Indonesian Journal On Geoscience V1 N1 April/May 2014

Indonesian Journal on Geoscience Vol. 1 No.
1 April 2014: 1-7
INDONESIAN JOURNAL ON GEOSCIENCE

Geological Agency
Ministry of Energy and Mineral Resources
Journal homepage: hp://ijog.bgl.esdm.go.id
ISSN 2355-9314 (Print), e-ISSN 2355-9306 (Online)
Gold Phytomining: A New Idea

for Environmental Sustainability in Indonesia
Baiq Dewi Krisnayanti1 and Christopher Anderson2
University of Mataram, Indonesia; International Research Centre for Management
of Degraded and Mining Lands (IRC-MEDMIND)
2
Massey University, New Zealand; International Research Centre for Management
of Degraded and Mining Lands (IRC-MEDMIND)
Corresponding author: [email protected]

Manuscript received: December 3, 2012, revised: December 13, 2013, approved: March 20, 2014
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Abstract - New technology is needed to protect the safety and health of communities and the environment at ASGM
locations in Indonesia. This technology must be simple, cheap, easy to operate, and financially rewarding. A proven
option that should be promoted is phytoextraction, a farming activity that could develop agriculture as an alternative
livelihood in ASGM areas. This is a technology where plants are used to extract metals from waste rock, soil, or
water. These metals can be recovered from the plant in its pure form, then be sold or recycled. Gold phytoextraction is a commercially available technology, while a n international research has shown that phytoextraction will
also work for mercury. In the context of this idea, tailings would be contained in farming areas and cropped
using phytoextraction technology. Gold and mercury would be extracted in the crops, with the remaining mercury
burden of the tailings becoming adsorbed to soil constituents. The system would be financially rewarding to gold
farmers. The economic value of this scenario could facilitate the clean-up and management of mercury pollution,
reducing the movement of mercury from tailings into soil, water, and plants, thereby mitigating environmental
and human risk in the mining areas. The goal of the described research is to promote agriculture as an alternative livelihood in ASGM areas. The gold value of the phytoremediation crop should provide a cash incentive
to artisanal farmers who develop this new agricultural enterprise. The benefits will be social, environmental, and
economic, as opportunities for education, employment, new business, the containment of toxic mercury, food
safety and security, and revenue are all realized.
Keywords: gold, phytomining, tailing, new business, phytoremediation, agriculture
Introduction
Gold is a precious metal on earth that millions

of people depend their life on this metal. Despite
of the prosperity target, beneath it many issues are
related to gold mining, such as an environmental
issue. However, science is always developing
to cope with the issues, in order to minimize
the environmental impact and targeting people
prosperity.
Modern gold mining operations conducted in
Indonesia by multinational mining companies,
like in most countries, are regulated and efficient.
Mined ore is leached with cyanide through a
Carbon In Pulp (CIP), Carbon In Leach (CIL),

or heap leach circuit to extract gold from the
rock in the majority of these operations. Plans
are generally in place to contain contaminated
waste, and to rehabilitate the mining area once
an operation finishes.
Past mining operations, however, environmental risk in the form of chemicals, heavy metals, and sediment discharged from waste areas
and interact with ecosystems is present. Runoff
and leakage from tailings and waste rock can
pollute streams flowing out of the mining area,
causing widespread damage downstream. This
has a direct affect on communities and people
IJOG/JGI (Jurnal Geologi Indonesia) - Acredited by LIPI No. 547/AU2/P2MI-LIPI/06/2013, valid 21 June 2013 - 21 June 2016
Indonesian Journal on Geoscience, Vol. 1 No. 1 April 2014: 1-7
to produce a commercial bio-ore (Brooks et

al., 1998).
Phytomining offers several advantages over
conventional mining (Brooks et al., 1998), which
include (a) the possibility of exploiting ore bodies or mineralized soils otherwise uneconomic to
develop, (b) its environmental impact is minimal
when compared with the erosion caused by opencut mining, (c) the operation would be visibly
indistinguishable from a commercial farming operation, (d) a bio-ore has a higher metal content
than a conventional ore and thus needs less space
for storage, and (e) because of its low sulphur
content, smelting a bio-ore does not contribute
significantly to acid rain.
Phytomining is actually a subset of a larger
field of research known as phytoextraction, the
process of using plants to beneficially absorb
mineral species from soils, sediments, and
groundwater. It involves the cultivation of tolerant
plans that concentrate soil contaminants in their
above-ground tissues. At the end of the growth
period, plant biomass is harvested, dried or incinerated, and the contaminant-enriched material
is deposited in a special dump or added into a
smelter. The distinction between phytoextraction
and phytomining is that in phytomining, the metal
accumulated by plants is sufficiently valuable to
economically justify the recovery of this metal in
pure form. To date, phytomining has been trialled,
to varying degrees of success, for nickel and gold.
The more common application of phytoextraction is phytoremediation, where non-naturally
occurring contaminants are recovered for disposal
or reuse. Phytostabilisation is used to describe a
land-management technique where contaminant
species are immobilized in situ via plant action.
In contrast to phytoremediation, the objective in
phytomining is to recover a mineral (metallic)
commodity for commercial gain. Consequently,
phytomining almost always refers to the recovery
of heavy metals.
Phytoremediation and phytomining are being
developed as commercially viable environmental
technologies by many groups around the world.
Massey University has an international reputation
for conducting novel and important phytoremediation research at historic and active mine sites
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who depend directly on goods and services

provided by ecosystems, and the quality of, and
their access to, natural resources. An increase
in wealth generated by commodities can be
offseted by a decrease in wealth attributed to
natural capital destroyed through the commodity production cycle (specifically the average
persons ecosystem). The result is a population
that is poorer, despite an apparent increase in
gross domestic product. Any rise in GDP in this
context is at the expense of an average persons
natural asset.
Contamination at a historic mining site is not
necessarily bad. It is the scenario of this contamination interacting with soil, plants, animals,
and people that must be mitigated or managed.
Professional assessment is therefore essential
to diagnose environmental risk, and to define
a remediation plan. Some of the worst mining
pollution around the world that is seen today, is
due to historic operations where no environmental risk assessment or rehabilitation procedures
were put in place upon the conclusion of mining
operations.
The category of mining that causes the greatest
level of environment damage in Indonesia is artisanal mining. This term describes an informal
and unregulated system of small-scale mining
prevalent in many of the worlds poorest countries
and communities. Artisanal miners do not make
large profits; they strive to make sufficient money
to support their immediate family. Many metals
and minerals are mined using artisanal methods,
but high value commodities such as precious
metals and gemstones provide the greatest return.
In the context of gold mining, the term artisanal
and small-scale gold mining (ASGM) is used to
describe this practice.
What Is Phytomining?
Phytomining is the production of a crop of a
metal by growing high-biomass plants that accumulate high metal concentrations (Brooks et al.,
1998). A phytomining operation would therefore
entail planting a crop over a low-grade ore body or
mineralized soil, implementing appropriate land
management techniques to ensure metal uptake,
and then harvesting and incinerating the biomass
Gold Phytomining: A New Idea for Environmental Sustainability in Indonesia (B.D. Krisnayanti and C. Anderson)
in New Zealand, Australia, Fiji, China, USA,

Mexico, Brazil, and South Africa. Massey University scientists have many years of experience
in the design and application of phytoremediation projects. A New Zealand company that has
a research relationship with Massey University
has proprietary expertise in the processing of
plant biomass to recover metals, including gold.
Research in New Zealand has investigated a
system where gold and mercury are recovered by
the same crop of plants from soil or tailings at an
ASGM location elevated in both of these metals
(Moreno et al., 2005).
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How Does Phytomining Work?

Phytomining works through phytoextraction,
thus hyperaccumulator plants. Many extensively
studies on hyperaccumulators have been done
by researchers including using Thlaspi sp. to hyperaccumulate Cd, Ni, Pb, and Zn. For example,
Thalspi caerulescens could remove as high as
60 kg Zn/ha and 8.4 kg Cd/ha (Robinson et al.,
1998), due to specific rooting strategy and a high
uptake rate resulting from the existence in this
population of Cd-specific transport channels or
carriers in the root membrane (Schwartz et al.,
2003).
Hyperaccumulators efficiently extract metals
from the metalliferous soils and then translocate
metals to above ground tissues. After sufficient

growth, plant is harvested and left for drying.
Dried plant material is reduced to an ash with or
without energy recovery, which is further treated
by roasting, sintering, or smelting methods, which
allow the metals in an ash or ore to be recovered
according to conventional metal refining methods such as acid dissolution and electrowinning
(Figure 1) (Robinson et al., 1999).
Plants have shown several response patterns
to the presence of high metal concentration in
the soils. Most are sensitive to high metal concentrations and others have developed resistance,
tolerance, and accumulate them in roots and
above ground tissues, such as shoot, flower, stem,
and leaves. The current definition of a hyperaccumulator is a plant that is able to accumulate
metal to a concentration that is 100 times greater
than normal plants growing in the same environment. Sheoran et al. (2009) stated that metal
hyperaccumulation was a complex and rare phenomenon that occurs in plant species with high
metal uptake capacity. The mechanism of metal
hyperaccumulation involves several steps (Figure
2), which are:
1. solubilization of metal from the soil matrix,
2. root absorption and transport to shoot, and
3. distribution, detoxification, and sequestrian
of metal ion.
Potential of phytomining of areas

unable to be exploited by conventional
methods: Metaliferous soils
Low grade ore
Mill tailings
Reclaimed soil product
Bioxtraction/phytoextraction of
metal for commercial gain:
Cropping
Harvesting
Drying
Ashign
Small volume of bio-ore

Smelt metal
Figure 1. Integrated process for bioharvesting of metals by phytomining.
Distribution, Detoxication
and Sequestration
(Cell wall binding,
vacuole sequestration,
cytoplasmic chelation)
Xylem transport
Symplast loading
Ion exchange etc.
M 2+
M 2+
available
Root absorption and compartmentation

Transporters
Channels or membrane pump
Cytoplasmic chelators
potentially
available
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Bio-activation of
M 2+
the metals in
the rhizosphere
H+ secretion
M 2+
Organic acids
Enzymes
. Root microbe interaction
Total metal fraction

in soil solution
unavailable
Figure 2. General mechanism of metal hyperaccumulation by plants.
Method Gold Hytomining
Theory and Practice

A review of pyhtomining (Sheoran et al.,
2009) has stated that gold has been suggested as
a potential candidate for phytomining. Tailing
areas usually contains residual gold in very low
concentrations, whereas the relatively high concentrations found in heap leach pads and waste
dumps. Plants normally do not accumulate gold;
the metal must be made soluble before uptake can
occur. The residual gold could be extracted using
induced hyperaccumulation if the substrates were
amenable to plant growth. The concentration of
gold that can be induced into a plant is dependant
upon the gold concentration in the soil on which
the plant is growing.
Anderson et al. (2005) has showed that approximately 2 mg of gold per kg of soil is needed
by considering a soil profile of 20 cm depth to

achieve 100 mg/kg of plant dry mass. Many researches have shown that uptake of gold can be
induced using lixiviants such as sodium cyanide,
thiocyanate, thiosulphates. In an induced hyperaccumulation operation of gold, the geochemistry of
the substrate (pH, Eh, and chemical form of gold)
will play a rule of the solubilizing agent necessary
to affect the uptake of the precious metal. For
low-pH sulfide tailings, gold is made soluble by
thiocyanate, and for high-pH unoxidised sulfide
tailings gold is soluble with thiosulphate (Anderson et al., 1999).
Result and Discussions
In the last decade, there have been many reports of gold accumulation by plants, in particular
7,550. Lamb et al. (2001) induced plant species

B. juncea, B. coddii, and Chicory with thiocyanate
and cyanide solutions to determine gold concentration in different parts of plants. The ashed plant
material was dissolved in 2 M HCl, followed by
solvent extraction of the gold into solvent methyl
isobutyl ketone (MIBK). Addition of the reducing agent sodium borohydride to the organic
layer caused a formation of black precipitate at
the boundary between the two layers and heating this precipitate to 800oC caused formation of
metallic gold. Gold concentrations ranged from
negligible in the leaves of B. coddii induced with
thiocyanate, to 326 mg/kg Au dried biomass in
the leaves of B. juncea induced with cyanide. The
chemical additives KI, KBr, NaS2O3, and NaSCN
were also used with the B. juncea and Chicory.
The results showed varying degrees of hyperaccumulation with all chemical treatments. Cyanide again gave the best results with 164 mg/kg
Au dried biomass measured in the Chicory plant.
NaS2O3, KI, and NaSCN gave maximum results
of 51, 41, and 31 mg/kg Au dried biomass, respectively. Gardea-Torresdey et al. (2005) have
reported that C. linearis (desert willow - a common inhabitant of Mexican Chihuahuan Desert)
is a potential plant for gold phytomining. Desert
willow seedlings grew very well in the presence
of NH4SCN concentration lower than 1x10-4
mol/ L. It has been reported that shoot elongation
was also not affected by either the Au or NH4SCN
concentrations. In addition when using NH4SCN
at a concentration of 10-4 mol/L with 5 mg Au/L,
Au uptake was enhanced by approximately 595,
396, and 467 percentages in roots, stems, and
leaves, respectively, compared with gold uptake
by plants grown in only 5 mg Au/L. Their studies also showed that this plant produced Au (0)
nanoparticles with an approximate radius of 0.55
nm. Mohan (2005) recommended phytomining
to be a novel cost-effective technology to extract
gold from larger residual dumps (mounds of tailings) and from low-grade ores at KGF (Kolar
Gold Fields) in Karnataka. Continuous conventional mining has depleted the level of gold up
to 3 mg/kg, hence union government closed the
mine. Committees worked over closed mine,
proposed a scheme to recover gold from larger
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trees. Work conducted over 30 years in Canada

showed that common conifers could accumulate
up to 0.02 mg/kg gold over gold mineralization.
In addition, Dunn (1995) reported a background
level of gold in plants of 0.0002 mg/kg dry
weight, although this author stated that values up
to 0.1 mg/kg could be found.
Hyperaccumulation of gold was defined in
1998 as accumulation greater than 1 mg/kg, this
limit being based upon a normal gold concentration in plants of only 0.01 mg/kg (Anderson et al.,
1998a,b). Anderson et al. (1998b) induced Indian
mustard (B. juncea) with ammonium thiocyanate
at the rate of 0, 80, 160, 320, and 640 mg/kg dry
substrate weight in pots containing an artificial
5 mg/kg finely disseminated gold rich material,
analogous to a natural, oxidized, nonsulfidic ores.
Hyper-accumulation of Au was achieved above
a thiocyanate treatment level of 160 mg/kg and
yielded up to 57 mg/kg Au.
A similar experiment with B. juncea grown in
a medium containing 5 mg/kg Au prepared from
finely powdered native Au (44 lm) and treated
with ammonium thiocyanate at an application
rate of 250 mg/kg also supported the results (Anderson et al., 1999b). Anderson et al. (2005) also
estimated that a harvested crop of 10,000 kg/ha
biomass (dry) with gold concentration of 100 mg/
kg, which would yield 1 kg of gold/hectare could
be economically viable. They experimented with
B. juncea (Indian mustard) and Z. mays (corn)
induced with sodium cyanide and thiocyanate
grown on oxidized ore pile containing 0.6 mg/
kg gold. They reported that B. juncea showed the
best ability to concentrate gold giving an average
of 39 mg/kg after sodium cyanide treatment. The
highest individual gold concentration determined
through an analysis of selected biomass was 63
g/kg (NaCN treatment of B. juncea) (Anderson
et al., 2005).
Gold phytomining has also been reported by
Msuya et al. (2000) with five root crops (carrot,
red beet, onion, and two cultivars of radish) grown
in artificial substrate consisting of 3.8 mg/kg gold,
and concluded that carrot roots yielded 0.779
Au kg/ha, worth US$ 840; by adding chelaters
ammonium thiocyanate and thiosulphate carrot
roots yielded 1.45 Au kg/ha of final worth US$
residual dumps (mounds of tailings) that had accumulated over the years. Studies have shown
that there are about 33 million tonnes of dumps
accumulated over the years with a concentration
of gold 0.7 - 0.8 mg/kg, which may be a source
of 24,000 kg of gold.
Figure 3. Four spesies growth at cyanidation tailings from

ASGM Sekotong, West Lombok, Indonesia.
Economic Viability of Gold Phytomining

The general target for a gold phytomining
operation is to yield 0.5 kg of gold from ever
hectare (unit area) of operation. This gold yield is
possible through harvesting 5 t/ha of dry biomass
containing an average gold concentration of 100
mg/kg (this unit is the same as g/t). At a gold price
of US$ 1,500 an ounce, 0.5 kg of gold is worth
US$ 24,113. The modelled costs to grow, tend,
treat, and process 5 tonnes of plant material are
approximately US$15,000. This generates a gross
profit of just over US$ 9,000 per hectare. Increased
biomass per hectare will lead to an increased yield
of gold and increased gross profit. An average gold
concentration in the biomass above or below 100
mg/kg will also change the expected gross profit.
The limiting factor for the gold concentration
in plants is the total gold concentration in the soil
(tailings or waste rock), and the fraction of this total
gold that can be made available for plant uptake.
There must be a gold concentration in the soil of 0.5
g/t or greater for a pre-feasibility study to be warranted. The cash value of the crop is not the only
positive economic parameter. The gold phytomining process will also remove certain contaminants
from the soil (e.g. copper, arsenic, mercury) or
will degrade contaminants within the plant root
zone (cyanide). Several years of successive gold
cropping will reduce contaminant levels, reducing environmental risk and remediating the site.
The gold value of the gold crop will subsidize or
outright pay for complete site remediation.
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0.58 - 6.58 ppm. The source of material used in

cyanidation process is from amalgamation tailings, and the Au concentration of amalgamation
tailings is between 1.75 - 14.71 ppm.
After three months of growing, it showed that
corn and cassava survived in the extreme growth
medium. A week before harvesting, the plants was
treated by CN and fresh/dry biomass collected
for further laboratory analysis. The samples were
analyzed in an analytical laboratory of Mataram
University, and the results are showed in Table 1.
The results indicate that there was a high prospect
of using these local plants for gold phytomining.
The Projects
An early research of gold phytomining in
Sekotong of West Lombok District was conducted in 2011. A plot of four different species
which were cassava, corn (Zea mays), Brassica
juncea, and Sunflower directly planted on cyanidation tailing (Figure 3). The Au concentration
on the cyanidation tailings was in the range of
6
Table 1. Au Concentration on Plant Samples

Time of
harvesting
1
1
1
2
2
3
3
Sample type
Dry corn leaves
Dry brassica
Dry cassava leaves
Fresh cassava leaves
Dry cassava leaves
Au (ppm)
3.40
1.94
1.96
2.17
1.49
1.80
1.41
Andersons current study has showed that

gold phytomining is being actively developed
in Mexico, a country with a long history of gold
mining and a legacy of contaminated mining sites.
Many historic mining locations have tailings with
a gold grade in excess of 1 g/t. Gold phytomining
field trials have been conducted in Mexico for a
number of years. These trials have involved col-
Anderson, C.W.N., Brooks, R.R., Stewart, R.B.,

and Simcock, R., 1998a. Harvesting a crop of
gold in plants. Nature, 395, p.553-554.
Anderson, C.W.N., Brooks, R.R., Stewart, R.B.,
and Simcock, R., 1998b. Gold uptake by
plants. Gold Bulletin, 32 (2), p.48-51.
Brooks, R.R., Chambers, M.F., and Nicks, L.J.,
1998. Phytomining. Trends in Plant Science,
3, p.359-362.
Dunn, C.E., 1995. Biogeochemical prospecting
for metals, In: Brook, R.R., Dunn, C.E., and
Hall, G.E.M. (Eds.), Biological systems in
mineral exploration and processing, Ellis
Horword, Hemel Hemtead, p.371-426.
Gardea-Torresdey, J.L., Peralta-Videa, J.R., de
La Rosa, G., and Parsons, J.G., 2005. Phytoremediation of heavy metals and study of
the metal coordination by X-ray absorption
spectroscopy. Coordination Chemistry Reviews, 249, p.1797-1810.
Lamb, A.E., Anderson, C.W.N., and Haverkamp,
R.G., 2001. The extraction of gold from plants
and its applications to phytomining. Chemistry
in New Zealand, 3, p.1-33.
Mohan, B.S., 2005. Phytomining of gold. Current
Science, 88 (7), p.1021-1022.
Moreno, F.N., Anderson, C.W.N., Stewart, R.B.,
Robinson, B.H., Ghomsei, M., and Meech,
J.A., 2005. Induced plant uptake and transport
of mercury in the presence of sulfur-containing ligads and humic acid. New Phytologist,
166 (2), p.445-454.
Msuya., F.A., Brooks, R.R., and Anderson,
C.W.N., 2000. Chemiccally-induced uptake
of gold by root crop: its significance for phytomining. Gold Bulletin, 33 (4), p.134-137.
Robinson B.H., Leblanc M., and Petit, D., 1998.
The potential of Thlaspi cearulescens for
phyto-remediation of contaminated soils.
Plant Soil, 203, p. 47-56.
Robinson, B.H., Brooks, R.R., and Clothier, B.E.,
1999. Soil amendments affecting nickel and
cobalt uptake by Berkheya coddii: potential
use for phytomining and phytoremediation.
Annals of Botany, 84, p.689-694.
Schwartz, C., Echevarria, G., and Morel, J.I.,
2003. Phytoextraction of cadmium with
Thlaspi cearulescens. Plant Soil, 249, p.27-35.
Sheoran, V., Sheoran, A.S., and Poonia, P., 2009.
Phytomining: A review. Minerals Engineering, 22, p.1007-1019.
laboration between the Universidad Autonoma

de Sinaloa (Mexico) and the New Zealand biomass processing company, Tiaki International
Ltd. (with Anderson).
In early 2012 a trial was conducted at a mine
site with surface tailings of approximately 3
ha at an average gold grade in excess of 1 g/t.
Sunflowers were grown on this mine waste and
treated to induce gold uptake. The average gold
concentration in the plant material at harvest
was greater than 20 g/t with the maximum gold
concentration in excess of 30 g/t. This biomass is
currently being processed. However, taking the
international market value of gold in 2012 into
account, the observed gold concentration in the
plants is considered to be economic. This average gold concentration was not considered to be
optimal. Future trials will seek to considerably
increase the gold concentration accumulated by
the field- harvested plants.
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Conclusion
Gold phyotmining is a promising technology

to be used on gold tailings in Indonesia. The
success and sustainability of gold phytomining
will require a balance between the economic
incentives to recover this precious metal and
environmental sustainability in the field.
Acknowledgment
The paper has been presented in MGEI meeting 2012, carried out in Malang, East Java.
References
Anderson, C., Moreno, F., and Meech, J., 2005.

