
describes Cynthia.
Transitive
The customer carefully feels the fabric of the coat.
Here the noun phrase "the fabric of the coat" is the direct object of the verb
"feels" and identifies what the customer feels.

Verbals
A verbal is a noun or adjective formed from a verb. Writers sometimes
make mistakes by using a verbal in place of a verb, and in very formal
writing, by confusing different types of verbals. This section covers three
different verbals: the participle (which acts as an adjective), the gerund
(which acts as a noun), and the infinitive (which also acts as a noun).
The fundamental difference between verbals and other nouns and adjectives
is that verbals can take their own objects, even though they are no longer
verbs:
Gerund
Building a house is complicated.
In this example, the noun phrase "a house" is the direct object of the verbal
"building", even though "building" is a noun rather than a verb.
The Participle
A participle is an adjective formed from a verb. To make a present
participle, you add "-ing" to the verb, sometimes doubling the final
consonant:
"think" becomes "thinking"
"fall" becomes "falling"
"run" becomes "running"
The second type of participle, the past participle, is a little more

complicated, since not all verbs form the past tense regularly. The following
are all past participles:
the sunken ship
a ruined city
a misspelled word
Note that only transitive verbs can use their past participles as adjectives,
and that unlike other verbals, past participles do not take objects (unless
they are part of a compound verb).
The Gerund
A gerund is a noun formed from a verb. To make a gerund, you add "-ing"
to the verb, just as with a present participle. The fundamental difference is
that a gerund is a noun, while a participle is an adjective:
gerund
I enjoy running. ("Running" is a noun acting as the direct object of
the verb "enjoy.")
participle
Stay away from running water. ("Running" is an adjective modifying
the noun "water.")
Using Verbals
There are two common problems that come up when writers use verbals.
The first is that since verbals look like verbs, they sometimes cause students
to write fragmentary sentences:
[WRONG] Oh, to find true love!
[WRONG] Jimmy, swimming the most important race of his life.
The second problem is a very fine point, which most editors and some
teachers no longer enforce. Although they look the same, gerunds and
present participles are different parts of speech, and need to be treated
differently. For example, consider the following two sentences:
I admire the woman finishing the report.
I admire the woman's finishing the report.
In the first example, "finishing" is a participle modifying the noun "woman":
in other words, the writer admires the woman, not what she is doing; in the
second example, "finishing" is a gerund, modified by the possessive noun
"woman's": in other words, the writer admires not the woman herself but
the fact that she is finishing the report.
Forming and Using Verb Tenses
English speakers form many verb tenses by combining one of principal parts
of the verb with one or more auxiliary verbs.
In order to form verb tenses you need a good grasp of the auxiliaries and
the principal parts of the verb. There are four principal parts: the basic
form, the present participle, the past form, and the past participle.
The basic form (or root of the verb is the form listed in the dictionary and
is usually identical to the first person singular form of the simple present
tense (except in the case of the verb "to be"):
walk
paint
think
grow
sing
The infinitive form of the verb is a compound verb made up of the the
preposition "to" and the basic form of the verb:
to
to
to
to
to
walk
paint
think
grow
sing
To form the present participle, add "-ing" to the basic form of the verb:
walking
painting
thinking
growing
singing
Note that you cannot use the present participle as a predicate unless you
use an auxiliary verb with it -- the word group "I walking to the store" is an
incomplete and ungrammatical sentence, while word group "I am walking to
the store" is a complete sentence. You will often use the present participle as
a modifier.
The past form of verbs is a little trickier. If the verb is regular (or weak,
you can create the past form by adding "-ed", "-d", or "-t" to the present
form. When a basic form ends in "-y", you changed the "-y" to "-i-"; in many
cases you should also double terminal consonants before adding "-ed" (see
the section on Spelling words with Double Consonants).
walked
painted
thought
grew
sang
The past participle of regular verbs is usually identical to the past form,
while the past participle of irregular verbs is often different:
walked
painted
thought
grown
sung
Irregular Verbs
Irregular verbs form the past participle and the past form without "-(e)d"
or "-t", and frequently their past form and past participle are different. For
example, the past form of the verb "break" is "broke" and the past participle
is "broken."
This list contains the most common verbs that form their past tenses
irregularly:
arise
arose, arisen
awake
awoke or awaked, awaked or awoken
awaken
awakened, awakened
bear (to carry)
bore, borne
bear (to give birth)
bore
beat
beat, beaten or beat
be
was, been
become
became, become
begin
began, begun
bet
bet, bet
bid
bid, bid (to, offer)
bid (to order, invite)
bade, bidden
bind
bound, bound
bite
bit, bitten
bleed
bled, bled
blow
blew, blown
break
broke, broken
breed
bred, bred
bring
brought, brought
burst
burst, burst
buy
bought, bought
cast
cast, cast
catch
caught, caught
choose
chose, chosen
cling
clung, clung
come
came, come
creep
crept, crept
cut
cut, cut
deal
dealt, dealt
dig
dive
do
draw
dug, dug
dived or dove, dived
did, done
drew, drawn
dream
dreamed or dreamt, dreamed or dreamt
drink
drank, drunk
drive
drove, driven
eat
ate, eaten
fall
fell, fallen
feed
fed, fed
feel
felt, felt
fight
fought, fought
find
found, found
flee
fled, fled
fly
flew, flown
forbid
forbade, forbidden
forget
forgot, forgotten
forgive
forgave, forgiven
forsake
forsook, forsaken
freeze
froze, frozen
get
got, got or gotten
give
gave, given
go
grind
grow
went, gone
ground, ground
grew, grown
hang (to suspend)
hung, hung
hang (to execute)
hanged, hanged
have
had, had
hear
heard, heard
hide
hid, hidden
hit
hit, hit
hold
held, held
hurt
hurt, hurt
keep
kept, kept
kneel
knelt or kneeled, knelt or kneeled
knit
knitted or knit, knitted or knit
know
knew, known
lay
laid, laid
lead
led, led
leap
leaped or leapt, leaped or leapt
leave
left, left
lend
lent, lent
let
let, let
lie
lay, lain
light
lose
lighted or lit, lighted or lit
lost, lost
make
made, made
mean
meant, meant
meet
met, met
mistake
mistook, mistaken
overcome
overcame, overcome
pay
paid, paid
prove
proved, proved or proven
put
put, put
quit
quit, quit
read
read, read
ride
rode, ridden
ring
rang, rung
rise
rose, risen
run
ran, run
say
said, said
see
saw, seen
seek
sought, sought
sell
sold, sold
send
sent, sent
set
set, set
shake
shook, shaken
shed
shed, shed
shoot
shot, shot
shrink
shrank or shrunk, shrunk
shut
shut, shut
sing
sang, sung
sink
sank, sunk
sit
sat, sat
slay
slew, slain
sleep
slept, slept
slide
slid, slide
sling
slung, slung
slink
slunk, slunk
speak
spoke, spoken
speed
sped or speeded, sped or speeded
spend
spent, spent
spin
spun, spun
spit
spit or spat, spit or spat
split
split, split
spread
spread, spread
spring
sprang or sprung, sprung
stand
stood, stood
steal
stick
stink
stole, stolen
stuck, stuck
stank or stunk, stunk

strew
strewed, strewn
stride
strode, stridden
strike
struck, struck
string
strung, strung
strive
stove or strived, striven or strived
swear
swore, sworn
sweep
swept, swept
swell
swelled, swelled or swollen
swim
swam, swum
swing
swung, swung
take
took, taken
teach
taught, taught
tear
tore, torn
tell
told, told
think
thought, though
thrive
throve or thrived, throve or thriven
throw
threw, thrown
thrust
thrust, thrust
wake
woke or waked, waked or woken
weep
win
wind
wept, wept
won, won
wound, wound
wring
wring, wrung
write
wrote, written
Frequently-Confused Verbs
English speakers form many verb tenses by combining one of principal parts
of the verb with one or more auxiliary verbs.
In order to form verb tenses you need a good grasp of the auxiliaries and
the principal parts of the verb. There are four principal parts: the basic
form, the present participle, the past form, and the past participle.
The basic form (or root of the verb is the form listed in the dictionary and
is usually identical to the first person singular form of the simple present
tense (except in the case of the verb "to be"):
walk
paint
think
grow
sing
The infinitive form of the verb is a compound verb made up of the the
preposition "to" and the basic form of the verb:
to
to
to
to
to
walk
paint
think
grow
sing
To form the present participle, add "-ing" to the basic form of the verb:
walking
painting
thinking
growing
singing
Note that you cannot use the present participle as a predicate unless you
use an auxiliary verb with it -- the word group "I walking to the store" is an
incomplete and ungrammatical sentence, while word group "I am walking to
the store" is a complete sentence. You will often use the present participle as
a modifier.
The past form of verbs is a little trickier. If the verb is regular (or weak,
you can create the past form by adding "-ed", "-d", or "-t" to the present
form. When a basic form ends in "-y", you changed the "-y" to "-i-"; in many
cases you should also double terminal consonants before adding "-ed" (see
the section on Spelling words with Double Consonants).
walked
painted
thought
grew
sang
The past participle of regular verbs is usually identical to the past form,
while the past participle of irregular verbs is often different:
walked
painted
thought
grown
sung
Irregular Verbs
Irregular verbs form the past participle and the past form without "-(e)d"
or "-t", and frequently their past form and past participle are different. For
example, the past form of the verb "break" is "broke" and the past participle
is "broken."
This list contains the most common verbs that form their past tenses
irregularly:
arise
arose, arisen
awake
awoke or awaked, awaked or awoken
awaken
awakened, awakened
bear (to carry)

bore, borne
bear (to give birth)
bore
beat
beat, beaten or beat
be
was, been
become
became, become
begin
began, begun
bet
bet, bet
bid
bid, bid (to, offer)
bid (to order, invite)
bade, bidden
bind
bound, bound
bite
bit, bitten
bleed
bled, bled
blow
blew, blown
break
broke, broken
breed
bred, bred
bring
brought, brought
burst
burst, burst
buy
bought, bought
cast
cast, cast
catch
caught, caught
choose
chose, chosen
cling
clung, clung
come
came, come
creep
crept, crept
cut
cut, cut
deal
dealt, dealt
dig
dug, dug
dive
dived or dove, dived
do
did, done
draw
drew, drawn
dream
dreamed or dreamt, dreamed or dreamt
drink
drank, drunk
drive
drove, driven
eat
ate, eaten
fall
fell, fallen
feed
fed, fed
feel
felt, felt
fight
fought, fought
find
found, found
flee
fled, fled
fly
flew, flown
forbid
forbade, forbidden
forget
forgot, forgotten
forgive
forgave, forgiven
forsake
forsook, forsaken
freeze
froze, frozen
get
got, got or gotten
give
gave, given
go
went, gone
grind
ground, ground
grow
grew, grown
hang (to suspend)
hung, hung
hang (to execute)
hanged, hanged
have
had, had
hear
heard, heard
hide
hid, hidden
hit
hit, hit
hold
held, held
hurt
hurt, hurt
keep
kept, kept
kneel
knelt or kneeled, knelt or kneeled
knit
knitted or knit, knitted or knit
know
knew, known
lay
laid, laid
lead
led, led
leap
leaped or leapt, leaped or leapt
leave
lend
let
lie
light
lose
left, left
lent, lent
let, let
lay, lain
lighted or lit, lighted or lit
lost, lost
make
made, made
mean
meant, meant
meet
met, met
mistake
mistook, mistaken
overcome
overcame, overcome
pay
paid, paid
prove
proved, proved or proven
put
put, put
quit
quit, quit
read
read, read
ride
rode, ridden
ring
rang, rung
rise
rose, risen
run
ran, run
say
said, said
see
saw, seen
seek
sell
send
set
sought, sought
sold, sold
sent, sent
set, set
shake
shook, shaken
shed
shed, shed
shoot
shot, shot
shrink
shrank or shrunk, shrunk
shut
shut, shut
sing
sang, sung
sink
sank, sunk
sit
sat, sat
slay
slew, slain
sleep
slept, slept
slide
slid, slide
sling
slung, slung
slink
slunk, slunk
speak
spoke, spoken
speed
sped or speeded, sped or speeded
spend
spent, spent
spin
spun, spun
spit
spit or spat, spit or spat
split
split, split
spread
spread, spread
spring
sprang or sprung, sprung
stand
stood, stood
steal
stole, stolen
stick
stuck, stuck
stink
stank or stunk, stunk
strew
strewed, strewn
stride
strode, stridden
strike
struck, struck
string
strung, strung
strive
stove or strived, striven or strived
swear
swore, sworn
sweep
swept, swept
swell
swelled, swelled or swollen
swim
swam, swum
swing
swung, swung
take
took, taken
teach
taught, taught
tear
tore, torn
tell
told, told
think
thought, though
thrive
throve or thrived, throve or thriven
throw
threw, thrown
thrust
thrust, thrust
wake
woke or waked, waked or woken
weep
wept, wept
win
won, won
wind
wound, wound
wring
wring, wrung
write
wrote, written
Using Verb Tenses
A verb indicates the time of an action, event or condition by changing its
form. Through the use of a sequence of tenses in a sentence or in a
paragraph, it is possible to indicate the complex temporal relationship of
actions, events, and conditions
There are many ways of categorising the twelve possible verb tenses. The
verb tenses may be categorised according to the time frame: past tenses,
present tenses, and future tenses.
Verb Tense: Time

