CHAPTER 1 ATTACHMENT AND EMOTIONAL RESILIENCE

Chapter 1

ATTACHMENT
AND EMOTIONAL RESILIENCE

Whenever a child or adult is faced with traumatic life events, particularly

the loss of a loved one, the ability to survive the emotional and physical
pain associated with the event will be influenced by the individuals level
of personal resilience.

RESILIENCE
The ability of a child or adult to mentally represent himself and others without
distortion is thought to be a major factor in understanding the nature of
resilience. Therefore, a positive view of the self can help the individual to develop
a range of personal strengths to cope with lifes adversities, including the trauma
associated with death in the family.
Resilience is not just a matter of constitutional strength or a robust temperament,
it is also a product of how people perceive, appraise, approach and tackle
stresses and challenges.
Factors associated with resilience are thought to include secure attachments to
significant others, absence of early loss and trauma, high self-esteem and social
empathy, and an easy temperament. (Fonagy in Howe, 1994) Thus trauma and
maltreatment that disturbs a childs ability to represent and understand his own
and others emotions and behaviours, reduces his ability to make sense and cope
with distress, conflict and social failure. However, if a maltreated or a bereft child
can relate to a responsive figure outside of the traumatic situation, he or she
might be able to develop the capacity to manage relationships mentally with
increased accuracy and understanding, and without distortion, self blame and
negative self image.
Therefore, it is important for any person that is in a helping role with both
children and adults who are grieving and trying to come to terms with drastically
changing personal circumstances, to take into consideration the childs
experiences and model of attachment to his significant others. Understanding the
situation for members of the childs family, who are also grieving, is equally
important, as a better understanding of how the family as a whole relates to each
other will not only increase the likelihood of forming a positive working alliance
between helper, child and family, but also give the helper some information to
assist the healing process. At this time, the helper may need to temporarily
serve as the responsive adult figure outside of the home environment, and to a
child, the helping relationship may be the only one that is emotionally safe and
devoted to his needs.

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CHAPTER 1 ATTACHMENT AND EMOTIONAL RESILIENCE

ATTACHMENT
Attachment behaviours in humans, as indeed in lower forms of animal life, ensure
survival of the species. Throughout an individuals lifetime, attachments provide
connections to others, an aid in the quest for identity, they influence the nature
of future relationships, and it is widely accepted that they change in focus and
importance across the life cycle. The childs attachments in early years are
usually focused towards the parent figure who provides emotional and physical
security. These attachments shift towards peer group in adolescence, and
towards partners, and eventually towards children of their own in adulthood.
Therefore, during the life cycle, loss of a loved one may have a different effect
upon individual members of the family, and styles of grieving and methods of
coping may vary accordingly. The worker, who has some understanding of the
nature and process of how attachments develop, is in a better position to form
therapeutic relationships with grieving children and families.

THE PROCESS OF ATTACHMENT BETWEEN ADULT AND CHILD

DURING EARLY PSYCHOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENT AND
SOCIALISATION
The concept of attachment theory became more widely known following a report
to the World Health Organisation, in 1951, when John Bowlby suggested:
What is believed to be essential for mental health is that the infant and
young child should experience a warm, intimate and continuous
relationship with his mother The long period of helpless infancy of the
human species entails serious risks, so it is of crucial importance to
survival, that the child and its mother should become attached.
Attachment is thought to be an affectionate bond between two individuals which
endures through space and time and serves to join them together emotionally.
(Klaus and Kennell, 1976)
The work of John Bowlby during the 1950s originally
concentrated on the relationship between the child and the mother, but later he
and others came to accept that significant others, extended family members and
primary care givers could also be attachment figures.
Since the 1950s much has been observed about the process of parent-child
relationships, but what has stood the test of time is the belief that the quality of
this relationship constitutes a central aspect of positive parenting.
The
development of social relationships occupies a crucial role in personality growth,
and abnormalities in relationships are important in many types of
psychopathology (emotional or mental ill health). (Rutter, 1991) There are
many positive long-range effects of strong healthy attachments, but, as helpers
of bereaved children, it is vital that we are aware of the risks posed to them as a
result of damaging parent-child relationships or of separation of children from
their caregiver. Attachment theory, therefore, provides a theoretical base for
practice and informs decision-making and planning in accordance with the best
interests of vulnerable children.