A field demonstration of gold phytoextraction technology. Minerals Engineering, 18,
p.385-392.
Anderson, C.W.N., Brooks, R.R., Chiarucci, A.,
LaCoste, C.J., LeBlanc, M., Robinson, B.H.,
Simcock, R., and Stewart, R.B., 1999. Phytomining for nickel, thalium and gold. Journal
of Geochemical Exploration, 67, p.407-415.
Indonesian Journal on Geoscience Vol. 1 No. 1 April 2014: 9-19

Geological Agency
Some Key Features and Possible Origin of the Metamorphic

Rock-Hosted Gold Mineralization in Buru Island, Indonesia
Arifudin Idrus1, Sukmandaru Prihatmoko2, Hill. Gendoet Hartono3, Fadlin Idrus3, Ernowo4,
Franklin4, Moetamar4, and Iwan Setiawan5
Geological Engineering Department, Gadjah Mada University, Yogyakarta
2
PT. AGC Indonesia, Jakarta
3
Geological Engineering Department, STTNas Yogyakarta
4
Center for Geological Resources, Geological Agency, Bandung
5
Geotechnology Research Centre, LIPI, Bandung
*Corresponding author: [email protected]

Manuscript received: February 10, 2014, revised: March 10, 2014, approved: March 28, 2014
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Abstract - This paper discusses characteristics of some key features of the primary Buru gold deposit as a tool for a
better understanding of the deposit genesis. Currently, about 105,000 artisanal and small-scale gold miners (ASGM)
are operating in two main localities, i.e. Gogorea and Gunung Botak by digging pits/shafts following gold-bearing
quartz vein orientation. The gold extraction uses mercury (amalgamation) and cyanide processing. The field study
identifies two types/generations of quartz veins namely (1) Early quartz veins which are segmented, sigmoidal, discontinous, and parallel to the foliation of host rock. The quartz vein is lack of sulfides, weak mineralized, crystalline,
relatively clear, and maybe poor in gold, and (2) Quartz veins occurred within a mineralized zone of about 100 m
in width and ~1,000 m in length. The gold mineralization is strongly overprinted by an argillic alteration zone. The
mineralization-alteration zone is probably parallel to the mica schist foliation and strongly controlled by N-S or NESW-trending structures. The gold-bearing quartz veins are characterized by banded texture particularly colloform
following host rock foliation and sulphide banding, brecciated, and rare bladed-like texture. The alteration types
consist of propylitic (chlorite, calcite, sericite), argillic, and carbonation represented by graphite banding and carbon
flakes. The ore mineralization is characterized by pyrite, native gold, pyrrhotite, and arsenopyrite. Cinnabar, stibnite,
chalcopyrite, galena, and sphalerite are rare or maybe absent. In general, sulphide minerals are rare (<3%). Fifteen rock
samples were collected in Wamsaid area for geochemical assaying for Au, Ag, As, Sb, Hg, Cu, Pb, and Zn. Eleven of
fifteen samples yielded more than 1.00 g/t Au, in which six of them are in excess of 3.00 g/t Au. It can be noted that
all high-grade samples are originally or containing limonitic materials, that suggest the role of supergene enrichment.
Interestingly, most of the high-grade samples contain also high grade As (up to 991ppm), Sb (up to 885 ppm), and Hg
(up to 75 ppm). Fluid inclusions in both quartz vein types consist of four phases including L-rich, V-rich, L-V-rich,
and L1-L2-V (CO2)-rich phases. Mineralizing hydrothermal fluid is typified by CO2-rich fluid, moderate temperature
of 300 - 400 C and a typical low salinity (0.36 to 0.54 wt.% NaCl eq). Based on those key features, gold mineralization in Buru Island meets the characteristics of LS epithermal or orogenic gold deposit types; however, it tends to be
fitter with orogenic gold deposit rather than another type.
Keywords: gold mineralization, metamorphic rock, Buru Island, Indonesia
Introduction
Gold exploration activities in Indonesia are
recently not only focused along volcanic belts, but
also starting to shift along metamorphic terrains.
Some known significant gold-(copper) hydrothermal deposits hosted by volcanic rocks were found
in last few decades including epithermal type at

Pongkor in West Java (e.g. Basuki et al., 1994),
Gosowong in Halmahera Island (e.g. Gemmell,
2007), skarn type at Erstberg, Big Gossan, Kucing Liar, Deep Ore Zone (DOZ) in Papua (e.g.
Mertig et al., 1994), and porphyry type at Batu
Hijau in Sumbawa Island (e.g. Meldrum et al.,
Regional geology
Buru is the third largest island after Seram and

Halmahera within Maluku Islands of Indonesia.
The island belongs to Maluku Province and includes the Buru and South Buru Regencies. Buru
is shaped as an oval elongated form from west
to east. The maximum length is about 130 km
from east to west and 90 km from north to south.
The highest point on the island (2,700 m) is the
peak of Mount Kapalatmada. The relief is mostly
mountainous, especially in central and western
parts. With the length of about 80 km, Apo is the
largest river of Buru. It flows nearly straight to
the north-east and empties into the Kayeli Bay.
Buru Island constitutes one of the islands in
the Banda Islands, Central Maluku, Indonesia.
Geologically, it is part of the outer Banda Arc of
non-volcanics (Guntoro, 2000). Buru Island provides a key example of the processes involved in
mountain building and continental collision. So
far, it is generally accepted that Buru Island is a
microcontinent derived from Australian continent
that had been detached during the Mesozoic. The
emplacement of Buru Island to the present position is still subject to debate. Figure 1 shows that
presently Buru Island is tectonically situated at the
fore arc of western-eastern trending Sunda-Banda
magmatic arc, which is terminated in the east at
the Banda Islands (Carlile and Mitchell, 1994).
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1994; Idrus et al., 2007). Many current discoveries of placer (secondary) and primary gold mineralization genetically occur in association with
metamorphic rocks, for instance, Awak Mas mesothermal (Querubin & Walters, 2011), Poboya
LS-epithermal (Wajdi et al., 2011) and Bombana
orogenic gold deposits in Sulawesi (Idrus & Prihatmoko, 2011). Gold-bearing quartz veins are
also recognized in Derewo metamorphic belt at
northern and northwestern part of Central Range
Papua. Some exploration reports categorized the
Derewo metamorphic-related quartz veins into
mesothermal gold deposit type.
The latest development, in January 2012, local
people in Buru Island discovered gold nuggets
in Gunung Botak and Gogorea areas, Wamsait
Villiage, Waeapo District, Buru Regency, Maluku Province, Indonesia. Until November 2012,
about 100,000 artisanal and small-scale miners
have operated in Gunung Botak and about 5,000
traditional miners operating in Gogorea area. The
genetic type of the Buru Island gold mineralization
is still debatable. This paper is written on the basis
of a short site visit and preliminary study of the
primary gold mineralization to discuss some observed geological characteristics and limited laboratory analyses of restricted samples. This aims
to a better understanding of the possible genesis
of the metamorphic-hosted gold mineralization.
o
10 N
100 E
110 E
120 E
130 E
(Darman & Sidi, 2000)
Sunda Shelf
Kalimantan Arc
Sulawesi Arc
REGIONAL GEOLOGY OF
INDONESIA
Halmahera
Arc
Quaternary
Recent Volcanic Formation
Cenozoic Formation
Mesozoic Formation
Paleozoic Formation
Plutonic Rocks
Metamorphic Rock
Jakarta
Papua Arc
o
10 S
500 km
Sunda - Banda Arc
Sahul Shelf
Figure 1. Regional geological map of Indonesia. Some major gold-copper mineralizations are indicated. Major Tertiary
magmatic-arcs are also shown (Carlile and Mitchell, 1994). Buru Island is part of outer Banda arc (nonvolcanic) situated
at the fore arc of the western-eastern trending Tertiary-Quaternary Sunda-Banda magmatic arc.
10
Some Key Features and Possible Origin of the Metamorphic Rock-Hosted Gold Mineralization
in Buru Island, Indonesia (A. Idrus et al.)
Geology of Buru Island
The description of geological framework

of Buru Island is based on Geological Map of
Buru Island sheet, Moluccas (Tjokrosapoetro et
al., 1993). Stratigraphically, the lithologies of
the Buru Island from the oldest to the youngest
are successively occupied by Wahlua Complex
(Pzw), Rana Complex (Pzr), Ghegan Formation
(Tg), Dalam Formation (Td), Tm (Mefa Formation), Kuma Formation (MTk), Wakatin Formation (Tmw), Hotong Formation (Tmh), Leko
Formation (Tpl), and Qa (Alluvium). The Wahlua
Complex (Pzw) mostly comprises moderate grade
metamorphic rocks ranging from green schist to
lower amphibolites, phyllite, slate, meta-arkosic
sandstone, quartzite, and marble. The complex
is widely distributed in the eastern part of the
Buru Island (Figure 2). The Rana Complex (Pzr)
occupies the central part of the island around the
Rana Lake. This rock complex is composed of
phyllite, slate, meta-arkose, meta-greywacke, and
marble. The Ghegan Formation (Tg), Dalam For-
mation (Td), Kuma Formation (MTk), Wakatin

Formation (Tmw), Hotong Formation (Tmh), and
Leko Formation (Tpl) are mostly characterized
by carbonaceous clastic sediments and widely
extended in the western part of the Buru Island.
The Mefa Formation (Pm) is typified by basaltic
lava and tuff and the presence of pillow structure
and diabase intrusion in the easternmost of the
island. Quaternary sediments are represented
by lake deposit in Rana (Qd), reef limestone
(Qt), and Quartenary alluvial deposit (Qa). Qa is
characterized by fragments, gravel, sand, silt, and
mud, which are distributed within the valley of
rivers and along the stream. Studied area is situated in the Wahlua metamorphic complex (Figure
2), which is of Upper Carboniferous until Lower
Permian in age.
Research methods
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This preliminary study has been carried out

through several approaches including desk study,
127 30 E
3 00 S
3 00 S
126 00 E
4 00 S
Gn Botak
4 00 S
Gogorea
126 00 E
127 30 E
Figure 2. Geological map of Buru Island (modified from Tjokrosapoetro et al., 1993). Gunung Botak and Gogorea are occupied by Pzw (Wahlua metamorphic rock complex). Note: Brief description of rock formation abbreviation is mentioned
in Chapter 3 (Geology of Buru Island).
11
composed of muscovite, chlorite, and sericite

suggesting a green schist facies (Yardley, 1989).
Gold mineralization in Buru occurs in the form
of quartz veins/veinlets/reef. In general, there are
two types/generations of quartz veins namely (1)
Quartz veins which are segmented, sigmoidal,
discontinous, and parallel to the foliation of the
metamorphic rocks. The vein distribution and pattern is intimately controlled by foliation orientation in the area. Mineralogically, the quartz vein
is lack of sulfides, weak mineralized, crystalline,
relatively clear, and maybe poor in gold (Figure
3a); (2) Quartz veins occurs within a mineralized zone of about 100 m in width and ~1,000
m in length (Figure 3b). Gold mineralization is
strongly overprinted with argillic alteration zone
(Figure 3b). Although it is still lack of field data,
the mineralization-alteration zone is probably
parallel to the mica schist foliation. According
to field data and Buru geological map (cf. Tjokrosapoetro et al., 1993), it is interpreted that gold
mineralization may be strongly controlled by N-S
or NE-SW-trending geological structures (strikeslip faults?) (Figure 2). Artisanal and small scale
gold mining (ASGM) activities are currently
concentrated along the structural-controlled
mineralization zone.
fieldwork, and sampling for laboratory analysis.

There is no previous detailed study in the area
that was focused specifically on the primary
gold mineralization. Host rocks and gold-bearing
quartz vein samples were taken, and petrograpically analyzed for hydrothermal alteration and
ore mineralogies at Department of Geological
Engineering, Gadjah Mada University. Rock geochemical assays were conducted in ITS laboratory, Jakarta and AAS laboratory of Georesources
Research Center, Bandung. A single ICP-MS
analysis was done by Prof. Victor Okrugin in
Kamchatka, Russia. Fluid inclusion within quartz
veins from various stages was microthermometrically analyzed by LINKAM THMS600 heating
and freezing stage at Geotechnology Research
Centre, LIPI Bandung.
Results and discussion
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Ore Deposit Geology

Lithologically, primary gold mineralization in
Buru Island is hosted by mica schist of Carboniferrous to Permian Wahlua Metamorphic Complex (Pzw). The same case has been recognized
in Bombana gold deposit which is also hosted by
Carboniferrous-Permian Pompangeo Metamorphic Complex (PMC) (Idrus and Prihatmoko,
2011). PMC is typically characterized by mica
schist. Hence, it is important to note that the rock
characteristics and the ages of both Wahlua Complex and PMC are exactly the same. Petrographic
study exhibits that mica schist in Buru Island is
Ore Textures
Field and handspecimen observations indicate
that gold-bearing quartz veins are characterized by
vuggy, banded texture particularly colloform following host rock foliation, and sulphide banding
(Figures 4a and b) and brecciated texture (Figure
~100 m width
Figure 3. Photographs of quartz veins. (a) The first quartz vein type with typical sigmoidal structure, and (b) Second quartz
vein in Gunung Botak associated with mineralization-argillic alteration zone (~100 m width and ~1,000 m length). Artisanal
and small scale mining (ASGM) activities are concentrated along the mineralization zone (second quartz vein type).
12
Alteration and Ore Mineralogy

Hydrothermal alteration style is identified according to the field observation and petrographic
analysis. As outlined above, the gold mineralization zone is intimately associated with argillicaltered mica schist delineating an obvious high
Au grade zone of about 100 m width and 1,000 m
length. Clay mineral types characterizing argillic
alteration zone are unknown. The petrographic
analysis shows host rock is also propyllitically
altered typified by the presence of chlorite, calcite, and sericite. Carbonation alteration style
represented by graphite banding (Figure 4a) and
carbon flakes (Figure 5a,b) is a typical alteration
type occurring in metamorphic-related hydrothermal ore deposits.
The field observation and ore microscopic
analysis indicate that the ore mineralization is
characterized by pyrite, native gold (Figure 6a
& b), pyrrhotite, and arsenopyrite (Figure 6c).
However, cinnabar, stibnite, chalcopyrite, ga-
4c). Bladed-like texture is also observed, but it is

rare (Figure 4d). Those textures more likely developed in classic LS epithermal vein deposits. However, a few anomalies from shallow gold systems
in the Yilgarn Block of Western Australia are notable. Comb, cockade, crustiform, and colloform
textures at the Racetrack deposit, Australia, deposited from CO2-poor fluids in lower greenschist
facies rocks are also recognized (Gebre-Mariam
et al., 1993). Similar textures at the Wiluna gold
deposits in subgreenschist facies rocks, as well
as 18Oquartz measurements as light as 6 - 7 per ml,
provide some of the strongest evidence of meteoric
water involvement in some of the mesothermal
hydrothermal systems (Hagemann et al., 1992,
1994). Although it is uncommon, pseudomorph
bladed carbonate texture could be present in
orogenic quartz veins/reefs if the hydrothermal
fluids forming the ore deposit have the right phase
separation condition (personal communication,
Richard J. Goldfarb, 2011).
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Sulphide band
Graphite
6 cm
0.1 mm
1 cm
Figure 4. Photographs of gold-bearing quartz veins. (a) Handspecimen of the second quartz vein type with banding (colloform texture quartz vein following foliation), graphite, and sulphide banding, (b) The microphotograph of graphite banding
(dark) and sulphide banding (light) identified as arsenopyrite with white-grey colour and strong anisotropy, (c) Outcrop
of brecciated quartz vein and silicified mica schist in Gunung Botak, and (d) Handspecimen of highly oxidized/limonitic
quartz vein with bladed-like texture. indicating a boiling condition.
13
Figure 5. The carbonation-altered rock/quartz vein microphotographs: (a) Quartz (light) and graphite banding (brown) in
parallel nicols, (b) Quartz (light) and graphite (dark) in crossed-nicols.
Gold
Qtz
100 m
Native
gold
1 cm
1 mm
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Figure 6. Microphotographs of ore mineralization. (a) Microphotograph of native gold grain in quartz vein, (b) native gold
(nugget gold) panned from thumb-size quartz vein, and (c) closeup of arsenopyrite banding in Figure 4a & 4b with a whitegrey colour and strong anisotropy.
lena, and sphalerite are rare or maybe absent. In

general, sulphide minerals are rare (<3%). This
is consistent with mineralogical features of other
metamorphic rock-hosted gold mineralizations
worldwide (cf. Groves et al., 1998, 2003).
Ore Chemistry
Fifteen rock samples were collected in
Wamsaid area for geochemical assaying in ITS
Laboratory, Jakarta, for Au, Ag, As, Sb, Hg,
Cu, Pb, and Zn. The samples were collected
in various places and sample types including
outcrops, float/ boulders, and dump material of
the traditional miners. Table 1 shows the rock
sample description and assay results. Eleven of
fifteen samples yielded more than 1.00 g/t Au,
in which six of them are in excess of 3.00 g/t
Au. It can be noted that all high-grade samples
are originally or containing limonitic materials,
that suggest the role of supergene enrichment.
Interestingly, most of the high-grade samples
contain also high grade As (up to 991 ppm), Sb
(up to 885 ppm), and Hg (up to 75 ppm). A single
ICP-MS analysis by Prof Okrugin (Kamchatka,
14
Rusia) of the ore sample (Figure 4a) shows up to