The four past tenses are
1. the simple past ("I went")
2. the past progressive ("I was going")
3. the past perfect ("I had gone")
4. the past perfect progressive ("I had been going")
The four present tenses are
1. the simple present ("I go")

2. the present progressive ("I am going")
3. the present perfect ("I have gone")
4. the present perfect progressive ("I have been going")
Note that the present perfect and present perfect progressive are a present
not past tenses -- that idea is that the speaker is currently in the state of
having gone or having been going.
The four future tenses are
1. the simple future ("I will go")
2. the future progressive ("I will be going")
3. the future perfect ("I will have gone")
4. the future perfect progressive ("I will have been going")
Verb Tense: Aspect

Verb tenses may also be categorised according to aspect. Aspect refers to
the nature of the action described by the verb. There are three aspects:
indefinite (or simple), complete (or perfect), continuing (or progressive).
The three indefinite tenses, or simple tenses, describe an action but do
not state whether the action is finished:
the
simple past ("I went")
the
simple present ("I go")
the
simple future ("I will go")
A verb in the indefinite aspect is used when the beginning or ending of an

action, an event, or condition is unknown or unimportant to the meaning of
the sentence. The indefinite aspect is also used to used to indicate an
habitual or repeated action, event, or condition.
The three complete tenses, or perfect tenses, describe
a finished action:
the
past perfect ("I had gone")
the
present perfect ("I have gone")
the
future perfect ("I will have gone")
A verb in the complete aspect indicates that the end of the action, event,
or condition is known and the is used to emphasise the fact that the action is
complete. The action may, however, be completed in the present, in the past
or in the future.
The three incomplete tenses, or progressive tenses, describe
an unfinished action:
the
past progressive ("I was going")
the
present progressive ("I am going")
the
future progressive ("I will be going")
A verb in the continuing aspect indicates that the action, event, or

condition is ongoing in the present, the past or the future.
It is also possible to combine the complete tenses and the incomplete
tenses, to describe an action which was in progress and then finished:
the
past perfect progressive ("I had been going")
the
present perfect progressive ("I have been going")
the
future perfect progressive ("I will have been going")
The Function of Verb Tenses

The Simple Present Tense
The simple present is used to describe an action, an event, or condition
that is occurring in the present, at the moment of speaking or writing. The
simple present is used when the precise beginning or ending of a present
action, event, or condition is unknown or is unimportant to the meaning of
the sentence.
Each of the highlighted verbs in the following sentences is in the simple
present tense and each sentence describes an action taking place in the
present:

The shelf holds three books and a vase of flowers.
The crowd moves across the field in an attempt to see the rock star
get into her helicopter.
The Stephens sisters are both very talented; Virginia writes and
Vanessa paints.
Ross annoys Walter by turning pages too quickly.
The simple present is used to express general truths such as scientific fact,
as in the following sentences:
Rectangles have four sides.
Canada Day takes place on July 1, the anniversary of the signing of
the British North America Act.
The moon circles the earth once every 28 days.
Calcium is important to the formation of strong bones.
Menarche and menopause mark the beginning and the ending of a
woman's reproductive history.
The simple present is used to indicate a habitual action, event, or condition,
as in the following sentences:
Leonard goes to The Jumping Horse Tavern every Thursday evening.
My grandmother sends me new mittens each spring.
In fairy tales, things happen in threes.
We never finish jigsaw puzzles because the cat always eats some of
the pieces.
Jesse polishes the menorah on Wednesdays.
The simple present is also used when writing about works of art, as in the
following sentences.
Lolly Willowes is the protagonist of the novel Townsend published in
1926.
One of Artemisia Gentleschi's best known paintings represents Judith's
beheading of Holofernes.
The Lady of Shallot weaves a tapestry while watching the passers-by
in her mirror.
Lear rages against the silence of Cordelia and only belatedly realizes
that she, not her more vocal sisters, loves him.
The play ends with an epilogue spoken by the fool.
The simple present can also be used to refer to a future event when used in
conjunction with an adverb or adverbial phrase, as in the following
sentences.
The doors open in 10 minutes.

The premier arrives on Tuesday.
Classes end next week.
The publisher distributes the galley proofs next Wednesday.
The lunar eclipses begins in exactly 43 minutes.
The Present Progressive

While the simple present and the present progressive are sometimes used
interchangeably, the present progressive emphasises the continuing
nature of an act, event, or condition.
Each of the highlighted verbs in the following sentences is in the present
progressive tense. In each sentence the on-going nature of the action is
emphasised by the use of the present progressive rather than the simple
present.
Nora is looking for the first paperback editions of all of Raymond
Chandler's books.
Deirdre is dusting all the shelves on the second floor of the shop.
The union members are pacing up and down in front of the factory.
KPLA is broadcasting the hits of the 70s this evening.
The presses are printing the first edition of tomorrow's paper.
The present progressive is occasionally used to refer to a future event when
used in conjunction with an adverb or adverbial phrase, as in the following
sentences.
The doors are opening in 10 minutes.
The premier is arriving on Tuesday.
Classes are ending next week.
The publisher is distributing the galley proofs next Wednesday.
The Present Perfect Tense

The present perfect tense is used to describe action that began in the past
and continues into the present or has just been completed at the moment of
utterance. The present perfect is often used to suggest that a past action
still has an effect upon something happening in the present.
Each of the highlighted compound verbs in the following sentences is in the

present perfect tense.
They have not delivered the documents we need.
This sentence suggest that the documents were not delivered in the past
and that they are still undelivered.
The health department has decided that all high school students
should be immunised against meningitis.
The writer of this sentence uses the present perfect in order to suggest that
the decision made in the past is still of importance in the present.
The government has cut university budgets; consequently, the dean
has increased the size of most classes.
Here both actions took place sometime in the past and continue to influence
the present.
The heat wave has lasted three weeks.
In this sentence, the writer uses the present perfect to indicate that a
condition (the heat wave) began in past and continues to affect the present.
Donna has dreamt about frogs sitting in trees every night this week.
Here the action of dreaming has begun in the past and continues into the
present.
The Present Perfect Progressive Tense

Like the present perfect, the present perfect progressive is used to
describe an action, event, or condition that has begun in the past and
continues into the present. The present perfect progressive, however, is
used to stress the on-going nature of that action, condition, or event.
Each of the highlighted verbs in the following sentences is in the present
perfect progressive tense and each sentence suggests that the action began
in the past and is continuing into the present.
That dog has been barking for three hours; I wonder if someone will
call the owner.
I have been relying on my Christmas bonus to pay for the gifts I buy
for my large family.
They have been publishing this comic book for ten years.
We have been seeing geese flying south all afternoon.

Even though the coroner has been carefully examining the corpse
discovered in Sutherland's Gully since early this morning, we still do
not know the cause of death.
The Simple Past Tense

The simple past is used to describe an action, an event, or condition that
occurred in the past, sometime before the moment of speaking or writing.
Each of the highlighted verbs in the following sentences is in the simple past
tense and each sentence describes an action taking place at some point in
past.
A flea jumped from the dog to the cat.
Phoebe gripped the hammer tightly and nailed the boards together.
The gem-stones sparkled in a velvet lined display case.
Artemisia Gentilsechi probably died in 1652.
The storyteller began every story by saying "A long time ago when the
earth was green."
The Past Progressive Tense

The past progressive tense is used to described actions ongoing in the
past. These actions often take place within a specific time frame. While
actions referred to in the present progressive have some connection to the
present, actions referred in the past progressive have no immediate or
obvious connection to the present. The on-going actions took place and were
completed at some point well before the time of speaking or writing.
Each of the highlighted verbs in the following sentences is in the past
progressive tense.
The cat was walking along the tree branch.
This sentence describes an action that took place over a period of continuous
time in the past. The cat's actions have no immediate relationship to
anything occurring now in the present.
Lena was telling a story about the exploits of a red cow when a tree
branch broke the parlour window.
Here the action "was telling" took place in the past and continued for some
time in the past.
When the recess bell rang, Jesse was writing a long division problem
on the blackboard.
This sentence describes actions ("ran" and "was writing") that took place
sometime in the past, and emphasises the continuing nature of one of the
actions ("was writing").
The archivists were eagerly waiting for the delivery of the former
prime minister's private papers.
Here the ongoing action of "waiting" occurred at some time unconnected to
the present.
Between 1942 and 1944 the Frank and Van Damm families were
hiding in a Amsterdam office building.
In this sentence, the action of hiding took place over an extended period of
time and the continuing nature of the hiding is emphasised.
The Past Perfect Tense

The past perfect tense is used to refer to actions that took place and were
completed in the past. The past perfect is often used to emphasise that one
action, event or condition ended before another past action, event, or
condition began.
Each of the highlighted verbs in the following sentences is in the past
perfect.
Miriam arrived at 5:00 p.m. but Mr. Whitaker had closed the store.
All the events in this sentence took place in the past, but the act of closing
the store takes place before Miriam arrives at the store.
After we located the restaurant that Christian had raved about, we ate
supper there every Friday.
Here the praise ("had raved") precedes the finding ("located") of the
restaurant. Both actions took place sometime before the moment of
speaking or writing.
The elephant had eaten all the hay so we fed it oats for a week.
In this sentence, both actions take place in the past, but the eating of the
hay ("had eaten") preceded the eating of the oats ("fed").
The heat wave had lasted three weeks.
While the sentence "The heat wave has lasted three weeks" suggests that a
condition began in the past and continues into the present, this sentence
describes an action that began and ended sometime in the past ("had
lasted"). By using the past perfect the writer indicates that the heat wave
has no connection to any events occurring in the present.
Here the learning took place and was completed at a specific time in the
past. By using the past perfect rather than the simple past ("learned"), the
writer emphasises that the learning preceded the feeling of independence.
The Past Perfect Progressive Tense

