Subject

Noun
Compound Noun
Subject
Proper Noun

Verb\

Verb (linking verb)

Verb (Phrasal Verb)

nouns -compound

Clause

Clause - dependent

Phrase

Adjective

Adverb

Pronoun

Who/Whom

whoever/whomever

Who

That
which

Who/That/Which

That/Which

Spacing with Punctuation

Spacing with Punctuation

Description
A noun is a word or set of words for a person, place, thing, or idea
A noun of more than one word (tennis court, gas station ) is called a compound noun.
Common nouns are words for a general class of people, places, things, and ideas (man, city, award, honesty ).they are not capitalized.
Proper nouns are always capitalized. They name specific people, places, and things (Joe, Chicago, Academy Award ).
A verb is a word or set of words that shows action (runs, is going, has been painting ); feeling (loves, envies ); or state of
being (am, are, is, have been, was, seem ).ex:He ran around the block.
I like my friend.
They seem friendly.
State-of-being verbs are called linking verbs. They include all forms of the verb to be , plus such words as look, feel, appear,
act, go, followed by an adjective. (See the "Adjectives and Adverbs" section later in this chapter.).,Examples:
You look happy.
We feel fine.
He went
ballistic.
Verbs
often
consist of more than one word. For instance, had been breaking down is a four-word verb. It has a two-word main
verb, breaking down (also called a phrasal verb), and twohelping verbs (had and been ). Helping verbs are so named
because they help clarify the intended meaning.
Many verbs can function as helping verbs, including is, shall, must, do, has, can, keep, get, start, help, etc.
A subject is the noun, pronoun (see the "Pronouns" section later in this chapter), or set of words that performs the verb.
Examples:
The woman hurried.
Woman is the subject.
She was late.
She is the subject.
Shakespeare in Love won an Academy Award.
Shakespeare in Love is the subject.
Breaking and entering is against the law.The bed and breakfast was charming.In those sentences, breaking and
entering
and bed
and breakfast
areacompound
nouns.
A clause
is a group
of words
containing
subject and
verb. An independent clause is a simple sentence. It can stand on its
own.Examples:
She is hungry.
I am feeling well today.
A dependent clause cannot stand on its own. It needs an independent clause to complete a sentence. Dependent clauses
often begin with such words as although, since, if, when, andbecause .Examples:
Although she is hungry
Whoever is hungry
Because I am feeling well., Dependent Although she is hungry, she will give him some of her food.
Independent-Whatever they decide, I will agree to.
A phrase is a group of words without a subject-verb component, used as a single part of speech.Examples:
Best friend (noun phrase)
Needing help (adjective phrase; see the "Adjectives and Adverbs" section later in this chapter)
With the blue shirt (prepositional adjective phrase; see the "Prepositions" section later in this chapter)
For twenty days (prepositional adverb phrase)

An adjective is a word or set of words that modifies (i.e., describes) a noun or pronoun. Adjectives may come before the word
they modify.Examples:
That is a cute puppy.----------Adjectives may also follow the word they modify:
Examples:
That puppy looks cute.
The technology is state-of-the-art.
She likes a high school senior.,
An adverb is a word or set of words that modifies verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs.Examples:
He speaks slowly (modifies the verb speaks)
He is especially clever (modifies the adjective clever)
He speaks all too slowly (modifies the adverb slowly).............An adverb answers how, when, where, or to what extenthow
often or how much (e.g., daily, completely).
Examples:
He speaks slowly (answers the question how)
Hepronoun
speaks very
slowly
(answers
theyou,
question
slowly)
A
(I, me,
he, she,
herself,
it, that,how
they,
each, few, many, who, whoever, whose, someone, everybody , etc.) is a
word that takes the place of a noun. In the sentence Joe saw Jill, and he waved at her , the pronouns he and her take the
place of Joe and Jill , respectively. There are three types of pronouns: subject (for example, he ); object (him );
or possessive(his ).
Use this he/him method to decide whether who or whom is correct:he = who
him = whom...Examples:
Who/Whom wrote the letter?
He wrote the letter. Therefore, who is correct.Who/Whom should I vote for?
Should I vote for him? Therefore, whom is correct.We all know who/whom pulled that prank.
This sentence contains two clauses: we all know and who/whom pulled that prank. We are interested in the second clause
because it contains the who/whom. He pulled that prank. Therefore, who is correct.We wondered who/whom the book was
about.
This sentence contains two clauses: we wondered and who/whom the book was about. Again, we are interested in the second
clause because it contains the who/whom. The book was about him. Therefore, whom is correct.Note: This rule is
compromised by an odd infatuation people have with whomand not for good reasons. At its worst, the use of whom becomes
a form of one-upmanship some employ to appear sophisticated. The following is an example of the pseudo-sophisticated
whom.Incorrect: a woman whom I think is a genius
In this case whom is not the object of I think. Put I think at the end and witness the folly: a woman whom is a genius, I think.
Correct: a woman who I think is a genius

