I. Why Study Cells?

A. Body is made up of cells:

1.
2.
3.
4.

RBC
Nerve Cells
Skin Cells
Muscle Cells

B. Some more examples

5.
6.
7.
8.

White Blood Cells

T Cells & B Cells
Reproductive Cells
Stem Cells

C. Certain Cells can make us sick

Bacterial Cells
Cancer Cells
Protists

II. History of Cell Biology

1. Zacharias Janssen
A. 1595 invented 1st optical compound microscope
2. Robert Hooke
A. 1665 used a light microscope to look at non-living cork cells
3. Anton van Leeuwenhoek
A. Made microscopes with magnification 10x greater
B. Observed living cells
IV. Cell Theory
A. 150 years later.(early 1800s), three German scientists developed a theory about cells
from their observations.
CELL THEORY
1.) All living organisms are composed of one or more cells
2.) Cells are the basic units of structure and function in an organism.
3.) Cells come only from the reproduction of existing cells.

V. Microscopes
A. COMPOUND MICROSCOPE
B. STEREO MICROSCOPE
- Gives 3D images of specimen
C. SCANNING ELECTRON MICROSCOPE (SEM)
- Uses electrons instead of light to project surface image of specimen
D. TRANSMISSION ELECTRON MICROSCOPE (TEM)
- Works like light microscope except uses electrons
E. ELECTRON MICROSCOPES
-

Can magnify up to 200,000 x

CHAPTER 2
The Chemical Basis of Life
Modules 2.1 2.8
Thomas Eisner and the Chemical Language of Nature

Thomas Eisner pioneered chemical ecology

the study of the chemical language of nature

He studies how insects communicate via chemical messages

Rattlebox moths release a chemical that spiders dont like

2.1 The emergence of biological function starts at the chemical level

Everything an organism is and does depends on chemistry

Chemistry is in turn dependent on the arrangement of atoms in molecules

In order to understand the whole, biologists study the parts (reductionism)

Molecules and ecosystems are at opposite ends of the biological hierarchy

2.2 Life requires about 25 chemical elements

A chemical element is a substance that cannot be broken down to other substances by

ordinary chemical means

About 25 different chemical elements are essential to life

Carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen make up the bulk of living matter, but there are
other elements necessary for life

Goiters are caused by iodine deficiency

2.3 Elements can combine to form compounds

Chemical elements combine in fixed ratios to form compounds

Example: sodium + chlorine sodium chloride

2.4 Atoms consist of protons, neutrons, and electrons

The smallest particle of an element is an atom

Different elements have different types of atoms

An atom is made up of protons and neutrons located in a central nucleus

Each atom is held together by attractions between the positively charged protons and
negatively charged electrons

Atoms of each element are distinguished by a specific number of protons

2.5 Connection: Radioactive isotopes can help or harm us

Radioactive isotopes can be useful tracers for studying biological processes

PET scanners use radioactive isotopes to create anatomical images

2.6 Electron arrangement determines the chemical properties of an atom

Electrons are arranged in shells

The outermost shell determines the chemical properties of an atom

In most atoms, a full outer shell holds eight electrons

Atoms whose shells are not full tend to interact with other atoms and gain, lose, or share
electrons

2.7 Ionic bonds are attractions between ions of opposite charge

When atoms gain or lose electrons, charged atoms called ions are created

An electrical attraction between ions with opposite charges results in an ionic

bond

Sodium and chloride ions bond to form sodium chloride, common table salt

2.8 Covalent bonds, the sharing of electrons, join atoms into molecules

Some atoms share outer shell electrons with other atoms, forming covalent bonds

Atoms joined together by covalent bonds form molecules

Molecules can be represented in many ways

2.9 Water is a polar molecule

Atoms in a covalently bonded molecule may share electrons equally, creating a nonpolar
molecule
If electrons are shared unequally, a polar molecule is created
In a water molecule, oxygen exerts a stronger pull on the shared electrons than
hydrogen
2.10 Overview: Waters polarity leads to hydrogen bonding and other unusual properties

The charged regions on water molecules are attracted to the oppositely charged regions
on nearby molecules

This attraction forms weak bonds called hydrogen bonds

Like no other common substance, water exists in nature in all three physical states:

2.11 Hydrogen bonds make liquid water cohesive

Due to hydrogen bonding, water molecules can move from a plants roots to its leaves

Insects can walk on water due to surface tension created by cohesive water molecules

2.12 Waters hydrogen bonds moderate temperature

It takes a lot of energy to disrupt hydrogen bonds

Therefore water is able to absorb a great deal of heat energy without a large
increase in temperature
As water cools, a slight drop in temperature releases a large amount of heat
A water molecule takes a large amount of energy with it when it evaporates
2.13 Ice is less dense than liquid water