14 g/t Au with elevated value of 10,040 ppm Sb
and 870.4 ppm Hg, whereas Cu, Pb, Zn and Ag
are relatively low, i.e. 39.4, 20.2, 7.5, and 11.9
ppm, respectively.
Franklin (2000) analysed seventeen rock
samples from Waemese area using AAS in Georesourses Research Center, Bandung, and indicated that samples contain significant gold of up
to 6 g/t Au, 2.6 g/t As, and 5.7 g/t Hg.
Mineralizing Fluid Characteristics
A total of five quartz veins/reefs from two
different types were prepared for fluid inclusion
analysis. Four samples contain measurable fluid
inclusions, and those of one sample (B05VA) are
too small to be measured. Microthermometric
study with regard to the temperature of melting
(Tm) and temperature of homogenization (Th)
of fluid inclusions was analyzed by LINKAM
THMS600 freezing and heating stage. This study
has enabled to understand the characteristics
including temperature, salinity, and composition
of mineralizing hydrothermal fluids that formed
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Dump materials, brownish grey, clay altered schist associated with centimeters of
quartz-limonite vein network
Clay altered mica schist, brownish grey, associated with irregular limonite veinlets
F0059152
R0059153
>3.00
0.47
0.04
Au
ppm
0.38
27.00
0.38
Hg
ppm
-0.5
-0.5
-0.5
Ag
ppm
>3.00
1.11
0.09
1.03
Brownish grey clay altered schist, associated with irregular limonite veinlet, often
filling the foliation
Yellowish white silica-clay altered rock associated with milky and vuggy sugary
quartz and limonite staining along the fractures
Yellowish light grey chalcedonic vein, banded texture, oxidized with some
limonite, probably after pyrite, hosted by clay altered schist
Silica-clay altered schist cut by irregular quartz veinlets, vein volume about 7%
Dump materials, whitish grey silica -clay altered schist cut by chalcedonic quartz
veins up to 2 cm wide
Dump materials, yellowish grey, clay altered schist with some limonite
Silicified hydrothermal breccia, yellowish, whitish grey, polymict fragments

consisted of schist, quartz cemented by silica+clay altered rock flour, minor jarosite
and goethite
As above, but more oxidized and more limonitic
Chalcedonic quartz vein, 15 cm wide hosted by schist, milky, banded, and vuggy
Yellowish light grey chalcedonic vein, hosted by silica-clay altered rock,crudely

banded
F0059156
F0059157
F0059158
R0059159
F0059160
F0059161
F0059162
F0059163
F0059164
F0059165
>3.00
2.87
2.52
1.51
0.54
>3.00
>3.00
Limonitic breccia vein, light brown, brecciated texture, composed of clay altered
schist cemented by limonitic materials
F0059155
>3.00
Dump materials, light brown oxidized clay altered mica schist
F0059154
25.10
33.00
41.00
2.51
75.00
3.70
14.00
0.55
0.67
17.90
34.90
1.70
-0.5
-0.5
1.2
-0.5
15.4
-0.5
-0.5
-0.5
-0.5
-0.5
2.4
3.2
Clay altered schist, grey, soft clay altered, minor limonite staining along the
foliation
Sample Description
R0059151
Sample ID
Table 1. Ore Chemical Sample Description and Assay Results (R: outcrop; and F: float)
17
29
612
55
337
108
415
87
48
529
991
261
129
91
As
ppm
-2
62
44
-2
13
-2
119
35
32
34
15
Cu
ppm
63
23
17
19
95
11
12
12
Pb
ppm
370
855
329
440
152
229
396
208
95
717
827
185
107
544
15
Sb
ppm
14
-2
93
21
23
-2
-2
12
21
12
14
20
Zn
ppm
15
formation temperature of the first type of quartz

vein varies from 234 to 354 C, that are relatively
lower than those of second quartz veins type (Th
= 321 to 400 C).
The petrographic study indicates that fluid
inclusions in both quartz vein types consist of
four phases including L-rich, V-rich, L-V-rich,
and L1-L2-V (CO2)-rich phases (Figure 7a).
In addtion, Sample B05VB is characterized by
abundant V-rich and L-rich inclusions (Figure
7b) which may imply a boiling condition with
an elevated temperature of 400 C. In fact, this
sample was taken from Gunung Botak where
the artisanal and smal-scale mining (ASGM) are
situated.
the two types of quartz veins. Summarized microthermometric data of analyzed fluid inclusions
is shown in Table 2.
The data show that Tm of fluid inclusions
hosted by first type of quartz veins (that are
crystalline, clear, weak mineralized, and parallel
to the foliation) tend to have Tm ranging from
-0.1 to -0.3 C (average -0.22 C) corresponding
to salinity ranging from 0.18 to 0.53 wt.% NaCl
eq.(average 0.36 wt.% NaCl eq.), relatively lower
than those of second quartz vein type (Tm = -0.2
to 0.3 C; average -0.27 C) which correspond
to salinities of 0.36 to 0.54 wt.% NaCl eq., averaging 0.48 wt.% NaCl eq. The temperature
of homogenization (Th), interpreted to be the
Table 2. Microthermometric Data of Fluid Inclusions within Two Quartz Vein Types associated with Primary Gold Mineralization in Buru Island, Maluku, Indonesia
Sample Code
Vein Tipe
Tm
Th
Salinity
B01 V
First
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
-0.2
-0.2
-0.2
-0.2
-0.1
-0.2
-0.3
-0.2
-0.2
234.7
242.8
239
323.7
354
325.6
338.1
350
300
0.36
0.36
0.36
0.36
0.18
0.36
0.53
0.36
0.36
-0.3
-0.3
-0.2
-0.2
-0.3
-0.2
319.5
322.7
285
278
308.6
281.4
-0.3
-0.3
-0.2
-0.2
-0.3
-0.3
-0.3
-0.3
354
348
389
400
400
400
400
400
-0.3
-0.2
-0.3
-0.3
-0.3
-0.2
-0.3
-0.2
-0.3
-0.2
-0.2
-0.3
-0.3
-0.3
398
384
372
398
400
331.8
387
349.7
400
325.8
332.5
361.2
349.7
321.3
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No
GK 01
First
1
2
3
4
5
6
B05 V(B)
Second
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
GB 01
Second
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
Notes:
M = measurement number, Tm = Temperature of melting (oC)
Th = Temperature of homogenization (oC) and Salinity (wt.% NaCl eq.)
16
0.53
0.53
0.36
0.36
0.53
0.36
0.53
0.53
0.36
0.36
0.53
0.53
0.53
0.53
0.53
0.36
0.53
0.53
0.53
0.36
0.53
0.36
0.53
0.36
0.36
0.53
0.53
0.53
b
Co2
L-V-Fl
L-rich
V-rich
CO2-rich
10 m
10 m
Figure 7. Microphotographs of fluid inclusion petrography: (a) Carbonic (CO2-rich) fluid inclusions, and (b) abundant
L-rich and V-rich fluid inclusions in quartz veins from Gunung Botak, Buru Island. The carbonic inclusion indicates that
metamorphic fluid is responsible for the formation of the gold mineralization, whereas the abundance of monophase L-rich
and V-rich inclusion is one of the important indications of boiling condition.
Alteration & ore mineralogy: The host rock

is altered to propylitic, argillic, silicification, and
carbonation. Carbonation is shown by graphite
banding and carbon flakes associated with quartz
banding. Typically, sulphide minerals are rare
(<3%), however, arsenopyrite banding, pyrite,
pyrrhotite, and native gold are identified. These
three elements (As, Sb, and Hg) are indicative
of mineralization systems either low sulfidation
epithermal or orogenic gold.
Ore chemistry: The assay results indicate
that eleven of fifteen samples yielded more
than 1.00 g/t Au, in which six of them are in
excess of 3.00 g/t Au. It can be noted that all
high-grade samples are originally or containing limonitic materials, that suggest the role of
supergene enrichment. Interestingly, most of the
high-grade samples contain also high grade As
(up to 991 ppm), Sb (up to 885 ppm), and Hg
(up to 75 ppm).
Ore fluid characteristics: The mineralizing
hydrothermal fluid is typified by CO2-rich fluid,
moderate temperature of 300 - 400 C (mesothermal T range) and a typical low salinity (0.36
to 0.54 wt.% NaCl eq), which suggests that the
metamorphic fluid is responsible for the formation of the Buru gold deposit.
On the basis of those geological parameters,
the gold mineralization in Buru Island meets
the characteristics of either LS epithermal or
orogenic gold deposit types; however, it tends to
be fitter with orogenic gold deposit rather than
another type. It is also important to note that all
high-grade samples are originally or containing
Conclusions
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According to the preliminary study, in this

section the authors would like to summarize
some observation parameters including host
rock type, mineralized quartz vein type and
geometry, structural control, quartz vein/ore
texture, alteration and ore mineralogy as well as
fluid chemistry, temperature and salinity.
Host rock: Buru gold mineralization is hosted
by mica schist, which is composed of muscovite,
chlorite, and sericite. Thus this metamorphic
rock is grouped into green schist facies.
Quartz vein type and geometry: First quartz
veins are typically segmented, sigmoidal, discontinous, and parallel to the foliation of the
metamorphic rocks. The quartz vein geometry
varies from cm to half a meter. Second quartz
veins occur within a mineralized zone of
about 100 m in width and ~1,000 m in length.
Gold mineralization is associated with argillic
alteration zone. The mineralized quartz vein is
probably parallel to the mica schist foliation.
Structural control: The mineralized zone
is generally brecciated and overprinting with
argillic alteration zone with N-S or NE-SW
orientation. Mineralized zone may strongly be
controlled by N-S or NE-SW-trending strikeslip faults.
Quartz/ore texture: The second quartz vein
texture is characterized by brecciated, banding
texture such as colloform following foliation,
sulphide banding, and occasionally bladed-like
texture.
17
limonitic/oxidized materials, that suggest the

role of supergene enrichment. A further study
on other genetic parameters of the deposit
such as ratios of detailed mineralogy (sulfides
& gangue), base metals, pathfinder elements,
specific features, etc. is absolutely needed for a
better understanding of the genesis of the Buru
gold deposit.
Acknowledgements
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This research is made possible through

financial support from DIKTI and UGM (Competitive Research Grant 2012), Barry Smith
support, and Research Cooperation Program
2013 between the first author with researchers
at Center for Geological Resources (PSDG)
Bandung. Geochemical data supported by
PT. AGC Indonesia and Prof. Victor Okrugin
(Kamchatka, Rusia). Those supports are highly
acknowledged. Dr. Irzal Nur and Dr. Sufriadin
as well as Satriadin Abdullah are thankful for
their discussion, fieldwork assistances and data
processing, respectively. Finally, constructive
comments and inputs from anonymous reviewers are highly appreciated.
Gebre-Mariam, M., Groves, D.I., McNaughton,

N.J., Mikucki, E.J., and Vearncombe, J.R.,
1993. Archaean AuAg mineralization at
Racetrack, near Kalgoorlie, Western Australia: A high crustal-level expression of
the Archaean composite lode-gold system.
Mineralium Deposita, 28, p.375-387.
Gemmell, J.B., 2007. Hydrothermal alteration
associated with the Gosowong epithermal
Au-Ag deposit, Halmahera, Indonesia: Mineralogy, geochemistry and exploration implications. Economic Geology, 102, p.893-922.
Groves, D. I., Goldfarb, R. J., Gebre-Mariam,
M., Hagemann, S. G., and Robert, F., 1998.
Orogenic gold deposit: A proposed classification in the context or their crustal distribution
and relationship to other gold deposit types.
Ore Geology Review, 13, p.7-27.
Groves, D. I., Goldfarb, R. J., and Robert, F.,
2003. Gold deposit in metamorphic belts:
Overview or current understanding, outstanding problems, future research, and
exploration significance. Economic Geology,
98, p.1-29.
Guntoro, A., 2000. Structural, sedimentary and
tectonic evolution of the Buru Island, Central Mollucca, Indonesia-In relation to the
hydrocarbon prospect. AAPG International
Conference and Exhibition, Abstract.
Hagemann, S.G., Gebre-Mariam, M., and
Groves, D.L., 1994. Surface-water influx in
shallow-level Archean lode-gold deposits
in Western Australia. Geology, 22, p.10671070.
Hagemann, S.G., Groves, D.I., Ridley, J.R., and
Vearncome, J.R., 1992. The Archaean lodegold deposits at Wiluna, Western Australia.
High level brittle-style mineralisation in a
strike-slip regime. Economic Geology, 87,
p.1022-1053.
Idrus, A., Kolb, J., and Meyer, F.M., 2007.
Chemical composition of rock-forming
minerals in copper-gold-bearing tonalite porphyry intrusions at the Batu Hijau deposit,
Sumbawa Island, Indonesia: Implications
for crystallisation conditions and fluorinechlorine fugacity, Special Issue. Resource
Geology, 57 (2), p.102-113.
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D., 1994. The Gunung Pongkor gold-silver
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mineralisation in Indonesia: In: van Leeuwen, T.M., Hedenquist, J.W., James, L.P.,
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Indonesia, Discoveries of the Past 25 Years:
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p.91-142.
Franklin, 2000. Prospeksi Mineral Logam di
Kabupaten Buru Selatan, Provinsi Maluku,
Kelompok Program Penelitian Mineral,
Badan Geologi, www.bgl.esdm.go.id.
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Sedimentary Hosted Gold Deposit, South

Sulawesi, Indonesia. Proceedings of The
Sulawesi Mineral Seminar, Manado 28-29
November 2011, p. 211-229.
Tjokrosapoetra, S., Budhitrisna, T., and Rusmana, E., 1993. Geological Map of Buru
Quadrangle, scale 1:250.000. Geological
Research and Development Centre, Bandung.
Wajdi, M.F., Santoso, S.T.J., Kusumanto, D.,
and Digdowirogo, S., 2011. Metamorphic
Hosted Low Sulphidation Epithermal Gold
System at Poboya, Central Sulawesi: A General Descriptive Review, Proceedings of The
Sulawesi Mineral Seminar, Manado 28-29
November 2011, p. 201-210.
Yardley, B. W. D., 1989. An introduction to
metamorphic petrology. Longman Scientific
& Technical, Essex, 247pp.
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Idrus, A. and Prihatmoko, S., 2011. The metamorphic rock-hosted gold mineralization
at Bombana, Southeast Sulawesi: A new
exploration target in Indonesia, Proceedings
of The Sulawesi Mineral Seminar, Manado
28-29 November 2011, p. 243-258.
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Burke, R.J., Suyadi, A., Irianto, B., and
Clarke, D.S., 1994. The Batu Hijau porphyry
copper-gold deposit, Sumbawa Island, Indonesia. Journal of Geochemical Exploration,
50, p.203-220.
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Skarn Cu-Au ore bodies of the Gunung Bijih (Erstberg) district, Irian Jaya, Indonesia.
Journal of Geochemical Exploration, 50,
p.179-202.
Querubin, C.D., and Walters, S., 2011. Geology and Mineralization of Awak Mas: A
19

Geological Agency
Limestone Microfacies of Baturaja Formation along

Air Rambangnia Traverse, South OKU, South Sumatra
Sigit Maryanto
Centre for Geological Survey, Geological Agency
Jln. Diponegoro No. 57 Bandung - 40122
Manuscript received: February 14, 2012, revised: March 18, 2013, approved: April 1, 2014
Corresponding Author: [email protected]
Abstract - Limestones of the Baturaja Formation occur at Air Rambangnia traverse, South Ogan Komering Ulu, South
Sumatra, and they are used as objects for microfacies studies. The microfacies studies are based on a detailed petrographic analysis of thirty four limestone samples, taken from the traverse. Four types of the limestones are identified
such as wackestone, packstone, grainstone, and floatstone. At least five microfacies form the limestone succesion of
the Baturaja Formation. They are interpreted as sedimentary facies of very restricted bay and pond, back reef local
slope, slope and shelf edge, winnowed platform edge sand, and reef flank facies.
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Keywords: Baturaja, limestone, petrography, microfacies, sedimentary facies
Introduction
The term microfacies was first put forward by

Brown (1943; in Flugel, 1982). It is defined as
extensively discrete paleontology and sedimentology aspects, that can be grouped based on the
type and number of components in petrographic
thin section and polished sample examination.
Thereby, microfacies identifies environment of
deposition based on petrography data (Maryanto,
2005 and 2008). Based on the type and number of
components, Flugel (1982) divides microfacies of
limestone into twenty-four types according to the
former division of facies zone by Wilson (1975).
Wilson and Rosen (1998) stated that carbonate
platform in the western part of Indonesia has appeared since the Late Oligocene. Bishop (2000a)
concluded that the Early Miocene of Baturaja
Formation consists of carbonate platform sediments having totally thickness of 60 - 120 m.
Bishop (2000b) divided Baturaja Formation into
two lithostratigraphic units based on deposition,
i.e. clastic sedimentary facies and limestone or
carbonate rock facies.
The researched location was along Air Rambangnia River, in between Baturaja and Muaradua
towns, administratively belonging to the area
of South Ogan Komering Ulu (OKU) Regency,
South Sumatra Province (Figure 1). The carbonate rocks from Baturaja Formation are well found
along the Air Rambangnia traverse. This article
was written with the aim to study the environment
and deposition mechanism of those limestones
based on petrography data in relation to the division of limestone microfacies.
Methodology
In order to achieve the study purpose, the

research method includes field data collection
and laboratory analysis. Field data collection is
a systematical rock sampling, which is based on
the results obtained by making detailed stratigraphic column along Air Rambangnia traverse.
Laboratory work was done by quantitatively
petrographic analysis with point-counter for as
many as 300 counts (Maryanto, 2007a). Important
21
102o E
o
02 S
103
JAMBI
Bangko
104o
Muarabulan
105
106 E
o
02 S
BANGKA BELITUNG
SOUTH SUMATRA
PROVINCE
Sungailiat
Pangkalpinang
Sarolangun
03o
Sekayu
Lubuklinggau
Argamakmur
Prabumulih
Curup
IA
OC
EA
102 E
ait
Kayuagung
04 S
Pagaralam
Baturaja
Menggala
Martapura
Manna
Str
Lahat
BENGKULU
ND
ka
HI
ng
Muaraenim
Bengkulu
04 S
03o
ba
PALEMBANG
Muaradua
LAMPUNG
Kotabumi
100 Km
103
104
Investigated Traverse
105 o E
Figure 1. Location map of South Sumatra Province and the investigated traverse at Air Rambangnia River.
consisting of granite, andesite-basalt, metasediment, mlange, and metamorphic rocks. Unconformable overlying the basement rocks there are
several Tertiary Formations of Kikim, Talangakar,
Baturaja, Gumai, Airbenakat, Muaraenim, Ranau,
Kasai, and Alluvium (Gafoer et al., 1986, 1993;
Figure 2). Limestone of the Baturaja Formation
in general was deposited in the back-reef environment behind the edge of the basin during the Early
Miocene (Maryanto, 2007b). Layered limestone
can be observed directly along the Air Rambangnia
traverse. The rocks are generally sloping ramps to
the east (Figure 3), with the total thickness of about
220 m, measurable reach including carbonate rocks
from the Baturaja Formation of 196 m thick.
Volcanic rocks of the Kikim Formation are
presented as a basement. It consists of volcanic
breccias, volcanic sandstone, mudstone, and
conglomeratic sandstone, with andesite lava insertions. The Baturaja Formation limestone unconformably overlies the Kikim Formation (Figure 4).
The lower part of Baturaja Formation was
initiated by the presence of grainstone containing
some pore-dissolving porosities. Furthermore, the
rocks become developed onto layered wackestonepackstone that partially argillaceous with oriented
fossils of mollusks (Figure 5) and algae. Several
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aspects of petrography to be identified include:

1. the proportion of major components, such as
carbonate grains, terrigenous grains, matrix,
neomorphism materials, cement, and rock
porosities
2. identification of the characters of each components,
3. texture of rocks that include fabric, sorting,
grain size, and shapes. The classification is
determined according to Dunham (1962) developed by Embry and Klovan (1971).
Microfacies interpretation of the limestones
from the Baturaja Formation along Air Rambangnia traverse is divided according to the standard
classification of microfacies from Flugel (1982)
and facies zone from Wilson (1975). As a comparison, there are also references from many authors
that discuss microfacies and limestone depositional
environment, such as Andreeva (2008), Jones and
Desrochers (1992), Kindler and Hearty (1996),
Read (1985), and Tucker and Wright (1990).
Geological Review
Regional geology in-between Baturaja and
Muaradua area is preceded by Pre-Tertiary rocks
22
104 15 E
Qa
Qhv
a
Sak
Tmpm
10 Km
Qtk
Tma
Tomt
Talangakar Formation
Tpok
Kikim Formation
Tpokc
Cawang Mem. Kikim Fm.
a
gk
17
Qhv
Kungkilan
Tmg
15
Tmpm
Tma
Tpok
KJgv
Le
ng
Garba Formation
ka
ja
Sundan
p
Insu Mem. Garba
KJgs
Sukoraja
Situlanglang Mem.
Garba Fm.
Kgr
Garba Granite
Pct
Tarap Formation
Pct
Tmg
Fm.
Kjgv
Sagarakembang
Air Kura-kura Tmb
Qtk
Negeriratu
Air Rambangnia Traverse
Kjgv
Bul
u
ir
Tomt
Melange
A Complex
Qtk
Tpok
Kit
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Tpok
Tma
Tma
15
13
Km
an
Te
b
MIOCENE
PALEOGENE
PRE-TERTIARY
Gumai Formation
Baturaja Formation
Kjg
Kjgs
Airbenakat Formation
10
24
Tomt
Muaraenim Formation
Tpok
Qtk
Penyandingan
Ranau Formation
Tmb
12
ha
QTr
Tmb
Pct
INDEX MAP
Negerisindang
Ai
r
QUARTERNARY
Kasai Formation
Tmb
Tmg
Tmb
QTk
Qhv Tmg
Batuiputih
15
Tmg
-b
Tma
sa
Air
Alluvium
a tu
Tpok
Be
15
tu
15
Qv ir BaTuff
Volcanic Unit
A
ba
m
a
Qhv
Volcanic Unit ir T
15
Tmpm
ba
Tomt
EXPLANATION:
Qa
Ai
rS
SUMATERA
u
Air Laja
Qtk
BATURAJA
La
Ai r
Tma
040 06S
1030 54 E
Ai
r
040 06S
Limestone Microfacies of Baturaja Formation along Air Rambangnia Traverse, South OKU, South Sumatra (S. Maryanto)
Tmpm
ap
al
an
Air
ir
KJgs
Ai
Ai
rS
Qtk
an
Kgr
Ai
Tanjungkurung
Qtr
Sabahlioh
Qa
Tpok
am
ila
rG
Kjg
Tma
Tmg
Tmb
ba
m
Ra
ia
gn
Airbungin
Tmb
Pct
Kgr
Kgr
Tmpm
Baturaja
Qtk
Simpang
Karangagung
Kjgv
Pct
Ai
Qa
e
rK
Air Saka
Qa
Qtr
au
ela
Air S
Qa
25
15 Negeriagung
Tma
Qtr Sukaraja
Kgr
Mehanggin
Tmb
Tpokc
Tmg
Qa
Umbulanmeliku
Qa
Gedong
Tmpm
Qtr
1030 54E
Tmb
17
Tmpm
19
Qv
Kjgv
Kgr
Tanjungbringin
Tomt
MUARADUA
Qtr
Kotamarga
Qtr
Km
Tomt
10
Tmpm
bung
Tma
M
al
KJg
Tpokc
Tmg
g
rin
me PCt
o
ir K
Tmb
Qv
Qa
Umbulantelok
Qtr
Tmb
Kotakarang
Qtr 10
04 35S
Ai
r
04 35S
Tpokc
15
Saungnaga
104 15E
0
Figure 2. Geological map of Muaradua area, South Sumatra (Gafoer et al., 1993) and locations of Air Rambangnia traverse
(Maryanto, 2007a and 2008).
floatstone intercalations are found containing some

coral skeletons. Stylobed is interlayering between
wackestone-packstone with marl ended the deposition of the lower part of Baturaja Formation.
The middle part of Baturaja Formation is

composed of floatstone (Figure 6), of which later
evolved into argillaceous wackestone. Interlayers
between floatstone with wackestone-packstone
23
Kikim Formation
Baturaja Formation
Alluvium
196 m
Section A - B
Bedded wackestone sometimes argillaceous
Argillaceous wackestone with
floatstone intercalations
Argillaceous wackestone-mudstone
Thick bedded floatstone
Bedded floatstone with argillaceous
packstone-wackestone
SM318B
SM318A
Floatstone and wackestone
SM317B
sometimes argillaceous
8
SM317A
Conglomeratic sandstone overlain

by packstone
Volcanic breccia and
sandstone with
mudstone and
lava intercalations
S 04 25 10,0, E 104 09 02,6

