JournalofSymptomsandSigns

2014;Volume3,Number5

Expert Opinion

Role of yoga in health and disease

Ananda Balayogi Bhavanani
Centre for Yoga Therapy, Education and Research (CYTER), Mahatma Gandhi Medical College and Research Institute (MGMCRI), Pillayarkuppam,
Pondicherry, India.

Abstract
Yoga as a mode of therapy has become extremely popular, and a great number of studies and systematic reviews offer scientific evidence of its
potential in treating a wide range of psychosomatic conditions. Healthy life can be considered as a by-product of practicing yogic techniques since it
has been observed that yoga practitioners are physically and mentally healthier and have better coping skills to stressors than the normal population.
This review paper details some of the health promoting benefits of yoga as well as discusses the important cardiovascular, respiratory, musculoskeletal and metabolic conditions in which it may have preventive, supportive, curative and rehabilitative potential. Role of yoga in stress, mental health,
cancer, pregnancy and childhood are also detailed. Mechanisms for such beneficial physiological, biochemical and psychological effects are discussed. Psycho-neuro-endocrine changes including correction of GABAergic activity, and parasympathetic activation coupled with decreased reactivity
of sympathoadrenal system and HPA axis are highlighted. Changes in the various evaluated parameters for different conditions are detailed and
discussed with ample references. Though most studies and reviews suggest a number of areas where yoga may be beneficial, more research is
required for virtually every one of them to establish their benefits conclusively. This is true in the process of introducing any new therapy into the
modern health care system and is not surprising when we consider that the proper studies on yoga as a therapeutic modality are not older than a
few decades. It is important to develop objective measures of various mind-body therapies and their techniques while including them in intervention
trials. An overview is given of the lacunae present in the reviewed studies and suggestions given for improvements in future studies. In conclusion,
we can say that yoga has preventive, promotive as well as curative potential and that a yogic lifestyle confers many advantages to the practitioner.
Since lifestyle related diseases are alarmingly on the rise in our modern society, yogic lifestyle that is cost effective and relatively safe, should be
given a special place in preventing and managing these diseases.
Keywords: health; disease; stress; yoga therapy.
Received: February 25, 2014; Accepted: May 29, 2014; Published: December 16, 2014
Corresponding Author: Ananda Balayogi Bhavanani, Deputy Director, Centre for Yoga Therapy, Education and Research (CYTER), Mahatma Gandhi
Medical College and Research Institute (MGMCRI), Pillayarkuppam, Pondicherry, India.
E-mail: [email protected].

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Yoga in health and disease

Introduction
Oh, East is East, and West is West, and never the
twain shall meet, said Rudyard Kipling. This dichotomy however seems to have been overcome in recent
times, as many eastern healing traditions have slowly
and steadily percolated the health care system worldwide. This is especially true of mind-body therapies
that focus on the health promotive intrinsic connections
that exist between the human brain, mind, body, and
individual behaviour.
Yoga as a mode of therapy (yoga chikitsa) has become extremely popular, and a great number of studies
and systematic reviews offer scientific evidence of its
potential in treating a wide range of psychosomatic
conditions. Yoga understands health and well-being as
a dynamic continuum of human nature and not merely a
state to be reached and maintained. Yoga helps the
individual to establish sukha sthanam, which may be
defined as a dynamic sense of physical, mental, and
spiritual well-being.
Yogamaharishi Dr. Swami
Gitananda Giri Guru Maharaj, the visionary founder of
Ananda Ashram at the ICYER, Pondicherry
(www.icyer.com) and one of the foremost authorities
on Yoga in the past century exclaimed lucidly, Yoga
chikitsa is virtually as old as yoga itself, indeed, the
return of mind that feels separated from the Universe
in which it exists represents the first yoga therapy.
Yoga chikitsa could be termed as mans first attempt
at unitive understanding of mind-emotions-physical
distress and is the oldest wholistic concept and therapy
in the world [1].
To achieve this yogic integration at all levels of our
being, it is essential that we take into consideration the
all encompassing multi-dimensional aspects of yoga
that include the following: a healthy life nourishing diet,
a healthy and natural environment, a wholistic lifestyle,
adequate bodywork through asana, mudra, bandha and
kriya, invigorating breath work through pranayama and
the cultivation of a healthy thought process through
jnana yoga and raja yoga.
The International Association of Yoga Therapists
(IAYT), USA has taken this idea into account in defining Yoga therapy as follows [2]: Yoga therapy is the
process of empowering individuals to progress toward
improved health and well-being through the application
of the philosophy and practice of yoga. This has been
further elabourated by the IAYT in its Recommended