The past perfect progressive is used to indicate that a continuing action in
the past began before another past action began or interrupted the first
action.
past perfect progressive tense.
The toddlers had been running around the school yard for ten minutes
before the teachers shooed them back inside.
Here the action of the toddlers ("had been running") is ongoing in the past
and precedes the actions of the teachers ("shooed") which also takes place
in the past.
We had been talking about repainting the front room for three years
and last night we finally bought the paint.
In this example, the ongoing action of "talking" precedes another past action
("bought").
A construction crew had been digging one pit after another in the
middle of my street for three days before they found the water main.
Here, the action of digging ("had been digging") took place in the past and
occurred over a period of time. The digging was followed by the action of
finding ("found").
Madeleine had been reading mystery novels for several years before
she discovered the works of Agatha Christie.
In this sentence the act of discovery ("discovered") occurred in the past but
after the ongoing and repeated action of reading ("had been reading").
The chef's assistant had been chopping vegetables for several minutes
before he realized that he had minced his apron strings.
This sentence is a bit more complex in that it contains three different past
verb tenses. The sequence of tenses conveys a complex set of information.
The past perfect progressive ("had been chopping") is used to emphasise the
ongoing nature of the past act of chopping. While a second past perfect
progressive ("had been mincing") could be used, the past perfect ("had
minced") is used to suggest that act of mincing was completed. The simple
past ("realized") is used to describe the action closest to the present, an
action that followed both the chopping and the mincing.
The Simple Future Tense

The simple future is used to refer to actions that will take place after the
act of speaking or writing.
Each of the highlighted verbs in the following sentences is in the simple
future tense.
They will meet us at the newest caf in the market.
Will you walk the dog tonight?
At the feast, we will eat heartily.
Bobbie will call you tomorrow with details about the agenda.
The Smiths say that they will not move their chicken coop.
The Future Progressive Tense

The future progressive tense is used to describe actions ongoing in the
future. The future progressive is used to refer to continuing action that will
occur in the future.
future progressive tense.
The glee club will be performing at the celebration of the town's
centenary.
Ian will be working on the computer system for the next two weeks.
The selection committee will be meeting every Wednesday morning.
We will be writing an exam every afternoon next week.
They will be ringing the bells for Hypatia next month.
The Future Perfect Tense

The future perfect is used to refer to an action that will be completed
sometime in the future before another action takes place.
Each of the highlighted verbs in the following sentences is in the future
perfect tense.
The surgeon will have operated on 6 patients before she attends a
luncheon meeting.
In this sentence, the act of operating ("will have operated") takes place in
the future sometime before the act of attending ("attends").
The plumber and his assistant will have soldered all the new joins in
pipes before they leave for the next job.
Here, the plumbers' act of soldering ("will have soldered") will precede the
act of leaving ("leave").
By the time you get back from the corner store, we will have finished
writing the thank you letters.
In this sentence, the act of returning from the store ("get back") takes place
after the act of writing ("will have written").
If this year is like last year, I will have finished my holiday shopping
long before my brother starts his.
In this example, the act of finishing ("will have finished") occurs well before
the act of starting ("starts").
They will have written their first exam by the time we get out of bed.
Here, the act of getting out of bed occurs sometime after the writing of the
exam.
The Future Perfect Progressive Tense
The future perfect progressive tense is used to indicate a continuing

action that will be completed at some specified time in the future. This tense
is rarely used.
Each of the highlighted verbs in the following sentences is in the future
perfect progressive tense.
I will have been studying Greek for three years by the end of this
term.
In this sentence, the future perfect progressive is used to indicate the
ongoing nature of the future act of the studying. The act of studying ("will
have been studying") will occur before the upcoming end of term.
By the time the meeting is over, the committee will have been arguing
about which candidate to interview for three hours.
Similarly in this sentence, the ongoing nature of a future act ("will have been
arguing") is emphasised by the use of the future perfect progressive. The act
of sustained arguing will take place before the meeting is over.
When he returns, the wine will have been fermenting for three
months.
Here the ongoing action of fermentation will precede ("will have been
fermenting") the act of returning.

Using Verb Tenses in Sequence
Using verbs in correct sequence is often difficult, especially for those people
whose cradle tongue is not English or whose cradle tongue does not uses a
similar tense system. The situation is further complicated by the fact that
context, idiom, and style play as large a role in determining tense sequence
as grammatical rules.
In order to determine correct verb sequence, you must be able to identify
independent and dependent clauses. The sequence of tenses in complex
sentences is usually determined by the tense of the verb in the independent
clause. (In compound sentences, use the tenses that fit the logic of the
sentence.)
Present Tenses in Sequence
In general, present tenses may be followed by a wide variety of tenses as

long as the sequence fits the logic of the sentence.
The four present tenses are the simple present, the present progressive, the
present perfect, and the present perfect progressive. When these tenses are
used in an independent clause, the verb in the dependent clause can be a
present tense verb, a past tense verb or a future tense verb, as in the
following sentences.
The simple present tense is used in both the independent clause and the
dependent clause.
They have not delivered the documents we need.
The verb of the independent clause "They have not delivered the
documents" is in the present perfect tense. The verb in the dependent clause
"we need" is in the simple present tense. The simple future could also be
used in the dependent clause ("we will need").
I have been relying on my Christmas bonus to pay for the gifts I buy
for my large family.
In this sentence the compound verb of the independent clause ("I have been
relying on my Christmas bonus to pay for the gift") is in the present perfect
progressive. The simple predicate of the dependent clause ("I buy for my
large family") is in the simple present ("buy"). The simple future could also
be used ("will buy").
Even though the coroner has been carefully examining the corpse
discovered in Sutherland's Gully since early this morning, we still do
not know the cause of death.
In this sentence the compound verb of the independent clause ("we still do
not know the cause of death") is in the simple present tense. The simple
predicate of the dependent clause ("Even though the coroner has been
carefully examining the corpse discovered in Sutherland's Gully since early
this morning") in the present perfect progressive tense ("has been . . .
examining").
The government has cut university budgets; consequently, the dean
has increased the size of most classes.
In this compound sentence, both predicates are in the present perfect. The
simple future could also be used in the second independent clause
("consequently, the dean will increase the size of most classes") if the writer
wants to suggest that the dean's action will take place in the future.
Past Tenses in Sequence

When the verb in the independent clause is the past tense, the verb in the
dependent clause is usually in a past tense as well. The past tenses are the
simple past, the past progressive, the past perfect, and the past perfect
progressive.
The verb in dependent clause should accurately reflect the temporal
relationship of the two clauses.
If the action in the dependent clause occurred before action in the
independent clause, the past perfect is usually the most appropriate tense
for the dependent clause, as in the following sentences.
Miriam arrived at 5:00 p.m. but Mr. Whitaker had closed the store.
The action of dependent clause ("but Mr. Whitaker had closed the store") is
described with a past perfect tense ("had closed") because the act of closing
takes place before the act of arriving. The simple predicate of the
independent clause ("by the time Miriam arrived") is in the simple past.
After we located the restaurant that Christian had raved about, we ate
supper there every Friday.
Since actions of the second dependent clause ("that Christian had raved
about") precedes the other actions in the sentence, the past perfect is most
appropriate verb tense.
We fed the elephant oats for a week because it had eaten all the hay.
In this sentence, both actions take place in the past, but the action of the
independent clause (the feeding oats) follows the action of dependent clause
(the eating of the hay) and as a result, the predicate of the dependent
clause is in the past perfect ("had eaten").
After she had learnedd to drive, Alice felt more independent.
In this example the predicate of the dependent clause is in the past perfect
("had learned") because the act of learning preceded the independent
clause's the act of feeling independent.
If the action in the dependent clause, occurs at the same time as the action
in the independent clause, the tense usually match. So if the simple past is
used in the independent clause, the simple past may also used in the
dependent clause.
When the verb of the independent clause is one of the progressive tenses,
the simple past is usually the most appropriate tense for the dependent
clause, as in the following sentences:
Lena was telling a story about the exploits of a red cow when a tree
branch broke the parlour window.
Here the action "was telling" took place in the past and continued for some
time in the past. The breaking of the window is described in the simple past.
When the recess bell rang, Jesse was writing a long division problem
on the blackboard.
This sentence describes actions ("ran" and "was writing") that took place
sometime in the past, and emphasis the continuing nature of the action that
takes place in the independent clause ("was writing").
One of the most common source of verb sequence error arises from a
confusion of the present perfect ("has walked") and the past perfect ("had
walked"). Both tense convey a sense of pastness, but the present perfect is
categorised as a present tense verb.
One of the easiest ways of determining whether you've used the perfect
tenses correctly is to examine the auxiliary verb. Remember "has" and
"have" are present tense auxiliaries and "had" is a past tense auxiliary. The
future tense auxiliary is "will."

Using Verb Moods
A verb may be in one of three moods: the indicative mood, the imperative
mood, and the subjunctive mood.
The Indicative Mood

The indicative mood is the most common and is used to express facts and
opinions or to make inquiries. Most of the statements you make or you read
will be in the indicative mood.
The highlighted verbs in the following sentences are all in the indicative
mood:
Joe picks up the boxes.
The german shepherd fetches the stick.
Charles closes the window.
The Imperative Mood

The imperative mood is also common and is used to give orders or to
make requests. The imperative is identical in form to the second person
indicative.
The highlighted verbs in the following sentences are all in the imperative
mood:
Pick up those boxes.
Fetch.
Close the window.
The Subjunctive Mood

The subjunctive mood has almost disappeared from the language and is
thus more difficult to use correctly than either the indicative mood or the
imperative mood. The subjunctive mood rarely appears in everyday
conversation or writing and is used in a set of specific circumstances.
You form the present tense subjunctive by dropping the "s" from the end of
the third person singular, except for the verb "be".
paints
present
walks
present
thinks
present
is
present
subjunctive: "paint"
subjunctive: "walk"
subjunctive: "think"
subjunctive: "be"
Except for the verb "be," the past tense subjunctive is indistinguishable in
form from the past tense indicative. The past tense subjunctive of "be" is
"were."
painted
past subjunctive: "painted"
walked
past subjunctive: "walked"
thought
past subjunctive: "thought"
was
past subjunctive: "were"
The subjunctive is found in a handful of traditional circumstances. For
example, in the sentence "God save the Queen," the verb "save" is in the
subjunctive mood. Similarly, in the sentence "Heaven forbid," the verb forbid
is in the subjunctive mood.
The subjunctive is usually found in complex sentences. The subjunctive
mood is used in dependent clauses to express unreal conditions and in
dependent clauses following verbs of wishing or requesting.
The subjunctive mood is used in a dependent clause attached to an
independent clause that uses a verb such as "ask," "command," "demand,"
"insist," "order," "recommend," "require," "suggest," or "wish."
The subjunctive mood is also used in a dependent clause attached to an
independent clause that uses an adjective that expresses urgency (such as
"crucial," "essential," "important," "imperative," "necessary," or "urgent").
Each of the highlighted verbs in the following sentences is in the subjunctive
mood.
It is urgent that Harraway attend Monday's meeting.
The Member of Parliament demanded that the Minister explain the
effects of the bill on the environment.
The sergeant ordered that Calvin scrub the walls of the mess hall.
We suggest that Mr. Beatty move the car out of the no parking zone.
The committee recommended that the bill be passed immediately.
If Canada were a tropical country, we would be able to grow
pineapples in our backyards.
If he were more generous, he would not have chased the canvassers
away from his door.
I wish that this book were still in print.
If the council members were interested in stopping street prostitution,
they would urge the police to pursue customers more vigorously than
they pursue the prostitutes.
Modifiers | The Writing Center
Modifiers
A modifier can be an adjective, an adverb, or a phrase or clause acting as
an adjective or adverb In every case, the basic principle is the same: the
modifier adds information to another element in the sentence.
In this chapter, you will begin by working with single-word modifiers -adjectives and adverbs -- but the information here will also apply to phrases
and clauses which act as modifiers.
Using Adverbs and Adjectives
Adverbs are words that modify verbs, adjectives, other adverbs, and
sometimes clauses and whole sentences. Adjectives are words that modify
nouns and pronouns. Be careful not to use an adjective where you need an
adverb. Consider the following sentences, for instance:
[WRONG] Once the test was over, Sharon walked slow out of the
classroom.
[RIGHT] Once the test was over, Sharon walked slowly out of the
classroom.
The sentence needs an adverb, not an adjective, to modify the verb
"walked."
[WRONG] We tried real hard to get the muffin mixture perfect.
[RIGHT] We tried really hard to get the muffin mixture perfect.
The sentence needs an adverb, not an adjective, to modify the adjective
"hard." (Note that "really" is an informal substitute for "very", and you
should avoid in in formal essays.)
Using "good," "bad," "well," and "badly."

