Casting Foundry Manual PDF

FOUNDRY MANUAL
FOUNDRY ACTIVITY
CHAPTER
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
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14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
DESCRIPTION
PAGE
GENERAL OVERVIEW
DESIGN OF CASTINGS
LOGISTICS
ENGINEERING
PURCHASING & SUBCONTRACTING
PATTERN
MOULDING
MELTING
FETTLING
HEAT TREATMENT
MACHINING & MARKING
SURFACE TREATMENT
QUALITY DEPARTMENT
REPAIR
SALES & MARKETING
SERIAL FIRST PIECE QUALIFICATION
ENVIRONMENT
AUTHOR
2
6
9
12
16
18
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35
46
52
60
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ir G Henderieckx Gietech BV
JANUARY 2005
FOUNDRY MANUAL
GENERAL OVERVIEW
GENERAL OVERVIEW
1. Introduction
2. Process
3. Important features
4. Conclusion
1. Introduction
A foundry is the process (producing castings); split up in several smaller processes
each performing part of the job. The result must be a casting, which is, conform to
the requirements of the customer.
The sub processes are related one to the other and each process has an influence
on the next one (next step in the total process).
So it can be said that each department is the supplier of another and the customer of
the previous (according to the total process) one.
Quality is the result of the performance of each group in the process. Department
further in the total process, can sometimes correct an insufficient performance of a
previous department, but only due to extra cost!
The words "quality does not cost" are true in the sense that an insufficient quality
level will increase the cost of the casting. But requiring a higher quality level will cost
basically more compared to a lower level.
Sub suppliers can do some of the sub processes and some items can be bought.
Inspection is not only the job of the quality control department but also of each
responsible of a group or department!
Maintenance is considered as an integral part of the production.
Financial, health and human resources department are not included in this text. They
are not considered typical foundry activity, which means necessary to produce
correct castings.
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2. PROCESS
The process has three major steps, which are not all done one after another in time.
Some of them are running simultaneous. The flow chart below is indicating all steps.
CONTRACT
ORDER
OFFER
ORDER
ADMINISTRATION
Inspection plan
ENGINEERING
PRODUCTION
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PURCHASING
PATTERN
MOULDING
MELTING
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FETTLING
HEAT TREATMENT
SURFACE
TREATMENT
Repair
Repair
FINAL INSPECTION
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The first step is the paperwork to be done after the entry of an order.
The order will be compared with the offer and or contract.
The selling department will check price.
The order administration office will check all data concerning number, drawing and
pattern number, material, specifications and all commercials items as shipment,
payment
The planning, in accordance with the required time and the production will be set.
If this job is done, the Quality Control office will set up the inspection plan concerning
casting performance, taking in account the requirements from the order and the
requirements due to the quality level of the foundry.
The engineering department will decide about all items necessary for the production:
1. items to purchase
2. items to subcontract
3. work sheets for pattern shop, moulding and melting, heat treatment and
fettling and shipment
The second step is the production of the casting.
This can involve the pattern production, surface treatment and will involve moulding
and melting as well as fettling, heat treatment and shipment.
Sometimes also heat treatment is subcontracted.
It is very important that engineering will get all feed back about problems, nonconformities and defects. They need this information to modify the work sheets.
Engineering will also list and supervise the equipment and tooling (especially the
mould boxes). If there is a need they can ask for investing extra ones.
The third step is the inspection and surveillance step, mostly done by the quality
department. The inspection must be done as well by the head of each group and or
department.
The information from the order will establish an inspection plan, which is made by the
quality department and will be made available to the engineering department. The
required quality level as well as the foundry quality level requirements will have an
influence on the pouring system risers and chills and sometimes on the work
procedures.
This inspection plan will set the "hold points" and "check points".
This inspection is also present if there is repair to be done by a subcontractor.
The sales & marketing department will be described at the end (Chapter 15). This
department is the connection between the foundry and the market.
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3. IMPORTANT FEATURES
The most important feature is the importance and responsibility of the engineering
department. They have the highest influence on the cost and quality of the castings.
Each instruction that does not lead to a performance equal to the required quality
level or better, will add extra cost due to correcting, repairing or even scrapping the
castings involved.
Engineering must have the knowledge of materials, foundry techniques and
requirements and standards. This knowledge must be supplemented by experience,
brought in by the foundry workers and suppliers.
The other important feature is the necessity of "discipline" of the production people
and sub suppliers to act according to the work sheets and to report about problems
to every one involved. This is the only way to avoid these problems in the future.
To make their job easier it is preferred to have work sheets, included with pictures
made from previous castings. Every one can understand a picture but not very one
can understand and handle according to drawings and sketches.
It is important to have also the pictures and or the history of work instruction leading
to problems. All these pictures can be made available in a booklet or ask for on the
intranet of the foundry.
A foundry is a "learning community" which will gather information and experience and
increasing the level of the group by sharing all this.
4. CONCLUSION
Making castings is a "skill" which level is set by experience and knowledge and the
degree of sharing and discussing it.
The engineering department and the correct applying of the work instructions as well
as the feed back of problems will set the quality level.
The inspection is not only done by the quality department but also by every
responsible of a group or department and at the end of ever one in the foundry.
Being a process every department, performing part of the process, does influence
the result concerning quality and cost.
In the detailed descriptions of the departments, each sub process (including a flow
chart) will be described in detail and the important features as well as the influences
on the process will be discussed.
Sales & Marketing will be described in Chapter 15. The difference between the FPQ-,
SP- and CAQ-production will be described in Chapter 16.
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FOUNDRY MANUAL
Design of castings
DESIGN OF CASTINGS
1. Introduction
2. Flow chart
3. Features
4. Conclusion
1. Introduction
Design starts from a product, which has to perform a function. This product consists
of one or more parts, some of them being a casting.
The castings have to comply with several requirements concerning assembling of the
product, strength and ductility of the material and requirements concerning the
service conditions.
These requirements are completed with three other items to get the best product at
the lowest "total cost".
The first item is to find an (international) standard to refer to, meeting all
requirements of the design or performing better.
The second item is the machining cost, which will be influenced by the shape, type of
machining and machinability of the material.
The third concerns the castibility into the foundry. The more complex the shape is,
the more problems there will be. The required mechanical properties must be met in
the "representative" wall thickness. It must be considered that the dimensions,
included the tolerance range, do meet the requirements of the design and to locate
the material excess, due to pattern draft, in the best area.
A casting with an incorrect or "not best" design will cause trouble concerning quality
and delivery reliability and will have a too high cost. And this will last forever
2. Flow chart
There are two steps in the design of a casting.
The first step is to set up the requirements concerning strength and ductility (shape
and section and material related), service condition resistance (concerns corrosion,
erosion) and assembly requirements (dimensions and tolerances and process
reliability). An inventory is made from these. All these items involve the "product" and
are depending on the designer. No third party is involved up to now.
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PRODUCT
PART 1
PART 2
PART X
ASSEMBLY
REQUIREMENTS
STRENGTH
REQUIREMENTS
DUCTILITY
SERVICE CONDITIONS
STANDARDS
FOUNDRY
MACHINE SHOP
CHEMICAL ANALYSIS
SHAPE
SHAPE
HEAT TREATMENT
WALL THICKNESS
TYPE OF MACHINING
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
PATTERN DRAFT
MACHINABILITY
OTHER PROPERTIES
TOLERANCES
CASTING
The second step concerns third parties.

First it is important to find an international standard, which does comply with the
requirements. If no one is found, it is preferred to choose one with slightly higher
(better for the design) values.
Secondly the foundry must check if all requirements can be met, taken in account the
shape, wall thickness (the mechanical properties of a lot of materials do depend on
the section size) and dimensionally tolerances.
The shape must be that no problems can occur with section connections, sharp
angles These problems are completely different per material (strength, ductility)
and depend also on the heat treatment.
The foundry must also indicate the tolerances that can be met. This is dependant on
the shape and size of the casting and of the type of moulding.
But also the pattern concept, size and material, has an influence. The pattern draft
must be located that or it must not be removed or it falls within the machining stock.
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3. Features
The design can be done quite well by the designer, but this will be at the price of a
higher cost and less reliability of delivery. It is necessary to take the benefit of
working together with the foundry and machine shop. Only then can brought in a lot
of experience and knowledge.
The casting will have a high reliability to quality and delivery and performance.
The choice of material does not only depend on the mechanical and other properties!
Quite a lot of materials do have different strength and ductility in different section
sizes. Quite some materials will have difficulties with complex shapes and a large
variety of section sizes, due to the cooling after pouring and or heat treatment.
The required tolerances will influence cost because they point to the pattern and
moulding. The larger the tolerance span, the cheaper the total cost of the casting. But
this can lead to a higher machining cost. Therefore it is preferred to compromise for
casting tolerance (casting cost) and machining cost.
It is important to relate all requirements to an international standard. These standards
are clear described, proven to be valid and accepted by every one. They also have a
clear required type of testing and certifying. This will avoid discussions later on.
Subjective (very smooth surface) and or not measurable requirements (free of any
defect at all) do ask for a never to win discussion.
4. Conclusion
Design has been for too long the single responsibility of the designer.
Of coarse he knows the product and the required performance of the product and its
components. But the performance does depend on the possibilities of the foundry
and the machine shop.
Even if every requirement can be met, it is important to know the span of the
results. Will every casting meet the requirements and what will be the difference
between the best and the worst result?
This does not only depend on the ability of the foundry and machine shop but also at
the type of casting (shape, material, tolerances). Only a good and deep discussion,
before the design is finalised, can lead to the best design.
The last factor is that only after that deep discussion, it is possible to get a design
with the lowest cost and the highest reliability for quality and delivery. The cost is
not only the cost of a pattern and a casting. It also involves the cost of repair and or
scrapping of castings as well as the cost of rescheduling production and loosing
customers because of too late deliveries.
Although it seems not the task of the foundry, it must be stressed that it should be
part of the casting delivery.
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FOUNDRY MANUAL
LOGISTICS
LOGISTICS
1. Introduction
2. Flow chart
3. Features
4. Influences
5. Conclusion
1. Introduction
This department has to collect all data about the casting and make the production
schedule using these data. The purpose it to deliver the orders at the required
delivery date, mentioned in the order.
If meeting this delivery date is not possible, this must be communicated to the
customer and an agreement about a new delivery date must be found.
Scheduling in the foundry does work with the hours per department and equipment,
the type and amount of material as well as the availability of the mould boxes.
There should be a continuous feed back about the progress of the production and
contact with the customer about delivery date.
2. Flow chart
There are three steps in the activity of the logistic department.
The first step is to collect all necessary data about the castings involved. This
concerns "standard data" as weight, dimensions, type of material; pattern and
order related data as number of castings and required delivery date.
The engineering department provides the standard data and the order related data
are written in the order form.
The second step is to schedule the production, calculate the delivery date and
confirm it to the customer. If the required delivery date cannot be met, it is necessary
to contact the customer and get an agreement about a new date.
The third step is producing work instructions; week sheets and a capacity plan for the
production as well as the paperwork for the subcontracting.
The feed back of production must continuously be reworked in the capacity plan and
scheduling. These "hot situation" must be communicated to production and customer.
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The last job involved is the shipment of the order and providing all data to the
financial department for invoicing the order.
ORDER
DATA / CASTING
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hours
metal
mouldboxes
DELIVERY DATE
SCHEDULING
SCHEDULED
CASTING
WORK
INSTRUCTIONS
ORDER
CONFIRMATION
WORK SHEETS
C
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T
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M
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CAPACITY PLAN
PRODUCTION
SUBCON TRACTING
SHIPMENT
INVOICING
3. Features
The scheduling is done with standard data, which must be kept up to date. Each
modification of these data will have an influence on the lead-time of the production
and delivery time of the order.
The delivery time is depending on the standard and order related data, but also on
the existing capacity for similar castings.
It neither is nor preferred to shift castings to later delivery time as originally planned
in order to benefit a new order. Indeed every modification of the planning will affect
more than the one or two orders involved.
Shipping is part of the job because the scheduling department is continuously aware
of the latest state of the production. So they can prepare the shipment and inform the
customer about it.
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Efficiency can be increased by the scheduling if somewhat extra castings are
available (extra to the theoretical capacity) and this in a wide variation of types of
castings (large and small, with and without cores).
4. Influences
A delivery date is a living date, continuously influenced by the results from the
production. These results depend on data, which are not correct, and on the
efficiency of the job and the availability of people and equipment.
It is important to correct the momentaneous capacity per department to the available
and scheduled amount of work. This will avoid the building of stock between two
operations and will result in the shortest lead-time.
Investments mostly increase the efficiency of the production. This efficiency increase
must be introduced into the scheduling calculations. If this is not done, there is a
chance that this increase will vanish in easier and less efficient working.
The problem of very short deliveries (this means shorter as normally, calculated
with the available capacity) will have the attention of every one. This automatically
results in a less fluent production of other products. This special work also results
sometimes in the use of less suitable tooling and mould boxes, which will increase
cost of this casting.
5. Conclusion
The logistic department is important for the production because it has an important
influence on the efficiency. Efficiency can increase if a large variety of castings and a
little over numbered are scheduled.
It is necessary that the up to date data and continuous feed back of the real
production volume be provided. This enables an as correct as possible scheduling.
The logistic department plays an important role towards the customer. It can provide
the customer with the correct information and establish a trustful relation.
The shipment and providing data for the invoicing is the final job per casting.
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FOUNDRY MANUAL
ENGINEERING
ENGINEERING
1. Introduction
2. Flow chart
4. Influences
5. Conclusions
1. Introduction
This department is the "guard of knowledge" of a foundry. All knowledge is present
and kept up to date:
1. Tooling and equipment
2. Manufacturing specifications
3. Material specifications
4. Other foundry specifications
5. Production possibilities.
Keeping these files up to date does not mean that "non active" and or "incorrect"
procedures and work instructions are forgotten. On the contrary these information
must prevent the foundry to re-use them again (sometimes years later).
This knowledge includes a theoretical part as well as the extra experience out of the
foundry.
With the use of this knowledge and the casting features (shape, weight, dimensions
and material) the pattern, chemical analysis, inserts and work sheets are set up.
It is very important that the engineering keeps aware of new technologies and gets a
continuous feedback from the production and inspection and customer remarks in
order to modify the production work sheets to get the "best" casting (required quality
and lowest cost).
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2. Flow chart
There are three major steps in the job that engineering is performing: calculating and
verifying the casting data, consulting the available possibilities for the production and
setting up the procedures and work sheets for the casting.
ORDER
SHAPE
WEIGHT
MATERIAL
TOOLING / EQUIPMENT
DIMENSIONS
PRODUCTION DEPARTMENTS
ENGINEERING
MANUFACTURING SPECS
MATERIAL FEATURES
EXTRA FOUNDRY SPECS
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pattern
pouring
system
melting
work
sheets
chemical
analysis
inserts
heat
treatment
surface
treatment
moulding
risers +
chills
fettling
PR
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FO
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INV
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TM
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The first step is to verify the casting data.