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CHAPTER 1 ATTACHMENT AND EMOTIONAL RESILIENCE

QUALITY OF ATTACHMENTS
Positive attachments help the child to attain his full intellectual potential, think
and perceive in a logical manner, develop social emotions and conscience, and
begin to trust others as a result of this. Quality relationships help children to
become self reliant, develop self worth, better cope with frustration, envy and
jealousy, and overcome common fears and worries. A child, who is well attached
to one care giver, can more easily develop attachments to others, such as
siblings, extended family and eventually to friends.
ATTACHMENT BEHAVIOUR AND THE ATTACHMENT SYSTEM
Attachment behaviour is any behaviour designed to get children into a close and
protective relationship with their attachment figure when they experience anxiety.
This attachment system is an inbuilt mechanism for seeking proximity to a
caregiver for protection, food and social interaction. It provides opportunities for
learning about relationships and the environment.
Three main attachment
behaviours in infants are: signalling, such as cooing, laughing and smiling;
aversive behaviours such as distressed crying; and making a direct approach
towards caregivers.
Anxiety activates the attachment system, which increases attachment behaviour.
Therefore, behaviours and emotions associated with attachment are clearly seen
in situations of anxiety and distress.
Anxiety invoking factors come from three main sources:
The child
The environment
The attachment figure

For example, through sickness or tiredness

Through perceived threats or fear
Uncertainty about the location and
availability of the attachment figure, or of
their likely response

HOW THE PROCESS OF ATTACHMENT WORKS

The work of Donald Winnicott had a major influence on how psychologists and
others came to understand the developing relationship between the infant and
the primary carer. (Jacobs, 1995) Following birth, the good enough primary
carer becomes preoccupied with the welfare of the infant, a state known as
Primary Pre-occupation.
This process begins when the infant cries if he is uncomfortable, hungry, wet, or
in pain. When the mother responds immediately and pacifies the infant, he feels
safe and secure. When sufficiently developed, the infant smiles. This process
aids the attachment and allows the mother to bond with the child. The mother
will then return the smile, and he begins to feel good about himself. This helps
the infant to develop trust in external people, and the mother remains
preoccupied with the child until it is safe not to do so.
In children, anxiety and fear, as well as illness, tend to increase attachment
behaviours, and when a person is associated with relief of anxiety an attachment
is fostered. It is believed that the intensity of relationship is more important in
forming attachments than the length of time spent with the child. It is the speed
of the adults response to the childs fear that will influence the quality of the
attachment.
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CHAPTER 1 ATTACHMENT AND EMOTIONAL RESILIENCE

THE DEVELOPMENTAL PROCESS

Between birth and two months old, it is thought that the infant commences
the development of social behaviours. He can engage in social responsiveness
and demonstrate an interest in one person or another by visually tracking their
movements and listening. This is a pre-attachment stage.
Between three and six months old, the child is usually able to discriminate,
recognise and show a preference for particular adults.
There is greater
vocalisation and smiling. At this stage attachments are beginning to form.
At seven months to three years, the child will actively initiate proximity and
contact. One attachment figure is usually selected, with whom they will actively
seek out and maintain contact. However, they will already have formed an
opinion about the reliability and availability of that person, and this opinion will
have been firmly fixed in their emotional internal world.
This process is known as the Internal Working Model because it will come to
be used as the model for the way that the child perceives other people, and
consequently sets the pattern for the way that child interacts with others. The
infant will develop the innate ability to expect certain responses from others,
according to their past and present experiences with attachment figures.
Therefore, their subsequent approaches and responses to others are likely to be
purposeful and deliberate.
From three years onwards there is a more sophisticated partnership and an
understanding of their own and mothers behaviours. The child can begin to see
other peoples points of view, discussion and negotiation in relation to goals is
possible, and there is less need for physical proximity. This is the process of
developing independence, and the child, with increased emotional security, can
achieve this independence through internal working models of safe and anxiety
reducing parent figures.

