Chapter One

Why Are Financial Intermediaries Special?

Chapter Outline
Introduction
Financial Intermediaries Specialness
FIs Function as Brokers
FIs Function as Asset Transformers
Information Costs
Liquidity and Price Risk
Other Special Services
Other Aspects of Specialness
The Transmission of Monetary Policy
Credit Allocation
Intergenerational Wealth Transfers or Time Intermediation
Payment Services
Denomination Intermediation
Specialness and Regulation
Safety and Soundness Regulation
Monetary Policy Regulation
Credit Allocation Regulation
Consumer Protection Regulation
Investor Protection Regulation
Entry Regulation
The Changing Dynamics of Specialness
Trends in the United States
Future Trends
Global Issues
Summary
Appendix 1A: Monetary Policy Tools

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Solutions for End-of-Chapter Questions and Problems: Chapter One

1.

What are five risks common to financial institutions?

Default or credit risk of assets, interest rate risk caused by maturity mismatches between assets
and liabilities, liability withdrawal or liquidity risk, underwriting risk, and operating cost risks.
2.

Explain how economic transactions between household savers of funds and corporate users
of funds would occur in a world without financial intermediaries.

In a world without FIs the users of corporate funds in the economy would have to directly
approach the household savers of funds in order to satisfy their borrowing needs. This process
would be extremely costly because of the up-front information costs faced by potential lenders.
Cost inefficiencies would arise with the identification of potential borrowers, the pooling of
small savings into loans of sufficient size to finance corporate activities, and the assessment of
risk and investment opportunities. Moreover, lenders would have to monitor the activities of
borrowers over each loan's life span. The net result would be an imperfect allocation of resources
in an economy.
3.

Identify and explain three economic disincentives that probably would dampen the flow of
funds between household savers of funds and corporate users of funds in an economic
world without financial intermediaries.

Investors generally are averse to directly purchasing securities because of (a) monitoring costs,
(b) liquidity costs, and (c) price risk. Monitoring the activities of borrowers requires extensive
time, expense, and expertise. As a result, households would prefer to leave this activity to others,
and by definition, the resulting lack of monitoring would increase the riskiness of investing in
corporate debt and equity markets. The long-term nature of corporate equity and debt securities
would likely eliminate at least a portion of those households willing to lend money, as the
preference of many for near-cash liquidity would dominate the extra returns which may be
available. Third, the price risk of transactions on the secondary markets would increase without
the information flows and services generated by high volume.
4.

Identify and explain the two functions in which FIs may specialize that would enable the
smooth flow of funds from household savers to corporate users.

FIs serve as conduits between users and savers of funds by providing a brokerage function and
by engaging in an asset transformation function. The brokerage function can benefit both savers
and users of funds and can vary according to the firm. FIs may provide only transaction services,
such as discount brokerages, or they also may offer advisory services which help reduce
information costs, such as full-line firms like Merrill Lynch. The asset transformation function is
accomplished by issuing their own securities, such as deposits and insurance policies that are
more attractive to household savers, and using the proceeds to purchase the primary securities of
corporations. Thus, FIs take on the costs associated with the purchase of securities.

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5.

In what sense are the financial claims of FIs considered secondary securities, while the
financial claims of commercial corporations are considered primary securities? How does
the transformation process, or intermediation, reduce the risk, or economic disincentives, to
the savers?

Funds raised by the financial claims issued by commercial corporations are used to invest in real
assets. These financial claims, which are considered primary securities, are purchased by FIs
whose financial claims therefore are considered secondary securities. Savers who invest in the
financial claims of FIs are indirectly investing in the primary securities of commercial
corporations. However, the information gathering and evaluation expenses, monitoring expenses,
liquidity costs, and price risk of placing the investments directly with the commercial corporation
are reduced because of the efficiencies of the FI.
6.

Explain how financial institutions act as delegated monitors. What secondary benefits often
accrue to the entire financial system because of this monitoring process?