The material must be brought in relation with the shape and dimensions of the
casting. The properties of a lot of materials (grey iron) do depend on these data and
can be mastered by adopting or closer limiting the chemical composition.
The dimensions will lead to the best-suited mould boxes.
The shape and dimensions must be qualified according to tolerances and
importance, taking in account the machining stock.
The weight is very important because it has an influence on:
1. number and size of risers and chills
2. necessary amount of liquid metal to pour the casting
3. the use of ladles
4. the pouring temperature.
Knowing these basically data, the second step is to consult the files for the best
technique to produce a good casting.
The use of equipment and tools as well as the production possibility are important to
set the pattern concept (split line, number of cores).
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The manufacturing specifications are identical or similar to previous casting or made
new. It must be clear that new castings always have a higher risk for problems and
even scrap.
Extra specifications and or requirements will be set for chemical composition of the
material, for strength of the mould material, for the coating, for the time after pouring
and before shake out, for heat treatment
It is preferred to discuss possibilities and proposal with the production and quality
control in order to have the maximum input of experience.
The third step is the final set up of pattern, chemical composition of the material, and
use of inserts, work instructions and inspection hold points.
The work sheets do include all instruction for melting, moulding and pouring, fettling,
heat treatment, surface treatment and shipping.
It looks that people working in the engineering department; have to be more or less
encyclopaedia. But this is not true.
Working in this department asks for a structurised filing of data and results and a high
competence to absorb this knowledge or to find this information easily back.
Their theoretical knowledge must be on a high level. The experience will come from
working together and a close contact and trustful relation with the foundry workers
and the technicians of the suppliers.
They need to be open-minded and realise that studying will a never-ending task for
them.
Another important feature is the availability of all information (including the "why's"
behind every instruction) to the foundry workers. This can be as documents or better
as pictures, possibly available on line by the intranet of the foundry. Most of the
people can read drawings and work instructions to a certain extend but all of them
can understand pictures.
The engineering department must have filed the materialising of the proper foundry
know how (knowledge and experience). These know how may not only be in the
head of employees but must be written down or available as pictures.
Engineering department is the best suited for calculating cost of a casting. It has
know how and knowledge to predict the number of hours and cost of material. If it is
provided with the cost per hour, surplus for storing and handling, surplus for nonproduction costs and financial and other cost, the real cost can be calculated and
handed over to the selling department.
But because engineering has to propose investments to apply new techniques or to
increase the efficiency of old techniques and, in cooperation with the employees
involved, find out operation work methods with higher efficiency, it is them which will
set the cost of the castings.
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4. Influences
It is very important to keep old non-active procedures and work sheets, because they
are witnesses of incorrect and or "not best" work instructions and procedures.
This will avoid re-using it after a long period of time and will inform new employees
for pitfalls, already discovered by others in the past.
The cooperation between engineering and quality department and production will
avoid that knowledge and experience will not be shared. It must be the purpose to
bring as much people as possible on a very high level of knowledge and experience.
It must be shared and will increase by sharing!
Engineering must learn to work with the available equipment and tools. They will suit
for a certain type of castings and be less effective for others.
The best production for a new type of castings mostly asks for investments.
No foundry - engineering department - can be top of the bill in all type of material and
castings! Therefore it is preferred for a foundry to specialise in a restricted number of
castings and materials and be the best in it.
5. Conclusion
The importance of the engineering department is very high as a "guard of
knowledge". This knowledge is partly theoretical and partly due to experience in the
foundry. Applying the knowledge and experience and introducing new techniques, it
will set the cost level of the foundry
With these tool engineering is setting up the work instructions, which have to be
followed by the production. If production has remarks and or proposals to do better,
the head of the engineering and the production will decide to try and apply this.
It is very important to keep all "old work sheets and procedures". These can be taken
in account if new proposals come in. Doing this the foundry will avoid to return to
working with a not best result.
The good and worse, the correct and not correct information must be stored and kept
available for consulting by every one involved (especially new employees).
To be effective this department must have a close contact with the foundry workers,
with suppliers and must know the quality of the castings of other foundries.
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FOUNDRY MANUAL

1. Introducing
2. Flow chart
4. Conclusion
1. Introduction
These two departments are mostly combined, although that for subcontracting
engineering and logistic department is very much involved.
The purchase order must reflect the requirements valid for per item of the order.
These are from the customer order (castings, inserts, painting), from the data
sheet (raw material, alloys, sand) and from the work sheets (machining,
marking).
Purchasing and subcontracting starts with collecting data and ends when the purchased items enter with all required documents and approval of quality inspection.
For subcontracting it must be considered that, if this work is not performed according
to the requirements and specifications, can cause damage and even lead to
scrapping the casting. The value of this damage and or scrapping can exceed far
over the value of the subcontracted work.
It is important to summary for each supplier his possibilities and performance
concerning quality, delivery reliability and cooperation to decrease price.
2. Lay out
The purchasing and subcontracting consists of four steps.
The first step is to collect all necessary data about quantity, delivery time and quality
and delivery requirements. These data are provided by the customer (quantity,
material, drawing) and the engineering or logistic department (work sheet, work
instruction, delivery time) and inspection requirements.
The second step is the choice of the supplier, which does comply or is considered
able, to comply as much as possible with the requirements of the order. The
production and delivery of the order items are also involved in this step.
The third step is the inspection, according to the order requirements, of the delivered
order items. The quality and other documents are also verified. After the approval the
goods are taken in the inventory and will be stored.
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The last step is to collect data about quality and delivery time. The data are coming
from the inspection department and production as well as from the supplier. These
data will lead to a statistically figure about the performance of the supplier.
SUPPLIER DATA
CUSTEMOR
PRODUCTION
PRODUCTION
LOGISTICS
SUBCONTRACTING
ORDER
RAW MATERIAL
OTHER MATERIAL
INSERTS
PAINTING
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FOUNDRY
SUPPLIER
SUPPLIER
MACHINE SHOP
SUBSUPPLIER
CASTINGS
RAW MATERIAL
OTHER MATERIAL
INSERTS
PAINTING
SCHEDULING
SPECIFICATIONS
DATA
INSPECTION
STORE INVENT ORY
It is very important that every order is put in a clear and written document, indicating
all necessary data and requirements involved. The requirements must be identical to
those in the customer order involved.
4. Conclusion
It is a fact that besides price, the important items are quality and delivery reliability.
To have an objective figure of these, it is necessary to do statistical calculations.
Lack of quality or too late delivery will result in costs which can be real costs
(repair) and or disturbing of the production and resulting in a decrease of
efficiency. Mostly the castings will be delivered too late.
These costs will definitely exceed the price difference between two suppliers.
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FOUNDRY MANUAL
PATTERN
PATTERN
1. Introduction
2. Process
3. Important items
3.1 Pattern
3.2 Core box
3.3 Template
3.4 Pouring system / risers / chills
4. Influences
4.1 Pattern condition
4.2 Tolerance
4.3 Quality of the casting
5. Conclusion
1. INTRODUCTION
The pattern is the start of a casting. Mostly the buyer feels a pattern as an extra
cost, to be paid at the start of production, and useless for him. This is a completely
incorrect opinion.
The pattern has a large influence on the cost, the dimensions and soundness of the
material section as well as the surface condition of the casting.
It is for this reason that very much attention must be paid on the pattern concerning
concept, execution and dimensions. To get the best pattern, a cooperation between
foundry, machining shop and pattern shop is absolutely necessary.
A low cost casting can be the start of an expensive casting, which keeps expensive
during the whole lifetime.
A bad pattern can also be the start of a continuously troubling quality and delivery.
The lifetime is quoted as the amount of castings, excluded the scrap ones, to be
produced (factor is wear of pattern) or as the time that the pattern must be usable
(factor is the degeneration of the pattern material).
A more detailed description is given in Chapter 15, in which the FPQ-, SP- and CAQproduction will be compared.
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2. PROCESS
The pattern producing process is shown in the following flow chart.
It has four steps.
drawing casting
Shape
Pouring temperature
Material
Mould mat erial
Order lot
final part drawing
Life time
machining dr awing
drawing pattern
PATTERN
pattern
core box
templates
Mould
Casting
pouring sytem/riser/chill
Mould ins pection
Dimensional inspect ion
The first step is the production of the pattern drawing, starting from the casting
drawing. There are four groups of information used for this step:
1. Casting shape and material to predict the overall and local shrinkage to be
applied to the pattern.
2. The type of production concerning mould material (influences the shrinkage
and the pattern wear) as well as the pouring temperature (influence on the
shrinkage due to the influence on the mould strength).
3. The amount of castings per delivery (number of parts on a pattern plate,
mould) and the total amount of casting during the lifetime (number of moulds
which indicates the pattern material to use).
4. The final part drawing and machining to set the zero point for the lay out and
marking as well as the design of the pattern to put pattern draft as much as
possible in the planned machining stock.
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Generally the split line or lines is set, taking in account the pouring system, risers and
chills, the assembling of the cores and the machining planes.
This first step needs the knowledge and experience with similar castings and material
in the foundry. It is nearly impossible to have the best result from the first shot.
The second step is the physical production of the pattern, which consists of one or
more pattern parts, no or one or more core-boxes as well as the pouring system, the
located riser seats and riser-blocks and the pattern for chills to be poured.
For complex and or important castings, it is necessary to produce templates, which
will be used to assemble cores and cores in the mould cavity. This must result in
correct dimensions and a narrow variation in dimensions between the castings.
The third step is the first use of the pattern to produce a mould, assemble and pour
it. The result, the first casting, can be measured and discussed.
It is necessary that all problems, small and big, must be reported as well as
correction on the spot done. The engineering department, in agreement with the
buyer, can correct the pattern to get a correct casting.
The last step is the dimensional modification of the pattern.
This is done with the comparison of the real dimensions to the required dimensions,
taking in account the tolerances on the final dimensions and the tolerances due to
the production.
This also can result in another way of assembling or in the use of other templates.
It is more severe if the lay out of the pattern must be changed due to an insufficient
quality or surface condition. This can lead to another split line for the pattern or new
or other cores.
If this situation does occur, a new cycle starts again and it does cost a lot of money. It
is mostly the confirmation that the foundry did not have or did not use the experience
and knowledge about the type of casting and material involved.
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3. Important items
This are pattern, core boxes, templates and pouring system with riser and chills.
Pattern
The pattern can be single part or more parts due to several split lines. The splitting is
done because of:
1. size of the mould boxes (especially height)
2. location of pouring system, risers and chills
3. amount and location of draft material (the more splits, the lesser the extra
material due to draft)
4. location and easy assembling of the cores.
The split between pattern parts needs a correct referencing item (mostly conically
shaped sand or metal blocs) with a small tolerance span and no possibility to
dislocate or rotate one part to the other.
The size of the draft is prescribed in standards and guidelines in relation to the
dimensions of the casting. But mostly there is insufficient consideration of the
complexity of casting shape and mould material. Therefore the foundry has to make
the final decision.
The gliding paste, put on the pattern, is a help for an easy and non damaging
removal of the pattern from the mould cavity.
It is also preferred to remove the pattern before the mould material is completely
hardened.
A damaged pattern surface will also bother an easy removing.
The split line can be horizontally or vertically (mostly for serial production and small,
not complicated parts).
The split will cause a mark on the casting surface and has a risk for some mm of
mismatch between the two parts as well as extra length due to the seal between the
two mould parts. This will lead to extra fettling and or machining.
There are two solutions for this matter:
1. locate the split-line in a plane that has to be machined
2. put an extra flat rib so that the extra fettling is easy and restricted to this flat
rib (a plane is very difficult to correct).
Concerning dimensions, the expected shrinkage, machining stock and coating layer
thickness (especially for small and or thin wall castings) is taken in account.
The expected shrinkage is depending of the type of material and the shape of the
casting. But the ever varying factors as are the strength of the mould material and the
pouring temperature and the thickness of the coating layer do have also a small
influence.
For this reason literature is indicating always a span of shrinkage values. The real
shrinkage will always be smaller than the theoretical one.
It is mostly necessary to correct the pattern due to unexpected shrinkage.
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FOUNDRY MANUAL
The pattern material is chosen, taking in account the number of parts per delivery
and the lifetime of the casting and pattern.
Single and unique parts can be made with a pattern in pressed paper, styrene
or thin wood. Sometimes an old casting can be used after adapting the
dimensions for shrinkage and machining stock.
Parts with a low need can be made with a pattern in wood. If the shape is very
simple also styrene or a combination with wood can be used.
Parts with a low series need can be made with a pattern in wood.
Parts with a complicated shape and low need can be made with a pattern in
wood and or plastic and eventually mounted on a pattern plate.
Parts with a serial need can be made with a pattern in wood, plastic or metal
and are always mounted on a pattern plate.
Core boxes
The core-boxes are used to produce cores, which are mostly completed surrounded
by liquid metal after pouring is finished. For this reason they are heavily attacked.
They shape the inside part of the casting. Not all castings do need a core.
There are also casting that are made without a pattern. The cavity (mostly a concrete
box or pit) is filled with cores to make the mould cavity.
Sometimes cores are used at the outside of the mould cavity to avoid extra material
due to the required pattern draft.
A core must be designed for easy filling, which can be done by hand or under air
pressure. The core material can be the same as for the mould and or special
designed chemical bounded sand (hot box, cold box).
The parting or design must be so that placing core stiffeners and gas escape devices
can be done in a easy and correct way at the correct location.
Core boxes must be composed of parts, which allow easy assembly and disassembly
as well with unique and steady referencing items.
Core stiffeners, especially for large cores, are preferably made of cast iron in stat of
steel. Cast iron does deform less due to temperature increase.
The indications on the core surface, due to the split line, must be removed carefully
without damaging the core or changing its dimensions.
Another important feature is the core-shoulder. This is the part of the core which
locates the core into another core or into the mould cavity.
Because core and mould are made separately and both have tolerances concerning
dimensions, it is possible that there is a lot of space. The way of using this space to
locate one to another will decide the final dimensions of the casting.
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FOUNDRY MANUAL
It is very dangerous to correct core-shoulder by hand, especially if no template is
used, for the loss of the final required dimensions.
The dimensions of the core must take in account that the shrinkage of the material
will decrease the dimensions to an extent, depending on the pressure strength of the
core. This shrinkage is mostly much lower as the pattern shrinkage.
Also the influence of the coating, up to one mm, will influence the final dimensions.
The material, used for the core-boxes, is mostly wood. It can be metal if a lot of cores
have to be made during the lifetime and if filling under pressure is used.
Templates
Templates are necessary to have a correct assembly of cores to cores and to the
mould cavity. The template must assure that the tolerance space of both (core and
core or mould cavity) is always used in the same way (shifting and rotating).
The use of templates can narrow the tolerance on the dimensions of the casting.
A template must be referenced to the zero start point, which is also used by the
machine shop. This point must be situated on a non machined plane to assure that
dimensional differences can be corrected in the machining stock.
The use of a ok and not ok template is mostly not possible because the complexity
of the shape and the combination of location of special items. These are not always
reachable by templates when they are placed in the mould cavity.
It is preferred to assemble the cores aside of the mould, check them by template and
fix the assembly so that no dimensional change can occur anymore.
The core-assembly can be put in the mould cavity and checked by template before
fixing the location. This template only has to check the location of the core-assembly
and master shifting and rotating of it.
The use of templates will give castings within a very narrow dimensional span. This
will benefit the machining and assembling cost.
Pouring system, risers and chills