To determine whether to use whoever or whomever , the he/him rule in the previous section applies:he = whoever.,him =
whomever..Rule 1. The presence of whoever or whomever indicates a dependent clause. Use whoever or whomever to agree
with the verb in that dependent clause, regardless of the rest of the sentence.
Examples:
Give it to whoever/whomever asks for it first.
He asks for it first. Therefore, whoever is correct.
We will hire whoever/whomever you recommend.
You recommend him. Therefore, whomever is correct.
We will hire whoever/whomever is most qualified.
He is most qualified. Therefore, whoever is correct...Rule 2. When the entire whoever/whomever clause is the subject of the
verb that follows the clause, look inside the clause to determine whether to use whoever or whomever.
Examples:
Whoever is elected will serve a four-year term.
Whoever is the subject of is elected. The clause whoever is elected is the subject of will serve.
Whomever you elect will serve a four-year term.
Whomever is the object of elect. Whomever you elect is the subject of will serve.
A word to the wise: Whomever is even more of a vogue word than whom. Many use it indiscriminately to sound cultured,
figuring that no one will know any better.
Rule 1. Who and sometimes that refer to people. That and which refer to groups or things.Examples:
Anya is the one who rescued the bird.
"The Man That Got Away" is a great song with a grammatical title.
Lokua is on the team that won first place.
She belongs to a great organization, which specializes in saving endangered species.
Rule 2a. That introduces what is called an essential clause. Essential clauses add information that is vital to the point of the
sentence.Example: I do not trust products that claim "all natural ingredients" because this phrase can mean almost anything.
We
not know
the typeaofnonessential
products being
discussed
the that clauseinformation.Example: The product claiming "all
Rulewould
2b. Which
introduces
clause,
whichwithout
adds supplementary
natural ingredients," which appeared in the Sunday newspaper, is on sale.
The product is already identified. Therefore, which begins a nonessential clause containing additional, but not essential,
information.
NOTE:The distinction between that and which , though a useful guideline, is widely disregarded:Which is routinely used in
place of that , even by great writers and journalists, perhaps because it sounds more elegant.NOTE
Essential clauses do not have commas introducing or surrounding them, whereas nonessential clauses are introduced or
surrounded by commas.
Rule 3. If that has already appeared in a sentence, writers sometimes use which to introduce the next clause, whether it is
essential or nonessential. This is done to avoid awkward formations.xample: That which doesn't kill you makes you stronger.
This sentence is far preferable to the ungainly but technically correct That that doesn't kill you makes you stronger.

With a computer, use only one space following periods, commas, semicolons, colons, exclamation points, question marks, and
quotation marks. The space needed after these punctuation marks is proportioned automatically. With some typewriters and
word processors, follow ending punctuation with two spaces when using a fixed-pitch font.
Use no spaces on either side of a hyphen.ex-We borrowed twenty-three sheets of paper.

y are not capitalized.

Rule 1. To find the subject and verb, always find the verb first. Then ask who or what performed the v
Examples:
The jet engine passed inspection.

From the ceiling hung the chandelier.

Rule 2. Sentences can have more than one subject and more than one verb.
Examples:
I like cake, and he likes ice cream. ( Two subjects and two verbs)
He and I like cake. ( Two subjects and one verb)
She lifts weights and jogs daily. ( One subject and two verbs)
Examples:
He is trying to leave.
To leave is an infinitive; the main verb is trying.
To leave was his wish.
The main verb is was.
NOTE

Example:
(You) Please bring me some coffee.
Bring is the verb. Who will do the bringing? The subject you is understood.
NOTE
We will use the standard of underlining subjects once and verbs twice.
Being able to find the right subject and verb will help you correct errors of subject-verb agreement.
Example: The list of items is /are on the desk.
If you know that list is the subject, then you will choose is for the verb.

Hasty writers, speakers, readers, and listeners might miss the all-too-common mistake in the followi
Incorrect: A bouquet of yellow roses lend color and fragrance to the room.
Correct: A bouquet of yellow roses lends . . . (bouquet lends , not roses lend )
Rule 2. Two singular subjects connected by or, either/or, or neither/nor require a singular verb.

Examples:
My aunt or my uncle is arriving by train today.
Neither Juan nor Carmen is available.
Either Kiana or Casey is helping today with stage decorations.

Rule 3. The verb in an or, either/or, or neither/nor sentence agrees with the noun or pronoun close
Examples:
Neither the plates nor the serving bowl goes on that shelf.
Neither the serving bowl nor the plates go on that shelf.