You might also note the distinctions between "good" and "bad" (which are
adjectives) and "well" and "badly" (which are adverbs):
Shelley plays the piano well and the drums badly.
The actor's performance was good even though he felt bad that night.
"Well" is an adjective only when it refers to health or condition:

She protested that she was well enough to start playing sports again.
Using Adjectives with Linking Verbs

In the same vein, remember that adjectives modify nouns and pronouns. Do
not mistakenly use an adverb to modify these parts of speech.
For example, after a linking verb you may be tempted to use an adverb
instead of an adjective. You will recall that the linking verb is a special kind
of verb because it links its subject to a subject complement. A subject
complement can be either a noun (renaming the subject) or a modifier
(describing the subject). When it is a modifier it must be an adjective
because it describes the subject (always a noun or pronoun). It does not
modify the linking verb itself and should therefore not be an adverb:
[WRONG] We felt badly about having caused the accident
[RIGHT] We felt bad about having caused the accident.
Using Conjunctive Adverbs

The conjunctive adverb is a special kind of adverb that often serves as a
transition between two independent clauses in a sentence. Some common
conjunctive adverbs are "therefore," "however," "moreover," "nevertheless,"
"consequently," and "furthermore." When using a conjunctive adverb at the
beginning of the second independent clause, be sure to precede it with a
semicolon not a comma.
My roommate usually listens to rock music; however, he also likes
John Coltrane and several other jazz musicians.

Using the Comparative and Superlative
You should use the comparative form of an adjective or adverb to
compare exactly two things. You can form the comparative by adding the
suffix "-er" to the modifier (for some short words) or by using the word
"more" with the modifier:
Of the two designs, the architect is convinced that the city will select
the more experimental one. (comparing two designs)
Now that it is March, the days are getting longer. (longer now than
before)
You should use the superlative form to compare three or more things. You
can form the superlative by adding the suffix "-est" to the modifier (for some
short words) or by using the word "most" with the modifier:
This is definitely the smartest, wittiest, most imaginative comic strip I
have ever seen. (implying that I have seen more than two)
Note: if you are not certain, you should check a dictionary to see which
words take use "more" and "most" and which words take the suffixes "-er"
and "-est."
Common Problems with the Comparative and

Superlative
There are certain modifiers which you cannot logically use in the
comparative and superlative forms. Adjectives like "perfect" and "unique,"
for instance, express absolute conditions and do not allow for degrees of
comparison. Something cannot be more perfect than another thing: it is
either perfect or not perfect.
You should also avoid using a double comparison -- that is, using both a
suffix and an adverb to indicate the comparative or superlative:
[WRONG] I am convinced that my poodle is more smarter than your
dachshund.
[WRONG] Laurel and Hardy are the most funniest slapstick
comedians in film history.
[RIGHT] I am convinced that my poodle is smarter than your
dachshund.
[RIGHT] Laurel and Hardy are the funniest slapstick comedians in film
history.
Similarly, although the double negative -- the use of two negative words
together for a single negative idea -- is common in speech and has a long
history in the English language, you should avoid using it in formal writing:
[WRONG] We decided there wasn't no point in pursuing our research
further.
[WRONG] I can't get no satisfaction.
[RIGHT] We decided there wasn't any point in pursuing our research

further. OR We decided there was no point in pursuing our research
further.
[RIGHT] I can't get any satisfaction. OR I can get no satisfaction.
Double negatives involving "not" and "no" are fairly easy to spot and fix.
However, some other adverbs -- for example, "hardly," "scarcely," "barely" - imply the negative, and you should not use them with another negative:
[WRONG] Even though he has lived in Toronto for four years, he does
not have hardly any friends there.
[RIGHT] Even though he has lived in Toronto for four years, he has
hardly any friends there. OR Even though he has lived in Toronto for
four years, he does not have many friends there.

Misplaced and Dangling Modifiers
You have a certain amount of freedom in deciding where to place your
modifiers in a sentence:
We rowed the boat vigorously.
We vigorously rowed the boat.
Vigorously we rowed the boat.
However, you must be careful to avoid misplaced modifiers -- modifiers
that are positioned so that they appear to modify the wrong thing.
In fact, you can improve your writing quite a bit by paying attention to basic
problems like misplaced modifiers and dangling modifiers.
Misplaced Words
In general, you should place single-word modifiers near the word or words
they modify, especially when a reader might think that they modify
something different in the sentence. Consider the following sentence:
[WRONG] After our conversation lessons, we could understand the
Spanish spoken by our visitors from Madrid easily.
Do we understand the Spanish easily, or do the visitors speak it easily? This
revision eliminates the confusion:
[RIGHT] We could easily understand the Spanish spoken by our

visitors from Madrid.
It is particularly important to be careful about where you put limiting
modifiers. These are words like "almost," "hardly," "nearly," "just," "only,"
"merely," and so on. Many writers regularly misplace these modifiers. You
can accidentally change the entire meaning of a sentence if you place these
modifiers next to the wrong word:
[WRONG] Randy has nearly annoyed every professor he has had. (he
hasn't "nearly annoyed" them)
[WRONG] We almost ate all of the Thanksgiving turkey. (we didn't
"almost eat" it)
[RIGHT] Randy has annoyed nearly every professor he has had.
[RIGHT] We ate almost all of the Thanksgiving turkey.
Misplaced Phrases and Clauses

It is important that you place the modifying phrase or clause as close as
possible to the word or words it modifies:
[WRONG] By accident, he poked the little girl with his finger in the
eye.
[WRONG] I heard that my roommate intended to throw a surprise
party for me while I was outside her bedroom window.
[WRONG] After the wedding, Ian told us at his stag party that he
would start behaving like a responsible adult.
[RIGHT] By accident, he poked the little girl in the eye with his finger.
[RIGHT] While I was outside her bedroom window, I heard that
my roommate intended to throw a surprise party for me.
[RIGHT] Ian told us at his stag party that he would start behaving like
a responsible adult after the wedding.
Squinting Modifiers
A squinting modifier is an ambiguously placed modifier that can modify
either the word before it or the word after it. In other words, it is "squinting"
in both directions at the same time:
[WRONG] Defining your terms clearly strengthens your argument.
(does defining "clearly strengthen" or does "defining clearly"
strengthen?)
[RIGHT] Defining your terms will clearly strengthen your

argument. OR A clear definition of your terms strengthens your
argument.
Split Infinitives
The infinitive form of the verb consists of the word "to" followed by the base
form of the verb: "to be," "to serve," "to chop," etc. Inserting a word or
words between the "to" and the verb of an infinitive creates what is known
as a split infinitive. Prescriptive grammarians, who knew Latin grammar
better than English, once decreed that a split infinitive was an error, but now
it is growing increasingly acceptable even in formal writing. Nevertheless,
some careful writers still prefer to avoid splitting infinitives altogether.
In general, you should avoid placing long, disruptive modifiers between the
"to" and the verb of an infinitive. However, you must use your judgement
when it comes to single-word modifiers. Sometimes a sentence becomes
awkward if a single-word modifier is placed anywhere but between the
elements of the infinitive:
[WRONG] The marketing team voted to, before they launched the
new software, run an anticipatory ad campaign. (disruptive -- the
infinitive should not be split)
[RIGHT] The marketing team voted to run an anticipatory ad
campaign before they launched the new software.
Dangling Modifiers
The dangling modifier, a persistent and frequent grammatical problem in
writing, is often (though not always) located at the beginning of a sentence.
A dangling modifier is usually a phrase or an elliptical clause -- a
dependent clause whose subject and verb are implied rather than expressed
-- that functions as an adjective but does not modify any specific word in the
sentence, or (worse) modifies the wrong word. Consider the following
example:
Raised in Nova Scotia, it is natural to miss the smell of the sea.
The introductory phrase in the above sentence looks as if it is meant to
modify a person or persons, but no one is mentioned in the sentence. Such
introductory adjective phrases, because of their position, automatically
modify the first noun or pronoun that follows the phrase -- in this case, "it."
The connection in this case is illogical because "it" was not raised in Nova
Scotia. You could revise the sentence in a number of ways:
For a person raised in Nova Scotia, it is natural to miss the smell of

the sea. (the phrase no longer functions as an adjective)
Raised in Nova Scotia, I often miss the smell of the sea. (the phrase
functions as an adjective but now automatically modifies "I," a logical
connection)
A dangling modifier can also appear when you place an elliptical clause
improperly:
Although nearly finished, we left the play early because we were
worried about our sick cat.
The way this sentence is structured, the clause "Although nearly finished"
illogically modifies "we," the pronoun directly following the clause. An easy
way to rectify the problem is to re-insert the subject and verb that are
understood in the elliptical clause:
Although the play was nearly finished, we left early because we were
worried about our sick cat.
Building phrases | The Writing Center

Building Phrases
A phrase is a group of two or more grammatically linked words without
a subject and predicate -- a group of grammatically-linked words with a
subject and predicate is called a clause.
The group "teacher both students and" is not a phrase because the words
have no grammatical relationship to one another. Similarly, the group "bay
the across" is not a phrase.
In both cases, the words need to be rearranged in order to create phrases.
The group "both teachers and students" and the group "across the bay" are
both phrases.
You use a phrase to add information to a sentence and it can perform the
functions of a subject, an object, a subject complement or object
complement, a verb, an adjective, or an adverb.
The highlighted words in each of the following sentences make up a phrase:

She bought some spinach when she went to the corner store.
Lightning flashed brightly in the night sky.
They heard high pitched cries in the middle of the night.
In early October, Giselle planted twenty tulip bulbs; unfortunately,
squirrels ate the bulbs and none bloomed.
Small children often insist that they can do it by themselves.
The Function Of Phrases
A phrase may function as a verb, noun, an adverb, or an adjective.
Verb Phrases
A verb phrase consists of a verb, its direct and/or indirect objects, and any
adverb, adverb phrases, or adverb clauses which happen to modify it. The
predicate of a clause or sentence is always a verb phrase:
Corinne is trying to decide whether she wants to go to medical
school or to go to law school.
He did not have all the ingredients the recipe called for;
therefore, he decided to make something else.
We will meet at the library at 3:30 p.m.
Noun Phrases
A noun phrase consists of a pronoun or noun with any associated
modifiers, including adjectives, adjective phrases, adjective clauses, and
other nouns in the possessive case.
Like a noun, a noun phrase can act as a subject, as the object of a verb or
verbal, as a subject or object complement, or as the object of a preposition,
as in the following examples:
subject
Small children often insist that they can do it by themselves.
object of a verb
To read quickly and accurately is Eugene's goal.
object of a preposition
The arctic explorers were caught unawares by the spring breakup.
subject complement
Frankenstein is the name of the scientist not the monster.
object complement
I consider Loki my favorite cat.
Noun Phrases using Verbals