It is necessary to use a standard system concerning shape and dimensions. This will
prevent surprises during moulding.
But is necessary to make reference points for the location of the ingates, risers and
chills. These points are physically present on the pattern and or core-boxes.
This is indicating in marking or seats.
If, for exceptional reasons, no standard can be used, the pouring system and riser
and chill are part of the pattern.
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FOUNDRY MANUAL
4. INFLUENCES
4. Pattern condition
The pattern condition has an important influence on the surface condition of the
casting. Damage can bother the easy removing of the pattern out of the mould cavity.
This is only possible with marks on the mould surface, which will degenerate the
surface quality of the casting.
A bad pattern condition can require shaking of the pattern in the not yet hardened
mould material. This shaking will increase the dimensions of the casting.
The referencing items must be in the best condition. It cannot be allowed them to sit
loose, to be bended or to have too much wear.
The split plane of the pattern is very prone to damaging by removing the pattern of
the mould cavity.
If pattern(s) come loose from the pattern plate, sand can enter between them. This
will change the dimensions and make it more difficult to remove the pattern from the
mould without damaging one of them.
Tolerances
The tolerances are important in two ways: the absolute value and the span due to the
reproducibility of the process. These tolerances and span must be compared with the
required tolerances of the casting.
The absolute size of tolerance, compared to the required dimension, is depending on
the size of the pattern and the real shrinkage. These items are mastered by the
correction of the pattern.
The tolerance span, due to the reproducibility of the process, is mastered by the use
of correct templates and a very well control of the strength of the mould material and
the pouring temperature.
It is important to use the same zero point for the design of the pattern and the
machining. This zero point must be situated at a non-machined plane. The use of
templates will increase the stability of the dimensions and narrow the tolerance.
Quality of the casting

The quality of the casting depends a lot of the pattern concept.
The influence on the dimensions is discussed in previous items.
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FOUNDRY MANUAL
The quality of the material section (porosity) will partly depend on the possibility of an
easy putting of risers and chills.
The location of thin sections, section changes can minimalism the problem of
turbulence and high speed of the entering liquid metal and cold runs
The concept of the pattern can also direct the inclusions (sand, slag) to an area,
which is machining stock. If this problem is limited to this stock, it is removed after the
machining.
5. CONCLUSION
The importance of the pattern in the production of a casting is mostly underestimated
and can be the cause of troubling quality and delivery for the rest of its lifetime.
The effect of the pattern on the casting is very large: dimensions, machining stock,
quality and surface condition. These master these effects there is a need for proper
use of knowledge and experience of the foundry. A new type of casting and or
material will always have problems in the beginning.
It is necessary to design a pattern (pattern, core-boxes, templates and pouring
system, risers and chills) in cooperation with designer, foundry, machine shop and
pattern shop. Only by doing this, the maximum profit can be taken of all knowledge
and experience.
A more detailed description is given in Chapter 15, in which the FPQ-, SP- and CAQproduction will be compared.
================================================================
Menu
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FOUNDRY MANUAL
MOULDING
MOULDING
1. Introduction
2. Description
3. Influences
4. Coating
5. Special situations
6. Conclusion
1. INTRODUCTION
It is important to describe the process of mould fabrication in order to recognise all
possible influences on the result of moulding to the condition of the casting.
Moulding consist of four important steps:
1. Filling the mould and core boxes
2. Finishing mould and cores (correcting, coating)
3. Assembling and closing mould and cores
4. Preparing for pouring (clamping and weigthening).
The production is guided by methods (work instruction, choice of materials), the
result of the used equipment (coating and sand mixers, clamps, mould boxes, pattern
and core boxes), and the conformity of the used material with the material
specification and the handling and acting of the people.
All these have an influence on the result, single and in combination with each other.
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2. DESCRIPTION
The process is described in the flow chart below.
boxes
new sand
pattern
corebox
old sand
core sand
catalyst
catalyst
binder
binder
Filling station mould
Filling station cores
upper mould
coating
coating
mixer
lower mould
coating
coating
assembled mould
clamps
weightening
Mould ready for pouring
Step 1 Filling mould

In filling station the area between pattern and mould boxes is filled.
The pattern has to be in good condition and must be placed on a flat (floor or
pattern plate) in order to have a correct and not deformed mould.
The mould boxes are placed some mm above the floor in order to assure a
mould part - mould part contact by assembling and closing it. A contact
between mould boxes has a risk of non-sealing the mould parts, depending on
the condition of the boxes (flatness, straightness, condition of surface of
bottom and top of box).
The condition of the pattern will influence the smoothness of the contact sand
surface and in this way the surface of the casting.
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FOUNDRY MANUAL
CORRECT
TO AVOID
SAND
SAND
SAND
SAND
The sand is mixed in a machine that first brings new and reclaimed sand
together, adding then the catalyst and later the binder material. This mixing
must be done in a correct way to ensure the homogeneity of the sand. The
sand is falling in the mould boxes and it must be assured that all area is filled
with the same density of sand. Ramming or vibrating can do this.
The kind and amount of binder that is depending on the kind, grain size and
morphology of the sand mixture establish the strength of the sand.
The ramming or vibrating can increase the overall strength or decrease it if this
action is going on too long time because it can destroy the bounding of the
sand grains.
The speed of hardening of the sand is depending on the kind and amount of
catalyst (compared to the amount of binder) that is depending on the
temperature and humidity of the air and the condition of the reclaimed sand
(remaining degree of acid).
The time for removing the pattern is influenced by the degree of reaction of the
chemicals. The strength must be high enough to remove the pattern and
handle the mould without damage.
Very important for this handling is the presence of stiffening bars in the upper
and lower mould boxes as well as in the mould itself. The inside walls of the
mould boxes have some features (strap or bar) to avoid moving of the sand
along this metal.
For the core filling the same remarks are valid.
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Step 2 Finishing mould / cores
After completion of the hardening of the mould material, the condition of the
mould cavity is checked and repaired if necessary.
Any repair, if it is possible in a technical way as well as economically, must be
made in a way that the repair material cannot loose the base mould material
during handling and pouring and that the bound is as tight as possible.
In order to assure a smooth surface for the casting, a coating is put on the
mould material. This coating has the purpose to:
1. fills up small gaps and holes in the mould material
2. smoothen the surface of the mould cavity
3. resist the erosion and temperature of the entering metal
4. resist the expansion of the sand during pouring and cooling
5. avoid mould gasses to enter the mould cavity and liquid metal.
The kind of coating depends on the type of material (chemical nature), the
pouring temperature and the wall thickness of the casting. The most frequently
used are:
1. carbon based
all kind of iron
2. zircon based
steel, high-alloyed irons, large wall thickness
3. magnesite based high-alloyed steels (manganese steel, stainless steel).
The way of applying determinates the smoothness. Spraying and floating will
lead to the best surface, brushing will show strives and lead to the poorest
surface.
The applied thickness of the coating layer depends on the kind of coating and
the wall thickness of the casting. The thickness is easily 1 mm and up.
Step 3 Assembling mould and cores
The assembling of cores in the mould parts and mould parts with each other is
a high-risk job. A lot of incorrect or and avoidable matters can happen and a
lot of them cannot be seen during or after assembling the mould. The result
can be a defective and or scrap casting.
The following summary indicates the important items:
1. Referencing between two or more mould parts or between mould boxes is
not unique and or has a large tolerance
This can lead to rotated upper and lower casting halves or a shifting
between them. The result is a difference in dimensions, machining
stock
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FOUNDRY MANUAL
This shifting can also disturb the section and section ratio of the
different parts of the pouring system (sprue, runner, ingate, filter
chamber). This can lead to incorrect filling and scrapped castings.
2. Referencing of the core shoulder and mould and or other cores is not
unique and or has a large tolerance
This can lead to rotate upper and lower core halves or a shifting
between them and or unpredictable location of them compared to the
mould. The result is a difference in dimensions, machining stock
3. A core is not assembled so that the shape of the casting is incorrect and or
extra machining is necessary or the casting is scrapped
4. The air escapes are not connected to the outside of the mould
5. The sealing of the core - mould connection and or between the mould parts
is not correct
Metal can run out of the mould cavity and or seal material can touch
liquid metal which can introduce gas in the metal or lead to a lack of
material (size and shape of the sealing).
6. Sand and or dust and or other items (hammer, clamp, chill) remain in the
mould cavity or fall in during assembling. It can also happen in the
pouring system.
This will lead to non-conform castings.
7. The air escapes are not open due to blocking with sand, seal material.
Step 4 Preparing mould for pouring
This step has to be taken as close as possible to the time of pouring. It is an
important step because it must prevent metal from running out of the mould
and bring the mould in an optimal condition to pouring (no dust, humidity of
chills, clamped properly).
Proper clamps must do clamping. The material must be high strength and
ductile. The shape must be that increasing forces are tightening the mould
parts and increasing the clamping force. To assure this they must be clean:
without rust, metal drips, scale and or grooves (damage).
The clamping must be activated equally spread around the mould to prevent
deformation.
Sometimes clamps are replaced or combined with bolts and or wire rods and
nuts.
Bear in mind that increasing temperature of these clamps will decrease the
clamping force or even loose it.
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FOUNDRY MANUAL
The amount of weightening is calculated with the horizontally surface and the
pouring height. The blocs must be located in a way to ensure that the effect is
equally divided all over the mould area and does not deform the mould cavity.
For this reason it is important to have upper mould boxes with stiffening bars.
The blocs cannot be located directly in contact with the mould. Doing this can
lead to blocking air escapes, risers or at least make it difficult to cover open
risers with insulating / exothermic cover. They must be located in a way that
they do not bother pouring or decrease the accessibility of the ladle.
3. MOST IMPORTANT INFLUENCES

Which are the features that have an important influence on the casting?
This are the following five: strength of mould boxes, strength of mould material,
reaction speed of the mould material hardening, gas evolution and the surface
condition of the mould cavity.
1. Strength of the mould boxes
The strength is set by the shape and thickness of the box material. This is
mostly stronger if the box elements are cast. These can also resist better the
deformation due to temperature increase and handling the mould.
It is important to use, as upper and lower box, a box with stiffening bars.
These bars do prevent the sand to fall out or move during rotating and
handling the mould.
It is also advised to provide sand holding bars or other devices at the inner
wall surface of the boxes.
2. Strength of the mould material
The type of binder must suite the type of sand (silica, chromite, zircon,
reclaimed sand). Each binder has a maximum strength, which can be
obtained with the appropriate amount in according to the sand.
The sand grain size and the division over the size sieves are very important.
The larger the size the less binder is needed. Sand with about 85 % of the
sand, belonging to three neighbouring sieves, will get the highest density.
Sand with a round grain shape needs less binder than an irregular shape.
Ramming and or vibrating the sand do give it a high density and a high
strength. This action can only be done in the early phase of the hardening
reaction because after a time the bounds between the grains made by the
binder, will be damaged and even destroyed and they will not recover
anymore.
The water content in the binder will limit the strength. But also the catalyst has
some water and the reaction also forms some water. This water will soften
and weaken the mould material.
The humidity in the air has a similar effect but in a lesser degree. During the
waiting period, between assembling and pouring, water will interfere with the
sand and weaken the sand bounds.
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3. Reaction speed of the sand hardening

The main influence is coming from the catalyst. Its nature is important.
The amount of catalyst in relation to the amount of binder will increase the
reaction speed. On the other hand the amount of water, coming from binder
and catalyst, will decrease this. In a lesser degree, the humidity of the air is
involved.
Decreasing the temperature of the sand, the binder and catalyst and the
mould boxes will slow down the speed.
The larger the areas in contact with the open air the higher the reaction speed.
4. Gas evolution
The most important factor is the amount of binder and catalyst. An increasing
amount of binder and catalyst will give an increasing amount of gasses. This
sets a maximum amount for them and does influence the strength of the
mould material.
The LOI (loss of ignition) is a factor indicating the amount of organics present
in the sand. These organics will burn above 600 C and cause gas. The lower
the LOI the less gas will be involved. The more reclaimed sand the higher the
overall LOI.
The wall thickness of the casting will influence the temperature of the sand
and the amount of sand that is "burned". During this burning gas will be
formed. Therefore it can be set that higher pouring temperatures and thicker
wall sections will cause a higher amount of gas.
The coating needs to resist high temperature and gas penetration.
Air and gas escapes in cores are very important. A core is completely
surrounded by liquid metal and all gas, formed during burning, must be
evacuated through the escapes.
5. Surface condition
The surface condition of the mould cavity will be related to the surface
condition of the casting.
The coating is the most important factor.
The grain size of the sand as well the ramming / vibrating will be the other
factor. The denser the sand is, the smoother the surface will be.
A too high amount of binder and catalyst can also cause a rough surface.
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4. COATING
Coating consists of refractory material and a carrying liquid, which can be alcohol,
another chemical or water. The liquid is giving some viscosity and fluidity to the
coating.
The liquid is there to carry the refractory until it is put on to the mould material. It
enables the coating to cover and penetrate the mould surface.
After being in place, the liquid must be removed.
In case of alcohol or another chemical, the liquid will evaporate in time. This
evaporation can be speeded up by heating the mould or core or by touching it
by a gas flame. The advantage is that it is a "quick process" and there is no
risk for explosions.
The disadvantage is that it is negative for the environment and people in the
surrounding area. It also has a penetrating smell.
In case of water, the mould and or core must be heated in a controlled way in
order to remove all water. This is necessary because water in contact with
liquid metal can give an explosion.
The advantage of this solution is a friendliness concerning environment and
people.
The disadvantage is that it requires a high investment and a similarity in mould
sizes.
The kind of coating is related to the kind of mould material, the kind of metal and the
pouring temperature combined with the section thickness of the casting.
A magnesite coating does fit the best for a 12 % manganese steel, a carbon coating
for all irons and a zircon coating for unalloyed steel.
High temperatures and wall thickness ask for a zircon coating.
5. SPECIAL SITUATIONS
There are several situations where other techniques are used:
1. Backing sand
For large moulds two type of sand can be used. The layer to cover the pattern,
thickness depending on the thickness of the casting section, is made of proper
sand as described above. The rest of the mould can be filled with sand, using
a much higher amount of reclaimed sand and less binder. Sometimes the area
is also filled with sand lumps taken from the shake out.
2. Box less moulding
A mould can be made without mould boxes if it is made for a thin wall casting
and a material with a low pouring temperature.
The advantage is that fewer boxes are required as well as less handling and
storing of these boxes.
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FOUNDRY MANUAL
The disadvantage is that there is need for a higher amount of sand compared
to the weight of the casting and that handling, assembling, clamping and
weightening is somewhat more difficult.
3. Vertically split moulds
These moulds are mostly made f green sand and used in serial production.
The sealing between the moulds is obtained by a horizontally pressure.
4. Other types of sand
Several types of sand are used although silica sand is number one followed by
green sand (clay, bentonite).
To obtain extra cooling chromite sand is used as well as silica-carbide
material.
To obtain a smooth surface for thin wall castings zircon sand is used.
To avoid a reaction between sand and metal olivine sand can be used for
manganese steel.
6. CONCLUSION
The moulding operation, as described here, has an important influence on the quality
of the casting.
It is important to have the correct "work instruction" as well as that people do
understand the influence of different features involved. Without this knowledge they
will never be able to make "standby" decisions in suddenly occurring situations.
The equipment must work, as it should to get the best possible result.
The material should be as purchased in nature, size and quality.
And last but not least the importance of the "experience and skill" of people.
Whatever on paper, it must be performed by the hand of the master. The result is
related to the skill and gift and experience of the performer. This is not a matter of a
year but of a lot of years.
Each new method and product will have a period with a lot of problems and will be
mastered slowly.
Menu
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FOUNDRY MANUAL
MELTING
MELTING
1. Introduction
2. Steps
2.1 Charge
2.2 Melting
2.3 Ladle situation
2.4 Pouring
3. Influences
3.1 Condition of charge
3.2 Type of melting
3.3 Type of lining
3.4 Metallurgical treatment
4. Critical features
4.1 Chemical analysis
4.3 Lining material of furnace and ladle
4.4 Pouring
5. Energy, environmental and working area
6. Summary
1. INTRODUCTION
Melting involves four major steps: charge for melting, melting itself (furnace and
holding furnace), stay in the ladle and pouring.
This is clearly indicated in the next flow chart.
The result of melting is very important because it has an influence on the chemical
composition, the mechanical and physical properties, the soundness of the material
section (porosity, inclusions) as well as on the surface condition.
The most important feature of liquid metal is its "living" behaviour. This means that it
is continuously changing in time. This means that each test done, gives the situation
on the time of taken the sample or performing the measurement and not at the time
of knowing the result.
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FOUNDRY MANUAL
iron
special
material
steel
Temperature
control
F
U
R
N
A
C
E
alloys
Melting
Holding
Tapping
returns
Chemical
analysis
Correction
Metallurgical treatment
Deslagging
Metallurgical treatment
Transport
Temperature
control
L
A
D
L
E
Deslagging
Metallurgical
treatment
Pouring
2. STEPS
2.1 Charge
This involves the type and amount of material that is put into the melting furnace to
obtain the required amount of metal with the correct chemical composition.
The materials involved can be:
1. "pig iron" and other "basic iron"
2. steel
2a. new as remaining of cut plates, bars, profile bars, sheet, tubes
2b. used as cut parts (shredder)
It can be "loose" or pressed in "package".
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3. Special material
3a. material made with a special chemical composition (primary melt)
3b. broken scrap, which homogeneity and composition is very scattering
4. Alloys
4a. ferro alloys
4b. high alloyed material specially made or selected
5. Returns from the foundry production (pouring system, risers, scrapped parts).
The amount of each group is calculated according to their chemical composition