0
302
SM301A
SM302A
SM302B
15
24
310
303
SM303A
SM303B
SM304A
SM304B
SM304C
SM304D
312
Carbonaceous
mudstone and
sandstone
301
304
10
305
8
SM305A
SM305B
SM305C
Clayey sandstone
306
7
309
308
307
311
12
314
313
315
8 316
320
319
SM316B
SM316A
10
To Muaradua
SM314A
SM314B
SM315A
SM315B
317
321
322
10
323
318
324
12
325
10
326
S 040 25 08,5
E 1040 09 30,5
327
SM320A
SM320B
SM321A
SM321B
SM323A
SM323C
SM323D
SM323E
SM323B
Bedded wackestone-packstone
Grainstone, wackestone and packstone
overlied by grainstone
Floatstone To Baturaja
S 04 25 11,3
0
E 104 08 40,0
0
with lot of concretions
SM326
SM325B
SM325A
SM324C
SM324B
SM324A
SM310
SM309
Bedded floatstone with

argillaceous packstone-wackestone
with concretion bedding
EXPLANATION:
Outcrop location
Argillaceous wackestone
10
305
400 m
05SM305
Strike and dip

Fault (predicted)
Number of site
Sample location
River flow direction
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Figure
3. 3.Detailed
measured
map Air
along
Air Rambangnia
traverse (Maryanto,
2007a
and 2008)
and sample
Figure
Detailed stratigraphic
stratigraphy measure
map along
Rambangnia
traverse (Maryanto,
2007a & 2008)
and sample
locations.
locations.
dominated the sequence, which are later fining

upward onto sometimes argillaceous wackestone-mudstone. The next lithology is found as
floatstone.
The upper part of Baturaja Formation begins
with the presence of wackestone-mudstone layers. Stylobedded and or siliceous concretional
bedding reaches 80 cm in size are often found in
these layers (Figure 7). The concretional bedding
sometimes has a parallel direction to the bedding
(forming lens) and it shrinks to the upper part.
The above concretional beddings are overlain
by gradational and planar cross-bedding grainstones (Figure 8). Carbonate rock sequences in
this traverse is ended by wackestone-packstone
sometimes with dissolving porosities.
The carbonate rocks of Baturaja Formation
partially do not crop out along Air Rambangnia traverse, especially between sites 306-213.
Among that locations, the clastic sedimentary
rocks from Muaraenim Formation are exposed in
the form of claystone containing limestone boulders. The sedimentary rocks are preserved due
to a tectonic strike-slip fault in N33oE direction.
24
Petrography
Based on a detailed petrography analysis,

the limestone types recognized are wackestone,
packstone, sandy packstone, grainstone, and floatstone. Each of these rocks, including the number
and type of the rock components would later be
used as the basis for microfacies determination
(Table 1).
Wackestone
Wackestone group also includes sandy
mudstone-wackestone, which is present as an
intercalation. The rocks are generally massive
with fine-grained fragmental bioclastic texture.
Bioclast always occur and comprises diverse type,
size, and amount of fossil. Nevertheless, fossil
types composing the rock can be identified, such
as red algae, mollusks, and foraminifera. Rarely
intraclast or extraclast are preserved in the rocks,
the same as the presence of pellets. Terrigenous
materials are still observed in some rock samples
with limited amounts, scatteredly, and uneven.
They are composed of quartz, feldspar, volcanic
220
SM326
LITHOLOGY DESCRIPTION
CL FS CS PB BO
ST MS GR CO
SMF10-FZ7
Bedded packstone-wackestone with various fossils
SM325B
SM325A
SM324C
SM324B
Grainstone sometimes with cross-bedded structure
SM323A
Upper part
SM324A
SM323B
SM323E
SM323D
SM323C
Wackestone-mudstone partially chalky and recrystallized with

lot of concretion fining upward
SM321B
SM321A
SM320B
Thick bedded floatstone partially develop to rudstone

with wackestone intercalations
Wackestone-mudstone partially argillaceous
Floatstone interlayering with packstone-wackestone
Floatstone thick bedded and poorly sorted
Wackestone generally argillaceous with molluscs orientation

Floatstone coral and lithoclast with molluscs-rich matrix
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SM315A
SM314B
SM314A
SM317B
SM317A
SM316B
SM316A
SM315B
Wackestone-mudstone partially with quartzitic concretion
Middle Part
SM318B
SM318A
BAT U RAJA
EAR LY M I O C E N E
165
SMF10-FZ7
SMF10-FZ7
SMF12-FZ6
SMF12-FZ6
SMF12-FZ6
SMF12-FZ6
SMF19-FZ8
SMF10-FZ7
SMF10-FZ7
SMF3-FZ3
Stylobedded wackestone-mudstone
SM320A
MICROFACIES
GRAIN SIZE
AND SEDIMENTARY
STRUCTURE
LITHOLOGY SYMBOL
THICKNESS (meter) AND

SAMPLE CODE
AGE
UNITS
SMF19-FZ8
SMF19-FZ8
SMF10-FZ7
SMF5-FZ4
SMF5-FZ4
SMF10-FZ7
SMF5-FZ4
SMF10-FZ7
SMF5-FZ4
SMF5-FZ4
SMF10-FZ7
SMF5-FZ4
Fault Zone
110
SM305C
SM305B
SM305A
SM304D
SM304C
SM304B
Wackestone bedded, sometimes argillaceous with floatstone

rudstone intercalations
55
Lower Part
SM304A
SM303B
SM303A
SM302B
SMF19-FZ8
SMF10-FZ7
Wackestone-packstone generally argillaceous with fossils

dominated by molluscs and algae
SMF12-FZ6
Stylobedded grainstone with several dissolution pores
SMF11-FZ6
Volcanic breccia and sandstone cruedly bedded with

intercalations of mudstone, conglomeratic sandstone,
and andesite lava
KIKIM
EOCENE-OLIGOCENE
SM302A
SM301A
CL FS CS PB BO
ST MS GR CO
Figure 4. Detailed lithostratigraphy column along Air Rambangnia traverse, OKU Selatan, South Sumatra (Maryanto, 2007a
& 2008, with modifications).
25
Figure 8. Grainstone overlying mudstone-wackestone, presents as a constituent of the upper part of Baturaja Formation.
Photographed in the 324 site of Air Rambangnia traverse.
Figure 5. Massive marl contains a lot of mollusk mouldics,

this point is as the lower part of the Baturaja Formation.
Photographed in the 303 site of the Air Rambangnia traverse.
Clay mineral matrix in general is inseparable with

carbonate mud matrix. The cement material is
always present with very limited quantities, particularly as orthosparite, iron oxides, authigenic
clay minerals, and silica.
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Packstone
Packstone is generally massive with fine- to
medium - grained fragmental bioclastic texture.
Bioclast is composed of diverse type, size, and
amount of fossil, however, it is predominated
by red algae, mollusks, and foraminifera. Intraclast or exstraclast is present on the coarser size
of limestone fragments, spread unevenly, and
consists of coralline, bioclastic, and argillaceous
limestones. Less amount of very fine pellet sometimes changes into microsparite. Sparsely, terrrigenous materials are still present sporadically distributed, or sometimes excessively influence the
rock name to become sandy. The rock matrix is
mainly preserved as carbonate mud, which often
changes onto microsparite and/or is recrystallized
to form pseudosparite together with carbonate
grains. Cement materials are always present in the
rocks as various amount of orthosparite calcite,
and rarely of iron oxides.
Figure 6. Very poorly sorted floatstone composing of the

middle part of Baturaja Formation. Photographed in the 314
site of the Air Rambangnia traverse.
Figure 7. Outcrop of wackestone-mudstone containing

siliceous concretions, is a constituent of the upper part of
Baturaja Formation. Photographed in the 322 site of Air
Rambangnia traverse.
and sedimentary rock fragments, unidentified

rock fragments, phosphate, and glauconite. Carbonate mud matrix often have changed into microsparite, some even have recrystallized to form
pseudosparite together with carbonate grains.
26
Grainstone
Grainstone is generally massive with mediumto coarse - grained fragmental bioclastic texture.
Bioclast is quite dominant consisting of various
kind, size, and amount of fossil. Intraclast or
extraclast is observed unevenly in some coarse-
Table 1. Petrography Analysis Summary of the Limestones from Baturaja Formation along Air Rambangnia Traverse, South
Sumatra (Maryanto, 2007a)
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SAMPLE CODE SM
SM
SM
SM
SM
SM
SM
SM
SM
SM
SM
SM
SM
DESCRIPTION
302B 303A 303B 304A 304C 304D 305A 305B 305C 314A 314B 315A 315B
Structure
m
mo
m
m
m
m
mf mof
m
m
m
mo
m
Texture
bf
bf
bf
bf
bfc
bfc
bf
bf
bf
bf
bf
bf
bf
Sorting
m
p
p
p
p
p
p
p
p
vp
p
vp
vp
Fabric
c
c
c
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
Av. grain size (mm)
1.80 0.70 1.40 0.30 0.20 0.20 0.20 0.80 0.20 0.80 0.80 1.20 1.80
Grain shape
sr
sr
sr
sr
sr
sr
sr
sr
sr
sr
sr
sr
sa
Grain contacts
plc plc plc
f
f
f
fp
f
f
fp
f
fp
fpl
Percentages
Carbonate Grains
Green algae
10.67
Red algae
1.67 1.33 1.33 0.33
0.33 0.67
1.67 0.67 1.67 0.67 2.33
Bryozoans
4.33
0.67
0.33
0.67 1.00
0.67 2.33 1.33 1.67
Echinoderms
2.67 4.00
1.33
4.67 1.33 0.67 1.00 1.33 1.33 1.33
Coral
4.67
0.67
1.33 3.33 8.33
Benthic foraminifera
6.00 3.00 4.00 8.00 0.67 0.67 5.67 7.33 1.67 1.67 0.67 6.33 5.00
Planktonic foraminifera
1.33
1.00
0.67 0.67
Brachiopods
2.00 1.33
1.00 0.67 0.67 1.33 1.33 1.33 2.00
Moluscs
15.00 16.33 7.33 5.33 4.00 1.67 4.33 5.67 5.00 6.00 13.00 4.00 4.67
Ostracods
2.67 0.67 0.33
1.67 1.67 2.33
Sponge-spicules
0.67 0.67
Bioturbation
1.00
Unidentified fossils
8.33 6.33 24.67 2.00 9.67 9.67 5.00 3.67 3.33 5.00 5.33 6.00 3.00
Intraclasts / extraclasts
5.33
2.67
1.33 1.67
5.67 3.33 4.33
Pellet / peloids
0.67
1.33 1.00
Oolite / oncolite
Terrigenous Grains
Quartz
1.33 4.67 3.33 2.67 1.00
0.67 1.00 0.67 3.67 1.00 1.67 0.33
Feldspar
0.33 1.33 0.67
0.67 0.33 2.33 0.33 0.33
Rock fragments
1.33 6.33 10.33 2.00 1.33
3.00 1.67 1.33 2.00 1.33
Glauconite
Phosphate
0.67
1.00
Opaque minerals
0.67 0.67 1.33
0.67 0.67
0.67
1.33
Carbon
0.67
0.67
Matrix
Carbonate mud
Clay minerals
Cementing Materials
Orthosparite
Iron oxides
Authigenic clays
Silica
3.33
32.33
4.67
22.00
-
50.33 10.33 15.00

3.00
-
6.00
-
26.67 34.00 39.33

6.00
-
9.67
2.67
-
3.00
-
1.67
2.00
-
0.67
0.67
1.33
1.00
-
2.00
0.67
2.33
2.67
1.67
3.33
0.33
4.00
2.33
0.67
-
4.00
1.33
1.67
2.67
3.33
3.67
-
8.00
1.67
-
6.33
1.67
1.00
16.33
6.33
7.00
1.33
0.67
52.33
26.00
21.67 24.00
6.00
59.33 51.67
1.00
-
5.67
2.00
0.67
-
20.33 9.00 17.00 7.33

5.00 1.00 8.33 3.33
28.00 51.33 28.33 16.00
0.67 2.33 1.00
-
8.00
3.00
0.67
2.67
5.67
4.00
1.33
0.67
1.33
G
1.00
1.67
2.33
1.33
SP
1.00
SP
0.67
W
1.00
W
4.33
W
1.00
0.67
W
0.67
1.67
0.67
W
2.00
1.67
W
1.67
W
1.00
W
0.67
W
1.33
W/F
11/6
12/6
12/6
10/7
19/8
19/8
10/7
10/7
19/8
10/7
10/7
10/7
5/4
3.00
1.67
-
Neomorphisms
Microsparite
Pseudosparite
Dolomite
Micritized mud
Pyrite
Porosities
Intraparticle
Mouldic
Vuggy
Intercrystal
Shelter dan fenestrae
Fracture
Rock Name
SMF / FZ
27
Table 1. .............continued (Maryanto, 2007a)

SAMPLE CODE SM
SM
SM
SM
SM
SM
SM
SM
SM
SM
SM
SM
SM
DESCRIPTION
316A 316B 317A 317B 318A 318B 320A 320B 321A 321B 323A 323B 323C
m
bf
vp
c
1.40
sr
plc
mo
bf
p
c
1.45
sr
plc
m
bf
p
c
1.40
sr
plc
m
bf
p
c
1.60
sr
plc
m
bf
p
o
0.70
r
f
mf
bf
p
c
1.40
sr
plc
m
bf
p
c
0.40
sr
plc
mf
bf
p
o
0.20
r
f
mo
bf
p
o
0.15
sr
f
Carbonate mud
Clay minerals
Cementing Materials
Orthosparite
Iron oxides
Authigenic clays
Silica
Neomorphisms
Microsparite
Pseudosparite
Dolomite
Micritized mud
Pyrite
Porosities
Intraparticle
Mouldic
Vuggy
Intercrystal
Fracture
28
mo
bf
p
o
0.15
r
fpl
mp
bf
p
c
0.35
r
plc
m
bf
p
o
0.15
r
fpl
2.67
1.33 3.67
1.33
1.00 1.00
4.00 4.00
3.33 9.67
0.67 0.67
2.33
4.67 19.33
0.67
3.00 3.00
3.00
2.67
-
1.00
1.00
1.33
2.67
1.67
0.67
7.67
0.33
6.00
1.33
-
0.67
5.33
5.33
1.33
2.67
7.67
0.67
1.00
12.33
0.33
1.33
6.33
7.33
0.67
-
1.67
4.33
1.67
1.67
4.33
2.67
2.33
9.67
1.00
0.67
5.00
4.00
1.67
-
1.67
1.00
1.33
4.67
1.00
1.67
8.00
6.00
-
1.67 0.67 0.67

0.67
1.33 5.33 2.33
0.67
4.00 1.33 1.33
2.67 16.33 19.67
4.00
2.33 7.33 10.33
3.00
6.33 6.00 6.00
2.67
5.00
-
0.67
4.67
2.33
8.33
1.67
7.33
2.33
6.00
0.67
0.67
0.67
-
4.00
2.33 2.33 4.33
1.67 1.33 2.33
1.33 1.33 1.33
4.67 2.67 5.33
16.33 17.00 7.00
0.33 2.33 0.67
0.67 1.33 1.00
5.67 13.67 21.67
0.67 1.67 0.33
1.33
1.00
4.67 2.00 5.00
9.33 1.33 4.00
0.67 0.67 1.33
-
m
bf
p
o
0.70
sr
f
IJ
O
Structure
Texture
Sorting
Fabric
Av. grain size (mm)
Grain shape
Grain contacts
Percentages
Carbonate Grains
Green algae
Red algae
Bryozoans
Echinoderms
Coral
Brachiopods
Moluscs
Ostracods
Sponge-spicules
Bioturbation
Pellet / peloids
Oolite / oncolite
Terrigenous Grains
Quartz
Feldspar
Rock fragments
Glauconite
Phosphate
Opaque minerals
Carbon
Matrix
1.33
0.67
2.33
0.67
0.67
-
1.67
0.67
1.33
0.67
0.67
1.00
0.67
1.67
0.33
0.67
-
0.67
0.67
-
2.00
0.67
1.33
0.67
-
0.33
-
0.67
-
1.67
0.67
4.67
3.00
0.67
-
1.33
-
0.33
-
1.00
0.67
1.00
-
1.33
0.67
-
23.33 13.67 10.67 10.00

-
9.33
-
10.00 13.33
6.00
9.33
6.00
9.33
4.00
10.67
7.00
5.00
8.00
22.33 28.33
8.00
8.00
1.67
0.67
-
4.67
2.67
-
5.67
1.67
-
1.67
0.67
-
11.00
1.67
0.67
3.00
1.33
0.67
0.67
4.33
1.33
1.00
0.67
5.67
3.33
1.33
-
4.00
1.67
-
0.67
1.33
-
5.33
1.33
-
4.33
3.00
-
3.00
1.00
-
7.33
6.00
4.00
0.67
17.00
4.67
1.33
-
7.00
3.00
4.00
2.67
-
60.33
6.67
0.67
-
8.00
4.00
1.00
-
56.33 10.67
3.00
1.00 0.67
-
7.00
5.00
6.00
1.67
-
20.67 30.67 27.67

20.67 3.00 5.00
10.67 21.67 5.00
0.67
0.67
-
5.67
2.00
-
11.33
2.00
9.67
0.67
0.67
1.33
-
0.67
2.67
-
1.67
-
0.67
-
1.33
3.67
0.67
-
0.67
2.33
-
3.33
-
1.00
0.67
-
0.67
8.67
-
0.67
-
1.33
4.33
-
0.67
-
0.67
0.67
1.67
-
Rock Name
P/F
SMF / FZ
5/4
10/7
5/4
10/7
5/4
10/7
5/4
10/7
10/7
19/8
3/3
10/7
10/7
Table 1.............continued (Maryanto, 2007a)

SM SM SM SM SM SM SM
323D 323E 324A 324B 324C 325A 325B
SM
326
m
bf
p
c
0.30
sr
pl
mo
bf
p
o
0.15
sr
fp
m
bf
p
c
0.80
sr
plc
mp
bf
p
c
0.30
sr
plc
m
bf
p
c
0.35
sr
plc
5.67
0.67
4.67
2.67
7.67
2.67
9.33
2.67
6.33
4.00
3.33
-
4.67 5.33 3.33 4.67 4.67

3.33 2.33 1.67 2.00
5.00 10.33 9.33 6.67 3.33
2.67 1.33 3.33 4.00
0.67 22.00 19.67 14.00 11.33
4.00 0.67 1.33 4.67 2.67
2.67 2.00 1.67 4.00 2.67
6.33 17.00 30.33 23.00 14.00
2.67
0.67 1.33
4.67
4.33 4.00
3.67 6.00 5.33 2.33
6.00 0.67 0.67 0.67 0.67
-
4.33
1.67
2.00
3.00
10.33
5.67
2.67
6.33
1.33
0.67
6.00
-
2.67
3.33
4.67
3.33
29.00
0.67
2.00
11.33
0.67
2.67
3.33
1.00
-
Texture:
bf = bioclastic fragmenter
cf = clastic fragmenter
nc = non-clactic
c = crystalline
1.00
0.33
-
0.67
0.67
1.33
-
Grain shape:
va = very angular
a = angular
sa = sub-angular
sr = sub-rounded
r = rounded
wr = well rounded
6.00 12.33
5.00
12.67
5.67
4.33
1.33
1.00
0.67
Grain contact:
f = floating
p = point
l = long
c = concave-convex
s = sutured
m
bf
m
c
1.60
sr
plc
m
bf
p
c
1.10
sr
plc
Microsparite
Pseudosparite
Dolomite
Micritized mud
Pyrite
0.67
0.67
-
1.00
0.33
-
9.33 17.33
5.00 4.00
0.67
-
0.67
0.67
1.00
0.33
-
1.00
1.33
0.67
-
1.33
0.67
0.67
1.00
2.67 1.00 14.00 7.67

