4

fl

TN NO:

N-1628

TITLE:

WIND-INDUCED STEADY LOADS ON SHIPS

LA

7nC

AUTHOR:

DATE:

April 1982

SPONSOR:

Naval Facilities Engineering Command

!J PROGRAM NO:

>"

R-Owens and P.ealo

YF59.556.091.01.403

NAVAL CIVIL ENGINEERING LABORATORY

PORT HUENEME, CALIFORNIA 93043
Approved for public release distribution unlimited.

82

10 07

0111

1982T

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TN -1628

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terv

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4. TITLE ford Sub.e)

A PERIOD COVERED

Not final; Oct 1980

WIND-INDUCED STEADY LOADS ON SHIPS

7

OPEIGFR

1.

AUTHOR(.)

PERFORMING

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CONTACT

Jun 1981

ORG. REPORT

NUMBER

OR GRANT NUMUERfsJ

R. Owens and P. Palo

PERF~ORMING ORGANIZATION

9.

to

NAME AND ADDRESS

NAVAL CIVIL ENGINEERING LABORATORY

Port Hueneme, California 93043
II.

CONTROLLING OFFICE

REPORT DATE

12,

NAME AND ADDRESS

April 1982

Alexandria, Virginia 22332

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P,,d

NOTES

SI
wdol8

re rtam

ol#*
d idirflfli b,

black numbel)

Wind forces, moorings, ships.

20

A3*Z3 ,ACT (Cor.inue ort *eeills

side it necessary ocid idvitily br block

number)

Methods are presented for predicting the lateral and longitudinal steady wind drag
forces and yaw moment versus incident wind angle for various ship types. These methods
were developed based on experimental model data for 31 ships compiled from six independent tests. Except for hull-dominated ships, which are considered separately, the longitudinal
wind drag force is computed using a constant headwind coefficient that has an accuracy of
(continued)
DD ,

JOAn7

1473

EDITION OF

I NOV

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20. Continued
12%. This coefficient can be modified depending on the ship type and above deck features.
Over the remainder of the incident wind directions the coefficient is based on curve fits to
the data. The lateral force coefficient is also derived from a curve fitted to the data and is
based on a peak value with a 10% deviation; the coefficient is dependent on mean heights
and projected areas of the hull and superstructure. Determination of the rccommended
moment response is based on an inspection and interpolation of existing experimental data.
Recommendations from other investigations are also presented for comparison, and a
sample problem is included.

Library Card
----

1. Wind drag force

-valCiMt~ngneerm'g 1t-t'
WIND-INDUCED STEADY LOADS ON SHIPS, by IL Owens and
P. Palo
TN-1628
55 pp illus
Aprl 1982
Unclassified
2. Yaw moment response

I. YF59.556.091.01.403

Methods are presented for predicting the lateral and longitudinal steady wind drag forces

and yaw moment versus incident wind angle for various ship types. These methods were developed
based on experimental model data for 31 ships compiled from six independent tests. Except for
hull-dominated ships, which are considered separately, the longitudinal wipd drag force is computed using a constant headwind coefficient that has an accuracy of 12%. This coefficient can be
modified depending on the ship type and above deck features. Over the remainder of the incident
wind directions the coefficient is based on curve fits to the data. The lateral force coefficient is
also derived from a curve fitted to the data ad is based on a peak value with a 10%deviation; the
coefficient is dependent on mean heights and projected areas of the hull and Superstructure.
Determination of the recommended moment response is based on an inspection and interpolation
of existing experimental data. Recommendations from other investigations are also presented
for comparison, and a sample problem is included.

Unclassified
SECURIY

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Doas

CONTENTS
Page
INTRODUCTION

. . . . . . . . . . ....
. . . . . . . . . . . . .

EXPERIMENTAL DATA .. ........... .............. 2

SUMMARY OF WIND FORCE EQUATIONS. .....

.............. 3

Lateral Wind Force. .... ...................

3
Longitudinal Wind Force .. .... ................
4
Wind Moment. .. ............ ............. 7
DEVELOPMENT OF PROCEDURE

....................

Wind Gradient. .. ............

...........
Lateral Wind Force. .............
.......................
Lateral Wind Shape Function. .. .........
.. ....
Longitudinal Wind Force. .. ............. .....
Wind Yaw Moment .. ... ....................
ATYPICAL SHIP TYPES.

....

....................

7
8
10
11
13
15

DISCUSSION OF RECOMMENDED PROCEDURES. .. .............. 16

Comparisons to Experimental Data .. .............. 16
Comparison to Other Investigators. .. ............. 17
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS .. ............. ....

18

ACKNOWLEDGMENT .. ....

....

18

...................

.....

18

NOMENCLATURE .. ... ...................

.....

21

REFERENCES .. ....

APPENDIX

-Sample

..................

Problem. ... ..................

)IN

LSpeO
No

47

Itd~ -

F"I

YI
bow

_____stern

__________

NONDIMENSIONAL COEFFICIENTS
CX=longudmal force coefficienz
CY . lateral force coefficient
CN - yaw momcnt coefficient
< 8

00 o

Posi~ive Wind Load Conventions

and Coordinate System

Vi

INTRODUCTION

One major source of error in the design of mooring systems for

large ships has been the lack of accurate knowledge of wind loads.