(certificates or checked composition) and the melt yield per element.
The melt yield is the factor "end composition" divided by the "original composition". It
is depending from element to element and from the type of melting furnace, the
furnace lining, time of melting (especially those on high temperature or > 1500 C),
the maximum temperature, the size of the charge material and the deslagging
procedure.
The composition of each group is not necessary stable in the mass. Even large
differences can occur (groups as indicated above):
Group 1.
Group 2a.
Group 2b.
Group 3a.
Group 3b.
Group 4a.
Group 4b.
Group 5.
Very stable composition

Stable composition
Rather stable composition
Very unpredictable composition
Stable composition
Rather unpredictable composition.
The condition of the charge material is also involving the melt result:
1. dirty and rusted extra slag and gas
2. wet
gas and danger for explosion
3. size
can lead to shorter (main frequency electrical furnace) or
longer melting time (all other furnaces)
4 Variety of size
extra loss of elements (lower melt yield).
This charge material is put in the furnace by hand (smaller furnaces), skip loading
(cupola, rotating furnace) or by vibrating belts or bins (induction furnaces).
2.2 Melting
Melting starts as heat is put into the furnace. The way of melting and the problems
that can occur are very different depending on the type of furnace.
The main three steps are melting, holding metal at temperature and tapping.
The melting is done in two stages: part with solid and part with liquid metal.
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During the time that the charge material is solid, quite some dirt, oil, water and other
organic material can be burned and removed from the furnace. This will happen until
there is liquid metal. During this time no elements are lost except graphite that can
react to CO gas in arc furnaces and oxygen-gas rotating furnaces.
When solid material sinks into liquid material, organic material can dissolve in the
liquid metal and contaminate it.
During this time the material can loose part of the amount per element this will
increase with increasing temperature.
When all metal is liquid, at a temperature of 100 to 150 C above the melting
temperature, a sample is taken for testing the chemical composition. Depending on
the result extra material is charged to correct the analysis.
The required "furnace analysis" takes in account that extra is added by the
metallurgical treatments and some is lost during the further stay on temperature.
Mostly two limits are giving where the inner limit is the best and between the inner
and the outer limit special attention is required.
The holding step starts at the point that the analysis is conforming the wishes. The
temperature is increased to the tapping temperature, assuring that the metal is
completely homogeneous.
Sometimes an extra degassing or de-oxidising is done.
The slag is left on the metal until tapping can start because this prevents the metal
from heat loss and reaction with the air.
The temperature is regularly checked.
The last step is tapping, after deslagging of the meta l. It is possible to do some
metallurgical treatment in the tapping stream or in the ladle during filling. This can be
de-oxidising (steel), nodulising (ductile iron) and inoculating (ductile and grey iron).
Remark
Some treatments can be done, after tapping is finished, in the ladle:
nodulising, de-oxidising, de-sulphurising
In this case another ladle is used for pouring. This treatment requires higher
tapping temperatures due to the extra heat loss of bringing the metal from one
ladle to the other.
2.3 Ladle
The ladle transports the metal from the melting furnace to the location of pouring.
It is preferred to cover the ladle with a slag binder that also will isolate the metal from
loosing heat and reaction with air.
During this transport some reaction products will float to the metal surface and will
becatched by the slag binder.
At the area of pouring all slag is removed by skimming the metal surface. This must
be done very carefully.
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Eventually a last metallurgical treatment is done. This can be due to an excess time
that occurred between the previous treatment and pouring and that has caused a too
high fading of the treatment effect. For iron this will be some extra inoculation.
During the stay in the ladle the temperature is carefully checked in order to assure a
pouring temperature in a span of +/- 5 C around the prescribed pouring temperature.
2.4 Pouring
Pouring will bring the metal from the ladle into the pouring system of the mould and
this as clean as possible.
There are several types of ladles:
1. lip ladle
used for all types of metal
2. T-pot ladle
used for iron
3. Bottom ladle
used for steel.
The difference is the ability to prevent the metal contamination is poured into the
mould. A bottom ladle has the best result, after this the T-pot ladle and the lip ladle
requires a very skilled operator to deliver clean metal. The problem for a bottompouring ladle is to calculate the proper weight of the casting plus pouring system and
riser. It is indeed not easy to close the ladle if the mould cavity is full.
Pouring can be done directly in the sprue (requires bottom ladle), into a pouring cup
(small castings) that prevent air and slag to enter the sprue together with the metal
and into a pouring box which acts identically as a bottom pouring ladle. Also the
problem of the correct calculation of pouring weight is present.
The pouring time is calculated and depends on pouring system and the shape of the
mould cavity. It is preferred to check the real pouring time with the calculated one in
order to correct the system in a proper way.
Bottem pouring
Lip pouring
T-pot pouring
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3. INFLUENCES
3.1 Condition of charge
It is clear that charge material must be clean to avoid contamination of the melted
material. All organic material can react with elements of the metal as carbon and
silicon (oxygen) and manganese (sulphur). It also brings gasses into the metal, as
are oxygen, hydrogen and nitrogen.
The reaction products will partly dissolve to the metal and partly float to the metal
surface or stick to the sidewall lining.
Every reaction is related to time and temperature and seldom finishes in a short
period of time. Especially not if the stirring effect of the melting furnace is taken in
account. Therefore it will be very difficult to remove them effectively.
The best way is to avoid them to enter the metal and use clean scrap.
Another problem occurs if "other metal" is present. It is a disaster if lead or tin are
brought into the metal (present as non ferrous layer or seal rings in scrap). They
destroy the metal because the properties are heavily decreased and it is nearly
impossible to remove them.
3.2 Type of melting

Several types of melting exist: cupola, rotating furnace, main frequency furnace, and
induction and arc furnaces. They all have private features and application.
Cupola melting is continuously melting, mostly used for grey iron and in a lesser
degree for ductile and vermicular iron.
It has the advantage to melt at the lowest cost and at a high melt rate. The
disadvantages are a low controllability of the chemical composition (especially
carbon) and temperature. Even the addition of oxygen does not improve this very
much. Another problem is the high pollution of the air (CO and dust) as well is the
formation of dioxins.
Sometimes "duplex melting' is used. This is melting with a cupola and correcting the
analysis in an electrical holding furnace.
Rotating furnaces does work with gas or oil and air or oxygen. It is a badge smelter
and is used for all types of iron included the alloyed ones, but with the exception of
the high chromium alloyed types.
It is a rather cheap smelter but the know how to use it is not common use, especially
for ductile iron.
Main frequency furnaces are partly badge, partly continuously smelters. It requires a
long time to get the first liquid metal but it melts at a high rate if the liquid metal heel
is present. A special type is the channel furnace, mostly used for non-ferrous metals.
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It also has a high stirring effect that will lead to a pronounced pick up of gas and loss
of elements with a high oxygen reaction tendency. This is the reason why it is not
common used for steel and high-alloyed irons and steel.
The cost is between rotary furnaces and induction furnaces.
Induction furnaces are badge smelters that can melt nearly all metals in a very
flexible way but has the highest cost. The melt rate is rather high.
The stirring effect is depending on the level of frequency used.
It is the friendliest smelter concerning environment and people.
It is very easy to do extra metallurgical treatments in the furnace by using bottom
plugs and or vacuum hoods.
Arc furnaces are "all-smelters". They can melt every scrap at a very high rate and at
low cost. The problem is that they burn out most of the elements and it is very difficult
to bring the metal "on composition" due to the lack of stirring.
They cause also very much pollution and are noisy for the people.
They are mostly used for steel and sometimes for alloyed steels as manganese steel.
They are not suited for irons and stainless steels.
3.3 Type of lining
The lining used for melting furnaces and ladles are of acid, basic or neutral nature.
The acid one is based on silica, the basic one on magnesite and the neutral one on
aluminium eventually combined with silica.
Because the lining of the melting furnace is during a long time in contact with the
liquid metal at high temperature and a continuous movement, it is sure that
interactions will happen.
The metal and lining will react and form typical reaction products, mostly using
elements out of the metal and the lining. This can lead to high wear of the lining and
a high degree of metallurgical slag.
So will it be nearly impossible to melt a high manganese steel (12 %) in an acid lined
furnace. The manganese present in the returns will also react with an acid lining and
this will restrict the relative amount of returns.
The same will happen in the ladle but to a minor degree because the temperature is
lower and the time of stay is much shorter.
The acid lining is the cheapest one and well suited for all kind of irons. The service
temperature is around 1600 C.
The basic lining is the most expensive one and resist up to 1750 to 1800 C.
Especially steel and stainless steel is melted. The lining is very crack sensitive for
sudden temperature drops.
The neutral lining is suited for nearly all iron and steel, also high alloyed ones. It can
be used up to 1700 C.
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It is impossible to prescribe the correct amount of product that is necessary for these
types of treatments.
Indeed every badge of metal is melted in a particular way, although the melting
procedure is followed to a maximum extend. Because of this, the metal can and will
have another content of oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen, sulphur and other inclusions.
This amount and the combination of the amount of the particular elements will
determine the metallurgical treatment.
It is impossible to do the correct treatment without checking the metal before or using
the metal without checking the effect of the treatment afterwards.
It is necessary to be aware that the situation continuously change due to the fading
effect of the treatment and the continuing reaction of metal with air, lining and slag.
For this reason a program should be established to know the influence of
temperature, time till pouring and amount of metal on the final result of the treatment.
This can be done by a statistical research of several results.
4. CRITICAL FEATURES
4.1 Chemical analysis
The chemical analysis is not prescribed in the standards for the irons and mostly
required for the alloyed irons and all steels. For the latter materials the span per
element is indicated and the real result should be within these limits.
The analysis is the final analysis that means in the casting and after all metallurgical
treatments are done. The analysis in the furnace is something in between and must
be corrected by the extra influence of all addition done trough metallurgical and other
treatments.
For iron the analysis is set by the foundry, taken in account the requirements of the
customer, the section size of the casting and the way of production. It is very
dangerous to accept an analysis set up by the customer.
For all steels and alloyed irons the analysis is given by the standards. But it is not
sufficient, to get the correct mechanical and physical properties, to meet this
analysis. It is obvious that some elements do interact and also their combination
should be mastered by extra requirements. These requirements are the responsibility
of the foundry and come from the experience with this material and type of castings.
The analysis also has an influence on the cooling after pouring and the heat
treatment of the casting. Elements can have a tendency to form carbides and this
fact has an influence on the microstructure. Therefore some rules have to be set for
cooling and heat treatment, taken in account the real chemical analysis.
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It is important to realise that this treatments are reactions and have a fading effect.
So the effect will be decreased to an insufficient level. The amount of treatment
product must be adapted to the time till pouring and even better till solidifying.
Also the temperature has a large influence on the result.
For iron (grey, ductile, vermicular) the inoculation is important. This treatment does
depend on the number of germs still present in the iron at the end of the melting. The
nature and amount of germs does depend on the temperature in the furnace and the
time been on this temperature.
The correct graphite morphology will only be obtained by a correct inoculation.
But if there is too much inoculation the shrinkage during solidifying can increase and
lead to porosity.
For ductile and vermicular iron the "primary treatment" (nodulising for ductile iron) is
necessary to avoid an excess of gas and too high sulphur content.
Also these treatments do depend on the condition of the metal at the end of the
melting: initial amount of sulphur and gas. The amount of product must be adapted to
this result and to the expected time until pouring and solidifying.
It is possible to do a desulphurising for iron. This treatment can be set after checking
the initial amount of sulphur. Afterwards it is very important to remove the reaction
products as quick as possible to avoid sulphur re-entering the metal.
Steel is always de-oxidised. This can be done in the furnace, with vacuum and or gas
bubbling, or in the ladle. The result must be checked and the treatment must be done
as close as possible to the time of pouring.
4.3 Lining of furnace and ladle

The lining has a maximum service temperature. Above this temperature, after a short
time, the lining will plastify and stop functioning as refractory. This is very dangerous
for the furnace.
The lining has a chemical nature. If this nature is different from the nature of the
liquid material there will be a reaction. But even if the nature is equal it can be that
the metal absorbs part of the lining. These facts will set a limit for the use a lifetime of
the lining.
The density of the lining is important. Is this is very low some of the metal will remain
there and can dissolve if the next metal charge is liquid. This can contaminate these
metal (for instance iron in a steel charge).
For this reason the lining must be as dense as possible and damaged area must be
repaired to the maximum. It is also preferred to clean the lining from slag and other
sticking material.
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4.4 Pouring
Whatever pouring system is used, it is important that the pouring action is done in a
continuous and steady way. This will prevent air and other gasses entering the liquid
metal and avoid slag to enter the mould cavity.
The cleaning of the metal surface in the ladle will avoid difficulties to stop slag
entering the pouring device. But for metals with a high tendency to oxidise it can be
good to keep an oxide-layer on the surface to prevent excessive oxidising and hold
new oxides and slag by sticking to this surface layer.
It is important to pour at a height as low as possible compared to the pouring device,
to pour at a constant rate and to keep a sufficient high level of metal in the pouring
device. If a system with a bottom pouring is used, it is preferred to let calm down the
metal and assure that all slag has floated up.
5. ENERGY, ENVIRONMENT AND WORKING AREA

Melting is a very critical item at this time for our society because it is using "old
material", "raw material" and is causing CO, dioxins and dust output in the air as well
as polluting the working area in the melt shop with dust, gas and noise.
Melting is using a lot of energy.
Energy is not the energy we read on the meter aside the melting equipment. Energy
includes also the energy necessary to produce raw material, electricity, gas, and
oxygen This total energy can show another picture as the energy just used by the
melting equipment.
Melting can be done by using "old material", but the more the more other phenomena
will come up. Dirt material must be cleaned and this dirt is waste. If it is burned it
disappears in the air. Some other not wanted elements must be removed and
oxidising them mostly does this. These oxides do go in the air or must be stored for
re-use somewhere else.
The dust and oxides can be captured in a filter that also uses quite some energy. The
dust must be stored and dumped in special circumstances.
The CO and dioxins are very difficult to minimise.
Melting will always be working in an area that has a higher temperature, a higher
noise level and from time to time some fumes. Isolating and filters will do this but do
cost again energy.
These items will be discussed over and over and the government will make
regulations. But without melting a lot of things and tools will not be available
anymore.
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6. SUMMARY
Melting is a very important part of the casting process. It does give the material its
correct properties in the particular casting.
The process is difficult to master because it is a "living process", this means changing
in time depending on the used system and temperatures and materials.
It requires a lot of knowledge about the particular equipment and working
procedures.
It requires a lot of experience to evaluate the situation at the time the metal is
solidifying.
For this reason new material (new for that particular foundry) will always have some
difficulties in the beginning until these experience is built up.
Melting is controversial concerning energy consumption, environmental and working
area pollution. There is no absolute satisfying solution for this matter,
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FETTLING
FETTLING
1. Introduction
2. Process
Unavoidable fettling
Avoidable fettling
Window on performance
4. Influences
Use of correct tooling / equipment
Never ending job
5. Conclusion
1. INTRODUCTION
Fettling is the most underestimated part of the foundry.