Molecules in ice are farther apart than those in liquid water

Ice is therefore less dense than liquid water, which causes it to float

2.14 Water is a versatile solvent

Solutes whose charges or polarity allow them to stick to water molecules dissolve in
water

They form
aqueous
solutions

2.15 The chemistry of life is sensitive to acidic and basic conditions

A compound that releases H+ ions in solution is an acid, and one that accepts H+ ions in
solution is a base

Acidity is measured on the pH scale:

0-7 is acidic
8-14 is basic
Pure water and solutions that are neither basic nor acidic are neutral, with a pH
of 7
Cells are kept close to pH 7 by buffers

2.16 Connection: Acid precipitation threatens the environment

Some ecosystems are threatened by acid precipitation

Acid precipitation is formed when air pollutants from burning fossil fuels combine with
water vapor in the air to form sulfuric and nitric acids

These acids can kill fish, damage buildings, and injure trees

2.17 Chemical reactions rearrange matter

In a chemical reaction:
reactants interact
atoms rearrange
products result
Living cells carry out thousands of chemical reactions that rearrange matter in
significant ways

MACROMOLECULES OF LIFE

Found in all living things

Building blocks of all cells
Made up of the atoms: Carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, Nitrogen, Phosphorus, and
Sulfur

There are 4
1.
2.
3.
4.

Carbohydrates C, H, & O
Lipids C, H, & O
Proteins C, H, O, N, & S
Nucleic Acids C, H, O, N, & P

Carbohydrates
Basic units: sugars

Provide energy and structural support

Fiber is a carbohydrate that prevents constipation
Foods: breads, cereals, vegetables, fruits, & seeds
Extra glucose is converted into glycogen in the liver

Lipids/Fats

Basic units: fatty acids

Functions: provides energy & structure, cushions the body, and prevents heat
loss
Found in butter, margarine, candy
made of fatty acid molecules that consist two distinct regions:
a long hydrophobic hydrocarbon chain
a hydrophilic head

Saturated Fats

contain single carbon-to-carbon bonds

has lots of hydrogen
solid at room temperature (beef, pork, chicken, dairy)
found in animal products
Reduce Intake! can clog blood vessels

Unsaturated Fats

contain double or triple carbon-to-carbon bonds & fewer hydrogen atoms

Liquid at room temperature (oils, nuts, & seeds)
found in plant products
Better Intake!

DNA Structure discovery

James Watson and Francis Crick with DNA Model in 1953.
Nucleic Acids
Atoms: C, H, O, N, P
Basic units: nucleotides composed of

Sugar
Phosphate group
Base: cytosine, guanine, adenime, thymine, uracil

There are two types:

DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid)

RNA (ribonucleic acid)

Function: DNA directs & controls all activities of all cells in an organism RNA helps
DNA DeoxyriboNucleic Acid

DNA is the hereditary material passed on from parents to offspring

Structure: double-stranded
Phosphate group
Sugar deoxyribose
Bases

Cytosine Guanine
Adenine Thymine
RNA

RNA helps the DNA

Structure: single-stranded

Basic units: nucleotides

Phosphate group
Sugar ribose
Bases

Cytosine Guanine
Adenine Uracil
Nitrogenous Bases

Proteins

Atoms: C, H, O, N, P, S
Basic units: amino acids (20)

Provide energy & structure, repairs body tissues

Some are called hormones, enzymes, neurotransmitters, etc.
Foods high in protein: meat, eggs, poultry, milk & milk products, nuts, dried
beans, peas, & lentils

Tertiary Structure

Interaction between alpha helices and beta-sheets.

These protein domains for small globular proteins.

Quaternary Structure

Small globular proteins form protein aggregates.

A famous example is hemoglobin.

Enzymes

Are proteins
Speed up chemical reactions without being consumed or using energy

Enzymes

Amylase - breaks down sugar

Proteases - break down proteins
Lipases - break down lipids
Catalase - breaks down hydrogen peroxide
Enzyme Action Models

Factors that affect enzyme action:

1. Temperature 37oC best for human enzymes
2. pH different for each enzyme
a. 7 for amylase in the mouth
b. 2 for pepsin in the stomach
c. 8 for trypsin in the intestines
3. Concentration of enzyme and substrate
4. Coenzymes helpers such as minerals and vitamins

Cell theory
1. All living things are made of cells
2. Cell can only come from other cells
3. All functions of a living thing are carried out in cells

Reminder: the functions of living things are: respiration, metabolism, growth,

adaptations to the environment, reproduction, homeostasis and interdependence

Different Types of Cells

There are two main groups of cells, prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells.
Similarities: all are alive, all belong to one of the five life kingdoms.
Differences: appearance, structure, reproduction, and metabolism.