Many

of the present methods for calculating these loads are unreliable or

cumbersome to use.

One method, proposed primarily for its simplicity,

is presented in the chapter 7 revision of the NAVFAC Design Manual DM-26

(Ref 1).

This method involves three curves that are useG for the lateral,

longitudinal, and moment loads for all ships.

However, experimental

data have shown this approach to be too approximate for general application.
The purpose of this document is to describe an improved method for
computing accurately and easily the wind drag forces, by taking gross
individual ship characteristics into account.

Results of this investi-

gation are applicable primarily to "typical" ships, although some of the

31 models used were not typical.

Even so, an effort was made to present

trends and recommendations for "atypical" ships by using their collected

responses to better define the wind load characteristics of unique ships
and to amplify coefficient trends for the more typical ships.
In many cases accurate data regarding projected and other surface
areas of the models are lacking.

For this reason, along with the fact

that scale model behavior is often not completely representative of full

scale ship behavior (surface roughness, railings, etc.), the accuracy of
the experimental results is not above question.

Care was taken to

establish the reliability and accuracy of all experimental results by

comparing projected model areas to a variety of sources and by comparing
results of independent tests for similar ships.
Because of the complex superstructure geometry on most ships, the
lateral and longitudinal wind forces can be calculated more directly
than the moment.

The emphasis of this note is, therefore, placed on the

accurate determination of these two forces, while the moment response is

only observed for trends.

The effect of the naturally occurring wind

gradient has also been incorporated into this analysis, especially for
the case of the lateral wind force, where the projected ship area is
greatest.
This analysis was undertaken because of the concern for reliable
ship load files (for wind and curreut loads) expressed in Reference 2
and deals only with the wind load aspect.

The design procedures devel-

oped here are particularly useful for mooring analysis problems in

protected harbors, where wave and current loads are usually small.

This

work was performed as part of the effort on Mooring Systems Frediction

Techniques within the Ocean Facilities Engineering Exploratory DevelopNaval Facilities Engineering Command.

ment Program, sponsored by t'-

EXPERIMENTAL DATA

The experimental data used in this investigation were taken from

six independent sources (Refs 3 through 8); data on 31 ship models were
The data not used were those consid-

used from the available 40 models.

ered to be from unconventional models or those lacking information ill

some respect.

Also, only data on 2 ship models were used from Reference 7

because the data are considered by many to be too conservative.

Of the

31 models used: 18 were tankers and cargo ships, including 4 center

island tankers; 3, aircraft carriers; 2, cruisers;

1, a destroyer, which

was independently tested by two sources; 2, passenger liners; and the

remaining 5, general class.
Data from 19 of these 31 models were used for the CX coefficient
determination and 13 for the C

coefficient determination because not

all sources used a wind gradient in the experiment, and because the main
concern of this investigation was with tankers and cargo ships; there
were less data on warships.

From these data, a more reliable method for

calculating wind loads than that given by the three reference curves
presented in Reference 1 and illustrated in Figure 1 was developed

Approximate silhouettes for some of these ships are presented in Figure 2

to allow the reader to associate the recommendations from this report
with the various ship types.

SUMMARY OF WIND FORCE EQUATIONS

Equations for the lateral and longitudinal forces versus incident
wind angle are presented in this section.
are presented in later sections.

Derivations and a discussion

It should be stated that these forces

are actually dependent on Reynolds Number, which is assiuaed for typical

ships to be large enough to allow for constant coefficients.

The general

equation for these forces can be expressed as follows:

1- 2

A C f(O)

(1)

where;

wind force, FX or Fy, or yaw moment, N

density of air

relative wind velocity with respect to ship

projected ship area, Ax (used for FX) ; or Ay (used for Fy);

or Ay L used for N, L
ship length

dimensiouiless wind drag coefficient, C , Cy, or C

N

f(O)

normalized shape function dependent on incident wind angle (0)

Lateral Wind Force

The following results have been obtained for the lateral wind drag
coefficient (Cy) by sumaiing forces obtained for the hull and superstructure:

3,

.,

I-.

where
the

[(R) As + (\ )

cy

A,,

where the terms (Vs/VR) and

(2)
(2)

VH /VR) are the average wind velocities over

the superstructure and the hull, respectively, taken from a normalized

wind gradient curve presented in Figure 3.

CC was determined from the

available experimental data and was calculated to be:

CYC

0.92 t 0.1

The following recommended normalized shape function was fitted to the

available data:
f(O)=

sn

f(0)

e-

sin (50)/20
1jLS/2

1/20

(3)

This function is illustrated in Figure 4.

Longitudinal Wind Force

The longitudinal wind force calculations are not as straightforward

as the lateral force calculations.

Both the coefficient and shape func-

tion vary according to ship type and characteristics.

Selection of Longitudinal Force Coefficient (Cx).

In gtneral,

vessels are classified as either hull dominated, (such as aircraft

carriers and passenger liners) or normal (such as warships, tankers).
Second, due to possible asymnetry of the superstructure relative to
midships, separate coefficients are used for headwind and tailwind
loadings, designated as CXB and C XS

respectively.