Perhaps this is due to the fact that it is hard and dirty work that can be done by nearly
every one?
Perhaps this is due to the fact that its workers are low schooled?
Perhaps this is due to the fact that the fettling department has to correct the non
correct performance of the previous departments?
The fettling department has an opportunity to be the judge of the foundry by seeing
the quality of all done in previous departments: pattern shop, mould- and core-shop,
melting shop and pouring.
The casting can be seen at first and an estimation of the extra work can be done.
This extra work is only partly unavoidable; a lot of it can be decreased tremendously.
Fettling is the window on performance evaluation for a foundry concerning cost and
quality. Combined with the evaluation through the quality control (defects after NDT
inspection) will complete the total evaluation.
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2. PROCESS
There are major steps in the fettling process: shot blasting the unboxed casting,
removing pouring system and risers as well as visual inspection and the correcting of
the casting surface.
unboxed casting
shotblasting casting
pouring system
unfettled casting
risers
visual inspection
finns, burs
casting
surface correcting
fettled casting
The first step is the shot blasting of the casting. Sand, oxides and other adhering
material should be removed by the blasting.
The following type of equipment is used:
1. rotating drum with or without blasting, used for small parts
2. automatic blasting with shot, used for small and medium parts
3. hand blasting with shot, used for large and or complicated parts.
The type of shot is depending on the material and the required surface condition of
the casting.
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It is mostly steel shot. For austenitic materials, small grained shot, blasted at low
speed will be used to avoid cold hardening of the surface. The material of the shot
will be glass, slag or sand.
The size of shot and the velocity and amount is depending on the initial condition (as
unboxed) of the casting surface: lot of adhering sand, burned sand, inclusions
Also the required surface condition is a factor to take in account.
The second step is removing pouring system and risers. This is done after shot
blasting because the removed clean material can be re-used in the next melt-charge.
This removing is done by cutting discs (for materials as iron as well as stainless steel
and manganese steel and high alloyed irons and steels) or by oxi-cutting (for
materials as carbon and low alloyed steel) or by shock removing (for brittle materials
as grey iron, white iron and high alloyed iron and steel).
Oxi-cutting is a fast operation but cannot be used for materials with a low heat
conductibility (austenitic steels and iron or brittle grey irons). After the cutting a lot of
flatting by grinding wheels is necessary.
By shock removing it is necessary to avoid a fracture, which enters the casting
material. For this reason a riser-seat is used. There are rules for the dimensions.
After removing a lot of flatting by grinding wheels is required.
The most important part of the second step is the visual inspection. This visual
inspection will tell us if:
1. the casting is full and without misruns (cold flaw, laps)
2. the pouring system has trapped the slag, sand and other inclusions
3. the risers did deliver sufficient liquid metal for feeding by checking:
rest weight of the casting compared to the initial weight
connecting plane concerning porosity and metal condition.
If the casting is approved to be, at first view, correct, it is released for further fettling.
The third and last step is the removing of fins and burs and the correction of the
surface to comply with the requirements.
Burs are due to miss fitting of pattern parts or of pattern to cores. It will be a
continuously returning job for the next castings if nothing is done to correct the fitting.
The thickness of the burs do indicate the pouring temperature: the thinner and larger
the bur the higher the pouring temperature.
The mismatch of pattern- and or core-parts is hard to remove and it is very well
possible that the neighbouring area is damaged.
Finns are mostly due to the quality of the mould material, type of coating and coating
layer thickness and the pouring temperature. This will mostly go together with a high
roughness of the surface.
Adhering and even burnt sand is very difficult to remove and requires a lot of fettling
work. This asks for immediate action in the moulding department and limiting of the
pouring temperature.
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Inclusions are mostly easily removable but afterwards the surface must be
smoothened to the neighbouring area.
The fettling is done with fettling discs put in electrical or air driven equipment. The
higher the rotation speed, the faster the fettling is done.
The discs are of silica-carbide, zircone or another material. Each of them has a
particular lifetime for a particular material. Which material of disc suits for which
material is a matter of equipment and experience of the fettlers.
Anyhow the material must be chosen that it will not heat the casting material too
much (problem for casting material with a low heat conductibility). Too much heat will
lead to surface cracks and even to fracture in thin walled castings. So it is also
preferred to stop the fettling regularly to allow the fettled area to cool.
Fettling has some important features: there is avoidable and unavoidable fettling
work and it can give the best information about the performance of the previous
departments as pattern shop, moulding and core shop and pouring.
Unavoidable fettling
Removing the mould remains by shot blasting and removing the pouring system and
risers is unavoidable.
Shot blasting is mostly not a problem for loose sand, but can take a long time if
adhering or burnt sand is present.
This work can be decreased if attention is paid to the dimensions of the risers and
the their location as well as the use of riser seats.
Pay attention that this modification do not lead to porosity in the material section!
3.2 Avoidable fettling
This is the work that can minimalised to a large extend and even be avoided by the
better performance of the previous departments:
1. moulding to avoid surface roughness, adhering sand and sand inclusions
2. pouring to avoid adhering sand
3. engineering to avoid inclusions, turbulent pouring, split lines on planes
without machining
4. pattern shop to avoid mismatch, burs
It is a need to stress the performance of the previous departments to be high quality.
This will decrease the cost and lead time of a casting.
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3.3 Window on performance
The fettling department is offering the opportunity to evaluate the performance of the
foundry. It is the best site to found out the non conformities and has the possibility to
find the possible causes because all "witness material" (pouring system, riser,
casting) is still available.
The non conformities that can be stated are:
1. concerning pattern
* dimensions of pattern in accordance to the cores
* draft of the pattern: size and location
* referencing between pattern and cores
2. moulding department
* quality of the mould department
* quality of coating and coating applying
* condition of the equipment used
* experience and knowledge of the moulders
3. melting department
*deslagging of metal
* pouring temperature
* pouring experience
4. engineering
* split line of pattern
* location of pouring system
* location and shape of connection of risers compared to casting
* number of cores and their relation.
This possibility to measure the performance of the foundry and to find the possible
causes and remedies to solve the problem, is seldom used as it could be.
It is a waste of experience and knowledge increase!
4. INFLUENCE
4.1 Use of correct tooling / equipment
To have the maximum efficiency, it is necessary to use the best tooling and
equipment. Incorrect tooling can also damage the casting.
Shot can be too light and have a too low speed. This results in long blasting time and
mostly in an insufficient removing of the adhering sand and inclusions. This can only
be overcome by a extra amount of fettling work.
Shot can have a too high speed and this will roughen the casting surface and
possibly deform thin castings.
Shot can damage the casting permanently be work hardening the surface and or
introducing shot material in the surface. This will be the case if austenitic stainless
steel is blasted with sharp and heavy steel shot.
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Rotary drums, without or with shot, can deform and break the castings, especially
thin walled complex castings.
Using oxi-cutting for materials with a low heat conductibility and or brittle nature, will
cause cracks and probably fracturing (grey iron, austenitic iron and steel).
Also heavy duty cutting or fettling with a lot of pressure on the discs, can cause the
same phenomena as oxi-cutting (high manganese steel).
The use of a chisel in air operating equipment or small sharp discs during cutting or
fettling can mark the surrounding area. These marks can ask for more fettling
The nature of the cutting and fettling discs will influence the time of fettling and
cutting. It is preferred to do tests and cooperate with the supplier of them.
4.2 Never finishing job
It is a job, which is never finished because:
1. there will always be an area which does not comply completely
2. fettled area aside of a non fettled one will give a subjectively unsatisfying
feeling
3. mostly no real comparison material is available
4. area will be difficult to reach and work at
5. the evaluation is highly subjective.
Therefore it is necessary to have reference standards available and a close
surveilling of the boss of the department and quality controller involved.
5. CONCLUSION
The fettling operation is a costly and time consuming job which is mostly
underestimated.
The operators are not paid as moulders and are considered as those which have to
correct the insufficient performance of other departments.
The job is very difficult to describe and to make procedures for it. This is so because
the situation will be different from casting to casting and the evaluation is highly
subjective. To overcome this it is preferred to have master samples of material cast
in the own foundry.
During this job a foundry has a open window on the performance of the foundry
because all non conformities and defects can be stated (excluded those at the inside
of material sections). It is very important that all material involved is still there and the
causes can be found more easily.
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HEAT TREATMENT
HEAT TREATMENT
1. Introduction
2. Process
3. Types of heat treatment
3.1 Treatment with change of microstructure
3.2 Treatment without change of microstructure
3.3 Treatment without change of microstructure and mechanical
properties
4. Influences
4.1 Temperature
4.2 Time on temperature (dwelling)
4.3 Heating and cooling rate
4.4 Atmosphere
4.5 Loading
5. Conclusion
1. INTRODUCTION
Heat treatment is the "process" that brings the castings on "another temperature" as
room temperature with the purpose of changing the mechanical properties of the
material, decreasing the stress situation in the casting and or preheating the casting
for welding or cutting risers or deforming the casting
The mechanical properties can be changed, strength as well as ductility as well as
hardness. It is sometimes even possible to change physical properties; The
microstructure is the base of all this possibilities.
There are treatments that do not change the mechanical properties. They will, to
some degree, stress relieve the casting.
For welding the casting or cutting risers or deform it, the casting can locally or as a
whole be heated to a low temperature.
The temperatures at which heat treatment must be performed will change from
casting to casting because the transformation of microstructure is depending on the
chemical analysis of the casting involved. Castings, from different pouring badges,
will have a different chemical analysis.
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2. PROCESS
The process is described in the following flow chart:
Casting
Casting
Casting
Casting
S
U Cooling
B
Z
E
R Dwelling
O
F
U Heating
R
N
A
C Dwelling
E
ATMOSPHERE
CONTROL
Heating
Cooling
furnace
Loading
Air
Water
Other
HEATTREATED CASTING
The first step is the loading of the furnace. This must be done in a way that:
1. the free flow of air around the castings is guaranteed
2. no burner flame can touch a casting
3. all castings will have nearly the same temperature and that this temperature
is about the temperature indicated by the thermocouples.
It is not allowed to enter castings in a furnace with a temperature above 100 C. This
will cause a thermo shock, which can lead to cracks and deformation, especially for
complex castings and or casting of a material with a low heat conductibility (austenitic
microstructure).
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The second step is bringing the castings on the required temperature and keeps it
that long that the complete section is on temperature and the required
transformations and processes (carbide dissolving) are performed.
This temperature is mostly higher as room temperature but there is now a treatment
with a lower temperature (subzero treatment).
The heating rate depends on:
1. shape of casting
2. material of the casting
3. the load of furnace compared to the capacity.
The time on temperature, dwelling time, depends on the section size of the casting
and the type of material and the time needed for the required transformation.
Transforming from the ferrite to the austenite structure will be quicker than the time
needed for dissolving carbides into the matrix.
The higher the temperature the lower the time needed for the transformation but the
larger the grain size will be.
The furnace atmosphere has an importance for the oxidation damage of the casting
surface and even for de de-carbonising of it. A casting with an oxidised surface will
have problems in a corrosive service and castings with a de-carbonised surface
cannot reach the theoretical strength and hardness, as expected for the original
chemical composition, anymore.
The higher the treatment temperature, the more pronounced oxidation and decarbonising could be.
3. HEAT TREATMENT
There are three major categories:
1. with a microstructure transformation
2. without a microstructure transformation
3. without any change of structure and material properties
Treatment with a microstructure transformation
These are normalising, soft annealing, hardening, tempering and subzero treatment.
Normalising is the treatment that transforms the material to the austenitic structure
at temperatures above the Ac-temperature. After the transformation is finished, the
castings are cooled in calm air.
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The result is that the grain size of the material is decreased and homogenised. The
stress level will also be decreased. The material has all over the section the same
properties.
Soft annealing will bring the material to the austenitic microstructure followed by a
cooling until just below the austenitic zone (Ac-temperature) and staying at this
temperature to allow the formation of soft ferrite. When all austenite is transformed
the material will cool to room temperature in the furnace (for complex shaped
castings) or in calm air.
After soft annealing the material has a lower strength and hardness and most of the
carbides will be dissolved and do not form again during cooling.
Hardening is the treatment that transforms the material to the austenitic structure at
temperatures above the Ac-temperature. After the transformation is finished, the
casting are cooled very fast (quenching) which allows the transformation to the
martensitic structure. The minimum rate of cooling depends on the chemical
composition of the material as
shown in the CCT-diagram.
The final microstructure
consists of martensite and
possibly some bainite and
some austenite.
Tempering is the treatment that must follow each hardening. This tempering will, if
austenite is present, transform it to pearlite, bainite and sometimes extra secondary
carbides will be formed.
The strength and hardness will decrease but the ductility will increase.
The subzero treatment is used to transform the austenite structure to martensite.
This happens in the temperature zone below the Ms-temperature (martensite-start)
and even below the Mf-temperature (martensite-finish) where no austenite can exist
anymore. After the transformation the cooling can heat again to room temperature. It
is preferred to temper the material after this treatment.
The material will have the maximum strength and hardness but a very low ductility.
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3.2 Treatment without a microstructure transformation
These treatments are tempering, solution treatment and globulising carbides.