By putting excess funds into financial institutions, individual investors give to the FIs the
responsibility of deciding who should receive the money and of ensuring that the money is
utilized properly by the borrower. In this sense the depositors have delegated the FI to act as a
monitor on their behalf. Further, the FI can collect information more efficiently than individual
investors. The FI can utilize this information to create new products, such as commercial loans,
that continually update the information pool. This more frequent monitoring process sends
important informational signals to other participants in the market, a process that reduces
information imperfection and asymmetry between the ultimate sources and users of funds in the
economy.
7.

What are five general areas of FI specialness that are caused by providing various services
to sectors of the economy?

First, FIs collect and process information more efficiently than individual savers. Second, FIs
provide secondary claims to household savers which often have better liquidity characteristics
than primary securities such as equities and bonds. Third, by diversifying the asset base FIs
provide secondary securities with lower price-risk conditions than primary securities. Fourth, FIs
provide economies of scale in transaction costs because assets are purchased in larger amounts.
Finally, FIs provide maturity intermediation to the economy which allows the introduction of
additional types of investment contracts, such as mortgage loans, that are financed with shortterm deposits.
8.

How do FIs solve the information and related agency costs when household savers invest
directly in securities issued by corporations? What are agency costs?

Agency costs occur when owners or managers take actions that are not in the best interests of the
equity investor or lender. These costs typically result from the failure to adequately monitor the
activities of the borrower. If no other lender performs these tasks, the lender is subject to agency
costs as the firm may not satisfy the covenants in the lending agreement. Because the FI invests
the funds of many small savers, the FI has a greater incentive to collect information and monitor
the activities of the borrower.
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9.

What is a benefit to lenders, borrowers, and financial markets in general of the solution to
the information problem provided by the large financial institutions?

One benefit to the solution process is the development of secondary securities that allow even
further improvements in the monitoring process. An example is the bank loan that is renewed
more quickly than long-term debt. The renewal process updates the financial and operating
information of the firm more frequently, thereby reducing the need for restrictive bond covenants
that may be difficult and costly to implement.
10.

How do FIs alleviate the problem of liquidity risk faced by investors who wish to invest in
the securities of corporations?

Liquidity risk occurs when savers are not able to sell their securities on demand. Commercial
banks, for example, offer deposits that can be withdrawn at any time. Yet, the banks make longterm loans or invest in illiquid assets because they are able to diversify their portfolios and better
monitor the performance of firms that have borrowed or issued securities. Thus, individual
investors are able to realize the benefits of investing in primary assets without accepting the
liquidity risk of direct investment.
11.

How do financial institutions help individual savers diversify their portfolio risks? Which
type of financial institution is best able to achieve this goal?

Money placed in any financial institution will result in a claim on a more diversified portfolio.
Banks lend money to many different types of corporate, consumer, and government customers.
Insurance companies have investments in many different types of assets. Investments in a mutual
fund may generate the greatest diversification benefit because of the funds investment in a wide
array of stocks and fixed income securities.
12.

How can financial institutions invest in high-risk assets with funding provided by low-risk
liabilities from savers?

Diversification of risk occurs with investments in assets that are not perfectly positively
correlated. One result of extensive diversification is that the average risk of the asset base of an
FI will be less than the average risk of the individual assets in which it has invested. Thus,
individual investors realize some of the returns of high-risk assets without accepting the
corresponding risk characteristics.
13.

How can individual savers use financial institutions to reduce the transaction costs of
investing in financial assets?

By pooling the assets of many small investors, FIs can gain economies of scale in transaction
costs. This benefit occurs whether the FI is lending to a corporate or retail customer, or
purchasing assets in the money and capital markets. In either case, operating activities that are
designed to deal in large volumes typically are more efficient than those activities designed for
small volumes.

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14.

What is maturity intermediation? What are some of the ways in which the risks of maturity
intermediation are managed by financial intermediaries?