For hull dominated vessels, the following is recommended:

0.40

For all

remaining types of ships, except for specific deviations,

the following are recommended:

0.70

0.60

Deviations to these general coefficients are listed below.

First,

for center island tankers only, an increased headwind coefficient is

recommended:

0.80

For ships with an excessive amount of superstructure, such as destroyers and cruisers:

xs

0.80

A universal adjustment of 0.08 is also recommended for all

ships and

Latikers with cluttered decks

other substantial obstructions).

(i.e.,

carg o

masts, booms, piping, aidi

This would apply to both CXB and C S

Selection of the Longitudinal Shape Function (f(6)).

As with the

longitudinal coefficient, two distinct longitudinal shape functions arc

recommended that differ over the headwiad and tailwind regions.

These

regions are separated by the incident wind angle that produces no net
longitudin3l force, designated 0 Z for zero crossing.

Selection of 0 Z is

determined by the mean superstructure location relative to midships (MS):

Just forward of MS:

0Z

80 degrees

oil MS:

0Z

90 degrees

100 degrees

0Z

120 degrees

aft of MS:
Hull dominated:

Generally, 0 Z - 100 degrees seems typical for many ships, including

center island tankers, while 0

-110 degrees is recommended for warships.

z
5

For ships with single, distinct superstructures and for hull doninated ships, the following longitudinal shape function is recommended:

cos *

f(0)

(4)

where

(-Z) 0
=

(5)

for e < 0O
for 0 > 6Z

(0 - 0Z) + 90

8090

Examples of ships in this category, as illustrated in Figure 2, are:

all aircraft carriers, EC-2, Cargos A, C, and E.

These shape functions

are shown in Figure 5 for 6z = 90 degrees.

Ships with distributed superstructure fall into the second shape
function category called "humped cosine."

With these ships the longitudi-

nal force actually increases with oblique wind angles (up to 30 degrees)
as additional superstructure is exposed to the wind.

For these ships,

the following shape function is recommended:

sin " - (sin 5 y)/10

f(0)

(6)

1 - 1/10
with

(9

) 6

(7)

o < o'

a +

80

0 >0

180-

(80 - 0(

(8)
z

Notice the similarity between Equation 3 used for the lateral force
and Equation 6 used for the longitudinal focCe.

Examples of ships in this

second category, illustrated in Figure 2, include:

Meteor, and T-AO tanker.

destroyers, cruisers,

This shape function is developed under the

PROCEDURE section, and is illustrated as part of a family of shapes in

Figure 6.

Wind Moment

For the general moment response tendencies of a ship, refer to

Figure 7. More specific moment coefficient curves are presented in
Figures 8 through 14 for the various ship types considered.

More

details concerning the moment response are provided in the DEVELOPMENT

OF PROCEDURE section.

DEVELOPMENT OF PROCEDURE
Wind Gradient

The two major factors that directed the approach of this investigation were:

quantifying the effects of the natiral wind gradient over

the ship profile, and allowing for more individualized shape functions
based on vessel characteristics.
9);
from the following equation (Ref
The wind gradient is obtained

(9)

VR

where,

V
VI

normalized wind velocity at height (h)

height above free strface

hR

constant reference ieight

arbitrary exponent

For the pirposes of this report, the reference height (hR) is taken as
33 feet (10 meters) above the mean sea surface, and the exponent (n) is
assumed to be 7.

It was determined that the value of n is not critical,

since no significant difference wis observed in the calculated wind drag

IL

forces when n was varied from 5 to 10; the value of n =

7 is chosen

primarily because it is the value most commonly used for this type of
application (Ref 10).
In dealing with the wind gradient, the hull and superstructure of
This proved effective for the

each vessel were considered separately.

Cy coefficient, but no consistent results were obtained for the CX

For this reason, the longitudinal wind load determination

coefficient.

is not as straightforward as the lateral wind load determination.

Lateral Wind Force

From Equation I

F
C

(10)

~PV 2 Ay,

YM

is the experimentally measured value cf the lateral wind drag

Where C

coefficient at an incident wind angle of 90 degrees. By separating the

total lateral force on a vessel into hall and superstructure components,
a lateral drag coefficient (Cyc) can be calculated.

In this manner the

general equation for Fy, given by

F

ry=

V2

Ay cy

f(6)

(11)

can be written

AS + VH

Cy

A)

f(8)

(12)

where subscripts S and H refer to the superstructure and hull, respectively,

Use of a constant drag

ard V denotes the mean wind velocity over each.

coefficient (Cyc) is considered valid because the hull arid superstructure

both appear as bluff bodies for lateral incident winds.

Multiplying and

dividing by the relative velocity (VR ) at 33 feet gives:

V2(V

AS

'

' '

-5

Cyc f(0)

(13)

AsR

n-

, i

...i~ i '

'+

. ...

+"+ ""i

'i - 1 ........

,
I

I-

From which

Cy

F/ I

[)\V

As +

AH] f ()

(14)

( /R2
2
where the values for (VH/VR)
and (Vs/VH ) are taken from the wind gradient
curve with n = 7 (Figure 3), and are the values that correspond to the
centers of area of the portions of the gradient curve that lie between
the height ranges of the hull and superstructure of the ship.