Tempering is the treatment that will decrease the transformation stresses
(martensitic formation). The microstructure itself is not changed.
The strength and hardness do decrease a little and the ductility does increase a lot,
depending on the temperature.
Solution treating is done with materials that have an austenitic structure and some
carbide and possibly other precipitates. The material is brought to a temperature,
mostly in the range of 1.000 C, at which carbides and precipitates do dissolve
completely.
The higher the temperature the quicker the dissolving will be finished. The cooling
must be very fast, especially in the zone where carbides and precipitates are formed,
in order to avoid the formation of new ones.
An increasing stay at the treatment temperature will lead to an increasing size of
grain, which will result in a small decrease of ductility.
Globulising carbides are done with non-austenitic materials. The material is heated
to a temperature just below the Ac-temperature (start of austenite transformation)
and during the stay at this temperature the carbides will globulise.
No microstructure is changed and the ductility will increase.
For ferritic high alloyed irons and steels a stress relieve and globulising will be done
at a very high temperature (700 to 800 C). The treatment decreases the stresses
and increases a little the ductility.
The longer the stay on this temperature the larger the grain size will be and this will
decrease the ductility. No microstructure and strength is changed.
3.3 Treatment without any change in structure and mechanical properties

Stress relieving is a treatment, which decrease the stresses in the casting. These
stresses are due to cooling, welding, cutting risers and not due to transformation of
microstructure.
The most influencing factor is the temperature and in a smaller degree the time on
this temperature.
No mechanical properties of the material are changed.
Preheating can be done in order to be able to do some welding or deformation.
Material on a higher temperature has a lower strength and a higher ductility. With a
higher ductility they can resist crack building.
No mechanical properties or structure is changed.
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4. INFLUENCES
4.1 Temperature
The temperature is the most important item for a heat treatment. Each treatment has
a temperature span and these temperatures depend on the chemical composition of
the material.
There are several important temperatures for each material (see CCT-diagram):
1. Ac-temperature
This is the temperature that forms the borderline between the area of material
with an austenite structure and the area with an alpha crystal structure (ferrite,
pearlite, bainite, martensite).
This temperature is not valid for materials with an austenitic structure.
2. Ms-temperature
At his temperature, still cooling, the transformation from austenite to
martensite starts. The amount of transformed austenite is depending on the
temperature and not on the time.
3. Mf-temperature
Below this temperature no austenite can exist anymore because it is
completely transformed to martensite or another alpha crystal phase.
The higher the temperature above the Ac-temperature, the faster the transformation
will occur. The grain size of a structure will increase if there is no transformation.
For iron, a high temperature can kill the germs necessary to obtain a good free
graphite morphology.
But there is a best temperature, resulting in the best combination of strength and
ductility.
At a sufficient high temperature carbides and precipitates will dissolve into the
structure and disappear in this way.
The most important point is that the thermocouples, which do master the furnace
activity, measure the temperature that is identical to the temperature of the casting.
This is very difficult and the only way to obtain this to a high degree, is fixing the
thermocouple wires to the casting.
If the temperature is not correct, it is possible that:
1. it is out the required temperature span
2. it is lower or higher and consequently points to a different dwelling time.
Both possibilities will lead to an incorrect treatment.
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4.2 Time on temperature (dwelling)
The time on temperature is less important than the temperature itself.
Because the transformation is a process, it needs time to finish. Therefore the time
on temperature must equal the sum of the time necessary to equalise the temperature throughout the casting section and the time the transformation requires.
Dwelling on a high temperature can cause grain size increase and this fact will lead
to a small decrease of the ductility.
De-carburising and oxidation will also increase a bit with longer times on high
temperature.
4.3 Heating and cooling rate
The heating and even more the cooling rate are important.
The heating rate has to be so that the section can equalise the temperature of the
core and surface in a short time. This time depends on the heat conductibility of the
material and the location of the parts in the furnace, especially the distance to the
burners. Any touch of the burner flame will lead to extreme temperature differences
and causes deformations and cracks.
Also between thick and thin sections in the same casting, temperature differences
will cause thermal stresses. The stresses can lead to cracks. During the dwelling on
high temperature, these stresses are decreased a lot.
The cooling rate is different from material to material and can be found in the typical
CCT-diagram of the material. This diagram is unique for a material with a particular
chemical composition.
Depending on the section size another type of cooling is needed. It is very important
to limit the rate to that one which will not cause deformation and or cracks in the
material. The more complex the shape of the casting, the lower the cooling rate must
be because a non uniform cooling will definitely lead to deformation.
It is nearly impossible to correct deformation due to incorrect heat treatment!
4.4 Atmosphere
The atmosphere in the furnace is very important due to its influence on the surface of
the casting: oxidation, de-carburising...
Nearly all materials will de-carbonise during heat treatment at a temperature above
700 C if the atmosphere is oxidising. This loss of carbon in the surface area will lead
to a loss in strength and hardness after quenching.
Stainless steel will loose carbon but also a lot of chromium. This chromium is
necessary for the corrosion protective film in service conditions. Each loss of
chromium will lead to a decrease in corrosion resistance. This phenomena is also
valid for heat resisting materials.
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4.5 Loading
The loading of the furnace must be in that way that the furnace atmosphere can
circulate around the castings in a freely and equal way. All castings must be heated
up as equal as possible. Mostly, the bottom part, especially if it touches the floor of
the furnace, does give a problem.
Any touch of the burner flame will lead to extreme temperature differences and
causes deformations and cracks.
But during cooling this item is even more important. Small changes in cooling rate
can cause the formation of other microstructure. It is nearly impossible to give a full
loaded furnace (in weight and number of parts) a correct cooling to all castings
involved.
If the cooling is not equal per casting, the casting can deform.
5. CONCLUSION
The heat treatment is an important production step for a casting in order to obtain the
required mechanical and physical properties and be free of stresses.
It is a dangerous operation because quite some things can go wrong.
The surface can be de-carbonised or oxidised too much. The surface can have small
cracks, which eventually can go through the section and lead to fracture. Complex
shaped castings can deform in a way that the dimensions do not match anymore.
These deformation cannot be totally corrected.
If properly done, a heat treatment which is set up according to the real chemical
composition of the material and which does take in account the complexity of the
shape of the casting, the results can be a very good material.
Material with nearly all wanted properties can be produced.
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MACHINING & MARKING
MACHINING & MARKING

1. Introduction
2. Flow chart
3. Feature
4. Conclusion
1. Introduction
This job is mostly not included in the foundry activity.
Marking must be done, if not by the foundry, by a specialised sub-supplier. This is
necessary for the first, and even more if this does not comply, casting to assure the
dimensional quality of the pattern.
Machining is done by specialised companies and is a completely different job as
producing castings. The circumstances in a foundry are not suitable for a good
machining.
Marking and machining are, for the customer, a integral part in the production of the
component they need.
2. Flow chart
CASTING
This job is a single step job.

MARKING
INSTRUCTIONS
DRAWING
MACHINE SHOP
FOUNDRY
MARKING
MACHINING
INSPECTION
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The casting and drawing and marking instructions are used to set the zero point.
This point is as well as for the foundry (pattern and mould assembly) as for the
machine shop the starting point for further production.
The marking is done before the machining, because it is the start of machining.
The marking is the confirmation for the foundry that the casting production complies
with the dimensional requirements.
The inspection, mostly dimensional and surface roughness, must be done with
certified equipment and competent (certified) operators. The results must be put in a
report, which will accompany the casting in further production.
3. Features
The most important feature is the zero point. This zero point is the starting point for
the marking and machining. It must assure that the casting can be machined without
any dimensional problem. The zero point is the result of the pattern concept and the
mould assembly (putting together mould parts and cores).
Therefore a continuous feedback after marking is necessary to confirm or to be able
to modify the pattern and mould assembling.
The zero point should always be situated on a non-machined (as cast) plane!
The cost of machining can be higher as the cost of a casting. If machining is done
incorrectly, probably due to incorrect marking, the casting is mostly lost too.
Therefore the sub-supplier for marking and machining must be reliable and familiar
with castings.
4. Conclusion
Marking and machining are no foundry jobs, but belong to the component production
for the customer. If these jobs are performed incorrectly, the foundry is also involved.
It can lead to repair and or scrapping of the casting.
The zero point is the most important item in the casting production, especially for
complex castings. It is an item, which involves the foundry and the sub-supplier of
marking and machining.
All inspections must be done in a correct way, which is with certified tools and
equipment and by competent operators. The report will accompany the casting in
further production.
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SURFACE TREATMENT
SURFACE TREATMENT
1. Introduction
2. Process
4. Influences
5. Conclusion
1. INTRODUCTION
The surface of a casting has its proper requirements. It can be that nothing is
specified and than there is no treatment at all unless the foundry does want this
surface to comply with their standards.
A specialised treatment is mostly done by subcontractors, which are well equipped
and specialised in the treatment involved.
It is very important that the surface condition after the treatment is clearly described
and or visualised. The best situation is that there are international accepted
standards.
The purchase order from the foundry to the subcontractor must indicate and specify
all requirements, asked for by his proper customer.
2. PROCESS
In this process there are possible routes:
1. no requirements and no treatment done
2. shot blasting the casting after fettling.
If there is no requirement and the casting does look good, the casting can go to the
final inspection as it is. This can be the case if the customer does him self still some
treatment.
Anyhow it pays if the foundry looks to send only castings, which look good.
3. subcontract specialised treatments.
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Casting
Shotblasting
Shotblasting /
cleaning
Shotblasting /
cleaning
Shotblasting /
cleaning
Shotblasting /
cleaning
Painting
surface hardening
metalising
Other layer
NDT inspection
Shotblasting
Final inspection
After fettling the foundry can do another shot blasting to:

1. equalise the surface between fettled and as c ast area
2. comply the surface with the requirements.
This shot blasting mostly is done after the NDT-inspection (non destructive testing as
are magnetic, penetrant, ultrasonic and X-ray) because this test can leave products,
used for the test, on the surface.
This shot blasting can be done with the same shot as the shot blasting after removing
the casting from the mould, sometimes a finer and more round shaped shot is used.
This assures a better surface roughness.
If a special treatment is required, this is mostly performed outside the foundry. These
treatments can be:
1. painting
2. surface hardening
3. metalising
4. another layer.
Painting can be done to prevent rusting of the casting. If this is the case, no special
requirements will be asked for and the foundry can do this.
If painting is required with requirements on layer thickness and adhering force, the
shot blasting and cleaning cannot be done in a foundry shot blasting equipment.
The surface condition and the cleanliness will be higher as the foundry can get.
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Surface hardening is done in special cases. The casting must be free of scale and
oxides and inclusions. Surface hardening does require special equipment and skills.
If the casting must be metalised, a cleaning in a bath after a shot blasting is mostly
preferred. It can also be that the treatment does require a specially adapted chemical
composition of the casting material. Chomating an iron will ask for a low silicon level.
After the treatment the final inspection can be done.
It is well known that a surface treatment does have requirements. These
requirements are mostly not international standards but "company made".
Therefore it is important to discuss these requirements with the sub supplier and to
agree about the features, which are important, and on which some wishes are valid.
Never accept requirements without knowing from a specialist that these do meet the
possibilities of the material.
4. INFLUENCES
The moulding process will, too a very high extend, fix the surface condition. All work
to be done to correct the surface will not be beneficial for the surface treatment
because there will be two types of surfaces: fettled and as cast.
It is very dangerous to weld or repair with "liquid cold metal" a surface. As a matter of
fact the surface treatment will react on this area very different.
Defects, just below the surface, are very dangerous for all treatments that are done
on a higher temperature. Indeed these defects can blow up the surface and destroy
the treatment.
5. CONCLUSION
The surface treatment is every operation that will change the surface.
This treatment can be painting to protect the casting for rusting. The requirements for
this treatment are not that complex and therefore, in most cases the foundry does it.
Specialised companies that are experienced in the treatment involved must do the
other treatments.
It is very important to make sure that the sub supplier will work according the correct
requirements and the foundry is advised to inspect the treatment results. This asks
for a certificate or can be done by an independent surveyor.
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QUALITY DEPARTMENT
QUALITY DEPARTMENT
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Introduction
Flow chart
Features
Influences
Conclusion
1. Introduction
The quality department has the purpose to inspect castings in such a way that all
delivered castings do meet the customer requirements and the foundry
specifications.
To fulfil this job, there is more than inspection. There is also a quality system, the
certifying of instruments, tools and operators, as well as the knowledge of the
specifications and requirements, which are mentioned in the order. If nothing is
mentioned in the order the foundry specifications and requirements will be valid.
2. Flow chart
The quality inspection is an operation, which can be done in several ways, depending
on the requirements.
CASTING
VISUAL
QUALITY SYSTEM
PROCEDURES
TOOLING
DIMENSIONAL
QUALITY INSPECTION
CERTIFYING
MATERIAL
OPERATORS
ORDER
SURFACE CONDITION
NDT - TEST
REQUIREMENTS
FOUNDRY
CERTIFICATE
ACCEPTED
CASTING
REJECTED
CASTING
The inspection can be visual, dimensional, material properties, surface condition and
NDT (non destructive testing).
The visual inspection concerns the first inspection, very cheap and easy to perform. It
does involve mostly the shape and surface. It is an subjective test. It can lead to
scrapping the casting or ask for extra objective inspection.
The dimensional inspection is done according to the casting drawing. The results are
compared with the nominal dimension and the tolerance span. The important point is
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to use the same starting point (zero point) as is indicated on the casting drawing and
used by the machine shop.
The material properties include rupture stress, yield stress and deformation on the
different kind of tension: tensile, pressure, bending The test is mostly done for the
tensile conditions and is done on special cast material bars.
The shock and impact tests are done to validate the service temperature range.
Hardness is an easy test. The result is related to other tests (tensile strength) and is
an indication for the machinability.
The surface condition concerns the roughness. This test is partly objective and partly
subjective. The difficulty is to decide the size of the area, which is not conform.
The NDT inspections concerns:
1. penetrant
2. magnetic
3. ultrasonic
4. X-ray
(PT)
(MT)
(UT)
(XT)
surface condition
surface condition and layer just below
surface and section material
surface and section material.
This inspection does not damage the casting and therefore it is named non
destructive.
To perform the inspection there is a need for a system, an authorisation and
information.
The system is called the quality system and does set the rules for the functioning of
the quality inspection. This involves as well the inspection of the casting as the
tooling as the production.
The authorisation is got after certifying the procedures, tools and operators. They
have to perform tests according to international standards and perform the job
involved very regularly.
The information is found in the order, indicating the standards and quality level to
apply. The quality level can be different according to the type of test. If no quality is
mentioned in the order, the rules of the foundrys standard quality are to apply.
After performing the inspection, the casting can be rejected. Each rejected casting
can be scrapped or repaired. After the repair a new inspection must be performed.
If the casting is accepted, it gets its certificate of conformity. If the customer has
asked for it, it will keep together with the casting. To do this each casting must be
marked with a unique serial number.
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The quality inspection must function in and according to a quality system. This
system must cover:
1. rules to be followed to inspect the product and production as well as
administrating, engineering
2. inventory of tools with a valid certificate
3. inventory of operators with a valid certificate
4. scheduled internal and external auditing.
In this system the foundry quality standard must be mentioned and described.
Any inspection is valid if there is a written procedure of inspection, the requirements
that were used as standard and a written report. A certified operator must do this. If
one of these conditions is missed, the results of the inspection are not usable.
4. Influences
The inspection and quality system can refer to different standards. Mostly the
standards from different countries do not comply completely, but are very similar.
Therefore the foundry system uses a standard, which does meet the requirements of
several standards. It is preferred to inform the customer about these differences and
probably ask permission to use it.
A qualification by a third party (Bureau Veritas, Lloyds Register of Shipping) is a
timely and costly operation. If once certified, it pays to keep certified by a regularly
(mostly yearly) small test and question for prolongation.
The value of an inspection is zero if the equipment and tools and probably the
operator are not certified. Also a certificate has a validity that is timely restricted.
5. Conclusion
The most important feature is that quality must be inspected by an according to
certified operators and rules and with certified equipment and tools. The standard
can be a agreement between buyer and foundry.
If the certification is not there, the value of the report is zero.
It is important that quality inspection does more than just reporting. By describing
circumstances and appearance, it can help production to correct the non conformity
for the future.
Quality can only refer to a casting if this casting is marked with a unique serial
number, which is also appearing in each report.
=============================================================================
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REPAIR
REPAIR
1. Introduction
2. Flow chart
3. Important Features
4. Influences
5. Conclusion
1. Introduction
The need for repair is the consequence of the fact that the casting does not meet
some requirements concerning material section, shape and or surface condition.
It is preferred to do repairs after informing or receiving permission to do it from the
customer.
The decision to repair has several aspects: technical, commercial and economical.
The repair must technically be possible and accepted. The repaired casting must
meet the order requirements and if not, the permission of the customer and or
surveillance office must be given. This concerns the shape (dimensions), material
strength (strength and ductility), quality of the material section (porosity, cracks)
and surface condition (corrosion, erosion).
The repair must be commercially accepted. Whatever technically possible, if the
customer and or the market does have negative feelings about the type of repair or
the repair as such, the foundry should consider to do it. It can spoil a good name.
If the delivery time is critical, it can be a factor to do a repair because pouring a
replacement casting will take a lot more time and delivery retarding.
The repair must be economically acceptable. If the total repair cost (preparing the
repair, repairing itself and inspection and reporting after repairing) has a high level
compared to the casting cost, it should be considered to forget about repairing. Each
foundry should set a standard cost (relative to the casting cost) as a maximum for
repairing. If the cost is higher it pays to pour a replacement casting.
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2. Flow chart
There are three steps for a repair: preparing the repair, performing the repair and the
inspection and reporting about the repair.
NON CONFORM CASTING
CUSTEMOR
AGREEMENT
NDT - REPORT
R
E
P
A
I
R
SMOOTHEN AND
FETTLING
PUT PLUGS
WELD PROCEDURE
HEAT TREATMENT
WELDING
CERTIFICATE
INSPECTION WELD
INSPECTION
ACCEPTED CASTING
REPORT REPAIR
The preparing of the repair is the first step.