If net borrowers and net lenders have different optimal time horizons, FIs can service both
sectors by matching their asset and liability maturities through on- and off-balance sheet hedging
activities and flexible access to the financial markets. For example, the FI can offer the relatively
short-term liabilities desired by households and also satisfy the demand for long-term loans such
as home mortgages. By investing in a portfolio of long-and short-term assets that have variableand fixed-rate components, the FI can reduce maturity risk exposure by utilizing liabilities that
have similar variable- and fixed-rate characteristics, or by using futures, options, swaps, and
other derivative products.
15.

What are five areas of institution-specific FI specialness, and which types of institutions are
most likely to be the service providers?

First, commercial banks and other depository institutions are key players for the transmission of
monetary policy from the central bank to the rest of the economy. Second, specific FIs often are
identified as the major source of finance for certain sectors of the economy. For example, savings
institutions traditionally serve the credit needs of the residential real estate market. Third, life
insurance and pension funds commonly are encouraged to provide mechanisms to transfer wealth
across generations. Fourth, depository institutions efficiently provide payment services to benefit
the economy. Finally, mutual funds provide denomination intermediation by allowing small
investors to purchase pieces of assets with large minimum sizes such as negotiable CDs and
commercial paper issues.
16.

How do depository institutions such as commercial banks assist in the implementation and
transmission of monetary policy?

The Federal Reserve Board can directly involve the commercial banks in the implementation of
monetary policy through changes in the reserve requirements and the discount rate. The open
market sale and purchase of Treasury securities by the Fed involves banks in the implementation
of monetary policy in a less direct manner.
17.

What is meant by credit allocation regulation? What social benefit is this type of regulation
intended to provide?

Credit allocation regulation refers to the requirement faced by FIs to lend to certain sectors of the
economy, which are considered to be socially important. These may include housing and
farming. Presumably the provision of credit to make houses more affordable or farms more
viable leads to a more stable and productive society.
18.

Which intermediaries best fulfill the intergenerational wealth transfer function? What is
this wealth transfer process?

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Life insurance and pension funds often receive special taxation relief and other subsidies to assist
in the transfer of wealth from one generation to another. In effect, the wealth transfer process
allows for the accumulation of wealth by one generation to be transferred directly to one or more
younger generations by establishing life insurance policies and trust provisions in pension plans.
Often this wealth transfer process avoids the full marginal tax treatment that a direct payment
would incur.
19.

What are two of the most important payment services provided by financial institutions? To
what extent do these services efficiently provide benefits to the economy?

The two most important payment services are check clearing and wire transfer services. Any
breakdown in these systems would produce gridlock in the payment system with resulting
harmful effects to the economy at both the domestic and potentially the international level.
20.

What is denomination intermediation? How do FIs assist in this process?

Denomination intermediation is the process whereby small investors are able to purchase pieces
of assets that normally are sold only in large denominations. Individual savers often invest small
amounts in mutual funds. The mutual funds pool these small amounts and purchase a well
diversified portfolio of assets. Therefore, small investors can benefit in the returns and low risk
which these assets typically offer.
21.

What is negative externality? In what ways do the existence of negative externalities justify
the extra regulatory attention received by financial institutions?

A negative externality refers to the action by one party that has an adverse affect on some third
party who is not part of the original transaction. For example, in an industrial setting, smoke
from a factory that lowers surrounding property values may be viewed as a negative externality.
For financial institutions, one concern is the contagion effect that can arise when the failure of
one FI can cast doubt on the solvency of other institutions in that industry.
22.

If financial markets operated perfectly and costlessly, would there be a need for financial
intermediaries?

To a certain extent, financial intermediation exists because of financial market imperfections. If

information is available costlessly to all participants, savers would not need intermediaries to act
as either their brokers or their delegated monitors. However, if there are social benefits to
intermediation, such as the transmission of monetary policy or credit allocation, then FIs would
exist even in the absence of financial market imperfections.
23.

