NOTES

SUBJECT: AUTOMOBILE ENGINEERING

SUBJECT CODE: EME-702

BRANCH: MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

SEM: 7th
SESSION: 2014-15
Evaluation scheme:
Subject
Code
EME702

Name of
Subject
AUTOMOBILE
ENGG.

Periods
L T P
3 1 0

Evaluation Scheme
CT TA TOTAL ESC
30 20
50
100

Subject
Total
150

Credit
4

ASSO. PROF. R.K. MAURYA

ME DEPARTMENT
AKGEC, GZB.

INDEX

Unit

Page No.

3-29

II

30-58

III

59-78

IV

79-106

107-120

UNIT-I
What is Automobile
A self-propelled passenger vehicle that usually has four wheels and an internalcombustion engine, used for land transport. Alsocalled motorcar.
An automobile (or automotive) is a vehicle that is capable of propelling itself. Since seventeenth
century, several attempts have been made to design and construct a practically operative
automobile.
Today, automobiles play an unimaginable role in the social, economic and industrial growth of
any country.After the introduction of internal combustion engines, the Automobile industry has
seen a tremendous growth.
Classification of automobile:
Automobiles can be classified into several types based on several criteria. A brief classification
of automobiles is listed below:
Based on purpose:
1. Passenger vehicles These automobiles carry passengers e.g.: Buses, Passenger trains,
cars
2. Goods vehicles These vehicles are used for transportation of goods from one place to
another. e.g.: Goods lorry, goods carrier
Based on capacity:
1. Heavy Motor Vehicle (HMV) Large and bulky motor vehicles e.g.: Large trucks, buses
2. Light Motor Vehicle (LMV) Small motor vehicles e.g.: Cars, Jeeps
3. Medium Vehicle Relatively medium sized vehicles e.g.: Small trucks, mini buses
Based on fuel source:
1. Petrol engine vehicles Automobiles powered by petrol engine e.g.: scooters, cars,
mopeds, motorcycles
2. Diesel engine vehicles Automotives powered by diesel engine e.g.: Trucks, Buses

3. Gas vehicles Vehicles that use gas turbine as power source e.g.: Turbine powered cars
4. Solar vehicles Vehicles significantly powered by solar power e.g.: Solar powered cars
5. Hydrogen vehicles Vehicles that have hydrogen as a power source e.g.: Honda FCX
Clarity
6. Electric vehicles Automobiles that use electricity as a power source e.g.: Electric cars,
electric buses
7. Steam Engine Vehicles Automotives powered by steam engine e.g.: Steamboat, steam
locomotive, steam wagon
8. Hybrid Vehicles Vehicles that use two or more distinct power sources e.g.: Hybrid
buses, hybrid cars like Toyota Prius, Honda Insight
9. Hybrid Electric Vehicle (HEV) Automobile that uses both Internal Combustion Engine
and Electric Power Source to propel itself e.g.: Jaguar C-X75
Based on type of transmission:
1. Automatic transmission vehicles Automobiles that are capable of changing gear ratios
automatically as they move e.g.: Automatic Transmission Cars
2. Conventional transmission vehicles Automotives whose gear ratios have to be changed
manually
3. Semi-automatic transmission vehicles Vehicles that facilitate manual gear changing with
clutch pedal
Based on number of wheels:
1. Two wheeler Automobiles having two wheels e.g.: Scooters, motorcycles
2. Three wheeler Automotive having three wheels e.g.: Tricycles, Auto rickshaws, Tempos
3. Four wheeler Vehicle having four wheels e.g.: Car, Jeep
4. Six wheeler Automobile having six wheels used for heavy transportation e.g.: Large
trucks, large buses
Based on the side of drive:
1. Left hand drive automobile Vehicle in which steering wheel is fitted on the left hand side
e.g.: Automobiles found in USA, Russia
2. Right hand drive automobile - Vehicle in which steering wheel is fitted on the right hand
side e.g.: Automobiles found in India, Australia
Integrated Frame and Body
The integrated frame and body type of construction (image 3) also referred to as unitized
construction, combines the frame and body into a single, one-piece structure.
This is done by welding the components together, by forming or casting the entire structure as
one piece, or by a combination of these techniques. Simply by welding a body to a conventional

frame, however, does not constitute an integral frame and body construction. In a truly integrated
structure, the entire frame-body unit is treated as a load-carrying member that reacts to all
Integrated-type bodies for wheeled vehicles are fabricated by welding preformed metal panels
together. The panels are preformed in various load-bearing shapes that are located and oriented
so as to result in a uniformly stressed structure. Some portions of the integrated structure
resemble frame like components, while others resemble body like panels. This is not surprising,
because the structure must perform the functions of both of these elements.
An integrated frame and body type construction allows and increases in the amount of noise
transmitted into the passenger compartment of the vehicle. However, this disadvantage is
negated by the following advantages:
Substantial weight reduction, which is possible when using a well-designed unitized body.Lower
cargo floor and vehicle height. Protection from mud and water required for driveline components
on amphibious vehicles. Reduction in the amount of vibration present in the vehicle structure