Values of

Cyc for the experimental values presented in terms of Equation 10 were

determined by taking the ratio of Equation 10 to Equation 14:

CyM

Cyc

AS + (7,

AH

Ay

(15)

Such that

Cyc

(Cy)(AY)

Representative C

AS * (V

AH]

(16)

values were determined using data from 17 of the

31 ship models, and estimated wind gradients from the tests when reported.
Four of the C

values for these 17 representative ship models were dis-

carded through comparisons to similar ship types and were attributed to

questionable or incomplete data concerning the gradient or projected
ship areas.

A mean value was then determined from the remaining 13

models, yielding

C
Yc

=0.92

0.1

This calculated value is consistent with an expected value of just

less than 1, based on drag measurements of flat plates that yield coefficients of 1.1 to 1.2 (Ref 11), and the fact that the hull and superstructure are slightly streamlined in shape compared to a plate.

I1
9i

With the value of C

constant at 0.92, Equation 16 becomes

YC

S0.92

As

o0.92

(17)

And using this peak coefficient value:

Cy(6)

()

f(0)

Lateral Wind Shape Function

The shape function, f(6), versus incident angle was determined by

transforming a normal siiie wave into a more flat-topped sine wave, which
was more characteristic of the lateral wind load coefficient. plots for
This transfigured shape function

most of the 31 model ships analyzed.

is a result of the sumL,;tion of the standard sine wave with a sine wave
The expressiun of this trial

of period 1/5 the size (figure 15).

shape functioa (C)

f'(0)

is

where 0 degrees _ 0 < 180 degrees

sin 0 + M sin 56

Substituting for 0:

(A)

at e

90 degrees,

f'(90)

(B)

at 0

72 degrees, f'(72)

1+ M
0.95

Setting f'(90) = f'(72) to get the flat top, and solving for M

0.95 = 1 + M; M = -0.05

Substituting this coefficient into the function,

f'(0)

sin 0

(20)

(sin 50)/20

10

..

(i9)

This trial shape function is now normalized as

f(6)

[sir, 6 - (sin 50)120]1(1 - 1/20)

(21)

The final equation for the lateral wind drag force coefficient then becomes
Cy()

{jsin 0 - (sin 56)/201/(1 - 1/20)}

(22)

Equation 21 gives the standard form for the shape function for both the
lateral and longitudinal forces; changes in the constant (i.e., 20) and
argument of the sine allow use of the same basic equation for a progression of shape functions.

Longitudinal Wind Force

As previously stated, the separation method used for the lateral

coefficient (Cy) was not successful for the longitudinal coefficient
(CX) which assumed a hull coefficient of 0.4 based on the experimental
data for hull dominated vessels. An alternative inspection method was
used instead. The headwind coefficients of 19 of the model ships were
analyzed, and it was found that ships with cluttered decks have headwind
coefficients consistently higher than comparable ships with cleaner
(trim) decks. Center islano tankers were found to have headwind coefficients from 15% to 25% higher than single superstructure vessels, depending
on trim or cluttered deck conditions.
The measured headwind coefficients of the 19 models were then
adjusted, if necessary, according to the observations above, and a meat.
headwind coefficient of CXB

0.70 0.06 was obtained, except for hull

dominated ships (aircraft carriers) where the headwind coefficient

obtained was CXB
0.40. The tailwind coefficients for these 19 ship
models were also analyzed; it was found that: Single (simple) superstructure vessels generally have a tailwind coefficient C

-0.60;

single

superstructure cluttered (piping, masts, etc.) vessels and hull dominated

vessels have CSL

CX8; center island tankers have CXS

3/4CXB

and distributed superstructure vessels (cruisers and destroyers) have

XS

1.1 CXB.

11

The longitudinal wind load coefficient shape function has positive

and negative portions that require a separate curve fit for each.

The

E, must be known in order to join these two curves.

zero crossing point,

The major factor, which determines the value of 0., was found to be super-

structure location.
120 degrees.

For hull dominated ships it was found that 0Z

For single superstructure ships with clean decks, the value

of 8 Z varied by a full 20 degrees depending upon superstructure location;

8Z

80 degrees for a superstructure centered forward of the centerline,

90 degrees for a superstructure close to the centerline, and

100 degrees for an aft superstructure.

A value 8 - 100 degrees

is recommended as a representative value for most ships.

Looking at the longitudinal shape functions for all 31 of the ship
models, two major types were found; a cosine wave and a "humped" cosine
wave.

The cosine wave is characteristic of the single superstructure

ships with trim decks and hu).l dominated vessels, while the "humped" cosine wave is more characteristic of all other ship types analyzed.

For

simplicity, the same shape function used for the lateral loads was used
The value M = 1/20 was changed to M = 1/10

for the longitudinal loads.

for the C

coefficient (Figure 6) and the shape function for C

then

becomes

f(e)

(sin

tP

where t4 dep(.ds on ( and 8

I - 1/10)

/
.

(23)

This is essentially the same as Equation 21.

Now, determining tPfor the positive portion of the curve fit using

4i

M 0

(24)

*b

results in

90-)0 + 9

< z)

(25)

For the negative portion of the curve, using the same procedure,

(-1
-

=80

09o

__9_0_0_z_80__8

180

12

Ii

(0 >

0,)

(26)

so that

Cf

CX

xs

0)

from Equation 25, (0 <

4$-

from Equation 26, (E > 0

.
z.