What is mortgage redlining?

Mortgage redlining occurs when a lender specifically defines a geographic area in which it
refuses to make any loans. The term arose because the area was often outlined on a map with a
red pencil.

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24.

Why are FIs among the most regulated sectors in the world? When is net regulatory burden
positive?

FIs are required to enhance the efficient operation of the economy. Successful financial
institutions provide sources of financing that fund economic growth opportunities that ultimately
raise the overall level of economic activity. Moreover, successful financial institutions provide
transaction services to the economy that facilitate trade and wealth accumulation.
Conversely, distressed FIs create negative externalities for the entire economy. That is, the
adverse impact of an FI failure is greater than just the loss to shareholders and other private
claimants on the FI's assets. For example, the local market suffers if an FI fails and other FIs also
may be thrown into financial distress by a contagion effect. Therefore, since some of the costs of
the failure of an FI are generally borne by society at large, the government intervenes in the
management of these institutions to protect society's interests. This intervention takes the form of
regulation.
However, the need for regulation to minimize social costs may impose private costs to the FIs
that would not exist without regulation. This additional private cost is defined as a net regulatory
burden. Examples include the cost of holding excess capital and/or excess reserves and the extra
costs of providing information. Although they may be socially beneficial, these costs add to
private operating costs. To the extent that these additional costs help to avoid negative
externalities and to ensure the smooth and efficient operation of the economy, the net regulatory
burden is positive.
25.

What forms of protection and regulation do regulators of FIs impose to ensure their safety
and soundness?

Regulators have issued several guidelines to insure the safety and soundness of FIs:
a.
b.
c.
d.
26.

FIs are required to diversify their assets. For example, banks cannot lend more than 6
percent of their equity to a single borrower.
FIs are required to maintain minimum amounts of capital to cushion any unexpected losses.
In the case of banks, the Basle standards require a minimum core and supplementary
capital based on the size of an FIs risk-adjusted assets.
Regulators have set up guaranty funds such as BIF for commercial banks, SIPC for
securities firms, and state guaranty funds for insurance firms to protect individual investors.
Regulators also engage in periodic monitoring and surveillance, such as on-site
examinations, and request periodic information from the FIs.
In the transmission of monetary policy, what is the difference between inside money and
outside money? How does the Federal Reserve Board try to control the amount of inside
money? How can this regulatory position create a cost for the depository financial
institutions?

Outside money is that part of the money supply directly produced and controlled by the Fed, for
example, coins and currency. Inside money refers to bank deposits not directly controlled by the

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Fed. The Fed can influence this amount of money by reserve requirement and discount rate
policies. In cases where the level of required reserves exceeds the level considered optimal by
the FI, the inability to use the excess reserves to generate revenue may be considered a tax or
cost of providing intermediation.
27.

What are some examples of credit allocation regulation? How can this attempt to create
social benefits create costs to the private institution?

The qualified thrift lender test (QTL) requires thrifts to hold 65 percent of their assets in
residential mortgage-related assets to retain the thrift charter. Some states have enacted usury
laws that place maximum restrictions on the interest rates that can be charged on mortgages
and/or consumer loans. These types of restrictions often create additional operating costs to the
FI and almost certainly reduce the amount of profit that could be realized without such
regulation.
28.

What is the purpose of the Home Mortgage Disclosure Act? What are the social benefits
desired from the legislation? How does the implementation of this legislation create a net
regulatory burden on financial institutions?

The HMDA was passed by Congress to prevent discrimination in mortgage lending. The social
benefit is to ensure that everyone who qualifies financially is provided the opportunity to
purchase a house should they so desire. The regulatory burden has been to require a written
statement indicating the reasons why credit was or was not granted.
29.

What legislation has been passed specifically to protect investors who use investment
banks directly or indirectly to purchase securities? Give some examples of the types of
abuses for which protection is provided.