Image 3 - Integrated Frame and Body

Ladder Frame (Truck Frame)
The truck frame (image 4) allows different types of truck beds or enclosures to be attached to the
frame. For larger trucks, the frames are simple, rugged, and of channel iron construction. The side
rails are parallel to each other at standardized widths to permit the mounting of stock transmissions,
transfer cases, rear axles, and other similar components. Trucks that are to be used as prime movers
have an additional reinforcement of the side rails and rear cross members to compensate for the
added towing stresses.

Image - Ladder Frame (Truck Frame)

Frame Maintenance
Frames require little, if any, maintenance. However, if the frame is bent enough to cause
misalignment of the vehicle or cause faulty steering, the vehicle should be taken off of the road.
Drilling the frame and fish plating can temporarily repair small cracks in the frame side rails. Care
should be exercised when performing this task, as the frame can be weakened. The frame of the
vehicle should not be welded by gas or arc welding unless specified by the manufacturer. The heat
removes temper from the metal, and, if cooled too quickly, causes the metal to crystallize. Minor
bends can be removed by the use of hydraulic jacks (also known as a porta-power - image 5), bars
and clamps.

Four wheel drive:

There are almost as many different types of four-wheel-drive systems as there are four-wheeldrive vehicles. It seems that every manufacturer has several different schemes for providing
power to all of the wheels. The language used by the different carmakers can sometimes be a
little confusing, so before we get started explaining how they work, let's clear ups some
terminology:

Four-wheel drive - Usually, when carmakers say that a car has four-wheel drive, they are
referring to a part-time system. For reasons we'll explore later in this article, these systems are
meant only for use in low-traction conditions, such as off-road or on snow or ice.

All-wheel drive - These systems are sometimes called full-time four-wheel drive. All-wheeldrive systems are designed to function on all types of surfaces, both on- and off-road, and most
of them cannot be switched off.
Part-time and full-time four-wheel-drive systems can be evaluated using the same criteria. The
best system will send exactly the right amount of torque to each wheel, which is the maximum
torque that won't cause that tire to slip.
In this article, we'll explain the fundamentals of four-wheel drive, starting with some background
on traction, and look at the components that make up a four-wheel-drive system. Then we'll take
a look at a couple of different systems, including the one found on the Hummer, manufactured
for GM by AM General.
We need to know a little about torque, traction and wheel slip before we can understand the
different four-wheel-drive systems found on cars.

POWER
POWER is the measure of how much work can be done in a specified time. In the example on
the Work and Energy page, the guy pushing the car did 16,500 foot-pounds of workIf he did
that work in two minutes, he would have produced 8250 foot-pounds per minute of power (165
feet x 100 pounds 2 minutes). If you are unclear about work and energy, it would be a benefit
to review those concepts here
In the same way that one ton is a large amount of weight (by definition, 2000 pounds),
one horsepower is a large amount of power. The definition of one horsepower is 33,000 footpounds per minute. The power which the guy produced by pushing his car across the lot (8250
foot-pounds-per-minute) equals horsepower (8,250 33,000).
OK, all thats fine, but how does pushing a car across a parking lot relates to rotating machinery?
Consider the following change to the handle-and-crank-arm sketch above. The handle is still 12"
from the center of the shaft, but now, instead of being fixed to the wall, the shaft now goes
through the wall, supported by frictionless bearings, and is attached to a generator behind the
wall.
Suppose, as illustrated in Figure 2, that a constant force of 100 lbs. is somehow applied to the
handle so that the force is always perpendicular to both the handle and the crank-arm as the
crank turns. In other words, the "arrow" rotates with the handle and remains in the same position
relative to the crank and handle, as shown in the sequence below. (That is called a "tangential
force").