(by David Megginson)
Since some verbals -- in particular, the gerund and the infinitive -- can act
as nouns, these also can form the nucleus of a noun phrase:
Ice fishing is a popular winter pastime.
However, since verbals are formed from verbs, they can also take direct
objects and can be modified by adverbs. A gerund phrase or infinitive
phrase, then, is a noun phrase consisting of a verbal, its modifiers (both
adjectives and adverbs), and its objects:
Running a marathon in the Summer is thirsty work.
I am planning to buy a house next month.
Adjective Phrases
An adjective phrase is any phrase which modifies a noun or pronoun. You
often construct adjective phrases using participles or prepositions together
with their objects:
I was driven mad by the sound of my neighbour's constant piano
practising.
In this sentence, the prepositional phrase "of my neighbour's constant
piano practising" acts as an adjective modifying the noun "sound."
My father-in-law locked his keys in the trunk of a borrowed car.
Similarly in this sentence, the prepositional phrase "of a borrowed car" acts
as an adjective modifying the noun "trunk."
We saw Peter dashing across the quadrangle.
Here the participle phrase "dashing across the quadrangle" acts as an
adjective describing the proper noun "Peter."
We picked up the records broken in the scuffle.
In this sentence, the participle phrase "broken in the scuffle" modifies the
noun phrase "the records."
Adverb Phrases
A prepositional phrase can also be an adverb phrase, functioning as an

adverb, as in the following sentences.
She bought some spinach when she went to the corner store.
In this sentence, the prepositional phrase "to the corner store" acts as an
adverb modifying the verb "went."
Lightning flashed brightly in the night sky.
In this sentence, the prepositional phrase "in the night sky" functions as a
adverb modifying the verb "flashed."
In early October, Giselle planted twenty tulip bulbs; unfortunately,
squirrels ate the bulbs and none bloomed.
In this sentence, the prepositional phrase "in early October" acts as an

adverb modifying the entire sentence.
We will meet at the library at 3:30 P.M.
In this sentence, the prepositional phrase "at 3:30 P.M." acts as an adverb
modifying the verb phrase "will meet."
The dogs were capering about the clown's feet.
In this sentence, the prepositional phrase "about the clown's feet" acts as an
adverb modifying the verb phrase "were capering."
Building clauses | The Writing Center
Building Clauses
A clause is a collection of grammatically-related words including a predicate

and a subject (though sometimes the subject is implied). A collection of
grammatically-related words without a subject or without a predicate is
called a phrase.
Clauses are the building blocks of sentences: every sentence consists of one
or more clauses. This chapter will help you to recognise and (more
importantly) to use different types of clauses in your own writing.
Written by David Megginson
Recognising Clauses
Consider these examples:
clause
cows eat grass
This example is a clause, because it contains the subject "cows" and the
predicate "eat grass."
phrase
cows eating grass
What about "cows eating grass"? This noun phrase could be a subject, but it
has no predicate attached to it: the adjective phrase "eating grass"
show which cows the writer is referring to, but there is nothing here to show
why the writer is mentioning cows in the first place.
clause
cows eating grass are visible from the highway
This is a complete clause again. The subject "cows eating grass" and the
predicate "are visible from the highway" make up a complete thought.
clause
Run!
This single-word command is also a clause, even though it does seem to
have a subject. With a direct command, it is not necessary to include the
subject, since it is obviously the person or people you are talking to: in other
words, the clause really reads "[You] run!". You should not usually use direct
commands in your essays, except in quotations.
>
Using Clauses as Nouns, Adjectives, and Adverbs
If a clause can stand alone as a sentence, it is an independent clause, as
in the following example:
Independent
the Prime Minister is in Ottawa
Some clauses, however, cannot stand alone as sentences: in this case, they
are dependent clauses or subordinate clauses. Consider the same
clause with the subordinating conjunction "because" added to the beginning:
Dependent
when the Prime Minister is in Ottawa
In this case, the clause could not be a sentence by itself, since the
conjunction "because" suggests that the clause is providing an explanation
for something else. Since this dependent clause answers the question
"when," just like an adverb, it is called a dependent adverb clause (or
simply an adverb clause, since adverb clauses are always dependent
clauses). Note how the clause can replace the adverb "tomorrow" in the
following examples:
adverb
The committee will meet tomorrow.
adverb clause
The committee will meet when the Prime Minister is in Ottawa.
Dependent clauses can stand not only for adverbs, but also for nouns and
for adjectives.
Noun Clauses
A noun clause is an entire clause which takes the place of a noun in
another clause or phrase. Like a noun, a noun clause acts as the subject or
object of a verb or the object of a preposition, answering the questions
"who(m)?" or "what?". Consider the following examples:
noun
I know Latin.
noun clause
I know that Latin is no longer spoken as a native language.
In the first example, the noun "Latin" acts as the direct object of the verb
"know." In the second example, the entire clause "that Latin ..." is the direct
object.
In fact, many noun clauses are indirect questions:
noun
Their destination is unknown.
noun clause
Where they are going is unknown.
The question "Where are they going?," with a slight change in word order,
becomes a noun clause when used as part of a larger unit -- like the noun
"destination," the clause is the subject of the verb "is."
Here are some more examples of noun clauses:
about what you bought at the mall
This noun clause is the object of the preposition "about," and answers the
question "about what?"
Whoever broke the vase will have to pay for it.
This noun clause is the subject of the verb "will have to pay," and answers
the question "who will have to pay?"
The Toronto fans hope that the Blue Jays will win again.
This noun clause is the object of the verb "hope," and answers the question
"what do the fans hope?"
Adjective Clauses
An adjective clause is a dependent clause which takes the place of an
adjective in another clause or phrase. Like an adjective, an adjective clause
modifies a noun or pronoun, answering questions like "which?" or "what kind
of?" Consider the following examples:
Adjective
the red coat
Adjective clause
the coat which I bought yesterday
Like the word "red" in the first example, the dependent clause "which I
bought yesterday" in the second example modifies the noun "coat." Note
that an adjective clause usually comes after what it modifies, while an

adjective usually comes before.
In formal writing, an adjective clause begins with the relative pronouns
"who(m)," "that," or "which." In informal writing or speech, you may leave
out the relative pronoun when it is not the subject of the adjective clause,
but you should usually include the relative pronoun in formal, academic
writing:
informal
The books people read were mainly religious.
formal
The books that people read were mainly religious.
informal
Some firefighters never meet the people they save.
formal
Some firefighters never meet the people whom they save.
Here are some more examples of adjective clauses:
the meat which they ate was tainted
This clause modifies the noun "meat" and answers the question "which
meat?".
about the movie which made him cry
This clause modifies the noun "movie" and answers the question "which
movie?".
they are searching for the one who borrowed the book
The clause modifies the pronoun "one" and answers the question "which
one?".
Did I tell you about the author whom I met?
The clause modifies the noun "author" and answers the question "which
author?".
Adverb Clauses
An adverb clause is a dependent clause which takes the place of an adverb
in another clause or phrase. An adverb clause answers questions such as
"when?", "where?", "why?", "with what goal/result?", and "under what
conditions?".
Note how an adverb clause can replace an adverb in the following example:
adverb
The premier gave a speech here.
adverb clause
The premier gave a speech where the workers were striking.
Usually, a subordinating conjunction like "because," "when(ever),"
"where(ever)," "since," "after," and "so that," will introduce an adverb
clause. Note that a dependent adverb clause can never stand alone as a
complete sentence:
independent clause
they left the locker room
dependent adverb clause
after they left the locker room
The first example can easily stand alone as a sentence, but the second
cannot -- the reader will ask what happened "after they left the locker
room". Here are some more examples of adverb clauses expressing the
relationships of cause, effect, space, time, and condition:
cause
Hamlet wanted to kill his uncle because the uncle had murdered
Hamlet's father.
The adverb clause answers the question "why?".
effect
Hamlet wanted to kill his uncle so that his father's murder would
be avenged.
The adverb clause answers the question "with what goal/result?".
time
After Hamlet's uncle Claudius married Hamlet's mother, Hamlet
wanted to kill him.
The adverb clause answers the question "when?". Note the change in word
order -- an adverb clause can often appear either before or after the main
part of the sentence.
place
Where the whole Danish court was assembled, Hamlet ordered a

play in an attempt to prove his uncle's guilt.
The adverb clause answers the question "where?".

condition
If the British co-operate, the Europeans may achieve monetary
union.
The adverb clause answers the question "under what conditions?"
Building sentences | The Writing Center
Building Sentences
Some English sentences are very basic:
Shakespeare was a writer.
Einstein said something.
The Inuit are a people.
You could write an entire essay using only simple sentences like these:
William Shakespeare was a writer. He wrote plays. It was the
Elizabethan age. One play was Hamlet. It was a tragedy. Hamlet died.
The court died too.
It is not likely, however, that your essay would receive a passing grade. This
chapter helps you learn to recognise different types of sentences and to use
them effectively in your own writing.
Why Sentence Structure Matters
Although ordinary conversation, personal letters, and even some types of
professional writing (such as newspaper stories) consist almost entirely of
simple sentences, your university or college instructors will expect you to be
able to use all types of sentences in your formal academic writing. Writers
who use only simple sentences are like truck drivers who do not know how
to shift out of first gear: they would be able to drive a load from Montral to
Calgary (eventually), but they would have a great deal of trouble getting
there.
If you use phrases and clauses carefully, your sentences will become much
more interesting and your ideas, much clearer. This complex sentence
develops a major, central idea and provides structured background
information:
Since it involves the death not only of the title character but of the
entire royal court, Hamlet is the most extreme of the tragedies written
by the Elizabethan playwright William Shakespeare.
Just as a good driver uses different gears, a good writer uses different types
of sentences in different situations:
long complex sentence will show what information depends on what other
information;
compound sentence will emphasise balance and parallelism;
short simple sentence will grab a reader's attention;
periodic sentence will leave the reader in suspense until the very end;
declarative sentence will avoid any special emotional impact;
an
an
an
loose sentence will tell the reader in advance how to interpret your
information;
exclamatory sentence, used sparingly, will jolt the reader;
interrogative sentence will force the reader to think about what you are
writing; and
imperative sentence will make it clear that you want the reader to act
right away.

The Structure of a Sentence
Remember that every clause is, in a sense, a miniature sentence. A simple
sentences contains only a single clause, while a compound sentence, a
complex sentence, or a compound-complex sentence contains at least two
clauses.
The Simple Sentence
The most basic type of sentence is the simple sentence, which contains
only one clause. A simple sentence can be as short as one word:
Run!
Usually, however, the sentence has a subject as well as a predicate and both
the subject and the predicate may have modifiers. All of the following are
simple sentences, because each contains only one clause:
Melt!
Ice melts.
The ice melts quickly.
The ice on the river melts quickly under the warm March sun.
Lying exposed without its blanket of snow, the ice on the
river melts quickly under the warm March sun.
As you can see, a simple sentence can be quite long -- it is a mistake to
think that you can tell a simple sentence from a compound sentence or a
complex sentence simply by its length.
The most natural sentence structure is the simple sentence: it is the first
kind which children learn to speak, and it remains by far the most common
sentence in the spoken language of people of all ages. In written work,
simple sentences can be very effective for grabbing a reader's attention or
for summing up an argument, but you have to use them with care: too
many simple sentences can make your writing seem childish.
When you do use simple sentences, you should add transitional phrases to
connect them to the surrounding sentences.
The Compound Sentence

A compound sentence consists of two or more independent clauses (or
simple sentences) joined by co-ordinating conjunctions like "and," "but," and
"or":
Simple
Canada is a rich country.
Simple
Still, it has many poor people.
Compound
Canada is a rich country, but still it has many poor people.
Compound sentences are very natural for English speakers -- small children
learn to use them early on to connect their ideas and to avoid pausing (and
allowing an adult to interrupt):
Today at school Mr. Moore brought in his pet rabbit, and he showed it
to the class, and I got to pet it, and Kate held it, and we coloured
pictures of it, and it ate part of my carrot at lunch, and ...
Of course, this is an extreme example, but if you over-use compound
sentences in written work, your writing might seem immature.
A compound sentence is most effective when you use it to create a sense of
balance or contrast between two (or more) equally-important pieces of
information:
Montal has better clubs, but Toronto has better cinemas.
Special Cases of Compound Sentences