The Securities Acts of 1933 and 1934 and the Investment Company Act of 1940 were passed by
Congress to protect investors against possible abuses such as insider trading, lack of disclosure,
outright malfeasance, and breach of fiduciary responsibilities.
30.

How do regulations regarding barriers to entry and the scope of permitted activities affect
the charter value of financial institutions?

The profitability of existing firms will be increased as the direct and indirect costs of establishing
competition increase. Direct costs include the actual physical and financial costs of establishing a
business. In the case of FIs, the financial costs include raising the necessary minimum capital to
receive a charter. Indirect costs include permission from regulatory authorities to receive a
charter. Again in the case of FIs this cost involves acceptable leadership to regulators. As these
barriers to entry are stronger, the charter value for existing firms is higher.
31.

What reasons have been given for the growth of pension funds and investment companies
at the expense of traditional banks and insurance companies?

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The recent growth of pension funds and investment companies can be attributed to two major
factors:
a.

Investors have demanded increased access to direct investment in securities markets.

Investment companies and pension funds allow investors to take positions in securities
markets while still obtaining the risk diversification, monitoring, and transactional
efficiency benefits of financial intermediation. Some experts would argue that this growth
is the result of increased sophistication on the part of investors; others would argue that the
ability to use these markets has caused the increased investor awareness. The growth in
these assets is inarguable.

b.

Recent episodes of financial distress in both the banking and insurance industries have led
to an increase in regulation and governmental oversight, thereby increasing the net
regulatory burden of traditional companies. As such, the costs of intermediation have
increased, which increases the cost of providing services to customers.

32.

What are some of the methods which banking organizations have employed to reduce the
net regulatory burden? What has been the effect on profitability?

Through regulatory changes, FIs have begun changing the mix of business products offered to
individual users and providers of funds. For example, banks have acquired mutual funds, have
expanded their asset and pension fund management businesses, and have increased the security
underwriting activities. In addition, legislation that allows banks to establish branches anywhere
in the United States has caused a wave of mergers. As the size of banks has grown, an expansion
of possible product offerings has created the potential for lower service costs. Finally, the
emphasis in recent years has been on products that generate increases in fee income, and the
entire banking industry has benefited from increased profitability in recent years.
33.

What characteristics of financial products are necessary for financial markets to become
efficient alternatives to financial intermediaries? Give some examples of the
commoditization of products which were previously the sole property of financial
institutions?

Financial markets can replace FIs in the delivery of products that (1) have standardized terms, (2)
serve a large number of customers, and (3) are sufficiently understood for investors to be
comfortable in assessing their prices. When these three characteristics are met, the products often
can be treated as commodities. One example of this process is the migration of over-the-counter
options to the publicly traded option markets as trading volume grows and trading terms become
standardized.
34.

In what way has Regulation 144A of the Securities and Exchange Commission provided an
incentive to the process of financial institution disintermediation?

Changing technology and a reduction in information costs are rapidly changing the nature of
financial transactions, enabling savers to access issuers of securities directly. Section 144A of the
SEC is a recent regulatory change that will facilitate the process of disintermediation. The private

1-9

placement of bonds and equities directly by the issuing firm is an example of a product that
historically has been the domain of investment bankers. Although historically private placement
assets had restrictions against trading, regulators have given permission for these assets to trade
among large investors who have assets of more than $100 million. As the market grows, this
minimum asset size restriction may be reduced.
The following questions and problems are based on material in Appendix 1A to the Chapter.
35. What are the tools used by the Federal Reserve to implement monetary policy?
The tools used by the Federal Reserve to implement its monetary policy include open market
operations, the discount rate, and reserve requirements. Open market operations are the Federal
Reserves purchases or sales of securities in the U.S. Treasury securities market. The discount
rate is the rate of interest Federal Reserve Banks charge on emergency or lender of last resort
loans to depository institutions in their district. Reserve requirements determine the minimum
amount of reserve assets (vault cash plus bank deposits at Federal Reserve Banks) that
depository institutions must maintain by law to back transaction deposits held as liabilities on
their balance sheets. This requirement is usually set as a ratio of transaction accounts, e.g., 10
percent.
36.