Educational Standards for the Training of Yoga Therapists, published on 1 July, 2012 [3]. This is one of the
best documents on standards in yoga therapy and is a
path breaking effort covering comprehensively all aspects of yoga as a holistic therapy.
The need of the hour is for a symbiotic relationship
between yoga and modern science. To satisfy this need,
living, human bridges combining the best of both
worlds need to be cultivated. It is important that more
dedicated scientists take up yoga and that more yogis
study science, so that we can build a bridge between
these two great evolutionary aspects of our civilization.
The process as well as the goal of yoga is all about becoming "one" with an integrated state of being [4].

Promotes Positive Health

Healthy life can be considered as a by-product of practicing yogic techniques since it has been observed that
Yoga practitioners are physically and mentally healthier
and have better coping skills to stressors than the normal population. Knowledge of inexpensive, effective
and easily administrable yogic techniques by health
professionals will go a long way in helping us achieve
the goal of the World Health Organisation to provide
physical, mental, spiritual and social health for all
sections of human society.
We can say that the eastern mind-body techniques
affect every cell of the human body. They bring about
better neuro-effector communication, improve strength,
and enhance optimum functioning of all organ-systems
while increasing resistance against stress and diseases
with resultant tranquillity, balance, positive attitude and
equanimity.
Some of the important documented health promoting benefits of mind-body practices such as yoga and
meditation include:
1. Improvement in cardio-respiratory efficiency [58]
2. Improvement in exercise tolerance [912]
3. Harmonious balance of autonomic function [1316]
4. Improvement in dexterity, strength, steadiness, stamina,
flexibility, endurance, and neuro-musculo-skeletal [9,
1722]
5. Increase in alpha rhythm, inter-hemispheric coherence
and homogeneity in the brain [2326]
6. Improved sleep quality [27]
7. Improved cognitive functions [5, 2834]

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8.
9.

Alteration in brain blood flow and brain metabolism

[3538]
Modulation of the neuro-endocrine axis [3944]

Managing Stress
It is well established that stress weakens our immune
system. Scientific research in recent times has showed
that the physiological, psychological and biochemical
effects of yoga are of an anti-stress nature. A majority
of studies have described beneficial effects of yoga
interventions in stress with an Agency for Healthcare
Research and Quality (AHRQ) report stating that Yoga helped reduce stress.[45] Reductions in perceived
stress following yoga are reported to be as effective as
therapies such as relaxation, cognitive behavioral therapy and dance therapy.
Mechanisms postulated included the restoration of
autonomic balance as well as an improvement in restorative, regenerative and rehabilitative capacities of the
individual. A healthy inner sense of wellbeing produced
by a life of yoga percolates down through the different
levels of our existence from the higher to the lower
producing health and wellbeing of a holistic nature.
Streeter, et al. recently proposed a theory to explain the
benefits of yoga practices in diverse, frequently comorbid medical conditions based on the concept
that yoga practices reduce allostatic load in stress response systems such that optimal homeostasis is restored [46].
They hypothesized that stress induces an:
Imbalance of the autonomic nervous system with
decreased parasympathetic and increased sympathetic activity;
Under activity of the gamma amino-butyric acid
(GABA) system, the primary inhibitory neurotransmitter system, and
Increased allostatic load.
They further hypothesized that yoga-based practices i)
correct under activity of the parasympathetic nervous
system and GABA systems in part through stimulation
of the vagus nerves, the main peripheral pathway of the
parasympathetic nervous system, and ii) reduce allostatic load.
According to the theory proposed by them, decreased
parasympathetic nervous system and GABAergic activity that underlies stress-related disorders can be cor-

rected by yoga practices resulting in amelioration of

disease symptoms. A review by Bhavanani concluded
that heart rate variability (HRV) testing has a great role
to play in our understanding the intrinsic mechanisms
behind such potential autonomic balancing effects of
yoga [47]. Innes, et al. had earlier also postulated two
interconnected pathways by which yoga reduces the
risk of cardiovascular diseases through the mechanisms
of parasympathetic activation coupled with decreased
reactivity of sympathoadrenal system and HPA axis[48].