1.33 1.67 1.67 1.33
1.33 1.00
13.00 6.67
-
9.00
1.33
0.67
-
4.67
6.00
-
3.33
2.67
-
6.00 5.67
3.00 3.33 6.00
7.33 14.00
3.00
-
6.67
1.00
-
15.00 5.33
3.00 4.00
6.00 8.00 7.67
2.00 0.67 2.67
-
6.33
3.00
4.00
2.67
0.67
1.33
-
0.67
0.67
2.33
-
0.33
1.67
-
0.67
1.00
-
Porosities
Intraparticle
Mouldic
Vuggy
Intercrystal
Fracture
EXPLANATION
Structure:
m = massive
o = with grain orientation
p = with several pores
f = with joints and fractures
mp
bf
m
c
1.20
sr
plc
IJ
O
SAMPLE CODE
DESCRIPTION
Structure
Texture
Sorting
Fabric
Av. grain size (mm)
Grain shape
Grain contacts
Percentages
Carbonate Grains
Green algae
Red algae
Bryozoans
Echinoderms
Coral
Brachiopods
Moluscs
Ostracods
Sponge-spicules
Bioturbation
Pellet / peloids
Oolite / oncolite
Terrigenous Grains
Quartz
Feldspar
Rock fragments
Glauconite
Phosphate
Opaque minerals
Carbon
Matrix
Carbonate mud
Clay minerals
Cementing Materials
Orthosparite
Iron oxides
Authigenic clays
Silica
Neomorphisms
0.67
1.67
3.33
2.67
-
5.67
-
0.67
2.33 10.33
-
Rock Name
SMF / FZ
10/7
19/8
12/6
12/6
12/6
10/7
10/7
10/7
Sorting:
vw = very well sorted
w = well sorted
m = moderately sorted
p = poorly sorted
vp = very poorly sorted
Fabric:
c = closed
o = opened
Rock name:
BW = Wackestone
BW/F = Wackestone/floatstone
BP = Packstone
BP/F = Packstone/floatstone
BG = Grainstone
SBP = Sandy packstone
Microfacies:
SMF = Standard microfacies
(Flugel, 1982)
FZ = Facies zone
(Wilson,1975)
29
depositional environment is the presence of fenestrae porosity type, as a result of a tidal activity
(Tucker and Wright, 1990).
Coarse-grained packstone can be deposited in
another deposition environment. In some cases,
packstone can develop into grainstone with the
bioclast composed as well of coated and worn red
algae. This rock was usually deposited in slopes
and shelf edges (SMF12-FZ6). Abrading and
leaching of carbonate grains mark the grainstone
was deposited in winnowed platform edge sands
(SMF11-FZ6).
Packstone can be interpreted as reef-flank facies (SMF5-FZ4), characterized by the presence
of bioclasts mostly derived from the reef dwellers and reef builders, such as coral and bryozoa
reefs (Read, 1985). Packstone and sometimes
floatstone with large amount of carbonate mud
matrix is interpreted as reef-flank deposits.
This microfacies interpretation can be done to
each limestone sample petrography tested. The
interpretation microfacies result can be used to
trace back the development of facies deposition of
a limestone formation, in this case is the Baturaja
Formation along the Air Rambangnia traverse.
sized rocks, and consists of coralline, bioclastic, and argillaceous limestones. Pellet is very
rarely preserved. A less amount of terrigenous
materials are present evenly at the upper part
of stratigraphic sequences. They are composed
of quartz, feldspar, volcanic and argillaceous,
metamorphic, and unidentified rock fragments,
very rarely glauconite, phosphate, mica, and
opaque minerals. Cement materials are always
present in the rocks with a diverse number as
orthosparite, iron oxides, authigenic clays, and
silica. Most orthosparite is present from phreatic
meteoric environment, followed by marine and
burial environments. Small amount of iron oxides
fills cavities and fractures in the rock. Authigenic
clay minerals are preserved as pore-cavity filler.
Silica in the form of quartz, feldspar, and zeolite
are preserved from the phreatic meteoric environment after cementation by the orthosparite calcite.
IJ
O
Floatstone
Floatstone is generally massive with coarsegrained fragmental bioclastic texture, both with
closed fabric or opened fabric. Bioclast is made
up of diverse type, size, and amount of fossil. Intraclast or extraclast is sporadically distributed in
a few samples, and is composed of coralline, bioclastic, and argillaceous limestones. Terrigenous
materials are preserved in a limited number and
spread out unevenly. Carbonate mud matrix often
has changed into microsparite. Cement materials
are present limitedly within inter and intra particle
pores.
Microfacies Interpretation
Wackestone generally has an inversion texture, i.e. coarse grains stuck in carbonate mud
matrix, well washed grains, and has various fossils. Such limestone was generally deposited in
back reef down-slope (SMF10-FZ7). Limestone
facies type resides in this deposition environment
including argillaceous-rich limestone to some
packstone.
In addition to being in the back reef downslope, wackestone may also be formed in very
restricted bays and ponds (SMF19-FZ8). Special
characteristic of the limestone deposited in this
30
Discussion
Based on petrographic data (Table 1), the

character of each sample can be known and traced
to order their stratigraphy. The volcanic rocks of
Kikim Formation are deposited unconformably
on the limestone of Baturaja Formation, while
clastic sedimentary rock of Talangakar Formation
is not exposed in this traverse (Sukandi et al.,
2006). The lowest part of the Baturaja Formation
preceded by grainstone was deposited in the winnowed platform carbonates, which is above the
wave base (SMF11-FZ6). This area is very close
to the beach characterized by the presence of argillaceous material from the transgression phase
(Andreeva, 2008), making it into the bay or pond
(SMF19-FZ8). The depositional environment of
the limestones repeated from very restricted pond
and bay (SMF19-FZ8; Figure 9) to back-reef local
slope (SMF10-FZ7; Figure 10) is due to regressive and transgressive phases. These depositional
environments are characterized by the presence
gang
sem
lpr
for
|----------| 0,5 mm
SM305C
|----------| 0,5 mm
SM316A
Figure 11. Photomicrograph of packstone/floatstone (sample

code SM316A) with various bioclasts of red algae (gang)
and large foraminifera (for) distributed in carbonate mud
matrix (lpr), typifies the SMF5-FZ4 reef-flank area.
Figure 9. Photomicrograph of wackestone (sample code

SM305C) with very fine - grained size, characterizing the
SMF19-FZ8 on very restricted bay or pond.
for
for
lpr
por
mol
IJ
O
mol
lpr
for
|----------| 0,5 mm
SM314A
Figure 10. Photomicrograph of wackestone (sample code

SM314A) with bioclasts of mollusks (mol) and large
foraminifera (for) distributed in carbonate mud matrix (lpr)
characterizing the SMF10-FZ7 on back-reef down-slope.
of wackestone-packstone interlayers some parts

of argillaceous and with floatstone intercalation.
Regression process affects sedimentation in
the middle part of Baturaja Formation, initiated
by floatstone from reef-flank facies (SMF5-FZ4;
Figure 11 and 12). The middle part of the Baturaja
Formation is dominated by limestones from that
depositional environment. The depositional environment repeated alternation with back-reef local
slope facies (SMF10-FZ7; Wilson, 1975) and their
lithology composed of wackestone-packstone.
The lithology from the back-reef local slope
(SMF10-FZ7) continued until the upper part of
the formation, and it was preceded by the presence
of wackestone-mudstone. Regressive phase led
the depositional environment to evolve into the
very restricted bay or pond (SMF19-FZ8; Flugel,
|----------| 0,5 mm
lpr
for
mol
SM318A
Figure 12. Photomicrograph of packstone (sample code

SM318A) with various bioclasts of mollusks (mol) and large
foraminifera (for) distributed in carbonate mud matrix (lpr),
characterizing the SMF5-FZ4 on reef-flank area.
1982). Furthermore, transgressive phase led to become the depositional environment of slopes and
shelf edges (SMF12-FZ6; Andreeva, 2008; Figure 13) composed of grainstone with graded and
planar cross-bedded structures (Bathurst, 1975;
Kendall, 2005). Finally, the lithology sequence
ended by the presence of wackestone-packstone
deposited at back-reef local slope (SMF10-FZ7;
Jones and Desrochers, 1992; Figure 14).
Paleogeographically, the reef complex is
located in the east of the researched area, thus
the highland is being in the west part (Maryanto,
2005). The Baturaja limestones were deposited,
with the influence of a regional transgression,
on the Late Oligocene age. The development of
depositional environment between time forming
31
bry
for
lpr
lpr
mol
mol
mol
for
ech
|----------| 0,5 mm
|----------| 0,5 mm
SM324B
Figure 14. Photomicrograph of packstone (sample code

SM325B) with abraded bioclasts of mollusks (mol), large
foraminifera (for), and echinoderms (ech) distributed in
carbonate mud matrix, characterizing the SMF10-FZ7 on
the back-reef down-slope.
Figure 13. Photomicrograph of grainstone (sample code

SM324B) with various bioclasts of mollusks (mol), large
foraminifera (for), and bryozoans (bry) in carbonate cement, characterizing the SMF12-FZ6 on slope or shelf
edge.
SM325B
River
Tidal Flat
Tidal Channel
UPPER PART
INVESTIGATED AREA
Local Basin
Lagoon
Bay
Slope
IJ
O
Basin
BASEMENT ROCKS
Fore-reef
Core-reef
Back-reef
River
Transgression
Reef-flank
MIDDLE PART 3
Tidal Flat
INVESTIGATED AREA
Tidal Channel
Local Basin
Lagoon
Bay
Slope
Basin
BASEMENT ROCKS
Fore-reef
Core-reef
Back-reef
River
INVESTIGATED AREA
LOWER PART
Local Basin
Lagoon
Bay
Slope
BASEMENT ROCKS
Back-reef
Regression
Reef-flank
Tidal Flat
Tidal Channel
Fore-reef
Regression
Reef-flank
Core-reef
River
BASEMENT ROCKS
INVESTIGATED AREA
Calcareous
Siliciclastics
Basin
Lagoon
Slope
Open Marine
Basin
BASEMENT ROCKS
Back-reef
Core-reef
Fore-reef
Stable land
followed by erosion
Reef-flank
Figure 15. Depositional environment development of the Baturaja limestones along Air Rambangnia traverse, OKU Selatan,
South Sumatra.
32
References
Andreeva, P., 2008. Microfacies Analysis of
Middle Devonian (Eifelian) Carbonate Rocks
from Deep Wells in North-Eastern Bulgaria
(Preliminary Results). Geologie Sedimentologie, 61 (10), p.1309-1314.
Bathurst, R.G.C., 1975. Carbonate Sediments
and Their Diagenesis, Second Enlarged Edition. Elsevier Scientific Publishing Company.
New York, Amsterdam, Oxford, 658 pp.
Bishop, M.G., 2000a. South Sumatra Basin
Province, Indonesia: The Lahat/ Talangakar
Cenozoic Total Petroleum System. Open file
report 99-50S US Geological Survey. http://
geology.cr.usgs.gov/energy/WorldEnergy/
OF99-50S/occurrence.html [27/03/2006].
Bishop, M.G., 2000b. Petroleum System of the
Northerst Java Province and Offshore Southeast Sumatra, Indonesia. Open file report 9950R US Geological Survey. http://geology.
cr.usgs.gov/energy/World Energy/OF99-50R/
index.html > (13/06/2006).
Dunham, R.J., 1962. Classification of Carbonate Rocks According to Depositional Textures. In: Ham, W.E. (ed.), Classification of
Carbonate Rocks. American Association of
Petroleum Geologists, Memoir 1, p.108-121.
Embry, A.F. and Klovan, J.E., 1971. A Late Devonian Reef Tract on North-Eastern Banks
Island, North West Territory. Bulletin of Canadian Petroleum Geology, 19, p. 730-781.
Flugel, E., 1982. Microfacies Analysis of Limestones. Springer-Verlag. Berlin, Heidelberg,
New York, 633pp.
Gafoer, S., Amin, T.C., and Poernomo, J., 1986.
Geological Map of Lahat Quadrangle, Sumatra, scale 1 : 250.000. Geological Research
and Development Centre, Bandung.
Gafoer, S., Amin, T.C., and Pardede, R., 1993.
Geological Map of Baturaja Quadrangle,
Sumatra, Scale 1 : 250.000. Geological Research and Development Centre, Bandung.
Jones, B. and Desrochers, A., 1992. Shallow
Platform Carbonates. In: Walker, R.G. and
James, N.P. (eds), Facies Models, Response
to Sea Level Change. Geological Association
of Canada Bulletin, p.277 - 301.
IJ
O
Baturaja Formation is shown in the Figure 15.

Depositional environment of the Baturaja Formation varies from very restricted bay or pond area
(SMF19-FZ8), back-reef local slope (SMF10FZ7), slope and shelf edge (SMF12-FZ6), winnowed platform edge sands (SMF11-FZ6), and
reef-flank facies (SMF5-FZ4). In general, the
depositional environment is conditioned existence of transgression, characterized by changes
in the position of microfacies that increasingly
moved away from bay or pond and going onto
the reef-flank facies. Depositional phase was
still ongoing until the Early Miocene (Maryanto
2007a), which would later be crushed by the
Gumai Formation.
Depositional environment forming the Baturaja Formation along Air Rambangnia traverse has
never been the deep sea or the fore-reef area. The
position of the fore-reef area is predicted to be far
away to east-southeast from the researched area.
The research area is located at the volcanic back
arc basin, at the basin edge bordering the land
area, which at that time was occupied by the PreTertiary rocks, now known as Garba Mountains.
Conclusion
Petrographic analysis was carried out upon

thirty four limestone samples taken from Air
Rambangnia traverse, OKU Selatan, South
Sumatera. It shows out that limestones consist
of wackestone, packstone, grainstone, and floatstone.
Stratigraphically, each of the rocks studied
repeatedly occurs, but generally they developed
in a transgressive depositional environment. The
depositional environment is diverse ranging from
restricted bay or pond, back-reef local slope, slope
or shelf edge, winnowed platform edge sand, and
reef-flank facies.
Acknowledgements
The author thanks and appreciates Mr. Herwin
Syah for drawing digital pictures, and Mr. Heriyanto for photographing thin sections.
33
Lokal Terumbu Belakang Batugamping Formasi Baturaja di Daerah sekitar Muaradua, Sumatera Selatan. Jurnal Sumber Daya Geologi,
18 (2), p.107-120.
Read, J.F., 1985. Carbonate Platform Facies
Models. American Association of Petroleum
Geologists, Bulletin, 69, p.1-21.
Sukandi, U., Maryanto, S., Amar, Heriyanto, and
Krisnawan, D., 2006. Pengambilan Sampel
Batuan untuk Pembuatan Material Acuan
Standar Petrologi. Laporan Teknis Intern,
Pusat Survei Geologi, Bandung, tidak terbit,
228pp.
Tucker, M.E. and Wright, V.P., 1990. Carbonate
Sedimentology. Blackwell Scientific Publications. Oxford, London, Edinburg, Cambridge,
482pp.
Wilson, J.L. 1975. Carbonate Facies in Geologic
History. Springer-Verlag. New York, Heidelberg, Berlin, 471pp.
Wilson, M.E.J. and Rosen, B.R., 1998. Implications of Paucity of Corals in the Paleogene of
SE Asia: Plate Tectonics or Centre of Origin?
In: Hall, R. and Holloway, J.D. (eds.). Biogeography and Geological Evolution of SE
Asia, p.165-195.
IJ
O
Kendall C.G.St.C., 2005. Carbonate Petrology. In: Kendall C.G.St.C. and Alnaji, N.S.
(developers). USC Sequence Stratigraphy.http://strata.geol.sc.edu/ seqstrat.html
[27/02/2006].
Kindler, P. and Hearty, P.J., 1996. Carbonate
Petrography as an Indicator of Climate and
Sea-Level Changes: New Data from Bahamian Quaternary Units. Sedimentologi, 43,
p.381-399.
Maryanto, S., 2005. Sedimentologi Batuan Karbonat Tersier Formasi Baturaja di Lintasan Air
Napalan, Baturaja, Sumatera Selatan. Jurnal
Sumber Daya Geologi, 15, p.83-101.
Maryanto, S., 2007a. Keterkaitan Hubungan
Antar Variabel Microfacies Batugamping
Bioclastic dari Formasi Baturaja di daerah
Sekitar Muaradua, Sumatra Selatan. Tesis S2
Program Pascasarjana Universitas Padjadjaran, Bandung, tidak terbit.
Maryanto, S., 2007b. Petrografi dan Proses Diagenesis Batugamping Formasi Baturaja di
Lintasan Air Saka, OKU Selatan, Sumatera
Selatan. Jurnal Sumber Daya Geologi, 17
(1), p.13-31.
Maryanto, S., 2008. Hubungan Antarkomponen
Microfacies Lereng Terumbu dan Cekungan
34

Geological Agency
Wrench-Slip Reversals and Structural Inversions: Cenozoic Slide-Rule

Tectonics in Sundaland
H.D. Tjia
Institute for Environment and Development University Kebangsaan Malaysia 436000
UKM Bangi, Selangor, Malaysia

Manuscript received: January 17, 2014, revised: March 12, 2014, approved: April 10, 2014
IJ
O
Abstract - Most of continental Southeast Asia, that is, Sundaland and Indosinia, achieved a relative tectonic stability by
the beginning of the Cenozoic. Since then a strong tectonic activity in Sundaland has been restricted to existing regional
fault zones and to regional slow, vertical crustal movements elsewhere that produced small to very large sedimentary
basins. On the other hand, regional deformation of Indosinia as a consequence of ductile shearing has continued into
the Paleogene. Since the Oligocene, the northern part of Sundaland and Indosinia have been extruded differentially
towards southeast along the Red River, Wang Chao (or Mae Ping, or Tonle Sap), and Three Pagodas - Axial Malay
fault zones. The initial cause has been attributed to hard collision between Subplate India with Megaplate Eurasia.
Plate dynamics in the region have changed substantially since Mid-Miocene as to force wrench-slip reversals along
the major fault zones in Sundaland as well as in Indosinia. Concomitant structural inversions are demonstrated on
seismic sections. In the core of Sundaland, earlier transtensional wrenching was succeeded by transpressive strike-slip
faulting that on major faults of the Malay Basin manifested in reversals of sense. From the Hinge-line fault eastward,
the transtensional left wrench slip was succeeded by transpressional dextral slip, while in the region to its west the
wrench-slip kinematics was an earlier transtensional right slip followed by transpressional left slip. In the Strait of
Malacca and eastern margin of Sumatra, right-lateral wrenching in the Neogene has been common. In certain places
it could be established a wrench-slip of transtensional character in Oligocene-Early Miocene, and the transpressional
wrench movement occurred mainly during the Middle to Late Miocene. The remarkable coincidence of termination
of spreading of the South China Basin in Langhian, and that of the West Philippine and Caroline basins during MidMiocene invites further study.
Keywords: transtensional vs. tranpressional wrenching, sequence, domains delineation
Introduction
Sundaland forms the southern part of the

Southeast Asian Subplate, whilst the northern
portion of the subplate is usually referred to as
Indosinia (Figure 1). Pre-Tertiary outcrops are
widespread. The two geological terrains can be
artificially separated by the 9 degrees northern
latitude. The Red River fault forms the northern
border; the Sagaing demarcates the western limit,
and the Vietnam Shear separates Indosinian continental block from the oceanic and thinned continental crusts of the South China Sea region. The
three regional wrench faults, all striking North-
west, cut Indosinia into large elongated crustal

slabs. These faults are the Red River, Wang Chao
(or also called Mae Ping or Tonle Sap), and Three
Pagodas. Tapponnier et al. (1982) suggested that
these regional fault zones possessed left-lateral
strike-slip that facilitated extrusion of the crustal
slabs towards southeast. This hypothesis attributes
sustained collision of the Indian Subplate against
the Eurasian megaplate at the Tibetan region as the
cause. The tectonic extrusion of Indosinia has been
adopted as a working model by many practicing
geologists of the region.
Further investigations showed that wrenchslip reversals had occurred on the three fault
35
90 E
100
Sagaing
110
120 E
Wrench Slips
Mid to Late Miocene
Red River
20oN
Y
Mae Ping
3 Pagodas
INDOSINIA
Andaman
Spreading
Center
Pacic Plate
Covergence
Vietnam Shear
PA
10
98
nda
Su
bdu
n
ctio
Su
Peusangan
Balabac
Axial Malay
M
Arun
EN
Bengkalis
WN
Hinge-line
Rumbia
Lupar
SUNDALAND
Indian Ocean - Australian