Suppose the Federal Reserve instructs the Trading Desk to purchase $1 billion of securities.
Show the result of this transaction on the balance sheets of the Federal Reserve System and
commercial banks.

For the purchase of $1 billion in securities, the balance sheet of the Federal Reserve System and
commercial banks is shown below.
Change in Federal Reserves Balance Sheet
Assets
Treasury securities

Liabilities
+ $1 b
Reserve account of
+ $1 b
securities dealers banks
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Change in Commercial Bank Balance Sheets
Assets
Reserve accounts
at Federal Reserve
37.

Liabilities
Securities dealers demand
deposit accounts

+ $1 b

+ $1 b

Suppose the Federal Reserve instructs the Trading Desk to sell $850 million of securities.
Show the result of this transaction on the balance sheets of the Federal Reserve System and
commercial banks.

For the sale of $850 million in securities, the balance sheet of the Federal Reserve System and
commercial banks is shown below.

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Change in Federal Reserves Balance Sheet

Assets
Treasury securities

Liabilities
- $850 m Reserve account of
- $850 m
securities dealers banks
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Change in Commercial Bank Balance Sheets
Assets
Reserve accounts
at Federal Reserve
38.

Liabilities
- $850 m Securities dealers demand
deposit accounts

- $850 m

Explain how a decrease in the discount rate affects credit availability and the money
supply.

Changing the discount rate signals to the market and the economy that the Federal Reserve
would like to see higher or lower rates in the economy. Thus, the discount rate is like a signal of
the FOMCs intention regarding the tenor of monetary policy. For example, raising the discount
rate signals that the Fed would like to see a tightening of monetary conditions and higher
interest rates in general (and a relatively lower amount of borrowing). Lowering the discount rate
signals a desire to see more expansionary monetary conditions and lower interest rates in
general.
39.

Why does the Federal Reserve rarely use the discount rate to implement its monetary
policy?

For two reasons, the Federal Reserve rarely uses the discount rate as a monetary policy tool.
First, it is difficult for the Fed to predict changes in bank discount window borrowing when the
discount rate changes. There is no guarantee that banks will borrow more (less at the discount
window in response to a decrease (increase) in the discount rate. Thus, the exact effect of a
discount rate change on the money supply is often uncertain., which increases the probability of
missing the target change in the money supply. Second, in addition to their effect on the money
supply, discount rate changes often have great effects on the financial markets. For example, the
0.25 percent decrease in the discount rate in October 1998 resulted in a 330.58 point increase in
the Dow Jones Industrial Average, at the time the third largest point gain in the history of the
Dow.
40.

What is the difference between an adjustment credit, a seasonal credit, and an extended
credit discount window loan?

Adjustment credit is offered for short-term liquidity problems that may have been caused by a
temporary deposit outflow. Adjustment credit loans are the major type of discount loan. The rate
of interest on adjustment credit loans is the basic discount rate set by its affiliated Federal
Reserve Bank. These loans are expected to be repaid quickly, generally by the end of the next
business day for the largest banks. Seasonal credit is offered to banks for seasonal liquidity

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squeezes, e.g., those banks in rural areas experience seasonal deposit flow patterns reflecting the
crop cycle. The rate of interest charged on seasonal credit loans is based on the federal funds and
certificate of deposit rates and are therefore a bit more expensive than adjustment credit loans.
Extended credit is offered for more severe liquidity problems faced by member banks due to
deposit outflows that will not be resolved in the foreseeable future (although the bank must still
be seen as solvent). The interest rate charged on extended credit loans is one-half a percentage
point above the interest rate charged on seasonal credit loans. Banks applying for extended credit
loans must submit a proposal to the Federal Reserve Bank explaining why the extended credit
loan is needed , as well as an acceptable plan for restoring the liquidity of the bank.
41.