Where to begin?

Prokaryotes are simpler, so we will start with them.

Prokaryotes were formed about 3.5 billion years ago, or 3,500,000,000 years.
Prokaryotes
from the Greek meaning before nuclei
Why before nuclei?

Prokaryotic cells have no nucleus.

Prokaryotes DNA is circular (it has no ends).
Small circlets of DNA are called Plamids.
Prokaryotic DNA is naked it has no histones associated with it and does
NOT form chromosomes
All Prokaryotes are in the monera kingdom domains Bacteria and Archaea

Bacteria
Cyanobacteria
also known as blue-green algae
Prokaryote Characteristics
1. Simplest organisms: Very small size.
2. Lack membrane-bound organelles inside the cell
3. have few internal structures that are distinguishable under a microscope.

4. genetic information is in a circular loop called a plasmid (instead of having

chromosomal DNA)
5. Strong cell walls: resistant to environmental changes

1. Size
Bacterial cells are very small,
about 1-2m in diameter and 10 m long
o One micrometer = 1/1000 mm.
o Imagine looking at a dime from its thinnest side and trying to slice it into a
thousand pieces; that is the same as 1 m.
2. Lack membrane-bound organelles inside the cell
3. have few internal structures that are distinguishable under a microscope.
4. genetic information is in a circular loop called a plasmid

E. coli cell dividing.

E. Coli Grows in human intestine;

Has a single, circular chromosome

contains DNA as plasmids
Plasmids are extra-chromosomal DNA

5. Strong cell walls: resistant to environmental changes

Shapes
3 basic shapes

Cocci - sphere
Bacilli - rods
Spirilla spirals

2 basic groupings

Staph - in clusters
Strep - in chains

Replication

Binary fission
o one cell splits into two cells, see diagram
o offspring are genetically identical to parent

Bacterial conjugation

a form of sexual reproduction where bacteria exchange genetic information

before dividing
o offspring have new genes (and new traits)

Transformation

bacteria incorporate genes from dead bacteria

Transduction

viruses insert new genes into bacterial cells.

This method is used in biotechnology to create bacteria that produce valuable
products such as insulin

Movement

Some prokaryotes can't move, while others have long threadlike flagella.
If bacteria doesnt move, how does it get from person to person?

Prokaryote Functions
decomposers

agents of fermentation
play important roles in digestive systems
involved in many nutrient cycles
o ex: the nitrogen cycle, which restores nitrate into the soil for plants.
diverse array of metabolic functions.
o For example, some bacteria use sulfur instead of oxygen in their
metabolism.

Eukaryotes
From the Greek for true nucleus
Eukaryote characteristics
All eukaryotes have
1) A Cell membrane
2) A Central nucleus
3) Organelles in cytoplasm (like ER, vacuoles, mitochondria, etc.)
Theories of the Origin or organelles
Symbiosis: two organisms live closely together
Endosymbiosis: one organism lives inside another (bacteria in us)
Theory explaining why mitochondria and chloroplasts are found in cells:

It's thought that mitochondria (m) and chloroplasts (c) were types of prokaryotic
cells that lived inside other cells. The m & c helped keep the cell alive and so
were retained.

Evidence on relationship of mitochondria and chloroplasts to prokaryote cells:

a. mitochondria and chloroplasts are both surrounded by double membranes (like bacteria are).
b. mitochondria and bacteria have similar size.
c. mitochondrial ribosomes resemble bacterial ribosomes.
d. mirochondria and chloroplast DNA is circular like bacteria.

size and shape are related to cell function.

1. birds eggs are large because they contain all the nutrient
material that the developing bird embryo will need during its
growth to a young chick.
2. Muscle cells are long, so that they can contract and shorten up,
thereby moving body parts.
3. Nerve cells are also long they need to transmit nerve signals
to different parts of the body

4. epithelial cells are broad and flat

5. red blood cells are especially small because they need to get
through the smallest capillaries of the circulatory system.

Reproduction
*Mitosis body cells
*Meiosis gametes (egg & sperm)
Movement
Internal
1. The centriole
2. The cytoskeleton
3. Actin and tubulin proteins
External
4. Flagella
5. cilia
Prokaryote & Eukaryote
Similarities
1. DNA
2. A cell membrane
3. Ribosomes
4. Diverse forms (meaning a lot of shapes and sizes)

Prokaryotes & Eukaryotes differences

Prokaryotes

Eukaryotes

Plasmid DNA

Nuclear bound DNA

No membrane-bound organelles

Has membrane bound organelles

Few things inside (are simple)

Many things inside (Are complex)