(27)

(28)

These apply only to humped cosine curve types, while the shape functions
for the straight cosine curve shape are simply

f(to)

cos '4

O)

(i89

(29)

(0 <

(30)

Z)

)o(-(,() 09 + 90

(0 > a

(31)

Wind Yaw Moment

The yaw moment response (CN) is mnre difficult to predict than the
C

x and CY

responses because of the difficulties of accurately determining

the moment arms and interference effects of the superstructure and other
topside features that significantly add to the wind drag on each ship,
and because of a pronounced sensitivity to freeboard in many ships.
Hence, no curve fit was attempted, and all findings are based entirely
upon the observed moment coefficient curve of each model.

Generalizations

concerning the moment response with respect to superstructure location

and apparent trends for the ship types covered are presented below.
The location of the superstructure seems to be the best indicator
of a ship's moment response.

According to the conventions of this report,

as the main superstructure of a vessel progresses from stern to bow, the

moment tends from a positive to a negative orientation, as shown in
Figure 7. Similar to the definition of the C

coefficient, the value of

6Z is the incident wind angle at which the CN coefficient crosses the

13

axis, changing from a negative to a positive moment (by the conventions

established in this report).
the following values of 6

Based on the experimental data used,

and magnitude ratios of negative to

positive moment are given for the yaw moment coefficient curves of tle
model ship types analyzed.

1.

Single superstructure ships, grouped by location:

a.

Stern
Trim - 0
Cluttered - 8

b.

Between stern and center

0z
Z

c.

80 degrees;

Between center and bow

105 degrees; 1:1

Center Island Tankers:

Trim - 0
Cluttered - 0

3.

90 degrees; 1:1

0Z
2.

1:3

Center
Z

d.

60 degrees; 1:3
80 degrees; 1:2

85 degrees; 1:2
85 degrees -90

degrees;

1:1

Distributed superstructure ships:

Cruisers
Oz L 90 degrees -100

degrees; 1:1

Destroyers
-510
9 degrees;-10dges
4.

Hull dominated ships:

Aircraft carriers

0 Z = 90 degrees - 100 degrees;

1:1

Passenger liners
0Z = 100 degrees; 2:1
Although useful, the above information is limited because the

magnitude ratios are strictly relative, with no reference coefficient

values given.

The magnitude of the moment coefficient curve is dependent

14

on the size of projected superstructure and hull areas and the moment
arms through w'hich they act.

Therefore, since no approximation for the

actual magnitudes of the moment ccefficient is given, example moment

curves have been provided for all ship types dealt with in this analvsis.
These curves are presented in Figures 8 through 14, representing the best
estimates (averages) attainable from the experimental model data used.

ATYPICAL SHIP TYPES

The methods presented in this report for calculating wind drag

coefficient curves are primarily geared toward tankers and cargo ships,
since these comprised the majority of the ship models investigated.
EVci, so, these same methods proved adequate for the warships that were
present in the experimental model data used.

There are, however, several

uncharacteristic design features which create atypical ship type5 not

entirely compatible with the suggested methods of this report.

One Fuch

atypical ship is the Kumo, which possesses an aft superstructure somewhat

larger than norma] with respect to the overall length of the ship and an
extremely prominent forecastle.

Collectively, these two uncharacteristic

features cause a considerable increase in the headwind coefficient (Cx)

for the CX wind load response to a value near 1.0, and an increase in the
peak Cy coefficient to a value between 0.90 - 1.0 in magnitude.
moment response (CN) is essentially unaffected, with e z

The

60 degrees and

a magnitude ratio of 1:3 for the negative to positive moment orientation.

Other atypical ship types, at least for the purposes of this report,
are the smaller auxiliary and research vessels such as the METEOR.

These

vessels have a distributed upper deck layout that causes them to behave
very much like a destroyer in their wind load responses.
All other atypical ships (submarines, catamarans, hydrofoils, etc.)
were not investigated in this study, so the use of the design methods
presented in this report for determining the loads on such ships is not
recommended.

15

DISCUSSION OF RECOMMENDED PROCEDURES

To provide the reade. with a better perspective regarding the
accurdcy and praticality of the methods recommended here, comparisons
will be made to representative experimental results and recommendations
from earlier investigators.
Comparisons to Experimental Data

Figures 16 through 19 illustrate longitudinal coefficients (CX) for

most ships and allow for an evaluation of the design procedures recommended
here.

Figure 16 shows CX values for the simplest, type of ships; the re-

commendations for C
= 0.70, a cosine shape function, and ".ariable zero
XB
-rossing values are reasonable for this application. Figure 17 shows C
values for center island tankers; the recommendations of CXB =_
0.8 or
XBX
0 .9, a humped cosine shape function, and 6e
100 degrees are
XE
Z
demonstrated. Similarly, Figure 18 shows C values for ships with
CXB

distributed superstructures; note that C

values are larger than

CXB values, as noted in the SUNMARY OF WIND FORCE EQUATIONS section.