Cardiovascular Conditions
A review of 70 eligible studies investigating the effects
of yoga on risk indices associated with the insulin resistance syndrome, cardiovascular disease, and possible
protection with yoga, reported that most had a reduction
of systolic and/or diastolic pressure. However, the reviewers also noted that there were several noted potential biases and limitations that made it difficult to detect
an effect specific to yoga [48]. Another literature review reported significant improvements in overall cardiovascular endurance of young subjects who were
given varying periods of yoga training [49]. Physical
fitness increased as compared to other forms of exercise
and longer duration of yoga practice produced better
cardiopulmonary endurance. In fact a detailed review
of yoga in cardiac health concluded that it can be beneficial in the primary and secondary prevention of cardiovascular disease and that it can play a primary or a
complementary role in this regard [50].

Mental Health
Yoga can enhance ones spiritual life and perspective
beyond the physical life regardless of ones particular
religion [51]. It enables people to attain and maintain a
balance between exertion and relaxation, and this produces a healthy and dynamic state of homeostatic equilibrium [1]. Recent studies have shown that yoga improves mood and reduces depression scores [52, 53].
These changes have been attributed to an increased
secretion of thalamic GABA with greater capacity for
emotional regulation [53, 54]. Even a 10-day yogabased lifestyle modification program has been reported
to improve subjective wellbeing scores of patients [16].
A review by Carim-Todd, et al. on yoga and smoking
cessation, reported positive benefits of mindbody in-

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Yoga in health and disease

terventions [55]. These interventions produced changes

in smoking behaviour/in predictors of smoking behaviour such as abstinence, decreased number of cigarettes
smoked, lower intensity of cravings and attitudinal
changes regards smoking. However, definite conclusions on their benefits for smoking cessation couldnt
be drawn due to the scarcity of papers, low quality of
some publications, and the numerous limitations of the
studies such as reduced sample size, limitations of
study design, lack of adherence monitoring, lack of
objective measures, inadequate or absent control conditions and absence of blinding.
In addition to its benefits for patients themselves,
yoga also has a great role for managing depression
manifesting in family caregivers of patients with dementia [56]. Researchers also support the promising
role of yoga as an intervention for depression because it
the intervention is cost-effective and easy to implement
[61]. However a point to consider is that all the mindbody interventions do seem to be effective when compared to passive controls but reports are less conclusive
when compared with active controls [57].

Respiratory Disorders
Scientific basis of using yoga as an adjunct therapy in
chronic obstructive pulmonary diseases is well established with significant improvements in lung function,
quality of life indices and bronchial provocation responses coupled with decreased need for regular and
rescue medicinal usage [58, 59]. Behera reported perceptible improvement in dyspnoea and lung function in
patients of bronchitis after 4 weeks of yoga therapy that
used a variety of postures and breathing techniques [60].
Yogic cleaning techniques such as dhautikriya (upper
gastrointestinal cleaning with warm saline or muslin
cloth) and netikriya (warm saline nasal wash) remove
excessive mucous secretions, decrease inflammation
and reduce bronchial hypersensitivity thereby increasing provocation threshold while kapalabhati through
forceful exhalations improves the capacity to exhale
against resistance [61]. A nonspecific broncho protective or broncho relaxing effect has been also postulated
[62] while improved exercise tolerance has been reported following yoga therapy in patients of chronic
severe airways obstruction [63]. It has been reported
that well-performed slow yogic breathing maintains
better blood oxygenation without increasing minute

ventilation, reduces sympathetic activation during altitude-induced hypoxia [64] and decreased chemoreflex
sensitivity to hypoxia and hypercapnia [65]. These help
bring about both objective and subjective improvements in the condition of patients with bronchitis. Yoga
as a therapy is also cost effective, relatively simple and
carries minimal risk and hence should be advocated as
an adjunct, complementary therapy in our search for an
integrated system of medicine capable of producing
health and wellbeing for all.