Bank Three currently has $600 million in transaction deposits on its balance sheet. The
Federal Reserve has currently set the reserve requirement at 10 percent of transaction
deposits.
a. If the Federal Reserve decreases the reserve requirement to 8 percent, show the balance
sheet of Bank Three and the Federal Reserve System just before and after the full effect of
the reserve requirement change. Assume Bank Three withdraws all excess reserves and
gives out loans, and that borrowers eventually return all of these funds to Bank Three in the
form of transaction deposits.

a. Panel A: Initial Balance Sheets

Federal Reserve Bank
Assets
Liabilities
Securities
$60m
Reserve accounts
$60m
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Bank Three
Assets
Liabilities
Loans
$540m
Transaction deposits $600m
Reserve deposits
60m
at Fed
Panel B: Balance Sheet after All Changes Resulting from Decrease in Reserve Requirement
Federal Reserve Bank
Assets
Liabilities
Securities
$60m
Reserve accounts
$60m
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Bank Three
Assets
Liabilities
Loans
$690m
Transaction deposits
$750m
($750m - $60m)
($60m x 0.08)
Reserve deposits
60m
at Fed
b.

Redo part (a) using a 12 percent reserve requirement.

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Panel A: Initial Balance Sheets

Federal Reserve Bank
Assets
Liabilities
Securities
$60m
Reserve accounts
$60m
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Bank Three
Assets
Liabilities
Loans
$540m
Transaction deposits $600m
Reserve deposits
60m
at Fed
Panel B: Balance Sheet after All Changes Resulting from Decrease in Reserve Requirement
Federal Reserve Bank
Assets
Liabilities
Securities
$60m
Reserve accounts
$60m
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Bank Three
Assets
Liabilities
Loans
$440m
Transaction deposits
$500m
($500m - $60m)
($60m x 0.12)
Reserve deposits
60m
at Fed
42.

National Bank currently has $500 million in transaction deposits on its balance sheet. The
current reserve requirement is 10 percent, but the Federal Reserve is decreasing this
requirement to 8 percent.
a. Show the balance sheet of the Federal Reserve and National Bank if National Bank
converts all excess reserves to loans, but borrowers return only 50 percent of these funds to
National Bank as transaction deposits.

a. Panel A: Initial Balance Sheets

Federal Reserve Bank
Assets
Liabilities
Securities
$50m
Reserve accounts
$50m
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------National Bank
Assets
Liabilities
Loans
$450m
Transaction deposits $500m
Reserve deposits
50m
at Fed
Panel B: Balance Sheet after All Changes Resulting from Decrease in Reserve Requirement

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Federal Reserve Bank

Assets
Liabilities
Securities
$45m
Reserve accounts
$45m
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------National Bank
Assets
Liabilities
Loans
$517.5m
Transaction deposits
$562.5m
($562.5m - $45m)
($500m + ($10m x .5/.08))
Reserve deposits 45.0m
at Fed ($562.5 x .08)
b. Panel A: Initial Balance Sheets
Federal Reserve Bank
Assets
Liabilities
Securities
$50m
Reserve accounts
$50m
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------National Bank
Assets
Liabilities
Loans
$450m
Transaction deposits $500m
Reserve deposits
50m
at Fed
Panel B: Balance Sheet after All Changes Resulting from Decrease in Reserve Requirement
Federal Reserve Bank
Assets
Liabilities
Securities
$44.5m
Reserve accounts
$44.5m
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------National Bank
Assets
Liabilities
Loans
$556.25m
Transaction deposits
$556.25m
($556.25m - $44.5m)
($500m + ($10 x .75 x .6/.08))
Reserve deposits 44.5m
at Fed ($556.25m x .08)
43.

Which of the monetary tools available to the Federal Reserve is most often used? Why?