The question if the repair is technically possible must be answered first. The type of
repair, which does suit the best, is chosen.
The customer must be asking if this is allowed. To make this decision possible, the
foundry must provide him with all data about the non-conformity and the type of
repair. Only after a written permission the repair can proceed.
The second step is the performing of the repair.
The repair can be one of the following possibilities:
1. removing material and smoothen the area
2. removing material and put a plug in this area
3. removing material and weld the area involved.
Smoothen the area is the easiest and lowest cost repair. It can be done if an excess
of material and or strength is available or if no other material (weld material) is
allowed (possibly for corrosion reasons). This is mostly done for high-alloyed irons
and if the defect is minor.
Removing material and put a plug is possible for non-conformities with a restricted
dimension. Mostly the defect is drilled and a plug of identical or similar material plugs
the hole. This is mostly done for irons.
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Welding is the most performed repair, especially for steel.
A certified welder and an accepted and approved welding procedure must do
welding. The inspection during welding is part of the repair.
It is possible that welding does require a preheating of the area to weld or even of the
complete casting. For some castings a soft annealing is required and a preheating.
There can also be an interpass temperature, which is the maximum temperature of
the weld and casting during the welding process. Mostly the casting will be stress
relieved after welding. Sometimes it is necessary to redo the required heat treatment,
especially for quenched and tempered materials.
The last step is the inspection of the casting and especially the repair itself and the
surrounding area. It he non-conformity is removed and the quality according to the
requirements, the casting is accepted. The report of the repair must be made and is
an integral part of the delivery.
The first important feature is the question of a repair to be done or not.
This decision must be based on several aspects: technical, economical,
commercial The fact is that a repaired casting will never be clean anymore and
always be accompanied by a repair report.
Another feature is that the requirements for the repaired casting must be clear and
agreed by the buyer and foundry. These requirements can be different from those,
which are valid for the casting.
The third feature is the fact that a written report is an essential part of the repair. This
report must describe the defect or non-conformity, the preparation of the repair, the
repair itself, the treatment after repair and the results of the inspection. certified
operators must do all inspection. This repair report is part of the repair cost!
The fourth feature is that, repair not been scheduled, will increase the lead time of
the casting involved and mostly the delivery time will be longer, leading to late
delivery. But mostly, scrapping the casting and pouring another, will even lead to
later delivery.
4. Influences
The possibility to repair will depend on the service conditions (temperature,
corrosion, erosion) and requirements (strength, ductility, quality of material section
and surface) of the casting as well as of the material of the casting (machinability,
weldability).
The non-conformity must be quantified according to these aspects.
If stress is the requirement and the amount of good section is sufficient to withstand
these, perhaps no repair should be made.
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But if the defect is a crack, there is always a risk of growing and it is preferred to
remove the crack and smoothen the area.
If corrosion and or erosion are involved, the removal of the defect area is necessary.
If stress is a problem, the defect area must be cleaned and repaired.
The easiest repair is repairing a restricted and small area. If the metal can be drilled,
drilling and putting a plug in identical or similar material remove the defect. The plug
can be fixed by screw thread or pressing force (putting in place on a much lower
temperature).
Welding must do the repair for a large non-conform area. Depending on the casting
material, this can be impossible (not weldable), restricted possible (iron with nickel
weld material) or without problems (steel with identical weld material).
Anyhow the weld material must meet the service and other requirements and if
temperature changes are involved, it must have a very similar thermal expansion
coefficient.
Large and not deep defects can be metal sprayed (preferable hot spraying).
5. Conclusion
Repair is never planned. It is the result of the non-conform casting due to a not
correct production. It will always increase the lead-time of the casting.
The best repair is no repair!
Repair is always increasing cost and it is the first rule to consider scrapping the
casting and replacing it by a new one. This scrapping is possible if the foundry is
confident that the cause of the non-conformity and the solution for it is known and the
next production will be correct.
Technical reason can forbid repair. This can be the repairability of the material and
the fact that the repair will never meet the requirements.
Also commercial reasons can lead to not repairing. A repaired casting is stigmatised
for the rest of its life and this is not a positive marketing factor for the foundry.
Each repair needs a written permission of the buyer and or designer and must have a
written report. It can be smoothening the area, plugging and welding or spraying.
A repair will always bring some more responsibility, even for the final product, to the
foundry. This responsibility is very difficult to quantify because the foundry is not fully
aware of the service conditions and design stresses. The consequences can exceed
far the value of the casting. Therefore it must be handled very carefully.
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Sales
SALES & MARKETING

1. Introduction
2. Flow chart
3. Features
4. Conclusion
1. Introduction
Sales & marketing is a department of the foundry, which gives it a window to the
market. A customer communicates with the foundry with the help of this department.
It is to assure that all information about the customer and the market and the
deliveries do penetrate to the foundry and its quality department.
On the other hand the technical and quality possibilities of the foundry must be made
available to the customer and the market.
2. Flow chart
This department has three major tasks. The first task concerns the handling of
requests, offers and orders. The second task is to master the information flow from
and to the customer. The third task concerns the gathering and providing updated
market-information to the management and quality control department of the foundry.
Sales organises the flow of each request for quotation. The production department
as well as the quality control department have to evaluate and quantify the cost.
Sales will communicate the information and price to the customer.
The price is set up, starting from the cost price and adding a margin, which depends
on the market situation, the relation with the customer and the intention to do
business with this particular customer and market (for instance first delivery).
The offer is discussed with the customer in order to recognise its value and the
appreciation of the customer.
It is important to know the reason for not approving the offer and ordering elsewhere.
If the offer is validated sales must inform about the requirements and special wishes
in order to communicate these correctly to the foundry and especially the quality
control department.
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FOUNDRY MANUAL
CUSTOMER & MARKETINFORMATION

NO ORDER
INFORMATION
ORDER
REQUEST FOR
COSTPRICE
FO
UN
DR
Y
QU
AL
IT
Y
CO
NTR
OL
OFFER
COSTPRICE /
PRODUCTION TIME
TECHNICAL
POSSIBILITIES
MARKETING
INFORMATION
MARK
ET
REQUEST FOR
QUOTATION
SALES
&
MARKE
TING
OFFER
ORDER
CUS
TO
MER
QUALITY
POSSIBILITIES
NO ORDER
COSTPRICE / QUALITY
PERFORMANCE
INFORMATION
CUSTOMER COMPLAINTS
The order communication must be send as quick as possible. The customer must be
informed continuously about the production and the expected delivery time.
But contact about the delivery is necessary because at that time, the purchasing
department of the customer will know the judgement of its production and quality
department. It can be that extra wishes are expressed.
This information must be communicated to every department in the foundry.
Customer complaints must be handled very carefully. The customer must feel that
the foundry does react and does its utmost to avoid the problem or complaint for the
future. Sales must communicate these complaints to every-one in the foundry.
The last task is to provide the management level of all updated information of the
market. This involves the evolution of the demand level as well as the number and
activity of the competitors. It is also important to do a bench marketing, which
reveals the reasons why customers do feel well with deliveries and suppliers.
It is also necessary to inform about markets on which the foundry is not working. It
can be possible that sleeping or new markets have splendid future expectations.
Knowing this information, the foundry can schedule and perform investments and
extra activity.
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FOUNDRY MANUAL
3. Features
The important feature of sales & marketing is that it belongs to the foundry but works
for the customer. It must communicate the feelings of the customer to the foundry
and struggle to get the best reaction on it.
On the other hand it must show the customer that the foundry, although not
performing as it should, has done it utmost or at least knows how to prevent this fact
happening again.
This department has a job, which seems and is partly conflicting because it has to
defend and to work for two different parties. It must have and keep a trustful relation
with both parties.
The main capabilities are a stable and calm behaviour, whatever the reaction of the
opponent is. An angry customer or colleague must get the opportunity to show its
feelings in its proper way. This does not mean that everything must be accepted but
the sales representative must always be the most calm of all.
This attitude will benefit most in the future.
This needs to do the job in a very interesting way. Having a drink or dinner together,
meeting on meetings and or company festivities will be common practice. This must
be done in a way that all interesting information, correct information, will be gathered.
The method to do this by giving presents, excessive provisions and personal gifts is
very controversial at present. This is especially the case if the business will be done
in developing countries.
Working all over the world will ask for local representatives. It can help to feel the
correct culture of the customer. But it adds an uncertainty about its knowledge and
acting to get information and orders.
It also will increase the cost of this department, which is already very high.
4. Conclusion
Sales & Marketing is a very important department, being the connection between
customer and foundry and the window to the market. It is mostly a very expensive!
It requires very high experienced employees with a highly flexibility in the relation to
others. The possibility to bring good as well as bad messages, in an objective but
correct way, is necessary.
Doing business all over the world will ask for the knowledge of cultures and the ability
to adapt to it for a certain extend. It can be interesting to work with local
representatives. This will increase the cost.
Using not accepted ways to get information and or orders must be avoided!
Menu
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FOUNDRY MANUAL
SP / FPQ
SERIAL FIRST PIECE QUALIFICATION

1. Introduction
2. First Piece Qualification
Introduction
Procedure
Importance of pattern
3. Serial Production
4. Corrective Action Qualification
5. Conclusion
1. INTRODUCTION
It is not normal practice to start the production of a casting without special care. The
casting can be the first to produce or the first part to produce by the foundry with an
existing pattern or with a newly made pattern.
In all these cases there is definitely a need for a First Piece Qualification (FPQproduction). These are the very first three castings produced one after another.
After the FPQ-production, all conditions are fixed to produce the casting with the
existing working procedures and inspection plans. This production is called the Serial
Production (SP-production). It is done according to the MPP mod 0 (manufacturing
production plan).
If for any reason, the approved MPP is modified (as a preventive or corrective
action), the Corrective Action Qualification (CAQ-production) is started. This action
will lead to a new MPP, called MPP mod x.
All these activities are described in the following text.
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FOUNDRY MANUAL
2. FIRST PIECE QUALIFICATION
Introduction
The FPQ-production is done to prove that the MPP will lead to castings, which meet
the requirements and specifications of the order.
It will check that the pattern and working instructions assure that a correct casting is
produced (in serial production) at the lowest cost and to the satisfaction of the
customer.
Procedure
This procedure has at least three production runs.
SPECIFICATIONS
FPQ PRODUCTION
GENERAL
MATERIAL
MPPfpq
CASTING
NDT/DIMENSIONAL
INSPECTION
PATTERN
CORES
MOULD
TEMPLATES
ASSEMBLED
MOULD
NDT INSPECTION
CASTING
MARKING
TEMPLATES
DIMENSIONAL
INSPECTION
SECOND RUN
TEMPLATE FOR
CASTING
THIRD RUN
SERIAL PRODUCTION
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FOUNDRY MANUAL
First run
Starting from the component drawing and the specifications and the requirements of
the order a Manufacturing Process Plan (MPP) is set up. This plan describes the
process steps, the work instructions, the pattern and pouring system (included risers
and chills) as well as the holding and inspection points.
The pattern (layout and dimensions and templates) is the most important tooling and
shall be described more in detail in Chapter 2.3 Importance of Pattern.
The mould parts and cores are made and assembled. During the assembling the
design of templates is figured out. These templates must assure an unique assembly
of cores and mould with the narrowest possible tolerance range.
The casting is poured and after shot blasting the visual and NDT-inspection is done.
It is important to have the pouring system and risers present to help finding the
causes of possible non conformity and or scrap.
For small and or low cost castings the NDT-inspection can be replaced by a
destructive cutting of the casting. Especially the critical areas have to be checked.
But a NDT-inspection can complete the picture of the non conformity and will be of
help by the inspection during the serial production.
According to the result of the NDT-inspection the pouring system, risers, chills and
work instructions will be modified. In the worst case even another pattern layout is
required.
The marking of the casting must be done, starting from the zero point, which is also
the zero point for the machining. It is important to locate this point in a unique way,
available for the moulding department, marking and machining.
The result of this dimensional check will be used to correct the dimensions of the
pattern and core boxes as well as the connection between each of them.
It is impossible to set now the tolerance range because only one measurement is
done.
The templates to use for the moulding department can be produced now, taking in
account the results and experience of the first assembly and dimensions.
Second run
A new casting is produced using the modified (or not modified) MPP and templates.
The NDT-inspection and dimensional inspection must prove that the non conformities
are decreased and or removed.
Depending of this new result and taking in account that the quality is at least one
class better as required by the customer, the MPP and or pattern is modified for the
second time. If the results were good, no modification is done.
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FOUNDRY MANUAL
Third run
The third casting must prove that the production is correct and controlled. The
inspection of this casting together with the experience of similar castings and the
controllability of the production process will provide information about the tolerance
range of the dimensions. It can be that very small corrections can be preferred to
assure the best fit.
This casting must prove the production for serial production with standard inspection.
The templates for the moulding department and the inspection of the castings can be
made now.
Importance of the pattern

The pattern will be responsible for dimensional non conformities, for quality problems
due to incorrect and or difficulties by assembling mould and cores and for higher cost
of the production. It is the most important tooling for the foundry!
To understand these statements, it is necessary to follow the production cycle of a
casting. This is shown in the figure on next page.
The customer is designing a component, which will establish the final shape,
dimensions and material. To choose the must suitable production the order quantity
and total need of castings must be estimated.
The foundry and designer will create a casting drawing using the requirements for
quality, surface condition, tolerances and mechanical properties of the material.
The casting drawing is transformed in a pattern drawing, including pattern layout,
material and templates. This will take in account the casting process (production), the
engineering (to assure the required quality) and the machining process (dimensions,
zero point and tolerance range).
The pattern split line, the core-mould connection and the mould-mould connection is
designed. The pouring system, risers and chills must be easy to assemble. The
location of the identification plate is another item.
Two types of templates are used: one to assemble core to core and one to assemble
core-assembly to the mould.
The templates do start from the zero point, which is identical with the point for
marking and machining. They have to assure a very narrow dimensional tolerance
range and a high controllability of it.
These templates belong to the pattern.
The templates that are used for the dimensional inspection of the casting do not
belong to the pattern.
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FOUNDRY MANUAL
COMPONENT DRAWING
COMPONENT
C
U
S
T
O
M
E
R
D
I
M
E
N
S
I
O
N
S
S
H
A
P
E
M
A
ORDER
T
&
E
TOTAL
R
QUANI
TITY
A
L
CASTING
PATTERN
DRAWING
T
O
Q
L
U SURE
A FACE
R
L CONA
I
DIN
T TION
C
Y
E
S
C
U
S
T
O
M
E
R
H
E
A
T
T
R
E
A
T
M
E
N
T
F
O
U
N
D
R
Y
PATTERN LAYOUT &