Metabolic/Endocrine Conditions
A few RCTs have suggested that yoga and meditation
practices act on the hypothalamicpituitaryadrenal
axis (HPA) axis to reduce cortisol levels in plasma [6669], as well as reduce sympathetic nervous system tone,
increase vagal activity [70, 71], and elevate brain
GABA levels [54]. Major systematic reviews of the
effects of yoga on risk indices associated with insulin
resistance syndrome and risk profiles in adults with
type 2 diabetes have been done in recent times [48, 72].
They reported post-intervention improvement in various indices but with results varying by population and
study design. Another systematic review addressed the
management of type 2 diabetes and concluded that the
reviewed trials suggest favorable effects of yoga on
short-term parameters related to diabetes but not necessarily for long-term outcome [73]. The AHRQ cites two
studies comparing yoga versus medication which reported a large and significant reduction of fasting glucose in individuals with type 2 diabetes in one, and a
smaller but still significant improvement in the other
[45].

Musculoskeletal Conditions
A review by Posadzki, et al.[ 74] found that 10 of 11
RCTs reported significantly greater effects in favor of
Yoga when compared to standard care, self-care, therapeutic exercises, relaxing yoga, touch and manipulation,
or no intervention. Yoga was more effective for chronic
back pain than the control interventions such as usual
care or conventional therapeutic exercises though some
studies showed no between group differences [75]. Recently two well-designed trials of yoga for back pain
reported clinically meaningful benefits over usual med-

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Yoga in health and disease

ical care but not over an intensive stretching intervention [76, 77].

Cancer
According to the findings of a comprehensive metaanalysis of yoga in cancer, yoga groups showed improvements in psychological health when compared to
waitlist or supportive therapy groups [78]. With respect
to overall quality of life, there was a trend towards improvement. To explain the positive outcomes, Smith
and Pukall suggested various complex pathways which
may involve relaxation, coping strategies, acceptance,
and self-efficacy [79]. Kochupillai, et al. reported increase in natural killer cells in cancer patients who had
completed their standard therapy after practicing Sudarshan Kriya Yoga and pranayam breathing techniques
[80]. A systematic review and meta-analysis of RCTs
on the physical and psychosocial benefits of yoga in
cancer patients and survivors by Buffart and colleagues
concluded that yoga may be a feasible intervention as
beneficial effects on several physical and psychosocial
symptoms were reported [81]. They showed that it has
strong beneficial effects on distress, anxiety and depression, moderate effects on fatigue, general HRQoL,
emotional function and social function, small effects on
functional well-being, and no significant effects on
physical function and sleep disturbances. It was suggested that yoga can be an appropriate form of exercise
for cancer patients and survivors who are unable or
unwilling to participate in other traditional aerobic or
resistance exercise programs.

Pregnancy
Preliminary evidence from various scientific studies
supports yoga's potential efficacy, particularly if started
early in the pregnancy. Women practicing yoga in their
second trimester reported significant reductions in
physical pain from baseline to post intervention compared with women in the third trimester whose pain
increased [82]. Women in their third trimester showed
greater reductions in perceived stress and trait anxiety.
Another study reported significantly fewer pregnancy
discomforts at 3840 weeks of gestation [83]. Subjects
who participated in the yoga programme exhibited
higher outcome and self-efficacy expectancies during
active and second stage of labour. Provision of booklets

and videos on yoga during pregnancy may contribute to

a reduction in pregnancy discomforts and improved
childbirth self-efficacy. Satyapriya, et al. concluded
that yoga reduces perceived stress and improves adaptive autonomic response to stress in healthy pregnant
women [84] while Chuntharapat, et al. [85] concluded
that yoga produced higher levels of maternal comfort
during labour and 2 hour post-labour with a decrease in
subject evaluated labour pain. They also reported shorter duration of the first stage of labour, as well as total
time of labour in subjects practicing yoga. A study by
Narendran, et al. reported a lower trend in the occurrence of complications of pregnancy such as pregnancy-induced hypertension, intrauterine growth retardation and pre-term delivery in subjects who practiced
yoga [86]. They concluded that an integrated approach
to yoga during pregnancy is safe and that it improved
birth weight, decreased preterm labour, and reduced
IUGR either in isolation or associated with PIH, with
no increased complications.