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CHAPTER 1 ATTACHMENT AND EMOTIONAL RESILIENCE

THREE WAYS THAT ATTACHMENTS DEVELOP

The Arousal-Relaxation cycle
The Positive Interaction cycle
Positive Claiming
All of these can be used to facilitate relationship building between adults and
children beyond infancy.
THE AROUSAL-RELAXATION CYCLE
This cycle is triggered by the childs needs, and when the parent meets that need
and alleviates discomfort, the child develops trust in the parent. Repeated cycles
help to reinforce the childs strong sense of identity. However, the diagram below
can reveal several places where the positive process can be interrupted,
prompting the reverse reactions in the child.
Some parents consistently fail to respond to the childs communication, or
maintain that children should not be spoiled or get what they want, and this
can interrupt the arousal-relaxation cycle. Some children are difficult to relieve,
e.g. those who are unwell, or exposed to harmful substances during pregnancy,
and premature infants. Also those who are separated at birth can have difficulty
in signalling discomfort, and some can become more isolated.
The Arousal-Relaxation Cycle

CHILD EXPRESSES
NEED

CHILD RELAXES,
TRUST DEVELOPS

CHILD
PROTESTS

ADULT RESPONDS,
SOOTHES, MAKES EYE
CONTACT, SATISFIES
NEED

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POSITIVE INTERACTION CYCLE

This cycle increases the childs self worth, self-esteem, trust and security.
The parent can initiate positive contact with the child in a number of ways
including cooing, smiling, caressing, offering favourite foods or by providing the
childs favourite toy or comforter. Such contact assists the bonding process.
This style of psychological and social interaction is thought to contribute more to
attachments than responses to the childs physical needs. The more social
interactions an adult has with a child, the more likely it is that an attachment will
form, and the more loveable the child feels. This is important to the building of a
childs self-esteem - the important factor in resilience.
Positive Interaction Cycle
PARENT INITIATES
POSITIVE
INTERACTION

CHILD RESPONDS
POSITIVELY

POSITIVE CLAIMING
Claiming is a way of beginning the process of attaching the baby to the family of
origin. The child is claimed as special by the parent or parents, and a detailed
examination at birth of their unique features reinforces the ownership of the
child. It is the physical similarities (e.g. ears, nose, eyes etc) to the family of
origin that add to the feelings of entitlement to become part of the family.
However, claiming behaviours can be both positive and negative and have
implications for the way the child is perceived or perceives himself in the future.
The child may be likened to a family member who is disliked or in conflict with
others, or he may be associated with a parent whom the extended family dislikes.
This can also happen if the child has a disability, and he can be disclaimed as a
result.
DISTURBED ATTACHMENT CYCLE
This cycle, illustrated below, does not relieve the childs anxiety or satisfy the
childs emotional needs. It can lead to frustration and eventually despair. This
model of the external world becomes internalised. In other words, negative
expectations of what adults have to offer are developed in the childs internal
world, influencing the childs Internal Working Model.

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Disturbed Attachment Cycle

CHILD
EXPERIENCES
NEED OR
DISCOMFORT

CHILD GIVES UP.

NO TRUST,
RAGE DEVELOPS

PROTESTS,
SIGNALS FOR HELP
OR CRIES

PARENT DOES NOT

RESPOND OR
RESPONDS WITH
ANGER OR
RESENTMENT

PARENT DOES NOT

RESPOND OR
RESPONDS
INCONSISTENTLY

CHILD PROTESTS
EVEN LOUDER

FACTORS THAT AFFECT THE STYLE OF ATTACHMENT

Before the birth, parents develop images of what the child will be like, and the
mother develops a relationship with the foetus as part of herself. However, not
all images may be positive, and such things as wrong timing of the pregnancy,
dysfunctional relationship between the parents, or the presence of pre-natal
conditions or complications, may affect the attachment by parents to the foetus.
Psychiatric disorder in the parents may also have a harmful effect upon the
relationship, and result in the child perceiving the parent as unavailable.
Further conditions that can affect the physical and emotional health of the child
include inadequate nutrition, being subjected to harmful substances during the
gestation period, trauma or accident, or disability, such as Downs Syndrome,
which can reduce the capacity of the child to smile or to signal distress. This can
result in the parent figure missing the attachment signals and perceiving the child
as unresponsive.