There are two special types of compound sentences which you might want to
note. First, rather than joining two simple sentences together, a coordinating conjunction sometimes joins two complex sentences, or one
simple sentence and one complex sentence. In this case, the sentence is
called a compound-complex sentence:
compound-complex
The package arrived in the morning, but the courier left before
I could check the contents.
The second special case involves punctuation. It is possible to join two
originally separate sentences into a compound sentence using a semicolon
instead of a co-ordinating conjunction:
Sir John A. Macdonald had a serious drinking problem; when
sober, however, he could be a formidable foe in the House of
Commons.
Usually, a conjunctive adverb like "however" or "consequently" will appear
near the beginning of the second part, but it is not required:
The sun rises in the east; it sets in the west.
The Complex Sentence
A complex sentence contains one independent clause and at least one

dependent clause. Unlike a compound sentence, however, a complex
sentence contains clauses which are not equal. Consider the following
examples:
Simple
My friend invited me to a party. I do not want to go.
Compound
My friend invited me to a party, but I do not want to go.
Complex
Although my friend invited me to a party, I do not want to go.
In the first example, there are two separate simple sentences: "My friend
invited me to a party" and "I do not want to go." The second example joins
them together into a single sentence with the co-ordinating conjunction
"but," but both parts could still stand as independent sentences -- they are
entirely equal, and the reader cannot tell which is most important. In the
third example, however, the sentence has changed quite a bit: the first
clause, "Although my friend invited me to a party," has become incomplete,
or a dependent clause.
A complex sentence is very different from a simple sentence or a compound
sentence because it makes clear which ideas are most important. When you
write
My friend invited me to a party. I do not want to go.
or even
My friend invited me to a party, but I do not want to go.
The reader will have trouble knowing which piece of information is most
important to you. When you write the subordinating conjunction "although"
at the beginning of the first clause, however, you make it clear that the fact
that your friend invited you is less important than, or subordinate, to the
fact that you do not want to go.

The Order of a Sentence
Not all sentences make a single point -- compound sentences, especially,
may present several equally-important pieces of information -- but most of
the time, when you write a sentence, there is a single argument, statement,
question, or command which you wish to get across.
When you are writing your sentences, do not bury your main point in the
middle; instead, use one of the positions of emphasis at the beginning or
end of the sentence.
The Loose Sentence

If you put your main point at the beginning of a long sentence, you are
writing a loose sentence:
loose
I am willing to pay slightly higher taxes for the privilege of
living in Canada, considering the free health care, the cheap tuition
fees, the low crime rate, the comprehensive social programs, and the
wonderful winters.
The main point of this sentence is that the writer prefers to live in Canada,
and the writer makes the point at the very beginning: everything which
follows is simply extra information. When the readers read about the free
health care, the cheap tuition fees, the low crime rate, the comprehensive
social programs, and the wonderful winters, they will already know that
these are reasons for living in Canada, and as a result, they will be more
likely to understand the sentence on a first reading.
Loose sentences are the most natural for English speakers, who almost
always talk in loose sentences: even the most sophisticated English writers
tend to use loose sentences much more often than periodic sentences. While
a periodic sentence can be useful for making an important point or for a
special dramatic effect, it is also much more difficult to read, and often
requires readers to go back and reread the sentence once they understand
the main point.
Finally, it is important to remember that you have to structure a loose
sentence as carefully as you would structure a periodic sentence: it is very
easy to lose control of a loose sentence so that by the end the reader has
forgotten what your main point was.
The Periodic Sentence

If your main point is at the end of a long sentence, you are writing
a periodic sentence:
periodic
Considering the free health care, the cheap tuition fees, the low crime
rate, the comprehensive social programs, and the wonderful winters, I
am willing to pay slightly higher taxes for the privilege of living

in Canada.
The main point of this sentence is that the writer prefers to live in Canada.
At the beginning of this sentence, the reader does not know what point the
writer is going to make: what about the free health care, cheap tuition fees,
low crime rate, comprehensive social programs, and wonderful winters? The
reader has to read all of this information without knowing what the
conclusion will be.
The periodic sentence has become much rarer in formal English writing over
the past hundred years, and it has never been common in informal spoken
English (outside of bad political speeches). Still, it is a powerful rhetorical
tool. An occasional periodic sentence is not only dramatic but persuasive:
even if the readers do not agree with your conclusion, they will read your
evidence first with open minds. If you use a loose sentence with hostile
readers, the readers will probably close their minds before considering any
of your evidence.
Finally, it is important to remember that periodic sentences are like
exclamatory sentences: used once or twice in a piece of writing, they can be
very effective; used any more than that, they can make you sound dull and
pompous.

The Purpose of a Sentence
The other classifications in this chapter describe how you construct your
sentences, but this last set describes why you have written the sentences in
the first place. Most sentences which you write should simply state facts,
conjectures, or arguments, but sometimes you will want to give commands
or ask questions.
The Declarative Sentence

The declarative sentence is the most important type. You can, and often
will write entire essays or reports using only declarative sentences, and you
should always use them far more often than any other type. A declarative
sentence simply states a fact or argument, without requiring either an
answer or action from the reader. You punctuate your declarative sentences
with a simple period:
Ottawa is the capital of Canada.
The distinction between deconstruction and post-modernism eludes

me.
He asked which path leads back to the lodge.
Note that the last example contains an indirect question, "which path
leads back to the lodge." An indirect question does not make a sentence into
an interrogative sentence -- only a direct question can do that.
The Interrogative Sentence

An interrogative sentence asks a direct question and always ends in a
question mark:
Who can read this and not be moved?
How many roads must a man walk down?
Does money grow on trees?
Note that an indirect question does not make a sentence interrogative:
Direct/Interrogative
When was Lester Pearson prime minister?
Indirect/Declarative
I wonder when Lester Pearson was prime minister.
A direct question requires an answer from the reader, while an indirect
question does not.
The Rhetorical Question

Normally, an essay or report will not contain many regular direct questions,
since you are writing it to present information or to make an argument.
There is, however, a special type of direct question called a rhetorical
question -- that is, a question which you do not actually expect the reader
to answer:
Why did the War of 1812 take place? Some scholars argue that it was
simply a land-grab by the Americans ...
If you do not overuse them, rhetorical questions can be a very effective way
to introduce new topics or problems in the course of a paper; if you use
them too often, however, you may sound patronising and/or too much like a
professor giving a mediocre lecture.
The Exclamatory Sentence
An exclamatory sentence, or exclamation, is simply a more forceful

version of a declarative sentence, marked at the end with an exclamation
mark:
The butler did it!
How beautiful this river is!
Some towns in Upper Canada lost up to a third of their population
during the cholera epidemics of the early nineteenth century!
Exclamatory sentences are common in speech and (sometimes) in fiction,
but over the last 200 years they have almost entirely disappeared from
academic writing. You will (or should) probably never use one in any sort of
academic writing, except where you are quoting something else directly.
Note that an exclamation mark can also appear at the end of an imperative
sentence.
The Imperative Sentence

An imperative sentence gives a direct command to someone -- this type
of sentence can end either with a period or with an exclamation mark,
depending on how forceful the command is:
Sit!
Read this book for tomorrow.
You should not usually use an exclamation mark with the word "please":
Wash the windows!
Please wash the windows.
Normally, you should not use imperative sentences in academic writing.
When you do use an imperative sentence, it should usually contain only a
mild command, and thus, end with a period:
Consider the Incas.
Writing paragraphs | The Writing Center

Writing Paragraphs
A thesis is a single, focused argument, and most paragraphs prove or

demonstrate a thesis through explanations, examples and concrete details.
This chapter will help you learn to write and analyse the types of paragraphs
common in academic essays.
Start with an Outline
A brief outline will make it easier to develop topic sentences and to arrange
your paragraphs in the most effective order.
You should begin your outline by stating the thesis of your paper:
The English Civil War was caused by a combination of factors,
including the empowerment and organization of Puritan forces, the
absolutist tendencies of James I and the personal ineptitude of his son
Charles I.
Next, list the topic sentences for each of the paragraphs (or sections) of the
paper:
1. The war and its aftereffects lasted twenty years.
2. Historically, the Protestants had believed themselves persecuted.
3. In the 1620s Protestants dominated Parliament and attempted to enact
legislation which would provide guidelines for both religious worship and
political representation.
4. During his reign in the early 1600s, James I had attempted to silence Puritan
protests and to solidify the role of the monarchy as unquestioned head of
state.
5. Charles I's lack of personal diplomacy and his advisers' desire for personal
power gave the Puritans the excuses they needed to declare war on the
monarchy.
You might notice that the topic sentences derive directly from the thesis,
and explain, prove, or expand on each of the thesis' claims.
Once you have an outline at hand, you can follow three steps to help you
write your paragraphs effectively:
1. Use your thesis to help you organise the rest of your paper.
2. Write a list of topic sentences, and make sure that they show how the
material in each paragraph is related to your thesis.
3. Eliminate material that is not related to your thesis and topic sentences.

Writing Topic Sentences
A topic sentence (also known as a focus sentence) encapsulates or
organises an entire paragraph, and you should be careful to include one in
most of your major paragraphs. Although topic sentences may appear
anywhere in a paragraph, in academic essays they often appear at the
beginning.
It might be helpful to think of a topic sentence as working in two directions
simultaneously. It relates the paragraph to the essay's thesis, and thereby
acts as a signpost for the argument of the paper as a whole, but it also
defines the scope of the paragraph itself. For example, consider the following
topic sentence:
Many fast-food chains make their profits from adding a special
ingredient called "forget sauce" to their foods.
If this sentence controls the paragraph that follows, then all sentences in the
paragraph must relate in some way to fast food, profit, and "forget sauce":
Made largely from edible oil products, this condiment is never listed on
the menu.
This sentence fits in with the topic sentence because it is a description of the
composition of "forget sauce."
In addition, this well-kept industry secret is the reason why ingredients
are never listed on the packaging of victuals sold by these restaurants.
The transitional phrase "In addition" relates the composition of "forget
sauce" to secret fast-food industry practices.
"Forget sauce" has a chemical property which causes temporary
amnesia in consumers.
Now the paragraph moves on to the short-term effect on consumers:
After spending too much money on barely edible food bereft of any
nutritional value, most consumers swear they will never repeat such a
disagreeable experience.
This sentence describes its longer-term effects:

Within a short period, however, the chemical in "forget sauce" takes
effect, and they can be depended upon to return and spend, older but
no wiser.
Finally, I finish the paragraph by "proving" the claim contained in the topic
sentence, that many fast-food chains make their profits from adding a
special ingredient called "forget sauce" to their foods.
Analysing a Topic Sentence

Topic sentences often act like tiny thesis statements. Like a thesis
statement, a topic sentence makes a claim of some sort. As the thesis
statement is the unifying force in the essay, so the topic sentence must be
the unifying force in the paragraph. Further, as is the case with the thesis
statement, when the topic sentence makes a claim, the paragraph which
follows must expand, describe, or prove it in some way. Topic sentences
make a point and give reasons or examples to support it.
Consider the last paragraph about topic sentences, beginning with the topic
sentence itself:
Topic sentences often act like tiny thesis statements.
This is my claim, or the point I will prove in the following paragraph. All the
sentences that follow this topic sentence must relate to it in some way.
Like a thesis statement, a topic sentence makes a claim of some sort.
As the thesis statement is the unifying force in the essay, so the topic
sentence must be the unifying force in the paragraph.
These two sentences show how the reader can compare thesis statements
and topic sentences: they both make a claim and they both provide a focus
for the writing which follows.
Further, as is the case with the thesis statement, when the topic
sentence makes a claim, the paragraph which follows must expand,
describe, or prove it in some way.
Using the transitional word "further" to relate this sentence to those
preceding it, I expand on my topic sentence by suggesting ways a topic
sentence is related to the sentences that follow it.
Topic sentences make a point and give reasons or examples to support
it.
Finally, I wrap up the paragraph by stating exactly how topic sentences act
rather like tiny thesis statements.