This rule can lead to bumps in the road. For example, if I is one of two (or more) subjects, it could le
Awkward: Neither she, my friends, nor I am going to the festival.
If possible, it's best to reword such grammatically correct but awkward sentences.
Better:
Neither she, I, nor my friends are going to the festival.
OR
She, my friends, and I are not going to the festival.

Rule 4. As a general rule, use a plural verb with two or more subjects when they are connected by a
Example: A car and a bike are my means of transportation.
But note these exceptions:
Exceptions:
Breaking and entering is against the law.
The bed and breakfast was charming.
In those sentences, breaking and entering and bed and breakfast are compound nouns.

Examples:
The politician, along with the newsmen, is expected shortly.
Excitement, as well as nervousness, is the cause of her shaking.

Example:
Fifty percent of the pie has disappeared .
Fifty percent of the pies have disappeared .
A third of the city is unemployed.
A third of the people are unemployed.
All of the pie is gone.
All of the pies are gone.
Some of the pie is missing.
Some of the pies are missing.
NOTE

Rule 7. In sentences beginning with here or there, the true subject follows the verb.
Examples:
There are four hurdles to jump.
There is a high hurdle to jump.

Here are the keys.

NOTE:

Rule 8. Use a singular verb with distances, periods of time, sums of money, etc., when considered
Examples:
Three miles is too far to walk.
Five years is the maximum sentence for that offense.
Ten dollars is a high price to pay.
BUT
Ten dollars (i.e., dollar bills) were scattered on the floor.

Examples:
The staff is in a meeting.
Staff is acting as a unit.
The couple disagree about disciplining their child.
The couple refers to two people who are acting as individuals.
NOTE

The staff is deciding how they want to vote.

Careful speakers and writers would avoid assigning the singular is and the plural they to staff in the
Consistent: The staff are deciding how they want to vote.

Rewriting such sentences is recommended whenever possible. The preceding sentence would read
The staff members are deciding how they want to vote.
Rule 10. The word were replaces was in sentences that express a wish or are contrary to fact:
Example: If Joe were here, you'd be sorry.

Examples:
I wish it were Friday.
She requested that he raise his hand.

Note: The subjunctive mood is losing ground in spoken English but should still be used in formal sp

Rule 1. To find the subject and verb, always find the verb first. Then ask who or what performed the verb.
Examples:
The jet engine
passed
Passed
is the verb.
Whoinspection.
or what passed? The engine, so engine is the subject. (If you included the word jet as the
subject, lightning will not strike you. But technically, jet is an adjective here and is part of what is known as the complete
subject.)
From the ceiling hung the chandelier.
The verb is hung . Now, if you think ceiling is the subject, slow down. Ask who or what hung. The answer is the
chandelier, not the ceiling. Therefore, chandelier is the subject.
Rule 2. Sentences can have more than one subject and more than one verb.
Examples:
I like cake, and he likes ice cream. ( Two subjects and two verbs)
He and I like cake. ( Two subjects and one verb)
weights
andtojogs
subject and
RuleShe
3. Iflifts
a verb
follows
, it isdaily.
called( One
an infinitive,
andtwo
it isverbs)
not the main verb. You will find the main verb either before or
after the infinitive.
Examples:
He is trying to leave.
To leave is an infinitive; the main verb is trying.
To leave was his wish.
The main verb is was.
NOTE
One of the most stubborn superstitions in English is that it is
wrong to insert a word between the to and the verb in an
infinitive. This is called a split infinitive (to gladly pay, to not go ). There is no English scholar alive who will say a split
infinitive is technically wrong. However, split infinitives tend to be clumsy and unnecessary. Experienced writers do not use
them without good reason.
Rule 4. Any request or command, such as Stop! or Walk quickly , has the understood subjectyou , because if we ask who is
to stop or walk quickly, the answer must be "you."
Example:
(You) Please bring me some coffee.
Bring is the verb. Who will do the bringing? The subject you is understood.
NOTE
We will use the standard of underlining subjects once and verbs twice.
Being
able
to find
the rightsubject
subject(she,
and verb
will)help
you
correct errors
of subject-verb
Basic
Rule.
A singular
Bill, car
takes
a singular
verb (is,
goes, shines agreement.
), whereas a plural subject takes a
plural verb.
Example: The list of items is /are on the desk.
If you know that list is the subject, then you will choose is for the verb.
Rule 1. A subject will come before a phrase beginning with of . This is a key rule for understanding subjects. The word of is
the culprit in many, perhaps most, subject-verb mistakes.
Hasty writers, speakers, readers, and listeners might miss the all-too-common mistake in the following sentence:
Incorrect: A bouquet of yellow roses lend color and fragrance to the room.
Correct: A bouquet of yellow roses lends . . . (bouquet lends , not roses lend )
Rule 2. Two singular subjects connected by or, either/or, or neither/nor require a singular verb.