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CHAPTER 1 ATTACHMENT AND EMOTIONAL RESILIENCE

MODELS OF ATTACHMENT
These have been classified as:

Secure
Insecure Avoidant
Insecure Ambivalent
Insecure Anxious
Disorganised
Unattached

INTERNAL WORKING MODELS

Attachment theory states that young children within close relationships acquire
Internal Working Models which help them make sense of their environment,
based upon peoples availability and their willingness to provide care and
protection. It is the beginnings of a childs ability to plan, reflect, analyse and
see others points of view. This view of the world is influenced by experience and
is subject to change, and social competence is achieved by the way the child
perceives:
Self
Others
Relationship between the two
Research shows that parents own history of social relationships influences the
quality of relationships they have with their children as well as each other.
Parents often treat children as they were treated themselves. (Howe, 1995)
INTERNAL WORKING MODEL OF SECURE ATTACHMENT
Secure attachment experiences help the child to see himself as lovable, worthy
and effective, and others as available, loving, interested and responsive. Such
experiences help the child to manage trauma and anxiety with some degree of
trust. They are less likely to believe that the whole world is always so painful, and
more likely to believe that positive outcomes are possible, and that death of a
loved one does not mean total abandonment by everyone. In adulthood, this is
particularly important in enabling the parent who is bereft to still provide
emotional stability for the child.
INTERNAL WORKING MODEL OF AVOIDANT ATTACHMENT
Where the parent avoids responding to the childs immediate needs, makes them
wait for relief and comfort, or responds frighteningly or inconsistently to their
needs, this internal working model develops.
Sometimes children will use avoidance themselves, as a way of physically and
emotionally managing the disappointing interaction with their primary carers.
These children need to be self-reliant, self contained and emotionally strong, as
others are perceived as only conditionally available.
Others are perceived by them as likely to be rejecting, distant and hostile, and a
punishing response is predictable. These children tend to be rather isolated and
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CHAPTER 1 ATTACHMENT AND EMOTIONAL RESILIENCE

do not particularly care whether or not they have relationships. They do not
enjoy being with others because they do not feel safe. Such people tend to be
overly independent and become enraged or highly anxious when forced to rely on
others for help. Their belief is that nobody can make them do anything they do
not want to do, and they delight in showing others this.
They are often sullen and openly oppositional, but primarily in a passiveaggressive way. Such behaviour is characterised by frequently forgetting to do
things, being persistently late and breaking things accidentally. They attempt to
avoid all feelings, but when they cannot ignore how they feel, they almost always
experience negative emotions such as anger, frustration, and boredom. Taking
such children on treats can result in them being unable to enjoy themselves.
INTERNAL WORKING MODEL OF AMBIVALENT ATTACHMENT
These children have usually been subjected to widely differing responses by
parent figures, from overly affectionate to angry and neglectful. As adults they
often feel unloved and ineffective, and they have a strong need for love, attention
and approval. They have positive expectations, but low satisfaction, and see
others as unavailable, unreliable and disinterested.
They can be quite
hyperactive and sometimes use coercive behaviours to control others, for
example by making them feel guilty.
Although they have the ability to allow some closeness with others, they tend to
quickly sabotage this. The relationships they do form tend to be short-lived
because they easily feel rejected and often push people away first to avoid facing
rejection. Their charming behaviour can change quickly for no apparent reason
into an excessive expression of anger, and destruction. Most of their behaviour
has a high degree of inconsistency about it, and this often prevents their own
children, when they are infants, from perceiving them as reliable and predictable.
Hence the cycle repeats itself in the next generation.
INTERNAL WORKING MODEL OF INSECURE ANXIOUS ATTACHMENT
This working model sometimes develops from the belief that the attachment
figure is available, but only with certain conditions, and that she/he is likely to
withdraw that comfort and support if the child no longer meets those conditions
such as being well behaved or co-operative.
These children and adults tend to be overly clingy and become excessively upset
when separated from their mothers or significant others. In children this
clinginess differs from what is seen as age appropriate dependence on the adult
caregiver.
They are able to make friends, but usually demand attention and unconditional
acceptance from others, in a clingy manner. In their teens these young people
use sex to hang onto boyfriends/girlfriends, or they buy gifts to keep friends.
These people usually allow others to physically or emotionally hold them and they
are seldom openly defiant. However, they have a tendency to switch mood and
become overtly destructive when their safety is threatened.