Figure 2
If that constant 100 lb. tangential force applied to the 12" handle (100 lb-ft of torque) causes the
shaft to rotate at 2000 RPM, then the power the shaft is transmitting to the generator behind the
wall is 38 HP, calculated as follows:
100 lb-ft of torque (100 lb. x 1 foot) times 2000 RPM divided by 5252 is 38 HP.
The following examples illustrate several different values of TORQUE which produce 300
HP.
Example 1: How much TORQUE is required to produce 300 HP at 2700 RPM?

since

HP

=
then
by
TORQUE = HP x 5252 RPM

TORQUE
x
rearranging

RPM
the

5252
equation:

Answer: TORQUE = 300 x 5252 2700 = 584 lb-ft.

Example 2: How much TORQUE is required to produce 300 HP at 4600 RPM?
Answer: TORQUE = 300 x 5252 4600 = 343 lb-ft.
Example 3: How much TORQUE is required to produce 300 HP at 8000 RPM?
Answer: TORQUE = 300 x 5252 8000 = 197 lb-ft.
Example 4: How much TORQUE does the 41,000 RPM turbine section of a 300 HP gas turbine
engine produce?
Answer: TORQUE = 300 x 5252 41,000 = 38.4 lb-ft.
Example 5: The output shaft of the gearbox of the engine in Example 4 above turns at 1591
RPM. How much TORQUE is available on that shaft?
Answer:
TORQUE
=
300
x
(ignoring losses in the gearbox, of course).

5252

1591

991

lb-ft.

The point to be taken from those numbers is that a given amount of horsepower can be made
from an infinite number of combinations of torque and RPM.
Think of it another way: In cars of equal weight, a 2-liter twin-cam engine that makes 300 HP at
8000 RPM (197 lb-ft) and 400 HP at 10,000 RPM (210 lb-ft) will get you out of a corner just as
well as a 5-liter engine that makes 300 HP at 4000 RPM (394 lb-ft) and 400 HP at 5000 RPM
(420 lb-ft). In fact, in cars of equal weight, the smaller engine will probably race BETTER
because it's much lighter, therefore puts less weight on the front end. AND, in reality, the car
with the lighter 2-liter engine will likely weigh less than the big V8-powered car, so will be a
better race car for several reasons.
Measuring Power
a dynamometer determines the power an engine produces by applying a load to the engine
output shaft by means of a water brake, a generator, an eddy-current absorber, or any other
controllable device capable of absorbing power. the dynamometer control system causes the
absorber to exactly match the amount of torque the engine is producing at that instant,
then measures that torque and the rpm of the engine shaft, and from those two measurements, it
calculates observed power. then it applies various factors (air temperature, barometric pressure,
relative humidity) in order to correct the observed power to the value it would have been if it
had been measured at standard atmospheric conditions, called corrected power.
Power to Drive a Pump
In the course of working with lots of different engine projects, we often hear the suggestion that
engine power can be increased by the use of a "better" oil pump. Implicit in that suggestion is the
9

belief that a "better" oil pump has higher pumping efficiency, and can, therefore, deliver the
required flow at the required pressure while consuming less power from the crankshaft to do so.
While that is technically true, the magnitude of the improvement number is surprisingly small.
How much power does it take to drive a pump delivering a known flow at a known pressure? we
have already shown that power is work per unit time, and we will stick with good old American
units for the time being (foot-pounds per minute and inch-pounds per minute). and we know
that flow times pressure equals power, as shown by:
Flow (cubic inches / minute) multiplied by pressure (pounds / square inch) = power (inchpounds / minute)
From there it is simply a matter of multiplying by the appropriate constants to produce an
equation which calculates hp from pressure times flow. Since flow is more frequently given in
gallons per minute, and since it is well known that there are 231 cubic inches in a gallon, then:
Flow (GPM) x 231(cubic inches / gal) = Flow (cubic inches per minute).
Since, as explained above, 1 HP is 33,000 foot-pounds of work per minute, multiplying that
number by 12 produces the number of inch-pounds of work per minute in one HP (396,000).
Dividing 396,000 by 231 gives the units-conversion factor of 1714.3. Therefore, the simple
equation is:
Pump HP = flow (GPM) x pressure (PSI) / 1714.
That equation represents the power consumed by a pump having 100% efficiency. When the
equation is modified to include pump efficiency, it becomes:
Pump HP = (flow {GPM} x pressure {PSI} / (1714 x efficiency)
Common gear-type pumps typically operate at between 75 and 80% efficiency. So suppose your
all-aluminum V8 engine requires 10 GPM at 50 psi. The oil pump will have been sized to
maintain some preferred level of oil pressure at idle when the engine and oil are hot, so the pump
will have far more capacity than is required to maintain the 10 GPM at 50 psi at operating speed.
(That's what the "relief" valve does: bypasses the excess flow capacity back to the inlet of the
pump, which, as an added benefit, also dramatically reduces the prospect cavitations in the pump
inlet line.)
So suppose your 75%-efficient pump is maintaining 50 psi at operating speed, and is providing
the 10 GPM needed by the engine. It is actually pumping roughly 50 GPM ( 10 of which goes
through the engine, and the remaining 40 goes through the relief valve ) at 50 psi. The power to
drive that pressure pump stage is:
HP = (50gpm x 50 psi ) / ( 1714 x 0.75 efficiency ) = 1.95 HP
Suppose you succumb to the hype and shuck out some really big bucks for an allegedly 90%
efficient pump. That pump (at the same flow and pressure) will consume:
HP = ( 50gpm x 50 psi ) / ( 1714 x 0.90 efficiency ) = 1.62 HP.
?
General Observations