Plate Convergence
Adang
IJ
O
Sumatra
Figure 1. Index map of the Southeast Asian Subplate comprising Sundaland and Indosinia. Pre-Tertiary outcrops are widespread. Wrench-slips in Sundaland during Middle to end of the Miocene. Sundaland is arbitrarily separated from Indosinia
by the 9 degrees northern latitude. Wrench-slips in the main Malay Basin and in its western ramp have been different. The
Hinge-line Fault acts as an important tectonic boundary. Major faults are named; basins are: Y (Yinggehai), M (Mekong),
NC (Nam Con Son), EN (East Natuna), WN (west Natuna, P (Penyu), M (Malay), Pa (Patani).
zones. Lacassin et al. (1997) supported wrench reversals and structural inversions with 40Ar/39Ar
dated metamorphic rocks, which were interpreted
to imply that left-lateral slips occurred in Oligocene - Early Miocene, while dextral wrench slips
of the faults occurred in the Pliocene-Quaternary
time span. A major argument supporting the
changes concerns continuous northward progression of the Indian Subplate collision that has
produced a clockwise rotation of over 100o of
the regional stress fields of Indosinia. Rhodes et
al. (2005) interpreted three tectonic stages for the
Three Pagodas Fault zone: (1) initially as a wide
ductile left-lateral shear zone in a transpressive
environment; (2) followed by individual fault
strands of the TPFZ becoming right-slip transtensional; and (3) renewed activity (Holocene?)
right-lateral transpressional with small dextral
slip in the Northwest of the TPFZ. Exploration
for hydrocarbons in the Malay, West Natuna and
36
Penyu basins in the core of Sundaland and also

in Tertiary basins located along its western and
southern fringes produced a plethora of relevant
data pertaining to regional stress field changes
(Tjia and Liew, 1996). The main objective of the
current article is to deal with Cenozoic kinematics of wrench faulting and structural inversions
in Sundaland. A few unpublished/lesser known
indicators from Indosinia are included. Relevant
structural information is also scattered in the petroleum geology book of Petronas (1999).
Note: Before the age of electronic calculators,
a wide range of computations was performed by
sliding back-and-forth parts of a slide rule (mistarhitung). Elongated crustal slabs of Sundaland
moved in similar fashion along wrench faults.
The term slide rule tectonics is here introduced to encompass the development of regional
wrench-slip reversals and associated structural
inversions.
Wrench-Slip Reversals and Structural Inversions: Cenozoic Slide-Rule Tectonics in Sundaland (H.D. Tjia)
Regional geology
Right-lateral wrenching on the Three Pagodas

Fault Zone is also indicated in Figure 3. This
map fragment is simplified from the Geological
Surveyof the Department of Mineral Resources
(Thailand) regional map published in 1983. The
Three Pagodas Fault Zone (TPFZ) along the Khwae Noi segment has several Neogene (TertiaryQuaternary) depressions. The Hao Tha Khanun (or
Pracham) Basin has a rhombic plan that suggests
a pull-apart 40 - 45 km long filled with NeogeneQuaternary sediments. This pull-apart basin is
consistent with dextral wrench on the TPFZ, a clear
reversal of the sinistral sense (black half-tipped arrow) that characterizes its earlier activity. Fenton
et al. (2003) believed that faults in northern and
western Thailand (including the Three Pagodas
Fault Zone) indicate a recent activity. Lateral slip
rates were estimated at 0.5 to 2 mm.
Indosinian Slide-Rule Tectonics

Tapponnier et al. (1982) proposed a tectonic
model of large scale extrusion of the Indosinian
continental plate by left-lateral wrenching along
regional fault zones: Red River, Mae Ping/Wang
Chao, and Three Pagodas. This model is purportedly consistent with the Indian Subplate colliding with the Eurasian Megaplate. The proposers
supported their hypothesis with laboratory experiments using plasticine. Lacassin et al. (1997)
showed that the three regional fault zones were
subject to wrench reversals and inversions. Since
the Late Neogene the three named faults produced
right-lateral wrenching (Figure 2). The effects of
initial left-lateral wrench slip have not been fully
restored by the later reversals.
Middle-Late Triassic
and Jurassic
Cretaceous granites
Red
IJ
O
Triassic granites
20o
PF
.Z
Mandalay
D.B
Structural trends
Sagaling F.Z
2. Pliocene-Quatenary
wrench
er F
.Z
Salweeh
1. Oligo-Miocene
wrench
Riv
So
ng
Ca
ek
g
on
Vientiane
an
W
ad
aw
Irr
Yangoon
ao
Ch
Z
F.
as
od
ag
3P
Khorat
15o
Plateau
F.Z
Andaman Sea
Bangkok
Tonle Sap
N
0
Phnom
Penh
200 km
Gulf
of
Thailand
Figure 2. Major structures, especially fault zones in Indosinia. The geology is simplified from Lacassin et al. (1997) that
highlight regional drag effects by the major faults. These effects show case the significance of Paleogene wrench faulting,
while later wrench reversals appear much more subdued.
37
98o 30' E
99o E
15 N
o
rin Reser
Si Nakha
Hao
Tha
Khanun
voir
Kh
wa
No
Khwae Noi
or
Three Pagodas Fault Zone
Tertiary - Quaternary
ya
Cretaceous granite
nm
ar
Triassic granite
14o N
Undifferentiated Pre-Tertiary
10
20
30 km
IJ
O
98o 30' E
99o E
Figure 3. Simplified regional geology of western Thailand based on the Geological Survey of the Department of Mineral
Resources (1983). Half-tipped black arrows indicate strike-slip sense on the Three Pagodas Fault Zone in pre-Mid Miocene.
The Hao Tha Khanun basin has typical pull-apart outlines representing right-lateral wrenching (white half-tipped arrows)
that has transpired since Mid(?) Miocene.
Along its SE-strike, the Three Pagodas Fault

Zone is likely to extend into the Malay Basin as its
Axial Malay Axial Fault Zone. Wrench reversal
from an earlier sinistral sense into dextral strike
slip has been demonstrated (Tjia and Liew, 1996).
However, the wrench kinematics of the TPFZ and
AMFZ has been in opposite sequence.
The Yinggehai depression marks the transition between the Red River Fault Zone and the
Vietnam Shear (Figure 4). The rhombic outline
of the depression suggests a pull-apart produced
by right-lateral wrenching. The outline is based
on a map by CCOP (1991). The Vietnam Shear
separates a combination of oceanic and thinned
continental crust of the South China Sea Basin
from normal continental crust of Indosinia-Sundaland (Taylor and Hayes, 1983; Roques et al.,
1997). The shear is most likely a transform fault
(Sandal, 1996, Figure 2.1; and Tjia (1998). The
shears activity may have begun with the opening
38
of the South China Sea Basin dated at 32 Ma, or

within the later part of the Oligocene. Tapponnier
et al. (1982) assigned left slip exceeding 500 km
on the Red River Fault Zone. This probably occurred during the Paleogene. A morphotectonic
study by Zuchiewicz and Cuong (2009) cite earlier results on the RRFZ and note that left slip
overlaps with the opening of the South China Sea
Basin in the 34 to 17 Ma period, with estimated
total displacement of 300 + 60 km to as much as
500 - 700 km. Since the end of Miocene, rightlateral slip may have reached a total of 200 - 250
km. Quaternary dextral slip has been in the 300
m to 2 km range representing an average annual
rate of 5 mm.
Four recent earthquakes have epicenters at
the ends of the Red River and the Mae Ping fault
zones (Figure 5). The two shallow earthquakes
(focal depths < 33 km) near Hainan Island show
first-motion solutions of right-lateral wrenching
22 N
o
d
Re
v
Ri
er
Fa
1 km
ul
t
1 km
Beibu Wan
20
Se
di
m
en
t
l- a
pul
sin rench
Ba
hai tral w
gge dex
Yin art by
th
ic
kn
es
s
km
Hainan
18o
ast
he
out
Ha
1 km
Stress Ellipse
ina
106o E
16 N
o
108o
110o E
IJ
O
Figure 4. The Yinggehai depression marks the transition between the Red River Fault Zone and the Vietnam Shear. Its outline
suggests a pullapart produced by right-lateral wrenching. The outline is based on a map by CCOP (1991).
100 E
110
Mw 5.3
20 N
120 E
Mw 5.5
20 N
1994 12 31
1995 01 10
South Shina Sea Basin

(Oceanic Crust)
2005 11 08
1991 05 26
10
2005 11 07
Mw 5.3
10
Ranau
Tubau Fault
2004 05 01
Mw 5.4
Mw 5.2
1995 07 12
0N
Mw 5.3
Mw 5.5
2007 02 24F
0N
110
120
Figure 5. Recent earthquakes at the Red River and Mae Ping fault zones. First motions of recent earthquakes associated
with the Red River and Mae Ping fault zones are consistent with right-lateral sense of wrenching. Data from USGS-NEIC.
39
on NW-trending segments of the Red River Fault

Zone. Two of the moderate-magnitude earthquake
epicenters are located at the end of the Mae Ping
Fault zone and also possess shallow foci of < 33
km. The beach balls are consistent with right
lateral slip on NW - SE striking faults. Both the
RRFZ and MPFZ are active.
small pull-apart depressions, each associated with

the faults. In other words, the wrenching was
transtensional (see further below). Later, in Late
Oligocene to Early Miocene time the wrench slip
reverted within a transpressional stress regime that
produced compressional structures in the basin-fill
sediments. The Malay Basin proper is traversed by
major North-South faults that dextrally displaced
East-West trending anticlines -most containing
commercial hydrocarbons for distances up to
35 km. However, the East-West disposition of the
large folds was derived from Paleogene pull-aparts
associated with left-lateral wrenching of a 30 - 35
km wide fault zone marking the axis of the basin
(Tjia and Liew 1996; Tjia, in Petronas, 1999).
Lateral fault slip reversals on this Axial Malay
Fault Zone (Figure 7) are also accompanied by
structural inversion. Severity of inversion in-
Sundaland Slide-Rule Tectonics

Malay Basin, West Natuna, and Penyu Basins
Malay Basin (1)

In Figure 6, the Malay Basin occupies the greyshaded region. Regional faults striking within
the NW to N sector form the western limit of the
basin. Black half-tipped arrows indicate initial
wrench sense on the Dungun, Hinge-line, and
Tenggol Faults. Dextral slips produced relatively
Ular-Kuda Fault
Kapal-Bergading Fault
IJ
O
Major structures
Malay Basin
07o00' N
Bundi Fault
Dulang Fault
Mekong
Pattani
ala
Nam
Con
Son
Mesah Fault
06 30'
o
06 00'
o
Penyu
West Natuna
200 km
Belumut Fault
Faults
05o30'
Hi
e-
ng
ult
Fa
High
mostly inverted basin
an
ng
Du
Anticline
lin
100 km
aul
F
gol
lt
au
05o00' N
g
Ten
eF
Syncline
102o30' E
103o00'
103o30'
104o00'
104o30'
105o00'
105o30' E
Figure 6. Malay Basin occupies the grey-shaded area. Along its western border are major faults trending within the NW to
N sector of which Dungun, Hinge-line and Tenggol are prominent. Black half-tipped arrows correspond to transtensional
wrenching that produced pull-aparts along the faults. The pull-aparts became depositional loci for Lower Oligocene to
Lower Miocene sediments. By Middle Miocene, wrench sense reverted and became transpressional resulting in folds of the
sedimentary fill and structural inversion. Within the Malay Basin proper initial wrench sense was left-lateral that resulted
in large East-West oriented pull-aparts.
40
Thailand
100 km
Ax
ial
ial
ala
yF
au
lt
07 30 N
o
ala
yF
au
lt
Zo
ne
Zo
06 45
o
ne
Ax
M37a
Pre-Late Oligocene
Sub-Basins
Malay Basin
Malay Basin
Hi
06o15
lay
Ind sia
one
sia
lt
Ma
lt
Fau
au
gun
eF
in
L
eng
Dun
05o15 N
IJ
O
Peninsular
Malaysia
102o15 E
103o30
104o15
105o00
105o45 E
Figure 7. East-West pull-aparts at the base of the Axial Malay Fault Zone (AMFZ) developed during sinistral wrenching.
Subsequent wrench-slip reversal produced transpressional stress regime. Since the Middle Miocene dextral slip on the
AMFZ resulted in structural inversion of the pull-apart sedimentary fillings into large folds and associated reverse faulting
amounting to as much as 550 m (Ledang field).
creases progressively towards the southeast end of

the Malay Basin. For instance, at the Ledang field
structural inversion amounted to 550 m (Petronas
1999); at the Peta field structural inversion has
exceeded 250 m (Figure 8). A large half graben
containing Lower Oligocene sediments was
inverted by the Middle Miocene. The inversion
was also accompanied by reverse faulting that
involved the seismic basement, which may be
of pre-Tertiary age. Farther southeast is the West
Natuna Basin where transpressional effects are
significant (Wongsosantiko and Wirojudo 1984).
Tectonic compression directed NW - SE has
produced the Udang asymmetrical anticline that
borders a reverse fault striking NE - SE (Daines,
1985). The kinematic plan is completed by conjugate wrench faults, one of sinistral slip striking a
few degrees east of North; the second consisting

of a dextral slip wrench striking WNW - ESE.
The structural evolution of the central zone
of the Malay Basin is diagrammatically shown
in Figure 9. In Oligocene - Early Miocene, leftlateral transtensional strike-slip faulting occurred
on the wide Axial Malay Fault Zone that produced
East-West trending pull-aparts. The depressions
accommodated deposition of sediments. Slip sense
on the AMFZ reverted since the Langhian (Early
to Middle Miocene transition) in a transpressional
stress regime producing the large East-West striking anticlines from the pull-apart sediment fillings.
Changing wrench kinematics in the northeastern edge of the Malay Basin is illustrated by Figure 10. The top of basement surface possess folds
that can be interpreted to have developed as drag
41
Southwest
Northweast
Duyung
Ledeng
Pulai
Belumut
Peta
Unconformity
Middle Miocene
2
La Lower Miocene
te
Ol
igo
ce
ne
Basement
Lower Oligocene
Mekong
Inversion
Pattani
Net fault reserval of 550 m

at top of Oligocene
ala
Nam
Con
Son
Inversion
Penyu West Natuna
200 km
Section across southern Malay Basin

Structural inversion and compression
20 km
8 km
Figure 8. Peta structural inversion has involved over 250 m vertical uplift including basement-involved reverse faulting.
In the southeast, a smaller inverted half graben indicates the tectonic event to have occurred in post-Early Miocene time.
IJ
O
Structural inversion
in Malay Basin
NW
East-West en schelon fractures and half-grabens developed

through sinistral wrencing on axial fracture zone
SE
up to Early Oligocene
Reversal in wrench motion results in structural inversion

including folding of the ductile sediments
ne
Middle - Late Miocene
icli
Ant
NW
Basement
ents
sedim
SE
Figure 9. Diagram shows the development of the AMFZ: initially by sinistral wrenching creating transtensional depressions
(pull-aparts) in systematic pattern, followed by dextral wrench-slip associated with transpression.
structures associated with left-lateral slip along a

curving fault zone trending NW to WNW. A relatively small rhombic pull-apart in the southeast
of the map correspond to right slip of the wrench
zone. Which of the wrench regime was older is
not definitive as age control is wanting. At this
stage of knowledge it is speculated that the initial
wrench regime was, probably transpressional,
42
left lateral sinistral. The rather limited extent

of wrench transtensional effect in the Southeast
corner was possibly a younger event.
West Natuna Basin
Figure 11 illustrates effects of strong compression (folds and reverse faults) and at least one
wrench-slip reversal among the WNW - ESE
Northeast Malay Basin

Top of Basement
Mekong
So
Int
ern
Pattani
ut
ati
ala
on
al
bo
un
hi
Nam
Con
Son
na
Penyu
da
ry
West Natuna
200 km
Trend of basement high

with plunge
Trend of basement low
Pullapart
10 km
Figure 10. Wrench reversal is also demonstrated by structure patterns at basement top at the northeastern ramp of the Malay
Basin.
105 E
106
107 E
MA
6o
AS
Natuna
LA
YB
well
IJ
O
rat S
Structures
West Natuna Basin
Petroconsult (1990)
Kho
7N
IN
Mekong
Pattani
lay
Nam
Con
Son
West
Natuna
Penyu
igh
AR H
200 km
Cumi-Cumi
Depression
Bo
plif
yU
ar
und
Arch
Tenggol
Arch
idg
4N
o
R
us
Penyu
Basin
Sunda Shelf
Natuna 5
P. Seluan
Ga
Reverse fault
Normal fault
Kepulauan
Anambas
Fold axis
Strike-slip fault
Figure 11. West Natuna Basin at the SE end of the Malay Basin possesses strong compressional structures comprising
reverse faults and wrench-slip reversal.
43
striking major faults. The Lower Oligocene

graben infill (Belut Formation) up to the Lower
Miocene (Gabus Formation) shows structural
inversion in the form of anticlines (Figure 6;
Daines, 1985).
IJ
O
Malay Basin (2)

Wrench-slip reversal along the Tenggol
Fault along the SW side of the Malay Basin
is illustrated in Figure12 (Shahar, 2008). This
composite fault map at levels representing
Oligocene and several horizons of the Miocene
shows en echelon faults (red) at the basement
top and at the various Miocene levels. The en
echelon arrangements are opposed to each other.
The red-coloured older fault system represents
left wrench slip; all the Miocene levels, and
especially in a well-defined zone of the Tenggol
Fault, indicate later right-lateral wrench slip.
Wrench-slip reversals along the Hingeline fault and its subsidiary Dungun Fault
from an initial right-slip to left slip have been
documented by pull-aparts whose sedimentary fillings were folded in the subsequent
transpressional stress regime, respectively.

Examples were published in Tjia and Liew
(1996), Liew (1996), Tjia (1998), and Petronas (1999) . Figure 13 shows wrench reversal
along a northern segment of the Hinge-line
Fault in the Kabut area. Right-lateral wrenching (black half-tipped arrows) most likely
occurred in the Early-Mid Miocene time span
producing a partitioned pull-apart depression.
Middle to Upper Miocene sediments filled
the compartmentalized pull-apart that since
the Late Miocene experienced transpressional
deformation through wrench-slip reversal (red
half-tipped arrows).
Figure 14 shows time structure at approximately pre-Tertiary basement level of the
Dungun Graben and two smaller depressions
along the Dungun Fault, a splay to the west of
the Hinge-line Fault (Figure 6). The somewhat
streamlined outline of the Dungun Graben
suggests an origin as a pull-apart produced by
transtensional right-lateral wrenching (black
half-tipped arrows). The lower Neogene sedimentary graben filling has been folded indicat-
470000
480000
490000
540000
536000
S-eld
532000
Ta_2
sedimentary
channel outline
Top basement (L. CretaceousE. Tertiary (Paleocene)

Ta_6/Ta_5 (Early Miocene)
528000
Ta_4 (Middle Miocene)
524000
Ta_3 (Middle Late Miocene)
520000
516000
512000
Ta_2 (Late Miocene/Pliocene)
A-eld
N
M-eld
508000
10 km
Figure 12. A composite fault map of the Tenggol Fault zone highlighting en echelon fault patterns (red coloured associated
with left-lateral wrench slip) and along a narrow zone indicating right wrench-slip in Miocene beds. Shahar (2008) also
pointed out that the trend of channel sands was not disturbed by dextral wrenching.
44
N
Inverted pull-apart depressions
5000
5000
4900
0
480
0
470
460
45
00
00
44
43
00
00
49
48
00
42
00
Mekong
00
41
Pattani
00
ala
38
Nam
Con
Son
Penyu
West Natuna
200 km
4000
45
00
430
45
well
00
00
3900
37
42
00
00
38
370
4100
00
36
00
42
ine
e-l
ng
00
Hi
35
400
Kabut area
(NW Malay Basin)
ult
IJ
O
Fa
390
Depth structure
Late Miocene
Figure 13. In the Kabut area on the northern segment of the Hinge-line Fault Zone wrench slip reversal is demonstrated by
an earlier right-lateral transtensional stage when the pull-apart was developed, most likely in Early to Middle Miocene when
sediments were filling the depressions. In the succeeding tectonic episode, wrench-slip reversal generated transpression in
which the basin-filling deposits were deformed into folds.
ing lateral left-lateral transpressional strike-slip

motion (yellow half-tipped arrows), possible
since the Middle Miocene.
Penyu Basin
At the base of the Tertiary, structures of the
Penyu Basin are shown in Figure 15. The large
half-grabens are up to 4000 m deep and contain
the larger portion of the Intra-Oligocene Penyu
Formation (Figure 16). The great thickness of
sedimentary basin fill demonstrates a long-lasting tensional stress regime. Ngah et al. (1996)
published the Penyu Basin stratigraphy. Other
geological information is by Madon and Anuar
(1999). Basement is pre-Oligocene; Penyu Formation and the Terengganu Shale are Oligocene;
the Pari Formation is Early-Middle Miocene; the
Pilong Formation includes sediments from Late