MATERIAL
MACHINING
S
T
T
Y
O
P
C
E
K
C
A
S
T
I
N
G
P
R
O
C
E
S
S
C
L
A
M ZERO
P POINT
I
N
G
ABILTY TO ASSEMBLE
CONTROLABILITY
PATTERN MATERIAL
MOULD MATERIAL
PATTERN DRAFT
MOULD EQUIPMENT
SHRINKAGE
PATTERN UPPER
HALF
ENGINEERING
R
I
S
E
R
S
C
H
I
L
L
S
M
O
U
L
D
B
O
X
E
S
MOULD
MOULD LOWER
HALF + CORES
TEMPLATE
NO PATTERN PLATE
PATTERN PLATE
POURING
SYSTEM
PATTERN DRAWING
PATTERN
LOWER HALF
CORE ASSEMBLY
POURING SYSTEM
IDENTIFICATION PLATE
TEMPLATE
CORE BOX
CORE BOX
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FOUNDRY MANUAL
3. SERIAL PRODUCTION
The serial production (SP) is the production of the casting after the FPQ-prodution.
It is visualised in the figure below.
It is done with the MPP-map (Manufacturing Process Plan) and the approved pattern
and templates.
The MPP must be available for production and inspection at all times!
The NDT- and dimensional inspection results will be noted in a quality and
dimensional report. The customer will ask for a special measuring and reporting of
the Critical to Quality-dimensions (CTQ-values).
All data are also filed and monitored by the Six Sigma Technique to increase the
controllability of the process.
SPECIFICATIONS
SERIAL PRODUCTION
GENERAL
MATERIAL
MPPmod 0
CASTING
NDT/DIMENSIONAL
INSPECTION
PATTERN
CORES
TEMPLATES
MOULD
ASSEMBLED
MOULD
TEMPLATES
MATERIAL TEST
CASTING
NDT TEST
QUALITY REPORT
MARKING
DIMENSIONAL
INSPECTION
CASTING
CTQ VALUES
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S
I
X
S
I
G
M
A
T
E
C
H
N
I
Q
U
E
80
FOUNDRY MANUAL
4. CORRECTIVE ACTION QUALIFICATION
If a non conformity appears during serial production or if the results move towards
the limit of the requirements, it is necessary to look for the cause and to do corrective
actions. The cause can be related to the MPP-file, the equipment, the material used
and or the human activity.
These actions can be preventive (the result was still in limits) or corrective (result
was outside limits). This action is called a Corrective Action Qualification (CAQproduction). It is shown in the figure below.
SPECIFICATIONS
CAQ PRODUCTION
GENERAL
MATERIAL
MPPmod 0
CASTING
NDT/DIMENSIONAL
INSPECTION
MODIFICATION
CORES
MOULD
TEMPLATES
ASSEMBLED
MOULD
NDT INSPECTION
CASTING
MARKING
TEMPLATES
DIMENSIONAL
INSPECTION
SECOND RUN (if necessary)
TEMPLATE FOR
CASTING
THIRD RUN (if necessary)
MPP mod x
The MPP is modified and a test run is made. If necessary a second and even a third
run will be performed. The inspection will cover all aspects involved: those that were
changed and those that can be influenced.
The final MPP, after the CAQ-proces, is modified and noted as MPP mod x.
If the customer modifies dimensions and or adds extra requirements to the
specification, it is necessary to agree about the implications: a new FPQ-production,
a simplified FPQ-production, a CAQ-production or just continuing the SP-production.
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FOUNDRY MANUAL
5. CONCLUSION
To get the best production of a casting, as well for the customer (complying with all
requirements and fulfilling the wishes to a great extend) as for the foundry (lowest
cost and highest controlability), it is necessary to follow the described procedure.
The production is started with a FPQ-run, followed by the SP-production and
interrupted possibly by the CAQ-run.
The FPQ-run assures a good serial production concerning quality and dimensions.
The SP-production will provide data to increase the controllability of the production
and to decrease the cost of production.
The CAQ-run will modify the production to increase controlabilty (decrease tolerance
range, stabilise quality level) and to decrease the cost.
If the customer is changing requirements, it is necessary to agree about the type of
test after modification. It can be FPQ, SP and or CAQ.
Menu
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FOUNDRY MANUAL
ENVIRONMENT
16. ENVIRONMENT
1. INTRODUCTION
2. FLOW CHART
3. INVENTORY
TOTAL CONSUMPTION
PER USER
4. ACTION
HOUSEKEEPING
PROCESS CO NTROL
INVESTMENTS
SCRAP : REWORK REDUCTION
5. REPORTING
EFFIENCY INDEX
FINANCIAL REPORT
6. CONCLUSION
1. INTRODUCTION
The environment is becoming a very important item. Each society does understand
that everyone has to think at the future. It is not allowed to charge or destroy the
future for our children.
The environment concerns the:
use of energy
use of raw material
pollution of air
pollution of water
pollution with noise
reclaimable waste
non reclaimable waste.
Each of these items has to be considered sperately.

In generally, it is possible to picturise the foundry activity as shown in next picture.
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FOUNDRY MANUAL
TEMPERATURE
INCREASE
RECLAIMABLE WASTE
NON RECLAIMABLE WASTE
RAW MATERIAL
OTHER MATERIAL
ENERGY
ADMINISTRATION
PRODUCTION
PRODUCT
AIR & WATER

AIR POLLUTION
NOISE
POLLUTION
WATER POLLUTION
To monitor these items, which are all Critcal to Quality items, it is necessary to use
Process Control. Only then, it is possible to find the best solution during each
production step.
The possible problems are given in the figure on next page.
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FOUNDRY MANUAL
2. FLOW CHART
ADMINISTRATION
RAW MATERIAL
OTHER MATERIAL
ENERGY
AIR
RAW MATERIAL
OTHER MATERIAL
ENERGY
AIR
WOOD & TOOLS

WOOD DUST
AIR POLLUTION
PATTERN SHOP
PATTERN
SAND
DUST
AIR POLLUTION
NOISE POLLUTION
CHEMICALS
MOULDING
MOULD
RAW MATERIAL
OTHER MATERIAL
ENERGY
AIR & WATER
METAL
SLAG
AIR POLLUTION
NOISE POLLUTION
TEMPERATURE INCREASE
WATER POLLUTION
MELTING
LIQUID METAL
OTHER MATERIAL
ENERGY
AIR
METAL
SLAG
AIR POLLUTION
POURING
POURED CASTING
RAW MATERIAL
OTHER MATERIAL
ENERGY
AIR & WATER
METAL
SAND
DUST
NOISE POLLUTION
WATER POLLUTION
AIR POLLUTION
SHAKE OUT
RAW CASTING
OTHER MATERIAL
ENERGY
AIR
METAL, TOOLING
SAND
DUST
NOISE POLLUTION
AIR POLLUTION
FETTLING
CASTING
RAW MATERIAL
OTHER MATERIAL
ENERGY
AIR & WATER
OXIDES
REFRACTORY
AIR POLLUTION
NOISE POLLUTION
HEAT TREATMENT
HT CASTING
OTHER MATERIAL
ENERGY
AIR & WATER
TOOLING
CHEMICALS
WATER POLUTION
NOISE POLLUTION
AIR POLLUTION
FINAL INSPECTION
CASTING
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FOUNDRY MANUAL
3. INVENTORY
3.1 Total
The inventory must be set up for the total of the foundry. This means that all what is
going in and not coming out, is filed in quantities.
These quantities can be, depending on the type of item, weight, volume or energy
units. The choice of the units is very essential and should be agreed before starting.
3.2 Per user
The total consumption will tell us about the subtype of item. The energy inventory
tells us if electricity is the most used energy or coal or another. This indicates the
subgroup that is most important for actions.
But the area involved is also very important. Is it the melting or production of
compressed air or another.
4. ACTION
The actions can be divides in four groups. These are, not in ranking of importance
but alphabetic: housekeeping, investment, process control, scrap/rework reduction.
4.1 Housekeeping
This involves the participation of every employee to reduce the consumption of the
item. This means that every one will stop non productive use (lightening of a hall
without workers).
4.2 Process control
This involves the use of good instruction (correct and optimum to have minimum
use), good working equipment (maintenance, best performing), best suited materials
and the best performance of the employees.
Process control measures, check results, propose improvements, apply
improvements, re-instruct people, take benefit of experience
4.3 Investment
It can be necessary that excisting equipment must be replaced due to the condition
or due to the possibilities. This can only be done if the financing is available.
4.4 Scrap/rework reduction
The easiest way to reduce the use of items is to avoid scrap and rework. It is always
possible to reduce this figure, whatever it is now.
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FOUNDRY MANUAL
5. REPORTING
5.1 Efficiency factor
To be able to measure and quantify the result of the program, it is necessary to set
efficiency factors. These factors must be agreed by all participants and must be
related to the environmental and financial result.
The facotr will be related to the product unit.
But depending on the circonstances, there can be correction factors:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Work load of the foundry

Type of product
Quality level of the product
Environmental efforts
Safety efforts.
All the factors as well as the calculation must be agreed by all participants.
5.2 Financial report
Each company must be as efficient as possible and have a profit.
For this reason, the financial consequences must be evaluated and reported to all
participants. The profit will be the driving force of the program.
Important are the investments, cost to improve and the benefit concerning lower use
of the item, less problems and a better delivery and service to the customer.
6. CONCLUSION
The environmental consequences of our industrial activity become more important
due to real danger of spoiling our environment, due to the shortage of raw materials
and due to the reaction of other countries and people, which are influenced by our
activity.
The best procedure is to have a good process control, which enables us to have a
clear idea of the activity. It also indicates if some operations that are highly energy
consuming, can completely or partly be replaced by others, less consuming.
A similar idea about consuming raw material, emissions and production of waste.
Every foundry can reduce the environmental consequences.
Menu
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FOUNDRY MANUAL
Author
17. AUTHOR
ir G.D HENDERIEC KX
ROZENLAAN 1
NL 4551ET SAS VAN GENT
THE NETHERLANDS
Email:
[email protected]
Website:
www.gietech.be
MECHANICAL ENGINEER IN 1970 UNIVERSITY LOUVAIN BELGIUM
CAREER (ML: Management level, GM: General Manager)
NEDSCHROEF HERENTALS
ALLARD TURNHOUT
BOOMSE METAALWERKEN
TECHNOMET WETTEREN
ZEEUWS VLAAMSE GIETERIJ
GIETERIJ MIDDELBURG
GIETECH
ML
ML
GM
GM
GM
GM
GM
PRESSES
IRON AND STEEL FOUNDRY
STEEL FOUNDRY
HIGH ALLOYED IRON
IRON AND STEEL FOUNDRY
IRON FOUNDRY
FOUNDRIES ALL OVER THE WORLD
PUBLICATION
GP GIETERIJ PERSPECTIEF
DE CONSTRUCTEUR
MATERIALEN
PARTICIPATION IN PANEL OF SEMINARS

CHOICE OF MATERIAL IN VLISSINGEN AND TILBURG
MATERIALS IN ANTWERP
DAY FOR ENVIRONMENT IN DEN HAAG
ENVIRONMENT IN VLISSINGEN
TECHNICAL ASSISTANCE FOR TRANSFORMING AN IRON FOUNDRY TO A

STEEL FOUNDRY
TECHNOMET WETTEREN
ZEEUWS VLAAMSE GIETERIJ SAS VAN GENT
BEGEMAN HELMOND
INTERNATIONAL TRADE IN CASTINGS

GE USA, GE FRANCE (Alstom), NUOVO PIGNONE ITALY
SULZER GERMANY, SWITZERLAND
BHEL INDIA, SUEZ CANAL AUTHORITY EGYPT
FLS SCHMIDT DENMARK
JANUARY 2005
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FOUNDRY MANUAL
EXPERIENCE WITH
MATERIALS
LAMELLAR, DUCTILE IRON
NIHARD + HIGH CHROMIUM IRON
NIRESIST
SILICON IRON
COQUILLE POURED IRON
CARBON STEEL
LOW ALLOYED STEEL
MANGANESE STEEL
WEAR RESISTING CHROMIUM STEEL
ROESTVAST EN HITTEBESTENDIG STAAL
SIZE
UP TO 12 TONNES IN STEEL
UP TO 20 TONNES IN IRON
PRODUCTION
BADGE AND SMALL SERIES PRODUCTION
MOULDING WITH CHEMICAL BOUNDED SAND
COQUILLE POURING
MELTING: CUPOLA-, ELECTRICAL AND ROTARY FURNACES
HEAT TREATMENT
INDUSTRIES
NUCLEAR
CHEMICAL INDUSTRY
WEAPON INDUSTRY
GAS TURBINES
COMPRESSOR
MACHINE BUILDING
PRESSES
SHIPBUILDING
VALVES
TRANSPORT
DREDGING INDUSTRY
MILLING EQUIPMENT
STEEL INDUSTRY
NON FERRO MELTING
Menu
JANUARY 2005
89

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FOUNDRY MANUAL

The second step concerns third parties.

The first step is to verify the casting data.

PURCHASING & SUBCONTRACTING

PURCHASING & SUBCONTRACTING

STORE INVENT ORY

Mould mat erial

final part drawing

Mould ins pection

Dimensional inspect ion

Pouring system, risers and chills

Quality of the casting

Filling station mould

Filling station cores

Mould ready for pouring

Step 1 Filling mould

3. MOST IMPORTANT INFLUENCES

3. Reaction speed of the sand hardening

The amount of each group is calculated according to their chemical composition

Very stable composition

3.2 Type of melting

4.3 Lining of furnace and ladle

5. ENERGY, ENVIRONMENT AND WORKING AREA

Fettling is the most underestimated part of the foundry.

3.2 Treatment without a microstructure transformation

These treatments are tempering, solution treatment and globulising carbides.

3.3 Treatment without any change in structure and mechanical properties

MACHINING & MARKING

MACHINING & MARKING

This job is a single step job.

After fettling the foundry can do another shot blasting to:

NON CONFORM CASTING

The preparing of the repair is the first step.

SALES & MARKETING

CUSTOMER & MARKETINFORMATION

SERIAL FIRST PIECE QUALIFICATION

2. FIRST PIECE QUALIFICATION

Importance of the pattern

PATTERN LAYOUT &

SECOND RUN (if necessary)

THIRD RUN (if necessary)

Each of these items has to be considered sperately.

AIR & WATER

WOOD & TOOLS

Work load of the foundry

PARTICIPATION IN PANEL OF SEMINARS

TECHNICAL ASSISTANCE FOR TRANSFORMING AN IRON FOUNDRY TO A

INTERNATIONAL TRADE IN CASTINGS

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