10

In order to design an engine for a particular application, it is helpful to plot out the optimal
power curve for that specific application, then from that design information, determine the torque
curve which is required to produce the desired power curve. By evaluating the torque
requirements against realistic bmep values you can determine the reasonableness of the target
power curve.

Typically, the torque peak will occur at a substantially lower rpm than the power peak. The
reason is that, in general, the torque curve does not drop off (%-wise) as rapidly as the rpm is
increasing (%-wise). For a race engine, it is often beneficial (within the boundary conditions of
the application) to operate the engine well beyond the power peak, in order to produce the
maximum average power within a required rpm band.
However, for an engine which operates in a relatively narrow rpm band, such as an aircraft
engine, it is generally a requirement that the engine produce maximum power at the maximum
rpm. That requires the torque peak to be fairly close to the maximum rpm. For an aircraft engine,
you typically design the torque curve to peak at the normal cruise setting and stay flat up to
maximum rpm. That positioning of the torque curve would allow the engine to produce
significantly more power if it could operate at a higher rpm, but the goal is to optimize the
performance within the operating range.
an example of that concept is shown figure 3 below. The three dashed lines represent three
different torque curves, each having exactly the same shape and torque values, but with the peak
torque values located at different rpm values. The solid lines show the power produced by the
torque curves of the same color.

11

figure
Note that, with a torque peak of 587 lb-ft at 3000 rpm, the pink power line peaks at about 375 hp
between 3500 and 3750 rpm. with the same torque curve moved to the right by 1500 rpm (black,
587 lb-ft torque peak at 4500 rpm), the peak power jumps to about 535 hp at 5000 rpm. Again,
moving the same torque curve to the right another 1500 rpm (blue, 587 lb-ft torque peak at 6000
rpm) causes the power to peak at about 696 hp at 6500 rpm
Using the black curves as an example, note that the engine produces 500 hp at both 4500 and
5400 rpm, which means the engine, can do the same amount of work per unit time (power) at
4500 as it can at 5400. However, it will burn less fuel to produce 450 hp at 4500 rpm than at
5400 rpm, because the parasitic power losses (power consumed to turn the crankshaft,
reciprocating components, and valve train) increase as the square of the crankshaft speed.
The rpm band within which the engine produces its peak torque is limited. You can tailor an
engine to have a high peak torque with a very narrow band, or a lower peak torque value over a
wider band. Those characteristics are usually dictated by the parameters of the application for
which the engine is intended.
an example of that is shown in figure 4 below. it is the same as the graph in figure 3 (above),
except, the blue torque curve has been altered (as shown by the green line) so that it doesn't drop
12

off as quickly. note how that causes the green power line to increase well beyond the torque
peak. That sort of a change to the torque curve can be achieved by altering various key
components, including (but not limited to) cam lobe profiles, cam lobe separation, intake and/or
exhaust runner length, intake and/or exhaust runner cross section. Alterations intended to
broaden the torque peak will inevitable reduce the peak torque value, but the desirability of a
given change is determined by the application.

COMPONENTS OF AN ENGINE

An engine comprises of a few hundred components : small and big, stationary and moving,
metallic and non-metallic, casted and .forged and made by other processes. The components of
an engine can be grouped under two categories.
1. Stationary or Structure forming components, and
2. Moving or Mechanism forming components
The stationary components constitute the structural parts and the moving components synthesize
the mechanism parts of an engine. Important components among these are listed below.