Finally, Figure 19 shows bull dominated vessels; note the extreme
Z

~ 120 degree value, and the extreme behavior of the "Fahrgastshiff"

(see Figure 2 for silhouette).

Otherwise, the results are nearly

identical.
Figures 20 through 22 show representative lateral coefficients
(C ). However, only a discussion on the shape function is applicable
here, since the design methods presented in this report allow for variable
values of the peak coefficient.
Figure 20 shows the "usual" sinusoidal shape function used by most
designers.
vessels.

As shown, this shape function certainly applies to these

However, Figure 21 shows the type of behavior recommended in

this report as typical for most ships.

The flattened behavior of these

responses are evident; in fact, more vessels fez' into this category
than the former.

Figure 22 shows an even more extreme type of behavior

measured for some ships, which seems to suggest a "double-humped" behavior.

16

With all three of these figures, no clear indications as to vessel

types versus shape category types were discovered, and the middle-of-the
road shape of Figure 21 was used as generally applicable to all ships.
It is evident now why the general form of the shape function was retained
in Equations 3 and 6; it a2lows the user to easily tailor the characteristic shape of the load versus angle to whatever is considered best.
The question of error in the yaw moment coefficients is also
applicable to all the specialized coefficients presented in Figures 8
through 14 in this report.

Care was taken to collect as much data as

possible for each ship type before deciding on a "recommended" curve,

which resulted in consistent and recognizable trends for the ship types
used here.

Defining the error associated with each recommended curve is

difficult; however, Figure 23 illustrates a typical ship-type comparisor.

for center island tankers.

It is seen that the use of an average valur

in this case is entirely justified as representative of most center

island tankers.
It should be pointed out that the yaw moment can be very sensitive
to vessel draft; the yaw moment response of a supertanker can approximate
the response given in Figure 8 if it is unloaded (and therefore hull
dominated), but change to Figure 9 when loaded (and therefore stern
island dominated).

This behavior is not characteristic of ships with a

centered superstructure arrangement, but some caution should be used in

applying these recommended moments.

Comparison to Other Investigators

The peak lateral coefficient value of Cy = 0.92 0.1 compares

favorably to the value of Cy = 0.871 with a 23% deviation as calculated
by Altmann (Ref 12) from the test. data of Reference 5.

The longitudinal

coefficient value of CX = 0.70 0.06 is more accurate than Altmann's

value of C X = 0.796 0.19 for normal ships.

The agreement is closer

for the hull dominated ships with Cx 2 0.40 compared to Altman's CX

0.363. These latter values for hull dominated vessels are higher than
those given by by Hughes (Ref 7),
area (thus CX

where only one-third of the total hull

= q-33) was used in calculating the wind load forces.

17

ji.W

Figure 24 is Figure 7 replotted with recommended yaw moment coefficients from References I and 12.

This illustrates the possible errors

associated with the use of any single moment curve, regardless oi the
source.

CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

The primary goals of this investigation have been achieved in that

the methods for calculating wind drag loads on many types of ships can
now be carried out in a simple yet individualized manner.

Although the

proposed approach is less complex than that of others, its value is

readily evident from a practical standpoint.
It is recomended that the methods presented in this report be used
primarily for the determination of wind drag loads on tankers and cargo
ships; they can also be applied to other conventional ship types (including
warships) with a reasonable degree of confidence.
Finally, several other sources used in the preparation of this
paper, not directly referenced in the text, are listed in References 13
through 17.

An example of a typical wind load and moment response

determination is presented in the Appendix.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT

Sincere thanks go to Miss Patricia Alvarado, who transposed the

data from the various experimental reports into the coordinate system
used in this study and who attempted the first coefficient comparisons.

REFERENCES

1.

Naval Facilities Engineering Command.

Design Manual 26.6:

design physical and experimental data, Alexandria, Va.,

inary Draft)

18

Mooring

1980, (Prelim-

2.

P. A. Palo and R. L. Webster.

"Static and dynamic moored tanker

response," in Computational Methods for Offshore Structures, t-dlted

by H. Armen and S. Stiansen.

New York, American SocieLy of Mechanical

Engineers, 1980, pp. 135-146 (AMD, vol 37).

3.

V. B. Wagner.

"Windkr~fte and Lberwassersciiffen," Schiff Und

Haten, Hamburg, 1967.

4.

Naval Facilities Engineering Command.

ard coastal facilities, Alexandria, Va.,

5.

K. D. A. Shearer and W. M. Lynn.

Design Manual DM-26:

Harbors

1968.

"Wind tunnel tests on models of

merchant ships," International Shipbuilding Progress, vol 8, no. 78,

Feb 1961, pp. 62-80.

6.

G. R. tutimer.

Wind tunnel tests to determine aerodynamic forces and

moments on ships at zero heel, David Taylor Naval Ship Research and
Development Center, Report 956, Aero Data Report 27, Ma6r 1955.

7.

G. Hughes.

"Model experiments on the wind resistance of ships,"

Institution of Naval Architects, Transactions, vol 72, 1930, pp. 310-325;

discussion, pp. 326-330.

8.

R. W. F. Gould.

Measurements of the wind forces on a series of models

of merchant ships, National Physical Laboratory, Aerodynamics Division,

Teddington, U. K., Aero Report 1233, Apr 1967.