Dividing your Argument
Starting a new paragraph is a signal to your reader that you are beginning a
new thought or taking up a new point. Since your outline will help you divide
the essay into sections, the resulting paragraphs must correspond to the
logical divisions in the essay. If your paragraphs are too long, divide your
material into smaller, more manageable units; if they're too short, find
broader topic sentences that will allow you to combine some of your ideas.
Look at the list of sentences below:
In preparation for study some students apportion a negligible period of
time to clearing off a desk, a table, a floor; others must scrub all
surfaces and clean all toilet bowls within 50 meters before the
distraction of dirt disappears.
Some eat or pace while they work.
Some work with deep concentration, others more fitfully.
Students might smoke, or chew their nails, or stare blankly at walls or
at computer screens.
If asked what space is reserved for learning, many students would
suggest the classroom, the lab or the library.
The kitchen, and the bedroom function as study spaces.
Some people need to engage in sports or other physical activity before
they can work successfully.
Being sedentary seems to inspire others.
Although most classes are scheduled between 8:30 and 22:00, some
students do their best work before the sun rises, some after it sets.
Some need a less flexible schedule than others, while a very few can
sit and not rise until their task is completed.
Some students work quickly and efficiently, while others cannot
produce anything without much dust and heat.
Were these sentences simply combined they would yield nothing but a long
list of facts, not obviously related to one another, except that they all refer
to students and the way we study. There is too much information here to
include in one paragraph. The solution is to develop two topic sentences
under which all (or most) of the above information will fit.
For most students the process of studying involves establishing a

complex set of rituals which come to be repeated, with little variation,
every time a task is assigned by a professor.
If we add the first five sentences to this topic sentence we have a unified but
general description of the types of "rituals" or study patterns which are such
an important part of academic life.
For most students the process of studying involves establishing a
complex set of rituals which come to be repeated, with little variation,
every time a task is assigned by a professor. In preparation for study
some students apportion a negligible period of time to clearing off a
desk, a table, a floor; others must scrub all surfaces and clean all toilet
bowls within 50 meters before the distraction of dirt disappears. Some
eat or pace while they work. Some work with deep concentration,
others more fitfully. Students might smoke, or chew their nails, or
stare blankly at walls or at computer screens.
The rest of the sentences are more specific. They concern the distribution of
individual time, space and effort, and relate the rituals involved in study to
those less commonly associated with school. A topic sentence might look
something like this:
Work tends, therefore, to be associated with non-work-specific
environments, activities, and schedules. If asked what space is
reserved for learning, many students would suggest the classroom, the
lab or the library. What about the kitchen? The bedroom? In fact, any
room in which a student habitually studies becomes a learning space,
or a place associated with thinking. Some people need to engage in
sports or other physical activity before they can work successfully.
Being sedentary seems to inspire others. Although most classes are
scheduled between 8:30 and 22:00, some students do their best work
before the sun rises, some after it sets. Some need a less flexible
schedule than others, while a very few can sit and not rise until their
task is completed. Some students work quickly and efficiently, while
others cannot produce anything without much dust and heat.
Some organisation and a couple of topic sentences have transformed a long
and undifferentiated listing of student activities into two unified paragraphs
with a logical division between them.
Developing Unified and Coherent Paragraphs

A paragraph is unified when every sentence develops the point made in the
topic sentence. It must have a single focus and it must contain no irrelevant
facts. Every sentence must contribute to the paragraph by explaining,
exemplifying, or expanding the topic sentence. In order to determine
whether a paragraph is well developed or not, ask yourself: "What main
point am I trying to convey here?" (topic sentence) and then "Does every
sentence clearly relate to this idea?"
There are several ways in which you can build good, clear paragraphs. This
section will discuss three of the most common types of paragraph structure:
development by detail, comparison and contrast, and process. Finally, it will
suggest that most paragraphs are built of a combination of development
strategies.
Paragraph Development by Detail

This is the most common and easiest form of paragraph development: you
simply expand on a general topic sentence using specific examples or
illustrations. Look at the following paragraph (you may have encountered it
before):
Work tends to be associated with non-work-specific environments,
activities, and schedules. If asked what space is reserved for learning,
many students would suggest the classroom, the lab or the library.
What about the kitchen? The bedroom? In fact, any room in which a
student habitually studies becomes a learning space, or a place
associated with thinking. Some people need to engage in sports or
other physical activity before they can work successfully. Being
sedentary seems to inspire others. Although most classes are
scheduled between 8:30 and 22:00, some students do their best work
before the sun rises, some after it sets. Some need a less flexible
schedule than others, while a very few can sit and not rise until their
task is completed. Some students work quickly and efficiently, while
others cannot produce anything without much dust and heat.
The topic sentence makes a general claim: that school work tends not to be
associated only with school. The rest of the sentences provide various
illustrations of this argument. They are organised around the three
categories, "environment, activities, and schedules," enumerated in the topic
sentence. The details provide the concrete examples which your reader will
use to evaluate the credibility of your topic sentence.
Paragraph Development by Comparison and

Contrast
You should consider developing your paragraph by comparison and contrast
when you are describing two or more things which have something, but not
everything, in common. You may choose to compare either point by point (X
is big, Y is little; X and Y are both purple.) or subject by subject (X is big and
purple; Y is small and purple.). Consider, for example, the following
paragraph:
Although the interpretation of traffic signals may seem highly
standardized, close observation reveals regional variations across this
country, distinguishing the East Coast from Central Canada and the
West as surely as dominant dialects or political inclinations. In
Montreal, a flashing red traffic light instructs drivers to careen even
more wildly through intersections heavily populated with pedestrians
and oncoming vehicles. In startling contrast, an amber light in Calgary
warns drivers to scream to a halt on the off chance that there might be
a pedestrian within 500 meters who might consider crossing at some
unspecified time within the current day. In my home town in New
Brunswick, finally, traffic lights (along with painted lines and posted
speed limits) do not apply to tractors, all terrain vehicles, or pickup
trucks, which together account for most vehicles on the road. In fact,
were any observant Canadian dropped from an alien space vessel at
an unspecified intersection anywhere in this vast land, he or she could
almost certainly orient him-or-herself according to the surrounding
traffic patterns.
This paragraph compares traffic patterns in three areas of Canada. It
contrasts the behaviour of drivers in the Maritimes, in Montreal, and in
Calgary, in order to make a point about how attitudes in various places
inform behaviour. People in these areas have in common the fact that they
all drive; in contrast, they drive differently according to the area in which
they live.
It is important to note that the paragraph above considers only one aspect
of driving (behaviour at traffic lights). If you wanted to consider two or more
aspects, you would probably need more than one paragraph.
Paragraph Development by Process

Paragraph development by process involves a straightforward step-bystep description. Those of you in the sciences will recognise it as the formula
followed in the "method" section of a lab experiment. Process description

often follows a chronological sequence:
The first point to establish is the grip of the hand on the rod. This
should be about half-way up the cork handle, absolutely firm and solid,
but not tense or rigid. All four fingers are curved around the handle,
the little finger, third finger and middle finger contributing most of the
firmness by pressing the cork solidly into the fleshy part of the palm,
near the heel of the hand. The forefinger supports and steadies the
grip but supplies its own firmness against the thumb, which should be
along the upper side of the handle and somewhere near the top of the
grip. (from Roderick Haig-Brown, "Fly Casting")
The topic sentence establishes that the author will use this paragraph to
describe the process of establishing the "grip of the hand on the rod," and
this is exactly what he does, point by point, with little abstraction.
Paragraph Development by Combination

Very often, a single paragraph will contain development by a combination of
methods. It may begin with a brief comparison, for example, and move on
to provide detailed descriptions of the subjects being compared. A process
analysis might include a brief history of the process in question. Many
paragraphs include lists of examples:
The broad range of positive characteristics used to define males could
be used to define females too, but they are not. At its entry for woman
Webster's Third provides a list of "qualities considered distinctive of
womanhood": "Gentleness, affection, and domesticity or on the other
hand fickleness, superficiality, and folly." Among the "qualities
considered distinctive of manhood" listed in the entry for man, no
negative attributes detract from the "courage, strength, and vigor" the
definers associate with males. According to this dictionary, womanish
means "unsuitable to a man or to a strong character of either sex."
This paragraph is a good example of one which combines a comparison and
contrast of contemporary notions of "manliness" and "womanliness" with an
extended list of examples.
Diction | The Writing Center

Diction
Your diction is simply your choice of words. There is no single, correct
diction in the English language; instead, you choose different words or
phrases for different contexts:
To a friend
"a screw-up"
To a child
"a mistake"
To the police
"an accident"
To an employer
"an oversight"
All of these expressions mean the same thing -- that is, they have the same
denotation -- but you would not likely switch one for the other in any of
these three situations: a police officer or employer would take "screw-up" as
an insult, while your friends at the bar after a hockey game would take
"oversight" as an affectation.
Catch Phrases
Under pressure to create (usually against a deadline), a writer will naturally
use familiar verbal patterns rather than thinking up new ones. Inexperienced
writers, however, will sometimes go further, and string together over-used
phrases or even sentences. Consider the following example:
When all is said and done, even a little aid can go a long way in a
country suffering from famine.
The argument is commendable, but its written expression is poor and
unoriginal. First, consider the phrase "when all is said and done." Once, this
phrase was clever and original, but so many millions of writers and speakers
have used it so many times over so many years that the phrase has become
automatic and nearly meaningless. This type of worn-out phrase is called
a catch phrase, and you should always avoid it in your writing, unless you
are quoting someone else: you own, original words are always more
interesting.
A particularly stale catch phrase -- especially one which was once

particularly clever -- is a clich. In the example given above, the phrase "a
little aid can go a long way" fits into the formula "a little *** can go a long
way," seriously lowers the quality of the writing. Essentially, a clich is a
catch phrase which can make people groan out loud, but the difference
between the two is not that important -- just remember that neither usually
belongs in your writing.
Here are some more sample clichs and catch phrases from students'
essays:
the dictionary defines *** as ...
key to the future
facing a dim future
drive a wedge between
starving students
enough (for ***) to handle
in today's world
the *** generation
the impossible dream
enough to worry about without ...
putting the cart before the horse
a bird in the hand
glitzy, high-tech world
There is no simple formula that you can apply to decide what is a clich or a
catch phrase, but the more you read, the better your sense of judgement
will become. Remember, though -- if you think that a phrase in your writing
is clever, and you know that someone has used the phrase before, then you
are best rewriting it into your own words.
Special Considerations for Catch Phrases

While clichs and catch phrases have no place in academic essays, there are
some times of writing where you should use pre-existing formulas. Such
documents include scientific papers, legal briefs, maintenance logs, and
police reports (to name a few) -- these are highly repetitive and largely
predictable in their language, but they are meant to convey highly technical
information in a standard, well-defined format, not to persuade or entertain
a reader -- creativity in an auditor's report, for example, would not be highly
prized.
On the other hand, catch phrases are not appropriate in less technical areas.
Journalists, especially, are under a pressure to produce a large amount of
writing quickly, and those who are less talented or unable to meet the
pressure will often end up writing entire articles made up of over-used catch
phrases like "war-torn Bosnia," "grieving parents," or "besieged capital."