Miocene to the present. The Rumbia Fault is a
prominent fault striking northwest. Subsidiary
faults are arranged en echelon implying sinistral
wrench slip. The section clearly indicates that
the basin experienced two separate episodes of
tectonic events. The deep half grabens were associated with an older pre-Oligocene event. Structural inversion is expressed by the uppermost
Oligocene Terengganu Shale. Figures 15 and 16
combined suggest that the wrenching shown by
the Rumbia Fault system had been transpressional
and represents the younger tectonic event.
Concluding remark on the Hinge-line Fault
Zone
In the Malay Basin, the major wrench faults
to the East of the Hinge-line experienced ini45
103 40' E
o
25
00
00
00
20
16
00
00
13
10
0
90
0
11
0
0
80
Dungun A
00
15
13
5 20' N
14
70
00
00
00
12
00
00
13
16
60
50
0
15
00
0
11
10
40
00
Dungun B1
00
00
14
300 ms
5 10'
o
Dungun C
0
50
00
12
Mekong
Pattani
0
11
ala
Nam
Con
Son
60
5o00'
00
30
25
West Natuna
00
Penyu
10
200 km
00
Dungun
Graben
2000
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Pull-apart Basins
along Dungun Fault Zone
1500
70
10 km
4o50' N
90
time contour map (ms)

approx. at Pre-Tertiary surcafe
103 50' E
80
Figure 14. Dungun Graben is the largest depression along the Dungun Fault, a splay of the Hinge-line Fault. The streamlined rhombic outline suggests a pull-apart origin that accommodated Lower Miocene (and Oligocene?) deposition of some
3000 m thick sediments.
Penyu Basin
Base of Tertiary
Oli
Left-lateral wrench
Depression with
Oli
direction of deepening
Ru
Fault scrap
Basement high
Oli
Oligocene
bi
aF
au
lt
Oli
Mekong
Pattani
y
ala
Nam
Con
Son
Penyu
N
West
Natuna
Oli
200 km
Figure 15. Near Tertiary base level structures of the Penyu Basin are illustrated. The large half grabens host OligoceneQuaternary sediments.
46
Malaysia Indonesia
0
1
Southwest
Northeast
Pilong
Pari
Inversion
Terengganu Shales
Inversion
2
3
4
Penyu
Basement
Penyu Basin
6
km
35 km
Figure 16. The Penyu Basin section shows the deep half grabens; inversion distinctly expressed by the Terengganu Shale.
extend offshore to join the Hinge-line fault and

faults in the border region of Malaysia-Thailand.
At this stage, in both cases age control of their
Cenozoic activity is still speculative.
GPS study of coseismic vertical displacements associated with the mega-earthquake of
the Indian Ocean in 26 December 2004 shows
up to 11 mm uplift in the northwest part of
Peninsular Malaysia and as much 7 mm for the
region neighbouring Singapore Island (Din et
al., 2012).
Towards the end of the first decade of the
21st century, weak earthquakes (less than 3.8
magnitude) of uncertain origin were recorded in
the west-central parts of the Peninsula.
The cited evidences point to crustal disturbances during the Cenozoic, possibly associated with major faults in Peninsular Malaysia.
However, their tectonic association to known
major faults has not been confidently proven.
The present discussion has excluded their
possible role until reliable age control can be
established.
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tially transtensional sinistral wrenching that was

succeeded by strike-slip reversal, predominantly
beginning around Langhian, or transition from
Early to Middle Miocene. The reversal was associated with transpression. To the West of the
Hinge-line Fault, also referred to as the western
ramp of the basin, wrench kinematics progressed
in opposite fashion: pre-Langhian dextral
transtension succeeded by sinistral wrench slip.
Tectonic history interpreted from published evidence of the Penyu Basin - located to the west of
the Hinge-line Fault- are in general agreement
Peninsular Malaysia
Major strike-slip faults traversing the onshore area of Peninsular Malaysia have been
mapped in some detail. Most of their kinematics
appears to have been restricted to the pre-Tertiary. The main reason for the lacunae in knowledge about their Tertiary tectonic activity is the
paucity of relevant rocks. Two Lower Tertiary
basins, the Batu Arang and Lawin, lie adjacent
to the sinistral Kuala Lumpur wrench zone and
the similarly sinistral Baubak (also spelled Bok
Bak) wrench fault, respectively (JMG, 1985).
Raj (1998) published a well documented discussion on tectonic evolution of the Batu Arang
Basin. A series of northerly striking fault zones
in Terengganu (Tjia, 1998) can be projected to
Strait of Malacca and Northern Sumatra

The dominant fault structures in the Strait
of Malacca strike North-South. The structural
geology is published in Liew (1995) and Madon
and Ahmad (1999). Liew recognizes four belts
47
Sundaland
Slide-rule Tectonics
Oligocene to Miocene
IJ
O
offsets of Neogene structures are shown in

Figure 18, which is simplified from Heidrick
and Aulia (1993).
Figure 19 is a structural plan of the seismic
basement surface below the Upper Oligocene
strata of the Northern Graben. The sigmoidal
en echelon pattern of faults indicate the depression to have been subjected to right-lateral
transtensional wrenching parallel to its longer
N-S axis. The transtensional stress environment
created the graben as a pull-apart, most likely in
the Late Oligocene-Early Miocene time span.
The succeeding compressive stress episode of
the Mid- to Late Miocene produced structural
inversion that appears to have been associated
with transtensional wrenching. The basementinvolved flower structures suggest that this may
be the case.
Northerly trending faults in the western
margin of Sundaland are below the coastal
zone of northern Sumatra. Two regional stress
domains relate to the Andaman Basin and Indian
Ocean- Australian tectonic entities (Figure 20).
Significant right-lateral displacement of pre-
of N-S elongated fault depressions bridging

the strait between the coastal zone of Sumatra
into the Malaysian shelf area (Figure 17). Three
domains of Cenozoic wrench kinematics are
recognized: (1) Malay Basin region, (2) western
ramp of the basin, and (3) Strait Malacca zone.
Many of the fault depressions are half grabens
whose bottom sediments are considered Pematang equivalent of Upper Oligocene-Lower
Miocene. Strata of the Sihapas equivalent
(Middle Miocene) suggest structural inversion
in the Central and Southern Grabens, Port Klang
Graben, and Johor Graben. Seismic indicates
that inversion gradually expires towards the beginning of the Pliocene. The graben-bounding,
basementinvolved faults are associated with
flower structures in the Central, Angsa, Port
Klang, and Johor Grabens. The Bengkalis
Trough is drawn in its proper position. Dextral
Pe Ar TY
NE
AM
HL
Te
pli
ak
nU
Si
ila
DURI
Ke
cil
lt
lin
P. Padang
Pedada
P.
Merbau
Pusaka
Minas High
Butun
MINAS
Pekanbaru
Kempas-Beruk
Uplift
Ot
ak
Beruk
Fa
ult
-fo
ld
Zamrud
Trough line
Rumbai
48
nc
plift
500 km
Figure 17. Slide rule tectonics in Sundaland - Major

faults: NE (NE Malay Basin), Uf (Udang reverse fault),
AM (Axial Malay Fault Zone), HL (Hinge-line Fault
Zone), Te Tenggol Fault), Df (Dungun Fault), Ru (Rumbia
Fault), Tf (Terengganu faults), BT (Bengkalis Trough),
Pb (Pematang Balam zone), AA (Asahan-Aruah zone),
TY (Tamiang-Yang Besar zone), Ar (Arun fault), 98 (98
Fault), TP (Tanjung Pura Fault), TM (Tanjung Morawa
Fault), and Pe (Peusangan Fault). Note three wrench-fault
domains have been identified.
Sy
an U
fau
nc
tre
Rok
tra
on
ma
cti
Su
du
ub
as
nd
BT
Strait Malacca
Pulau
Bengkalis
mb
Su
Ru
Dumai
BENGKALIS TROUGH
Df
Se
AA
Pb
TM
TP
Pulau
Rumpat
Uf
25 km
Figure 18. Bengkalis Trough with structures and some

hydrocarbon fields exhibiting effects of dextral wrenching
of the trough. Simplified from Heidrick and Aulia (1993).
05 00' N
o
DEPTH > 1 SEC TWT
CENTRAL GRABEN
STRAIT MALACCA
FAULTS IN BASEMENT
IJ
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10 km
99o40' E.
99o35' E.
ns -1
Figure 19. Systematic en echelon fault pattern in the Tertiary sediments filling the Central Graben of the Aruah-Asahan
deformation zone, Strait of Malacca (AA on Figure 17).
Peusangan F.
Andaman Plate
stress regime
Arun Fault
98 Fault zone
Pre-Tertiary basement
at 2000 feet depth
Tertiary strike lines
HC elds
2000'
Kampai
Flexure
2000'
Su
Northern and Eastern

limit of Lower Miocene
and older
ma
tr
aF
au
100 km
Tg. Pura F.
Tg. Morawa F.
lt
Medan
Indian Ocean - Australian

stress regime
Danau
Toba
2000'
Figure 20. Northern Sumatra slide-rule tectonics. The area of northern Sumatra from the Peusangan Fault westward is
under the influence of spreading of the Andaman Sea Basin (large arrow shows compression direction). To the East of the
Peusangan Fault, wrench faulting responds to collision of the subducting Indian Ocean-Australian Plate with Southeast Asia.
49
Tertiary basement and drag effects on strikes

of Tertiary structures is indicated. The distinct
dislocation of the Sumatra Fault Zone between
the Peusangan and the 98 Fault from its general
trend was observed earlier (Tjia, 1977).
Discussion and Conclusions
Acknowledgements
Mainly, Oligocene to Miocene slide-rule

tectonics are different for three domains of
Sundaland (Figure 17). However wrench reversals appear centered about Langhian (17
to 15.5 Ma; or transition from Early to Mid
Miocene). Domain 1 from and including the
Hinge-line Fault (HL) eastward was subject to
transtension prior to Langhian and wrenching
has since reverted to transpression. Wrench kinematics had the opposite sequence in Domain
2, that is, westward from the Hinge-line fault
and perhaps including major faults in the Malay
Peninsula. The paucity of Cenozoic sediments
associated with onshore wrench faults prevents
inclusion of possible wrench kinematics in the
discussion. Radiometric dates of 3 mylonites
of major onshore wrench faults indicate a latest
activity in the later part of the Eocene (Harun,
1992). Weak magnitude seismicity (around 3
and maximum 3.8) in the past decade could not
be satisfactorily related to renewed displacement
along some of the major faults in the western
zone of Peninsular Malaysia. For these reasons,
Peninsular Malaysia is left out from the current
discussion. Cenozoic Domain 3 is bordered by
the Bengkalis Trough, the Peusangan Fault, and
the active transcurrent Sumatra Fault Zone on
the southwest side. Geographically the Bengkalis Trough extends into the Bentong Suture,
but the latter activity during the Cenozoic is
not known. Domain 3 contains North-South
faults and zones of aligned fault depressions.
Wrench-slip reversals were only determined for
structures shown in seismic sections.
The Hinge-line Fault distinctly separates
two areas of the Malay Basin that have had
separate wrench kinematics during the Cenozoic: in the main basin area to the east and of
the western basin ramp to the west. Figure 1
shows the convergence of the two megaplates
onto Sundaland-Indosinia after the Langhian

- Early Miocene to Middle Miocene transition time. Wrench-slip reversals, although not
always in tandem, during the Cenozoic history
of Sundaland and Indosinia may have had common causes. The Langhian time threshold of
change in wrench kinematics (and structural
inversions) invites further study. Around the
same geological time, seafloor spreading ceased
in the South China Sea Basin and also in farfield regions such as the West Philippine and
Caroline Basins.
IJ
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The material and idea for this article were

gathered over many years. Inspiration originated
from talks with fellow geologists: the late John
Ario Katili, G.A.S. Nayoan, C.K. Burton, Khalid
Ngah, and Liew Kit Kong.
50
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Tertiary tectonic evolution and related hydrocarbon potential in the Natuna area. Proceed-
52

Geological Agency
Hydrocarbon Source Rock Potential

of the Sinamar Formation, Muara Bungo, Jambi
Moh. Heri Hermiyanto Zajuli and Hermes Panggabean
Center for Geological Survey, Geological Agency
Jln. Diponegoro 57, Bandung - 40122

Manuscript received: November 14, 2013, revised: April 14, 2014, approved: April 22, 2014
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Abstract - The Oligocene Sinamar Formation consists of shale, claystone, mudstone, sandstone, conglomeratic sandstone, and intercalation of coal seams. The objective of study was to identify the hydrocarbon source rock potential
of the Sinamar Formation based on geochemichal characteristics. The analyses were focused on fine sediments of the
Sinamar Formation comprising shale, claystone, and mudstone. Primary data collected from the Sinamar Formation
well and outcrops were analyzed according to TOC, pyrolisis analysis, and gas chromatography - mass spectometry
of normal alkanes that include isoprenoids and sterane. The TOC value indicates a very well category. Based on
TOC versus Pyrolysis Yields (PY) diagram, the shales of Sinamar Formation are included into oil prone source rock
potential with good to excellent categories. Fine sediments of the Sinamar Formation tend to produce oil and gas
originated from kerogen types I and III. The shales tend to generate oil than claystone and mudstone and therefore
they are included into a potential source rock.
Keywords: Sinamar Formation, Oligocene, organic petrography, biomarker, shale
Introduction
The Sinamar Formation has been found in

Sumatra, in particular at the area nearby western
part of South Sumatra Basin. The stratigraphic
sequences and tectonics of the Sinamar Formation
are almost similar to the Talangakar, Lemat, and
Kasiro Formations of South Sumatra Basin; the
Sangkarewang Formation of Ombilin Basin, the
Kiliran Formation of Kiliranjao Sub-basin, and
the Pematang Formation (Brown Shale) of the
Central Sumatra Basin, which all of formations
have potential of oil and gas in Sumatra.
The subject of this study is the fine-grained
sediments of the Sinamar Formation distributed in Sinamar region, Muara Bungo Regency
(Figure 1), which were analyzed to obtain their
TOC, rock-eval pyrolysis, and geochemistry data
including biomarker (Gas Chromatography and
Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry).
The objective of this study is to identify the

hydrocarbon source rock potential of fine-grained
sedimentary rocks of the Sinamar Formation
based on geochemichal characteristics. The
Talangakar and Lemat Formations, which have
similar characteristics with Sinamar Formation,
are famous to be a source rock potential in South
Sumatra Basin. Thus, this research is focused to
identify fine-grained sedimentary rocks of the
Sinamar Formation as the possibility of an alternative potential for hydrocarbon source rock in
South Sumatra Basin.
The Sinamar Formation comprises shale, claystone, siltstone, and intercalation of sandstone and
coal, deposited in a fluvial - deltaic environment
(Rosidi et al., 1996) or a lacustrine environment
(Zajuli and Panggabean, 2013). Analysis of South
Sumatra Basin source rock is a geological study
in an upstream sector. This study is expected to
be resulted in some detailed data and information
53

98oE
100
99
101
102
103
104
105
106oE
01
S
West Sumatra
Province
01
S
Jambi Sub-basin
Jambi Province
Central Palembang
Sub-basin
02
ut
So
h
an
di
In
North Palembang
Sub-basin
Su
South Sumatra
Province
03
a
sin
Ba
Bengkulu
Province
r
at
an
ce
03
02
South Palembang
Sub-basin
04
Lampung Province
Studied area
05o
S
04
05
S
Java Sea
Sunda strait
98 E
o
99
100
101
102
103
104
105
106 E
o
Figure 1. Locality map of the studied area falling under the Muara Bungo Regency.
area, Jambi Sub-basin. TOC, rock-eval pyrolysis,

and Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry
(GC-MS) analyses were carried out in Lemigas,
Jakarta, upon rocks from the wells and some
outcrops found during the field observation.
There are six wells found in the study area,
i.e. SNM-4, SNM-9, SNM-10, SNM-11, SNM13, and SNM-15, from depth between 75 - 200
m. The KIM is the only coal company located in
the study area. Rock sampling was only done in
certain locations, that are at the outcrop sites and
SNM-4 well.
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on source rock existing in the northwestern part

of South Sumatran Basin.
Regionally, some workers have studied around
this area discussing several matters related to
geology, among others is Bemmelen (1949) who
carried out a study in Ombilin and Central Sumatra Basins, particularly concerning the basin
formation in conjunction with coal characteristics. Furthermore, the Geological Research and
Development Centre carried out a series of systematic geological mapping in Painan Quadrangle
and northeastern part of Muarasiberut (Rosidi et
al., 1996), Solok Quadrangle (Silitonga and Kastowo, 1995), and Rengat Quadrangle (Suwarna
et al., 1994).
Materials and Method
The primary data collected during fieldwork

include observation, measurement, and rock
sample collection both from outcrop and core
samples. Those data gained are focused on
geochemical characters related to source rocks.
The core data were supplied by coal mining
company of the PT. Kuansing Inti Makmur
(KIM), having the coal mining concession,
particularly in the western part of Muara Bungo
54
Geological Setting
Physiographically, the study area is an intramountain basin occupying the eastern flank of
Barisan Mountain and Bukit Barisan Anticline
(De Coster, 1974), bordering the Jambi Sub-basin
from South Sumatra Basin. The east slope or wing
of the Barisan Mountain spreads out within northwest - southeast direction, around 150 - 1,000
m asl The researched location lies between the
South Sumatra back-arc Basin and Ombilin Intramountain Basin (Figure 1). The geological structure developing in the researched area is normal
faults generally trending northwest - southeast.
Hydrocarbon Source Rock Potential of the Sinamar Formation, Muara Bungo, Jambi (M.H.H. Zajuli and H. Panggabean)
the lowest part, then they are overlain by 2 - 5 m

layering blackish grey claystone intercalated with
20 cm of coal. Upwards, the Sinamar Formation
is characterized by the presence of claystone and
sandstone gravels (Hermiyanto, 2010). Further
above, there are more shale layers with 30 cm up
to 7 m of coal intercalations (Figure 3). The age of
Sinamar Formation is Oligocene with Ammonia
beccarii and coral contents. The calculated thickness of this formation is 750 m (Rosidi et al., 1996).
The Miocene Rantauikil Formation is dominated by claystone, tuffaceous sandstone, clayey
sandstone, marl, and thin lenses of claystone. Furthermore, the Kasai Formation of Plio-Plistocene
age is composed of pumiceous tuff and tuffaceous
sandstone. The youngest unit is alluvial sedimenst
consisting of pebbles, gravels, sands, and muds.
The sedimentation is still going on up till now as
the result of a river erosion activity.
This structure only influences the northwestern

part of the formation in the researched area.
However, in certain places, northeasterly bed
dippings of around 20o can be recognized. In
the east, ENE-WSW and NW-SE normal faults
are also found, cutting some formations, among
others Sinamar and Rantauikil Formations. Pulunggono et al. (1992) stated that the normal or
horizontal fault directions is E-W up till NE-SW.
This fault is estimated to have occured after the
anticline-syncline had already been folded, the
fault cuts anticline-syncline axis (Pulunggono et
al., 1992). The researched location is part of the
geological map of Painan and the northeastern
part of Muarasiberut Quadrangles (Rosidi et al.,
1996) occupying probably the tip or edge of the
northwestern part of Jambi Sub-basin of South
Sumatra Basin (Figure 1).
Stratigraphically, the researched area included
in the geological map of Painan Quadrangle (Figure 2) consists of Jurrassic up to Quaternary rocks.
The basement of this basin is Jurassic granitic rock,
unconformably overlain by the sediments of Oligocene Sinamar Formation. In turn, this formation
is conformably overlain by the Miocene Rantauikil Formation. Then upwards, the sediments of
Plio-Pleistocene Kasai Formation unconformably
deposited on those both formations.
The Sinamar Formation is composed of conglomerate and quartzose sandstone occupying
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Data Analysis
Organic Material
The organic material of Sinamar fine sedimentary rocks is interpreted based on TOC data
carried out upon fifteen rock samples. These data
show that the organic material of some Sinamar
fine sediments can be divided into three groups
based on their existing lithological type. The
101 50' E
-1 20' S
101 40' E
N
0
4 km
Explanation :
Qal
Alluvium
Qyu
Batuan Gunungapi yang tak terpisahkan
Qtk
Kasai Formation
Tmr
Rantauikil Formation
Tos
Sinamar Formation
Jgr
Granite
A'
Cross section
08 MH 13 = Investigation areas
SNM-4
= Investigation and sampling

areas
Figure 2. Geological map of the researched area (modified from Rosidi et al., 1996).
55
Sand
Mdst
Silt
Gravel
C
Cgl
Shale, brownish black, hard, clay grain size, well-bedded,

ake structure, total thickness 32 m lower part contains
freshwater sh fossils length of 20 cm and 15 cm wide.
08 MH 13B
10
o
15
20
IJ
O
OLIGOCENE
SINAMAR FORMATION
08 MH 13D
08 MH 13C
N 295 E/12
25
08 MH 13E
30
Trunk, black, forming a tree structure, 22 m long diameter of 90 cm.
08 MH 13G
08 MH 13H
08 MH 13I
08 MH 13J
N 295 E/12
o
35
08 MH 13K
08 MH 13L
08 MH 13M
08 MH 13N
40
Banded coal, black, layering structure, microfracture contains resin,

hard, 2.5 m thick. Dull banded coal, black, layering structure,
microfracture contains resin, hard, thickness of 4.5 m.
Pale brown quartz sandstone, medium-to coarse-grained, hard,

medium sorted, open, subangular to sub rounded, bedding structure;
comprising silica mineral, quartz, feldspar, silica cementation,
thickness of 2 m.
Claystone, dark grey, clay grain size, bedding structure, consits of
silica mineral, thickness of 0.5 m.
DEEP LACUSTRINE
08 MH 13A
ESTUARINE OR SHALLOW LACUSTRINE
SHALLOW LACUSTRINE
ALLUVIUM
Clay
Meter
DESCRIPTION
DEPOSITIONAL
ENVIRONMENT
GRAIN SIZE
TERRESTRIAL
SYMBOL
SEDIMENTARY
STRUCTURE
SAMPLE
CODE
STRIKE, DIP
AND
THICKNESS
AGE
FORMATION
Figure 3. Columnar stratigraphic section of Sinamar Formation cropping out in Sinamar Village (Zajuli and Panggabean, 2013). Coordinate: 01o2208.1S and 1074016.9 E, Sample 08. MH 13.
shales have 2.8 - 10.84 % TOC value indicating that their ability to be oil-prone is in a good
category, claystone has 0.69% - 8.36 % TOC
value with a limited up to good category, while
mudstone with 0.60% and 0.64% is included into
a category with a very limited source rock-prone
(Table 1). The existing organic material in the
sedimentary rocks shows that shales have the best
ability as source rocks.
56
Organic Material Type