9.

J. J. Myers, et al, eds.

New York, McGraw-Hill,

10.

Handbook of ocean and underwater engineering.

1969.

Columbia University, Hudson Laboratories.

Report No. ARTEMIS-65-

Vol. 1: A dynamic position keeping system installed aboard the USNS Mission
Capistrano (TAG

162), vol 1.

Preliminary design considerations and

installation, by H. C. Beck and J. 0. Ess.

Dobbs Ferry, N.Y.,

Aug 1968.

(AD 860 376L)

19

~,re
~

~.%5 ..

-~-

F. Hoerner.

12.

R. Altmann.

Fluid-dynamic drag.

Forces on ships moored in protected waters, Hydronautics,

Inc., Technical Report 7096-1,

13.

Midland Park, New Jerscy, 1965.

1971, Laurel, MD.

G. F. M. Remery and G. von Oortmerssen.

"The mean wave, wind and

current forces on offshore structures and their role in the design of

mooring .stems,"

in Preprints, 5th annual Offshore Technology Conference,

vol 1, pp. 169-184, Dallas, Texas, 1973.

14.

R. M. Isherwood.

(OTC 1741)

"Wind resistance of merchant ships," Royal Institution

of Naval Architects, Supplementary Papers, vol 115, Nov 1973, pp. 327-338.

15.

British Ship Research Association.

Report NS. 256:

Research

investigation for the improvement of ship mooring methods, prepared by

Chamber of Shipping of the United Kingdom.
England, 1969.

16.

Wallsend, Northcumberland,

David W. Taylor Naval Ship Research and Development Center.

Report SPD-716-01: A survey of wind loads on ocean facility structures,

by N. T. Tsai.

17.

Bethesda, MD, Aug 1977.

(AD A047800)

Oil Companies International Marine Forum.

current loads on VLCC's, London, 1977.

20

Prediction of wind and

NOMENC LATURE

A,,

Lateral projected area of the hull only

AS

Lateral projected area of the superstructure only

AX

Toongitudinal

Ay

Lateral projected area of the ship

CN

Nondimensional yaw moment coefficient

C
x

Nondimensional longitudinal wind force coefficient

CS

Longitudinal headwind (bow) coefficient

Longitudinal tailwind (stern) coefficient IC~ at 6

Cy

Nondimensional lateral wind force coefficient

Calculated peak lateral force coefficient; constant = 0.92 t 0.1

SYM

Measured peak lateral force coefficient (from data)

projected area of the ship

[Cx at

f(O) Normalized shape functions

Fx

longitudinal wind force

FyY

Lateral wind force

Yaw moment

Wind velocity

Reference wind velocity at 33 feet above sea

IR
21

0 = 0 degrees]

=180

degrees]

(VH/VR)

Average normalized wind velocity over hull

(Vs/VR)

Average normalized wind velocity over superstructure

Incident wind angle with respect to the ship

0z

Zero crossing angle

Density of air

22

LI

if

~ ~ flfj,1
~

3&.l -

--

/,,

-,

"0

anlv. Nx: xaa0

23-

PU
-,r

Vessels Used in Figure 6

Naval Vcsscls

Cargo A

Uarge Carrier (CVA-59)

C.arp, 1.

stf

Escoirt Carricr (CVE- iS)

CrrI(frd,

I ica'v Cvu tw (CA-

13Y

Ia
ik

hcc~chieppci

kI~c!iI,

m Rcpn sinI tItv VCSI

Light Cruiki (CL-145)

[)esiruycr MtD-69Z)

Ia

tnf

IIrc6rrra.1r

Amphibious Transpron (AI'A-248)

hic

me_

I.ibcrty SIlip jdC-2)

I anker A

1I-AC, Navy

(,argr (

l'anlsci (AO-143)

Figure 2. Representative vessel piofiles taken from the total listing in Table 1.

24s

Variable Wind Gradients

(N 5, 7, 10)

leight Above Sea (ft)

V9-)( =( h
7

96-

h R = 33 ft

80

54

48-

32--

16-

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

Figure 3. Wind gradient family.

25

1.0

1.2

1.4

-w-~~---

Ii

[
I.'

0
amIAJ
A

-~

F'

a'
0

26

MIS,

Wr2
to

kC

LL

27J

LIJ

QN

C1-

2:

-,

'0

-3

;C~q
:

280

;I-n

bI

I.

pi:

ILI

4
M

E:

d
II

L.

S E

S..
IN

cc

,,,

29

Icl

La.I

(~ri

IN3131IJi303 N3WOW

30

IN31ZAA1
311

h3c

S-h

EI

*A

F
in

U7
IN3=141
I~g-c

32I

ZJ

431
IN13JJ0

>'1W

33K

ci

a;
I-

IN313JJ=
N3WI

34I

,c

CDD
IN313JA303IN3WU

353

AoA

0N11J0

36

I'

II

*1~~

/
/
II

o
0~
E

0
U

C
-~

Q4J

I
I
I

0'
U
-

V
U

37

- .-- ~

--

----..--

~.-~.-----

CC
4))

ej

uD

A
CO

I-

U38

DL

-I

L)
-.

I-L

INZM1AAM
l~~anl9N0

39aJI

>

+I

00

040

N
CH?