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INTERNAL WORKING MODEL OF DISORGANISED ATTACHMENT

This working model usually comes about by the child experiencing the most
negative and extreme aspects of care giving from all of the models. It means
that these infants are unable to make sense of any style of parent-child
interaction, as it is constantly changing. Interaction can range from affectionate,
rewarding responses at one time, to avoidant and distant, or blatantly aggressive
the next. Such children who experience disorganised care giving are likely to
adopt strategies in which they take charge of the relationship and control the
parent, as a desperate attempt to achieve predictability in their lives. Their
controlling strategies reflect these extremes and can be either care giving or
punitive. These children, and indeed adults, displaying this style, are particularly
vulnerable and can form a major part of the helpers workload.
Disorganised children and adults will view others as threatening and will be wary
of them, preferring to adopt caution in readiness for the predictable changes.
They often alternate between defensive aggression and control, and apprehensive
withdrawal and helplessness. Initially they can be quite engaging with strangers
and are likely to have early sexual experiences, but alternately they dislike being
touched and will defend against this.
People with disorganised styles of
attachment often have abnormal eating patterns, poor hygiene and self-neglect,
reflecting the chaotic nature of their internal working model.
Features of this internal working model include restlessness, telling tales and
exaggerating stories, anti-social behaviour and stealing, which can become out of
control. They are most likely to be unable to cope with conflict, as they are easily
aroused by aggression and distress. Constant blaming of other people and high
levels of resentment can lead to violence, and as a result, they are likely to be
socially withdrawn and unpopular with others. People with this lower level of
personal resilience, who present with complicated patterns of grief, will usually
benefit from a referral to specialist therapeutic services.
THE UNATTACHED CHILD
This working model is far less usual, but has been described in rare cases. It
usually develops as a result of constant and predictable behaviour by the
attachment figures. This predictable care giving is usually hostile, sexually,
emotionally, or physically abusive, and extremely neglectful. Such children never
have the opportunity to experience love and affection, so develop a hostile and
irresponsible sense of self. They have no trust in others, which results in them
becoming very untrustworthy and sometimes dangerous to others. The traits are
more apparent than any of the other models, and include a real lack of
connection and empathy towards others, hence their potential danger to others.
Such children and adults develop relationships that are short lived and
exploitative. They are skilled at deceit and are unable to give and receive
affection. They cannot be trusted with animals because of their cruelty, and they
have a tendency to engage in risk taking behaviours. They believe that other
people have no value, and thus have the ability to hurt or even kill others. They
do not have a secure base or personal resilience from which to withstand the
trauma of loss, and are therefore likely to react in complicated or dangerous
ways. Generally speaking, these people are also more likely than most to need
specialist therapeutic services.

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CHAPTER 1 ATTACHMENT AND EMOTIONAL RESILIENCE

ATTACHMENT AND LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT

It is generally believed that for optimum language development the child needs
consistent reinforcement by parental figures, particularly attachment figures.
Moreover, children with fewer primary carers acquire skills better than those with
multiple carers. An added challenge for neglected children, or for those who have
to be cared for by siblings, particularly young siblings, is the fact that children
rarely progress beyond the verbal skills of their superiors. The result can lead to
children acquiring a restricted verbal code, and reduced ability to conceptualise
abstracts.

UNDERSTANDING ATTACHMENT AND BEREAVEMENT:

RESPONDING TO CHILDREN AND FAMILIES IN WAYS THAT CAN

PROMOTE THE BEST POSSIBLE OUTCOME
It is worth bearing in mind that most children will have experienced some
negative forms of parenting during their childhood as it is unlikely that many, if
any, families are perfect. In the words of Donald Winnicott (Jacobs, 1995), the
parent does not need to be perfect, just good enough. The Positive Interaction
Cycle (described above), however, demonstrates how interaction can be
promoted in ways that help to form strong attachments, or begin to redress the
deficits for less fortunate children.
Having a greater understanding of how attachments develop can aid the helper in
making a more accurate assessment of the childs situation, and in forming an
opinion about the degree of risk to that child. These skills are even more
important when the child is not known to the statutory agencies and the helper is
keen to ensure that the traumatic events in the home do not place the child at
risk of receiving inadequate care or of being abused in some way. If at any time
the helper is worried about this, the local statutory procedures to protect children
should be followed.
After traumatic loss, family members are most likely to be suffering emotionally
themselves, so the normally accepted pattern of interaction could be interrupted.
However, there may also be a pre existing pattern that is unhelpful to the child,
which may be interfering with the childs ability to come to terms with the loss.
The familys reduced level of resilience may provoke attachment seeking
behaviours by the child, and these could be misunderstood by stressed relatives.
Observing the interaction between the child and its primary carer, in as
comfortable setting as possible, will allow the helper to plan how best to support
the child and family and how to offer advice aimed at sustaining or improving the
primary relationship and the emotional security of the child. Using the ArousalRelaxation Cycle (described above), the helper can observe how the child signals
intense feelings, and whether the primary carer is able to respond adequately to
achieve comfort. Is the carer able to indicate her or his own intense feelings, and
how does the child respond?
Using the Positive Interaction Cycle, it is possible to observe how frequently the
child or parent initiates positive interchanges, and what response they receive
from the other person. Do the interchanges encourage a positive response from
the former, or are they one sided, leaving the other feeling rejected or
abandoned? If a negative cycle is constantly noticed, then the helper can begin
to offer advice about more positive ways of interacting with the child. However,
this advice needs to be delivered in a manner that supports the family rather than
criticises them.
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CHAPTER 1 ATTACHMENT AND EMOTIONAL RESILIENCE

The helper can use Attachment Theory to promote a positive relationship with the
child when working with them individually. Actively listening to the child and
responding to them promptly will be more likely to enhance the therapeutic
relationship. This will begin to help the child experience a positive model of
communication. It is very important that the helper has the ability to react
consistently to the child and familys requests or demands, thereby helping them
all to predict how the support will be delivered.
In some cases, where the attachment style of the family is less helpful, it may
take all the helpers skill not to react in a similar way to the family model. Such
feelings from the family, which are directed towards the helper, are a usual part
of this very challenging work, and therefore should be expected as part of the
role. These strong feelings could be a high degree of dependence or neediness, as
well as withdrawal or hostility. What is important in the work is that these
feelings, which are transferred to the helper, should not result in the helper
believing that they must take all the responsibility for the child or familys
welfare. Of course, the first consideration is the protection of the child, but so
long as the child is safe, helping the family to retain their independence, once the
shock has subsided, will be the best course of action for their recovery.
The worker must also remember that the childs negative and sometimes hostile
feelings are most likely to be as a result of their situation, and should not be
taken personally. The response to negative outbursts or rejection from the child
needs to be delivered with empathy, and not reflect the mood of the child. By
remaining constant in their interaction with that child, the worker can help the
child to feel emotional safety in the therapeutic relationship. This does not mean
that children can be exempt from the normal boundaries set by appropriate
parents. Rather these boundaries need to be established in a firm but
compassionate way. Remember that undue criticism may well be perceived by
such children as persecutory, and will reduce the chance of a positive outcome.

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ATTACHMENT AND EMOTIONAL RESILIENCE

Points to remember:
Resilience is not just a matter of constitutional strength or robust
temperament. It is also a product of how people perceive, appraise, approach and
tackle stresses and challenges.
An individuals ability to survive the emotional and physical pain of a
traumatic event, particularly the loss of a loved one, is influenced by their level of
personal emotional resilience.
The quality of attachments between infants and caregivers has a lifelong
effect on how they relate to other people and form relationships.
Positive interaction between the care giver and the child can build up self
esteem the important factor in resilience.
When working with children, you need to take into consideration the childs
experiences and model of attachment to his significant others.
Workers who have some understanding of the nature and process of how
attachments develop are in a better position to form therapeutic relationships
with grieving children and families.
It is important that you do not take the negative and hostile feelings of the
child, which are often the result of the childs situations, personally.
Interaction with the child should be consistent and responses to the child
need to be compassionate and delivered with empathy.
If at any time you are worried that the child is at risk of receiving inadequate
care or of being abused in some way, you must follow the local statutory
procedures.

See Annex 1 for the Emotional Resilience Checklist.

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