Connotations and Denotations
The relationship between words and meanings is extremely complicated, and
belongs to the field of semantics. For now, though, what you need to know
is that words do not have single, simple meanings. Traditionally,
grammarians have referred to the meanings of words in two parts:
denotation
a literal meaning of the word
connotation
an association (emotional or otherwise) which the word evokes
For example, both "woman" and "chick" have the denotation "adult female"
in North American society, but "chick" has somewhat negative connotations,
while "woman" is neutral.
For another example of connotations, consider the following:
negative
There are over 2,000 vagrants in the city.
neutral
There are over 2,000 people with no fixed address in the city.
positive
There are over 2,000 homeless in the city.
All three of these expressions refer to exactly the same people, but they will
invoke different associations in the reader's mind: a "vagrant" is a public
nuisance while a "homeless" person is a worthy object of pity and charity.
Presumably, someone writing an editorial in support of a new shelter would
use the positive form, while someone writing an editorial in support of antiloitering laws would use the negative form.
In this case, the dry legal expression "with no fixed address" quite
deliberately avoids most of the positive or negative associations of the other
two terms -- a legal specialist will try to avoid connotative language
altogether when writing legislation, often resorting to archaic Latin or French
terms which are not a part of ordinary spoken English, and thus, relatively
free of strong emotional associations.
Many of the most obvious changes in the English language over the past few
decades have had to do with the connotations of words which refer to groups
of people. Since the 1950's, words like "Negro" and "crippled" have acquired
strong negative connotations, and have been replaced either by words with
neutral connotations (ie "black," "handicapped") or by words with
deliberately positive connotations (ie "African-Canadian," "differentlyabled").
Spelling | The Writing Center

Spelling
Spell checkers will catch some kinds of errors, but not all. For example, they
tend to miss homonyms -- words which are pronounced the same way but
spelled differently, such as site/ sight, there/ their/ they're, and its/ it's.
Most spell-checkers, for example, would report no error in the following
sentence, despite the fact that there are three serious spelling mistakes:
Their looking for a new sight where the gopher can build it's home.
The joint influence of British and American spelling on Canadian usage has
provided an additional challenge to Canadian students: Canadians tend to
follow standard British spelling for certain words (axe, cheque), to follow
American spelling for others (connection, tire), and to allow either for yet
more (programme/ program, labour/ labor, neighbour/ neighbor). The
important thing to remember is to be consistent in usage and to follow a
regular pattern when you spell. Don't mix neighbour with labor, for example.
Choose one or the other pattern, and follow it closely. The best way to avoid
problems with mixed British and American spelling is to keep a dictionary
handy that shows Canadian usage.
Although spelling correctly is largely a matter of practice and the commonsense use of reference materials, there are four standard spelling rules.
Although each has exceptions, if you study these rules carefully, you will be
able to avoid most common errors, even without a spell-checker.
Spelling words with "ei" and "ie"
When the sound is a long "e" (as in feed), write "i" before "e", except after
"c". After "c" reverse the spelling ("ei"):
After other letters
believe, yield, reprieve
After c
ceiling, perceive, conceit
The problem with this rule is that it works only when "ei"/"ie" sounds like the
"ee" in feet. If it has any other sound, you should write "ei" even after
letters other than "c":
foreign, vein, freight

Spelling final "y" before a suffix
When a word ends in "y" preceded by a consonant, you should usually
change the "y" to "i" before adding the suffix:
curly becomes curlier
party becomes parties
thirty becomes thirties, thirtieth
However, if the suffix already begins with "i", keep the "y" (except before
the suffix "-ize"):
thirty becomes thirtyish
fry becomes frying
agony becomes agonize
memory becomes memorize
When the ending "y" is preceded by a vowel ("a" "e" "i" "o" or "u"), "y" does
not change to "i":
journey becomes journeying
trolley becomes trolleys

Final Silent "e"
If a word ends in a consonant followed by a silent "e", drop the "e" before
endings beginning with a vowel, but keep the "e" before endings beginning
with a consonant:
engage becomes engaging but engagement
care becomes caring but careful
fate becomes fatal but fateful
scarce becomes scarcity but scarcely
Spelling Words with Double Consonants
Double the final consonant before a suffix beginning with a vowel if both of
the following are true: the consonant ends a stressed syllable or a onesyllable word, and the consonant is preceded by a single vowel:
drag becomes dragged
wet becomes wetter
occur becomes occurred, occurring
refer becomes referral, referring
Miscellaneous Topics | The Writing Center

Miscellaneous Topics
These sections cover topics which do not fit in neatly elsewhere.

The Thesis Statement
A thesis statement is a short passage -- usually only a single sentence -summarising the fundamental argument of an essay or report. Typically, the
thesis statement will appear near the end of your introductory paragraph.
Word Formation
The basic part of any word is the root; to it, you can add a prefix at the
beginning and/or a suffix at the end to change the meaning. For example,
in the word "unflattering," the root is simply "flatter," while the prefix "un-"
makes the word negative, and the suffix "-ing" changes it from a verb into
an adjective (specifically, a participle).
English itself does not use prefixes as heavily as it once did, but many
English words come from Latin, which uses prefixes and suffixes (you can
use the word affix to refer either to a prefix or a suffix) quite extensively.
For example, the words "prefix," "suffix," and "affix" themselves are all
formed from "fix" by the use of prefixes:
"ad"
(to) + "fix" (attached) = "affix"
"pre"
(before) + "fix" = "prefix"
"sub"
(under) + "fix" = "suffix"
Note that both the "-d" of "ad" and the "-b" of "sub" change the last letter.
Here are some of the most common Latin prefixes (for the meanings of the
Latin roots, look up the words in a good dictionary):
ab
(away) abrupt, absent, absolve
ad
in
inter
intra
pre
post
sub
(to) adverb, advertisment, afflict

(not) incapable, indecisive, intolerable
(between, among) intercept, interdependent, interprovincial
(within) intramural, intrapersonal, intraprovincial
(before) prefabricate, preface prefer
(after) postpone, postscript, postwar
(under) submarine, subscription, suspect
trans
(across) transfer, transit, translate
Apposition
When two words, clauses, or phrases stand close together and share the
same part of the sentence, they are in apposition and are
called appositives.
In fact, an appositive is very much like a subject complement, only without

the linking verb:
subject complement
My brother is a research associate.
appositive
My brother the research associate works at a large polling firm.
subject complement
Jean became a magistrate.
appositive
I have never met Jean the magistrate.

Noun and Pronoun Characteristics
In addition to their various classifications, nouns pronouns have three major
characteristics: case, number, and gender.
Noun and Pronoun Case

The case of a noun or pronoun determines how you can use it in a phrase or
clause. There are three cases in Modern English (as opposed to eight in
Classical Latin, four in German, and only two in French):
Subject
You use the subject case for a noun or pronoun which stands alone,
is the subject of a clause, is the subject complement, or stands in
apposition to any of these.
Object
You use the object case for the object of a preposition, a verb, or a
verbal, or for any noun or pronoun which stands in apposition to one
of these.
Possessive
You use the possessive case for any noun or pronoun which acts an
an adjective, implicitly or explicitly modifying another element in the
sentence.
Nouns always take the same form in the subject case and the object case,
while pronouns often change their form. Both nouns and pronouns usually
change their form for the possessive case:
Subject Case
The man travelled to Newfoundland.
He travelled to Newfoundland.
Object Case
The taxi drove the man to the airport.
The taxi drove him to the airport.
Possessive Case
The baggage handlers lost the man's suitcase.
The baggage handlers lost his suitcase.
For further information, see possessive nouns, possessive pronouns, and
possessive adjectives.
Noun and Pronoun Number

The number of a noun or pronoun is either singular, if it refers to one
thing, or plural, if it refers to more than one thing (if the noun or pronoun is
the subject, then its number will also affect the verb). Note the difference in
number in the following examples:
Singular
That woman is concerned about this issue.
She is concerned about this issue.
Plural
Those women are concerned about this issue.
They are concerned about this issue.
It is important to note that the pronoun "they" is in the processing of
becoming singular as well as plural. For example, one might say
A person called and they did not leave their name.
This construction allows the speaker to avoid identifying the gender of a
person, and it has been common in speech for decades, if not for centuries.
Be aware, however, that some people still consider it unacceptable for
formal writing.
For more information, see noun plurals.
Noun and Pronoun Gender

Unlike the Romance languages (such as French, Spanish, and Italian),
English has three genders for nouns and pronouns: masculine, feminine,
and neuter.
Generally, the English language uses natural gender rather
than grammatical gender -- that is, the gender of a word is usually based
on its biology (so there is little need to remember whether a word is

masculine or feminine). A noun that refers to something with male sexual
organs is masculine, a noun that refers to something with female sexual
organs is feminine and most other nouns are neuter by default.
There was a time when you could use the masculine gender by default when
you did not know a person's natural gender, but very few people accept this
usage any longer.
There are, moreover, a few tricky points. First, you may refer to all animals
in the neuter gender, or you may refer to them by their natural gender:
Neuter
What a beautiful dog! Does it bite?
Natural Gender
What a beautiful dog! Does she bite?
Second, You usually assign mythical beings (such as gods) to a natural
gender, even if you do not believe that the beings have actual sexual
organs:
God is great. God is good. Let us thank her for our food.
Finally, people sometimes assign natural gender to inanimate objects,
especially if they live or work closely with them. When engineers were
mostly men, for example, they tended to refer to large machines in the
feminine:
She is a fine ship.
For more information, see the discussion of gender-specific nouns.
Noun and Pronoun Person

Personal pronouns always belong to one of three persons: first person if
they refer to the speaker or writer (or to a group including the speaker or
writer), second person if they refer to the audience of the speaker or writer
(or to a group including the audience), and third person if they refer to
anyone else (if the noun or pronoun is the subject, then its person will also
affect the verb). Nouns and other types of pronouns are always in the third
person. Note the differences in person in the following examples:
First Person
I will come tomorrow.
Bob showed the budget to us.
Second Person
You should not forget to vote.
Where is your coat?
Third Person
It arrived yesterday.
How can you stand working with them?
Traditionally, you were required to use the third person in formal academic
writing, but some people now accept the first person. Whichever you choose,
however, you must be consistent.

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The parts of speech | The Writing Center

The parts of speech

Written by Heather MacFadyen

Using Possessive Nouns

A common noun is a noun referring to a person, place, or thing in a

Oxygen is essential to human life.

The class was startled by the bursting light bulb.

Written by Heather MacFadyen

Subjective Personal Pronouns

Objective Personal Pronouns

An objective personal pronoun indicates that the pronoun is acting as

Possessive Personal Pronouns

A possessive pronoun indicates that the pronoun is acting as a marker of

In the following sentences, each of the highlighted words is a

To whom do you wish to speak?

We donated everything we found in the attic to the woman's shelter

The highlighted words in the following sentences are intensive pronouns:

Written by Heather MacFadyen

A possessive adjective ("my," "your," "his," "her," "its," "our," "their") is

Written by Heather MacFadyen

Written by Heather MacFadyen

Written by Heather MacFadyen

In this example, the co-ordinating conjunction "for" is used to link two

Written by Heather MacFadyen

You usually follow an interjection with an exclamation mark. Interjections

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The parts of the sentence | The Writing

The Parts of the Sentence

Simple Subject and Simple Predicate

considered, the simple predicate is "would satisfy" -- in other words, the

Written by Frances Peck

Transitive and Intransitive Verbs

The driver seems tired.

Written by Frances Peck

Punctuation | The Writing Center

Written by Frances Peck

Comma usage is in some respects a question of personal writing style:

from gigs. (the comma preceding "and" is optional unless needed to

not use a comma to separate the subject from its predicate:

not misuse a comma after a co-ordinating conjunction:

not use commas to set off restrictive elements:

[WRONG] The treasure chest contained, three wigs, some costume

Written by Frances Peck

There is one exception to this guideline. When punctuating a list or series of

Written by Frances Peck

When to Use a Colon

When Not to Use a Colon

Written by Frances Peck

Written by Frances Peck

Quotations Marks with Other Punctuation

2. Semicolons and colons always go outside the quotation marks.

Written by Frances Peck

Written by Frances Peck

Written by Frances Peck

Using pronouns | The Writing Center

Pronouns usually refer to other words, called their antecedents because

A pronoun should have only one possible antecedent

A pronoun should not refer to an implied idea

A pronoun should not refer to adjectives or