IN3131~~~-4.0

tJl8N-T

40-

+>

U
lu

LL.

uI

LL

-Cq

UC

~4-~

Ccc

CR

41

S
C

CR1

~CID

CI elS

42lut

Lo

ICE

CJ'-'*

CP
-~

O-

soo

43

Uaj

I-

1wU
>

ty

CD

Uy~y

44

Ii

t
i

4-)
U
U

0
U
U
4)

10U

I-

0
r~.) ~t

-~
I!

II

1.
1.~

I'

Ij~r-.
0

(N

Uu

(44

4)
I-

I
~fl

,
-

iN~I3J443O3 .LN~WOW

/45

E>

INWOIN11A0

* I

6h,

"~46

Appendix
SAMPLE PROBLEM

For demonstration purposes, the following example of the wind load

determination for the center island tanker S. S. Pennsylvania (Figure A-l)
is presented for an arbitrary 30 knot wind.

Refer to the summary section

for the expressions used in this example.

Figure A-i.

S. S. Peanslyvania

47

Projected areas of vessel, as estimated from Figure A-i, and known vessel
dimensions are:

Ay/ =

2
19,390 ft

All

2
16,660 ft

AS

2,730 ft2

AX

4,500 ft2

595 ft

Wind Gradient Approximations and Cy

Average height of freeboard = 14 ft (0

28 ft)

Average height of superstructure = 43 ft (28 - 57)

Normalized local wind speed is taken from the wind gradient curve (Figure 3),
with n = 7:
0 to 28 ft ..........

.(VH/VR)

28 to 57 ft .......... (VS/VR) 2

0.60
=

1.11

Such that
Cyl=

(0.92) (1.11)(2,730) t (0.60)(16,660)

0.62

19,390
Thus, for the lateral force in a 30 knot wind, from Equation 1,
F~8)
F y (0)

1 p Ay V 2 CYMf(e)
kt) 2
S(0.00237 lb-sec 2/ft 4)(19,390 ft 2)(30
22
(1.688 ft/sec/kt) 2(O.62)f(0)

4B

Substituting f(O)

from Equation 3, or using Figure 4, lateral force

sin e - (sin 50)!20

(3.66 x l04

0.95
This lateral foree is shown in Figure A-2, along with Reynold's Numberscaled experimental data.

Since no information as to the ship's loading

condition (and therefore projected areas)

is available from the test

report, the experimental data should be used only as a qualitative check

on the geaeral behavior of the calculated loads.
function recommended by this report

The particulai shape

is shown to be a good fit to the

experimental data.

CX.

The initial mean longitudinal coefficient value is C

0.70
X*
XB
(t 0.06), but since the SS PENNSYLVANIA is a center island tanker with
uncluttered decks, the coeffiient is adjusted to CXB

0.70 + 0.10 = 0.80

And, for center island tankers,

S

~ 3/4 CXB

Such that, for

0.60; 0

! 100 degrees

6 < 0z

42

(0.00237 lb-sec 2/ft 4)(4,500 ft2 )(30

22
(1.688

Sutstituting for f6Jo)

Fx(0
=

ft/sec/kt)2(O.80)f(O

kt) 2

from Equations 6 and 7,

1.09x~4) (sin ,

(sin 5 F)/O) (lb)

&nd

4 = (0.9) 0 + 90
The lcngitudinal force for
except CXS

,F

> 0

is identical to the above equation,

0.60 is used, and Equation 8 is used for ts:

+ 67.5

49

The longitudinal force for this tanker is illustrated in Figure A-3,

along with Reynold's Number-scaled experimental data.

Again, because

the projected area of the model in unknown, only a qualitative check is

possible.

This shape function, with its "skewed" benavior around 1000

and the flattened tails, shows the same characteristic behavior as the
experi

N.

tal results.

The recommended wind i iucJ yaw moment coefficient, CN(),

for a trim center island tanker is shown in Figure 13.

The moment

is calculated using Equation 1:

1
N

V2
V Ay LcN
C(e)
(0.0237 lb-sec 2/ft 4)(30 kt) 2(1.688 ft/sec/kt)

(19,380 ft 2)(595 ft) CN (0)

=

7
(3.5 x 107) CN (8) (ft-lb)

The moment is shown in Figure A-4, along with Reynold's Number-scaled

experimental data.
The ship used in this example could be claszified as a "center-balanced
superstructure" ship, so the yaw moment coefficients recommended in
Peference I and shown as dotted in Figure 16 could have been used instead
of the specialized curves in Figure 13.

A comparison of N (0) values

between Figures 13 and 16 shows that this alternate function would have
overestimated the measured minimmn and maximum yaw moments by approximately 100%.

This clearly demonstrates the potential errors of using

a too simplistic loading function in the moment estimation.

50

UIi

Lu

VI'

C;I

H
LZ

0%

th
LA

........
.........
..

L)

C ONKj
c

Lip

Ln

0N)1NIM-lV31V
Gl
AJO3
.

511

7p

-j

zl
40
7-Z

I3J80IN.-

IVV

52)

I9

00

0U

cl0

013E
13~

13O

(2

CD

c9

Ij0

1 X)

53

IN

OWMV

4"S

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55