Examples:
My aunt or my uncle is arriving by train today.
Neither Juan nor Carmen is available.
Either Kiana or Casey is helping today with stage decorations.
Rule 3. The verb in an or, either/or, or neither/nor sentence agrees with the noun or pronoun closest to it.
Examples:
Neither the plates nor the serving bowl goes on that shelf.
Neither the serving bowl nor the plates go on that shelf.
This rule can lead to bumps in the road. For example, if I is one of two (or more) subjects, it could lead to this odd sentence:
Awkward: Neither she, my friends, nor I am going to the festival.
If possible, it's best to reword such grammatically correct but awkward sentences.
Better:
Neither she, I, nor my friends are going to the festival.
OR
She, my friends, and I are not going to the festival.
Rule 4. As a general rule, use a plural verb with two or more subjects when they are connected by and.
Example: A car and a bike are my means of transportation.
But note these exceptions:
Exceptions:
Breaking and entering is against the law.
The bed and breakfast was charming.
In those sentences, breaking and entering and bed and breakfast are compound nouns.
Rule 5. Sometimes the subject is separated from the verb by such words as along with, as well as, besides, not, etc. These
words and phrases are not part of the subject. Ignore them and use a singular verb when the subject is singular.
Examples:
The politician, along with the newsmen, is expected shortly.
Excitement, as well as nervousness, is the cause of her shaking.
Rule 6. With words that indicate portionspercent, fraction, majority, some, all, etc.Rule 1 given earlier is reversed, and
we are guided by the noun after of . If the noun after of is singular, use a singular verb. If it is plural, use a plural verb.
Example:
Fifty percent of the pie has disappeared .
Fifty percent of the pies have disappeared .
A third of the city is unemployed.
A third of the people are unemployed.
All of the pie is gone.
All of the pies are gone.
Some of the pie is missing.
Some of the pies are missing.
NOTE
In recent years, the SAT testing service has considered none
to be strictly singular. However, according to MerriamWebster's Dictionary of English Usage : "Clearly none has been both singular and plural since Old English and still is. The
notion that it is singular only is a myth of unknown origin that appears to have arisen in the 19th century. If in context it
seems like a singular to you, use a singular verb; if it seems like a plural, use a plural verb. Both are acceptable beyond
serious criticism." When none is clearly intended to mean "not one," it is followed by a singular verb.
Rule 7. In sentences beginning with here or there, the true subject follows the verb.
Examples:
There are four hurdles to jump.
There is a high hurdle to jump.

Here are the keys.

NOTE:
The word there's , a contraction of there is , leads to bad habits in informal sentences likeThere's a lot of people here today ,
because it's easier to say "there's" than "there are." Take care never to use there's with a plural subject.
Rule 8. Use a singular verb with distances, periods of time, sums of money, etc., when considered as a unit.
Examples:
Three miles is too far to walk.
Five years is the maximum sentence for that offense.
Ten dollars is a high price to pay.
BUT
Ten dollars (i.e., dollar bills) were scattered on the floor.
Rule 9. Some collective nouns, such as family, couple, staff, audience , etc., may take either a singular or a plural verb,
depending on their use in the sentence.
Examples:
The staff is in a meeting.
Staff is acting as a unit.
The couple disagree about disciplining their child.
The couple refers to two people who are acting as individuals.
NOTE
Anyone who uses a plural verb with a collective noun must take care to be accurateand also consistent. It must not be
done carelessly. The following is the sort of flawed sentence one sees and hears a lot these days:
The staff is deciding how they want to vote.
Careful speakers and writers would avoid assigning the singular is and the plural they to staff in the same sentence.
Consistent: The staff are deciding how they want to vote.
Rewriting such sentences is recommended whenever possible. The preceding sentence would read even better as:
The staff members are deciding how they want to vote.
Rule 10. The word were replaces was in sentences that express a wish or are contrary to fact:
Example:
If Joe
were by
here,
be sorry.
Shouldn't
Joe be
followed
wasyou'd
, not were
, given that Joe is singular? But Joe isn't actually here, so we say were ,
not was . The sentence demonstrates the subjunctive mood, which is used to express things that are hypothetical, wishful,
imaginary, or factually contradictory. The subjunctive mood pairs singular subjects with what we usually think of as plural
verbs.
Examples:
I wish it were Friday.
She requested that he raise his hand.
In the first example, a wishful statement, not a fact, is being expressed; therefore, were , which we usually think of as a plural
verb, is used with the singular subject I .
Normally, he raise would sound terrible to us. However, in the second example, where a request is being expressed, the
subjunctive mood is correct.
Note: The subjunctive mood is losing ground in spoken English but should still be used in formal speech and writing.