The Federal Reserve uses mainly open market operations to implement its monetary policy. As
mentioned in question 12, adjustments to the discount rate are rarely used because it is difficult
for the Fed to predict changes in bank discount window borrowing when the discount rate
changes and because in addition to their effect on the money supply, discount rate changes often
have great effects on the financial markets. Further, because changes in the reserve requirements
can result in unpredictable changes in the money base (depending on the amount of excess
reserves held by banks and the willingness of the public to redeposit funds at banks instead of
holding cash (i.e., they have a preferred cash-deposit ratio)), the reserve requirement is rarely
used by the Federal Reserve as a monetary policy tool. The unpredictability comes from at least

1-14

two sources. First, there is uncertainty about whether banks will actually convert excess reserves
(created from a decrease in the reserve requirement) into new loans. Second, there is uncertainty
about what portion of the new loans will be returned to depository institutions in the form of
transaction deposits. Thus, like the discount window rate, the use of the reserve requirement as a
monetary policy tool increases the probability that a money base or interest rate target set by the
FOMC will not be achieved.
44.

Describe how expansionary activities conducted by the Federal Reserve impact credit
availability, the money supply, interest rates, and security prices. Do the same for
contractionary activities.

Expansionary Activities: We described three monetary policy tools that the Fed can use to
increase the money supply. These include open market purchases of securities, discount rate
decreases, and reserve requirement decreases. All else constant, when the Federal Reserve
purchases securities in the open market, reserve accounts of banks (and thus, the money base)
increase. When the Fed lowers the discount rate, this generally results in a lowering of interest
rates in the economy. Finally, a decrease in the reserve requirements, all else constant, results in
an increase in reserves for all banks. In two of the three cases (open market operations and
reserve requirement changes), an increase in reserves results in an increase in bank deposits and
assets. One immediate effect of this is that interest rates fall and security prices to rise. In the
third case (a discount rate change), the impact of a lowering of interest rates is more direct.
Lower interest rates encourage borrowing. Economic agents spend more when they can get
cheaper funds. Households, business, and governments are more likely to invest in fixed assets
(e.g., housing, plant, and equipment). Households increase their purchases of durable goods (e.g.,
automobiles, appliances). State and local government spending increases (e.g., new road
construction, school improvements). Finally, lower domestic interest rates relative to foreign
rates can result in a drop in the (foreign) exchange value of the dollar relative to other currencies.
As the dollars (foreign) exchange value drops, U.S. goods become relatively cheaper compared
to foreign goods. Eventually, U.S. exports increase. The increase in spending from all of these
market participants results in economic expansion, stimulates additional real production, and
may cause inflation to rise. Ideally, the expansionary policies of the Fed are meant to be
conducive to real economic expansion (economic growth, full employment, sustainable
international trade) without price inflation. Indeed, price stabilization can be viewed as the
primary objective of the Fed.
Contractionary Activities: We also described three monetary policy tools that the Fed can use to
decrease the money supply. These include open market sales, discount rate increases, and reserve
requirement increases. All else constant, when the Federal Reserve sells securities in the open
market, reserve accounts of banks (and the money base) decrease. When the Fed raises the
discount rate, interest rates generally increase in the open market. Finally, an increase in the
reserve requirement, all else constant, results in a decrease in excess reserves for all banks. In all
three cases, interest rates will tend to rise. Higher interest rates discourage credit availability and
borrowing. Economic participants spend less when funds are expensive. Households, business,
and governments are less likely to invest in fixed assets. Households decrease their purchases of
durable goods. State and local government spending decreases. Finally, a decrease in domestic
interest rates relative to foreign rates may result in an increase in the (foreign) exchange value

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(rate) of the dollar. As the dollars exchange rate increases, U.S. goods become relatively
expensive compared to foreign goods. Eventually, U.S. exports decrease. The decrease in
spending from all of these market participants results in economic contraction, (depressing
additional real production) and causes prices to fall (causing the rate of inflation to fall).

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