Paediatric Population
Clinical applications of Yoga have been studied in paediatric and young adult populations with focus on physical fitness, cardio-respiratory effects, mental health,
behaviour and development, irritable bowel syndrome,
eating disorders, and prenatal effects on birth outcomes.
Though a large majority of studies are positive, due to
methodological limitations, evidence provided is still in
its infancy [87]. Yoga has been suggested as an option
for children to increase physical activity and fitness and
that yoga may be a gateway for adopting a healthy active lifestyle in sedentary children who are intimidated
by more vigorous forms of exercise. They recommended that further research is necessary to identify clinical
applications of yoga for children and that such research
needs to be conducted with rigorous methodology in
RCTs with detailed description of protocols and reporting of results. Methodological issues specific to mindbody interventions should be addressed including adequate description of the intervention and control group,
and single blinding of the outcome assessor. A review
by Galantino, et al. concluded that the evidence shows
physiological benefits of yoga for the paediatric population that may benefit children through the rehabilitation process, but larger clinical trials, including specific
measures of QOL are necessary to provide definitive

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Yoga in health and disease

evidence [88]. They rightly suggested that the type

and intensity of yoga, the specific postures for the intended outcome, and the measurement of adherence
beyond the clinic have to be determined. Their review
showed that yoga may benefit children with mental
challenges by improving their mental ability, along
with motor coordination and social skills and that restoration of some degree of functional ability is possible in
those having physical disabilities. It was suggested that
physical therapists might apply these findings in the
neuromuscular areas of learning, motor control, and
coordination. A notable point mentioned by them was
that, Regardless of the goal, yoga appears to be a multitasking modality that simultaneously treats both physical impairments as well as more global issues such as
stress, anxiety, or hyperactivity.

Conclusion
All of the above studies and reviews suggest a number
of areas where mind-body therapies such as yoga may
be beneficial, but more research is required for virtually
every one of them to establish their benefits conclusively. This is true in the process of introducing any new
therapy into the modern health care system and is not
surprising when we realize that the proper studies on
yoga as a therapeutic modality are not older than a few
decades.
Some of the major issues highlighted by these studies
and reviews include:
1. Individual studies on yoga for various conditions are
small
2. Poor-quality trials in general with multiple instances for
bias
3. Substantial heterogeneity with regards to the
populations studied,
yoga interventions,
duration and frequency of yoga practice,
comparison groups, and
outcome measures.
4. Compliance was not routinely noted, thus preventing an
understanding of the apt dosage requirements with regard to the mind-body interventions
5. Yoga requires active participation and motivation that
requires active efforts from both the researcher as well
as the participants.
6. Changes in attitudes and behavior need to be documented and understood better, especially in the lifestyle,
stress induced psychosomatic conditions.

7.

It is not clear which patients may benefit from the mindbody interventions, and which aspects of the interventions or which specific styles were more effective than
others.
It has been suggested that yoga may help improve
patient self-efficacy, self-competence, physical fitness,
and group support, and may well be effective as a supportive adjunct to mitigate medical conditions. Bssing,
et al. concluded that yoga may have potential to be implemented as a safe and beneficial supportive/adjunct
treatment that is relatively cost-effective, may be practiced at least in part as a self-care behavioral treatment,
provides a life-long behavioral skill, enhances selfefficacy and self-confidence, and is often associated
with additional positive side effects [89].
It is important to develop objective measures of various mind-body therapies and their techniques while
including them in intervention trials. It has also been
suggested that the publication of specific interventions
used in future studies in manual form can allow reliable
replication and future implementation. It is also important to develop tools to monitor objectively the participants self-practice, compliance, and adherence to
the interventions. Yoga has preventive, promotive as
well as curative potential and a yogic lifestyle confers
many advantages to the practitioner. Since lifestyle
related diseases are alarmingly on the rise in our modern society, yogic lifestyle should be given a special
place in preventing and managing these diseases.

Disclosure
There are no conflicts of interest.

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