The types of organic material in the researched
area are intrepreted on the basis of hydrogen index
(HI) and oxygen index (OI) values resulted from
Rock-Eval analysis. The type of organic material
is a reflection of the sedimentary rock composing macerals. The sediments influence the type
of organic material suitable with the presence
of some key maceral types. A Hydrogen Index
: Amount of Free Hydrocarbon
: Amount of Hydrocarbon released from kerogen
: Organic Carbon Dioxide
S2
S3
0.60
0.64
0.69
2.08
10.52
9.02
9.53
7.45
9.12
10.84
8.36
4.23
0.77
3.28
3.29
S1
Mudst, ltgy/gy
Mudst, ltgy/gy, calc
Clyst, dkgy
Clyst, gy/dkgy
Sh, brn.dkgy
Sh, brn.gy
Sh, dkbrngy
Sh, brngy
Sh, brn dkgy, sl hd, oxid
Sh, dkbrngy, sl hd
Clyst, dkbrngy, sl hd
Clyst, dkgy
Clyst, Wht lt.gy
Sh. gy/dkgy
Clyst, dkgy/blk, hd
(%)
TOC
: Total Organic Carbon
08 NS 08 A
08 MH 03 B
08 MH 12 M
08 MH 12 P
08 MH 12 R
08 MH 13 A
08 MH 13 B
08 MH 13 C
08 MH 13 D
08 MH 13 E
08 MH 13 E2
08 LS 01 A
08 LS 01 G
08 RL 04 B
08 RL 25 A
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
Lithology
TOC
Sample No.
No.
Tmax
PC
PI
PY
0.08
0.09
0.02
0.21
2.42
3.00
2.34
0.97
2.38
2.11
0.80
0.97
0.16
0.55
0.22
S1
0.12
0.27
0.58
0.37
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.22
0.00
1.73
0.71
0.91
0.20
0.39
0.27
S3
3.42
1.56
0.22
7.65
236.14
35.01
75.07
5.31
2.40
15.95
2.19
S2/S3
: Maximum Temperature (0C) at the top of S2 peak
: Pyrolysable Carbon
: Production Index = (S1/ S1 + S2)
0.16
0.18
0.13
0.07
0.04
0.04
0.03
0.02
0.04
0.03
0.01
0.17
0.25
0.08
0.27
PI
0.49
0.51
0.15
3.04
65.90
69.66
80.36
52.92
67.14
62.68
54.10
5.80
0.64
6.77
0.81
PY
: Amount of Total Hydrocarbons = (S1 + S2)
0.41
0.42
0.13
2.83
63.48
66.66
78.02
51.95
64.76
60.57
53.30
4.83
0.48
6.22
0.59
S2
mg/g
IJ
O
Table 1. Result of TOC and Rock-Eval Pyrolysis Analyses in the researched Area
OI
HI
402
402
383
420
436
436
439
439
436
431
439
400
402
425
543
(0C)
Tmax
69
66
19
136
603
739
819
697
710
559
638
114
62
189
18
HI
: Oxygen Index = (S3/TOC) x 100
: Hydrogen Index = (S2/TOC) x 100
0.04
0.04
0.01
0.25
5.47
5.78
6.67
4.39
5.57
5.20
4.49
0.48
0.05
0.56
0.07
PC
20
42
85
18
0
0
0
3
0
16
8
22
26
12
8
OI
57
Maturity
The maturity of fine sediments as source rocks
in the researched area is interpreted based on Tmax
value obtained from Rock-Eval result, vitrinite
reflectance value, and biomarker analysis. Tmax
diagram was used in describing the maturity level
of the source rocks upon Hydrogen Index (HI)
resulted from Rock-Eval pyrolysis.
Based on Tmax versus Hydrogen Index diagram, the Sinamar fine sediment rocks are included into an immature level up to early mature.
Source rocks can be said to be mature if the Tmax
value is > 435 oC (Waples, 1985). The immature
level is shown within claystone and mudstone,
while only one shale sample has an early mature
level (Figures 6 and 7).
The shales of Sinamar Formation tends to
produce oil compared to claystone and mudstone
producing gas (Figures 5 and 7). The trend is a
reflection of the organic material composition
existing in the rock. The organic matter present
in the shales are dominantly composed of alginite
submaceral (Botryococcus) which produces oil
as mentioned in Zajuli and Panggabean (2013).
IJ
O
versus Oxygen Index diagram is used to describe

the trend of kerogen and hydrocarbon type that
are going to be produced. Based on the diagram,
it is known that the Sinamar fine sediments tend
to produce oil and gas of kerogen Types I and III
(Figure 4).
Kerogen Type I tends to produce oil, while
kerogen Type III only produces gas and a little
oil. The Hydrogen Index (HI) value determines
the amounts of oil or gas. The higher the HI value,
the more oil can be produced. The pyrolysis
result of Sinamar fine sediments shows that the
TOC value is between 0.60 and 10.84%, Tmax
dominantly from 383 - 402 oC, Potential Yield
(PY) is between 0.15 and 80.36 mgHC/g rock,
and Hydrogen Index (HI) between 18 and 819
mg. The organic materials of the fine sediments
of Sinamar Formation have a trend to be less good
up to very good category to be source rocks. The
very good category is shown by shale, while poor
up to moderate category is shown by claystone
and mudstone samples. The Sinamar shales tend
to be included into oil prone, while claystone and
mudstone are included into gas prone (Figure 5).
ron
typ
sp
/ga
gen
Oil
Hydrogen Index (S2/TOC)
600
Ke
ro
800
e II
1000
e
pron
gas
II
Oil/
ype
t
n
oge
Ker
400
200
Gas prone
Kerogen type III
50
100
150
200
Oxygen Index (S3/TOC)
Shale
Claytone
Mudstone
Figure 4. Van Krevelen Plot of the fine sediment of the Sinamar Formation showing kerogen types and oil-gas prone level.
58
1000
500
50
20
GOOD
10
5
FAIR
2
OIL PRONE
1
0.5
GAS PRONE
Total Generation Potential (PY)/S1+S2

(mg HC/g rock)
100
EXCELLENT
GOOD
POOR
FAIR
200
POOR
10
100
Total Organic Carbon (TOC) (wt. %)

Shale
Claytone
IJ
O
Mudstone
Figure 5. TOC versus Total Generation Potential (Py) diagram, showing hydrocarbon potential level of Sinamar fine sediments in the studied area.
900
Iso - reectance
Hydrogen Index (mg HC/g rock)
Type I
600
Type II
300
1.35
Type III
Tmax (oC)
375
405
IMMATURE
435
465
MATURE
495
525
555
585
POST-MATURE
Shale
Claytone
Mudstone
Figure 6. Hydrogen Index (HI) versus Tmax diagram, showing thermal maturity and kerogen types of Sinamar fine sediments in the studied area.
59

900
800
700
600
Produce
Oil
Type I
500
Immature
400
Condensate
300
Type II
200
Oil
Prone
100
Gas
Prone
Type III
445
435
425
Tmax (oC)
415
405
Shale
Claystone
Mudstone
395
455
Hydrogen Index (mg HC/g rock)
Ro = 0,55
Ro = 1,35
Figure 7. Diagram of Tmax versus Hydrogen Index (HI) showing the maturity level and a trend to produce oil and gas of the
fine sediment of Sinamar Formation.
HI value of more than 500, tend to show that the

shales have a large probability to produce oil if it
acts as the source rock. Claystone and mudstone
of the Sinamar Formation only have a low HI
value, that is below 300 which tends to produce
gas and very little oil as shown in Table 1.
Fine sedimentary rocks of the Sinamar Formation, particularly shale, tend to produce oil.
Maturity is one of factors influencing a migration process. The Sinamar shales have the early
maturity level.
Determination of the shale maturity of
Sinamar Formation at SNM-4 and MH 13
locations is also based on biomarker analysis,
that is sterane, hopane, and aromatic ratios (Table
2). Maturity of the rock based on m/z 217 shows
sterane distribution, which was done upon two
forms of normal sterane epimer (20S and 20R).
Sample 08MH 13B has the ratio value of 20S
with its 20R that 20S/(20R+20S) is 42%, sample
08MH 13E is 15%, while 08MH 12R is 15%.
The maturity increases along with the increase in
20S proportion, because 20R molecules change
their configuration. At last, an equilibrium was
reached by both at the comparison of 55% 20S
and 45% 20R (Waples and Machihara, 1991).
The maturity border based on the ratio of 20S/
(20R+20S) is 55%. Ratio of 20S/(20R+20S)
of sample 08MH 13B is 42%, sample 08MH
IJ
O
Claystone and mudstone more dominantly consist

of vitrinite macerals which are organic materials
that produce gas.
Plot between Tm/Ts and C30 morethane/
hopane shows that samples 08MH 12R, 08MH
13B, and 08 MH 13E (Table 2) are included into
an immature up to early mature levels (Figure 8).
Discussion
On the basis of organic petrography (Table 3),

the content of exinite is larger than vitrinite shown
by samples 08MH 13C, 08MH 13E, 08MH 13E2
(Zajuli and Panggabean, 2013). Most of exinite
content in the fine sediments is composed of alginite whilst the rest comprises resinite, cutinite,
and sporinite. The presence of dominant alginite
submaceral indicates that the sedimentary rock
tends to be included into kerogen Type I which
means that if the sedimentary rock acts as the
source rock, it produces oil. The index value of
maximum vitrinite reflectance of fine sedimentary
rock and coal is between 0.34% up till 0.50%.
Based on Rock-Eval pyrolysis, Hydrogen
Index value (HI) determines the amount of oil or
gas that is produced by rock if it acts as the source
rock. The higher the HI value, the more oil can be
produced. The Sinamar shales having a trend of
60
Tabel 2. Result of Gas Chromatography and Mass Spectrometry on Shale Rocks of the Sinamar Formation
Sample Code
GC and GC-MS Analysis
Ratio of n-alkane
Pristane/phytane
08 MH 13E
(shale)
1.80
1.70
1.53
5.13
Phytane /nC18
0.43
0.22
3.20
1.72
1.13
1.43
1.97
0.73
0.45
Ts
Tm
1.25
0.25
0.40
0.14
0.56
0.24
4379548
253963
4924907
441344
40160
2119932
C29/C30 Hopane
0.66
2.86
20S/(20S+20R)C29
0.15
0.42
0.15
C27 sterane
35
53
C28 sterane
22
23
18
C29 sterane
74
42
29
C29 R
333706
23868
665958
C29 S
1893929
32393
3706247
C29 R
601917
26325
1963239
C29 S
372882
14754
572087
IJ
O
Ratio of Aromatic
08 MH 13B
(shale)
3.57
Pristane/nC17
Carbon Preference
Index (CPI) 1
Carbon Preference
Index (CPI) 2
Ratio of Triterpane C30 Moretane/C30
Hopane
22S/(22S+22R)C31
Ratio of sterane
SNM-4/08 MH 12R
(shale)
6.43
DNR-1
5.44
1.06
5.62
TNR-1
1.11
1.61
0.74
MPI-1
0.31
0.54
0.43
MPI-2
0.45
0.64
0.49
Rc1
0.58
0.72
0.66
Rc2
2.12
1.98
2.04
Ro1
0.73
0.85
0,73
Ro2
0.98
0.89
0.74
F1
0.40
0.46
0.40
F2
0.29
0.27
0.23
6.7
13.6
16.67
Total Hopane / Sterane
61

0.05
late mature
peak
mature
terrestrial plant inuence
C30 moretane/hopane
0.10
0.20
0.30
early
mature
0.50
immature
Code 12R
Code 13B
1.00
1.50
20.00
10.00
Code 13E
5.00
2.00
1.00
0.50
0.20
0.10
Tm/Ts
Figure 8. Cross plot of maturity with triterpane parameter shows that the three rock samples are included into immature
category till reaching early mature.
IJ
O
Table 3. Total Organic Content of each Location in the Sinamar Formation
Location
Sinamar-4 Well
MH 13
LS 01
RL 04
RL 25
MH 03
NS 08
Sample Code
MH 12 M
MH 12 P
MH 12 R
MH 13 A
MH 13 B
MH 13 C
MH 13 D
MH 13 E
MH 13 E2
LS 01 A
LS 01 G
RL 04 B
RL 25 A
MH 03 B
NS 08 A
13E is 15%, and sample 08MH 12R is 15%.

Convertion upon vitrinite reflectance value for
sample 08MH 13B is 0.8% which indicates that
the maturity has reached the oil window stage.
Meanwhile, the other two samples were still at
the range of vitrinite reflectance of 0.5% which
were included into an immature stage.
62
Lithology
claystone
claystone
shale
shale
shale
shale
shale
shale
shale
claystone
claystone
serpih
claystone
mudstone
mudstone
TOC (%)
0,69
2,69
2,08
9,02
9,53
7,45
9,12
10,84
8,36
4,23
0,77
3,28
3,29
0,64
0,60
Based on mass chromatogram m/z 191 of

sample 08MH 13B, 08MH 13E, and 08MH
12R, the maturity can be determined by using
ratio C31 22S/22R, C30 morethane/hopane,
and Tm/Ts. The proportion change of epimer
C-22 from C31 up to C35 increases along
with the maturity. On the equilibrium point,
oil sample in the same facies. Based on Waples

classification (Waples, 1985), the Sinamar
shales are categorized as potential source rocks.
Conclusion
Based on the analyses and discussion on the
previous parts, it can be concluded that:
1. Fine sedimentary rocks of the Sinamar
Formation having the probability to act as
source rocks are shale, claystone, and mudstone. The shale has the largest probability
to act as a source rock.
2. Shales of the Sinamar Formation have
organic material content which is very
sufficient to act as the source rock, and are
categorized as potential source rocks.
3. Shale kerogen type is categorized as kerogen I type tending to produce oil.
4. Shale maturity is categorized as early mature.
IJ
O
the proporsion 225 is 55-60%, while 22R

is 40 - 45% (Waples and Machihara, 1991).
The proporsion between 22S and 22R of
sample 08MH 13B is 56% and 44%, sample
08MH 13E is 24%, and 76%, sample 08MH
12R is 14% and 86%. Therefore, it can be
concluded that from the calculation of C31
at the chromatogram, figure mass m/z 191 of
sample 08MH 13B has reached equilibrium
point or maximum border of maturity that can
be measured by triterpane biomarker, while
sample 08MH 13E and 08MH 12R have not
reached the equilibrium point. If biomarker
maturity is converted into vitrinite reflectance
(% Ro), the maturity of sample 08MH 13B is
0.6%. It has just reached the diagenesis stage,
that has not reached the oil window stage.
While the two other rock samples have vitrinite
reflectance value of less than 0.5%.
Maturity parameter with ratio C30 morethane/hopane based on morethane is more
unstable compared to 17(H)-hopane, so the
concentration decreases by the increase of
maturity. Most of morethane disappears in the
early mature stage (R0 < 0.6%), so the use of
that ratio is very limited. Waples and Machihara
(1991) stated that morethane/hopane is said to
be mature if the ratio value is less than 0.15%,
but less mature if the value is more than 0.15%.
The ratio value can only be used as a qualitative
indicator of immaturity, if morethane/hopane
ratio is above 0.15% and the sample maturity
level is less than 0.6% Ro. Sample 08MH 13B
and 08MH 13E have morethane/hopane ratio of
0.25 and 0.40, while sample 08MH 12R is 1.25.
These three rock samples have the maturity
level Ro of < 0.6%.
The increase in maturity causes Tm to
disappear, while the concentration of Ts relatively increases. Tm/Ts ratio which begins to
decrease at the end of the maturity (Waples and
Machihara, 1991) is the contrary to morethane/
hopane ratio and ratio 22S/(22R+22R). Tm/Ts
ratio becoming inaccurate due to facies is possibly caused by the origin of organic material
type (Waples and Machihara, 1991). Therefore,
it is used as the nonqualitative indicator for
relative maturity must be interseries of rock or
Acknowledgements
The authors express gratitude to the whole

parties for the cooperation in writing this paper,
especiallly to Prof. Dr. Ir. Eddy A. Subroto and
PT. Kuansing Inti Makmur (KIM). Sincere
thanks are also addressed to the Head of Centre
for Geological Survey, Geological Agency for
permitting to publish this paper.
References
Bemmelen, van R.W., 1949. The Geology of

Indonesia. Vol. I A, The Hague. Netherlands,
pp.
De Coster, G.L., 1974. The Geology of the Central and South Sumatera Basins. Proceedings
of Indonesian Petroleum Assosiation 3th Annual Convention, p.77-110.
Hermiyanto, M.H., 2010. Karakteristik Batuan
Sedimen Halus Formasi Sinamar Untuk
Mengetahui Potensinya Sebagai Batuan
Induk Di Daerah Muara Bungo, Jambi.
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Rengat skala 1:250.000. Pusat Penelitian dan

Pengembangan Geologi, Bandung.
Waples, D.W., 1985. Geochemistry in Petroleum
Exploration. International Human Resources
Development Corporation, Boston.
Waples, D.W. and Machihara, T., 1991. Biomarkers for geologists - a practical guide to
the application of steranes and triterpanes in
petroleum geology, American Association of
Petroleum Geologists Methods in Exploration Series 9. The American Association of
Petroleum Geologists, Tulsa, Oklahoma,
USA.
Zajuli, M.H.H. and Panggabean, H., 2013.
Depositional Environment of Fine-Grained
Sedimentary Rocks of the Sinamar Formation, Muara Bungo, Jambi. Indonesian Journal of Geology, 8 (1), p.25-38.
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Thesis, Unpublished, Institut of Teknologi

Bandung, 49pp.
Pulunggono, A. Agus Haryo, S., and Kosuma,
C.G., 1992. Pre-Tertiary and Tertiary Fault
System As a Framework of the South Sumatra Basin: A strudy of SAR MAPS, Proceedings of Indonesian Petroleum Association,
21st Annual Convention, Jakarta, p.339-360.
Rosidi, H.M.D., S. Tjokrosapoetro, B. Pendowo, S. Gafoer, and Suharsono, 1996. Peta
Geologi Lembar Painan dan Bagian Timur
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1:250.000. Pusat Penelitian dan Pengembangan Geologi, Bandung.
Silitonga, P.H. and Kastowo, 1995. Peta Geologi
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Suwarna, N., Budhitrisna, T., Santosa, S., and
Mangga S.A., 1994. Peta Geologi Lembar
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Indonesian Journal on Geoscience Vol. 1 No.

1 April 2014: 1-7

INDONESIAN JOURNAL ON GEOSCIENCE

Gold Phytomining: A New Idea

Corresponding author: [email protected]

Gold is a precious metal on earth that millions

Carbon In Pulp (CIP), Carbon In Leach (CIL),

Indonesian Journal on Geoscience, Vol. 1 No. 1 April 2014: 1-7

to produce a commercial bio-ore (Brooks et

who depend directly on goods and services

in New Zealand, Australia, Fiji, China, USA,

How Does Phytomining Work?

metals to above ground tissues. After sufficient

Potential of phytomining of areas

Reclaimed soil product

Small volume of bio-ore

Figure 1. Integrated process for bioharvesting of metals by phytomining.

Indonesian Journal on Geoscience, Vol. 1 No. 1 April 2014: 1-7

Root absorption and compartmentation

Total metal fraction

Figure 2. General mechanism of metal hyperaccumulation by plants.

Method Gold Hytomining

Theory and Practice

by considering a soil profile of 20 cm depth to

7,550. Lamb et al. (2001) induced plant species

trees. Work conducted over 30 years in Canada

Indonesian Journal on Geoscience, Vol. 1 No. 1 April 2014: 1-7

Figure 3. Four spesies growth at cyanidation tailings from

Economic Viability of Gold Phytomining

0.58 - 6.58 ppm. The source of material used in

Table 1. Au Concentration on Plant Samples

Andersons current study has showed that

Anderson, C.W.N., Brooks, R.R., Stewart, R.B.,

laboration between the Universidad Autonoma

Gold phyotmining is a promising technology

Anderson, C., Moreno, F., and Meech, J., 2005.

Indonesian Journal on Geoscience Vol. 1 No. 1 April 2014: 9-19

INDONESIAN JOURNAL ON GEOSCIENCE

Some Key Features and Possible Origin of the Metamorphic

*Corresponding author: [email protected]

in last few decades including epithermal type at

Indonesian Journal on Geoscience, Vol. 1 No. 1 April 2014: 9-19

Buru is the third largest island after Seram and

(Darman & Sidi, 2000)

Sunda - Banda Arc

Geology of Buru Island

The description of geological framework

mation (Td), Kuma Formation (MTk), Wakatin

This preliminary study has been carried out

Indonesian Journal on Geoscience, Vol. 1 No. 1 April 2014: 9-19

composed of muscovite, chlorite, and sericite

fieldwork, and sampling for laboratory analysis.

Ore Deposit Geology

Alteration and Ore Mineralogy

4c). Bladed-like texture is also observed, but it is

Indonesian Journal on Geoscience, Vol. 1 No. 1 April 2014: 9-19

lena, and sphalerite are rare or maybe absent. In

Rusia) of the ore sample (Figure 4a) shows up to

Silicified hydrothermal breccia, yellowish, whitish grey, polymict fragments