Mechanism forming components

Piston
Piston rings
Gudgeon (or piston) pin Connecting rod
Crank
Crankshaft
Camshaft
Valves
Valves operating mechanism Timing gears
Chain and sprocket

13

Belt and pulleys

Flywheel

Structural components
Cylinder block
Cylinder head
Gaskets
Cylinder liner
Crankcase
Manifolds: Inlet and Outlet Oil pan
Resonator
Muffler (silencer)
Vibration damper
Bearings
Fasteners
Turbocharger

VALVE OPERATING MECHANISMS

The operation of a valve (its opening and closing) is accomplished by a mechanism which
involves several parts depending upon the valve position; the valve operating mechanisms may
also differ in their arrangements. Hence, the valve operating mechanisms may be of the
following types.
1. Valve mechanism for overhead valve engines.
2. Valve mechanism for side valve engines
(i) Havingunder head camshaft / (ii) having overhead camshaft.

Valve Mechanism for Overhead Valve, Under head Camshaft Engine: The engine valve

14

mechanism is an assembly of different components and is required to open and close the inlet
and exhaust valves at correct timings. Various components in this assembly are
1. Valves

2. Valve seat

3. Valve guide

5. Rocker arm

6. Push rod

7. Tappet

Working. The cam on the camshaft lifts the tappet during its rotation. The tappet actuates the
push rod, which, in turn, operates the rocker arm about its fulcrum. The rocker arm exerts
pressure on the valve stem against the spring to move the valve stem in the guide. In doing so the
valve comes down from the valve seat, and makes space for fuel-air mixture to enter into the
cylinder. With more rotation of camshaft, the va1ve spring pushes back the valve on its seat
when non-eccentric portion of the cam comes in contact with the tappet. Now the valve is closed.
Clearance is provided between the push rod and the rocker arm, and also between rocker arm and
the valve stem.

Valve Mechanism for Overhead Camshaft (OHC) Engine: Some overhead valve engines are
provided with an overhead camshaft instead of under head camshaft. The overhead camshaft
operated valve mechanism is generally considered a non-conventional practice, but has become
common now. Such engines may have one or two overhead camshafts. Daimler Benz, Proton,
Ford Escort, Nexia, Lancer, Opel Astra vehicles have been provided with such valve operating
mechanisms.
Figure a double overhead camshaft operated overhead valve mechanism. It has two inclined
overhead valves. It does not consist of tappet, guide, push rod and the adjusting screw as
described in Fig. 5o38a for an overhead valve (underhead camshaft) mechanism. In this
construction, camshaft is placed near the rocker arm and the rocker arm is actuated by the cams.
Rest of the functions is similar to the ones discussed in previous case.
The overhead camshaft arrangement has high volumetric efficiency and high compression
ratio. But its use requires higher initial cost and complicated combustion chamber

15

Valve operating mechanism for an overhead valve engine employing an under head camshaft.

double

overhead

cam

(DOHC)

operated

inclined

overhead

valve

mechanism

16

Valve Mechanism for Side Valve Engines: Such arrangement is employed on L-head
engines..The diagram is self-explanatory, and needs no further explanation-: The advantage and
disadvantages of side valve mechanism can be enumerated as below.
1. Low engine height is possible as there are no parts above the cylinder head.
2. Lubrication is easier for the valve mechanism.
3. Working is quieter as there is no rocker arm assembly.
4. Mechanism is less complicated than that in overhead valve engines.
.5. Volumetric efficiency and compression ratio are poor.
6. Shape of the combustion chamber is complicated.
7. Space for inlet valve is restricted.

Valve face

Valve operating mechanism for a side valve engine.

17

Resistance to motion
This is the resistance a vehicle faces while attempting to move from a stall condition or while
accelerating. This resistance must be overcome by the power plant of the engine in order to
sustain motion. When the power produced is smaller than the resistance to motion, the vehicle
will gradually slow down. We must have experienced the slowing down of bicycles if we stop
pedaling. The bicycle also slows down if we go uphill or if wind blows from front. A poorly
inflated tire also causes the vehicle to groan more and slow down. These are the resistances that
force the vehicle to slow down under their effect.
Broadly the resistances can be categorized into the following categories:
Aerodynamic drag
Gradient resistance
Rolling resistance
Inertia
All the above produce a restraining force working against the tractive force. The tractive force
must be greater than or equal to the resistive forces in order to maintain a sustainable motion. We
can balance them as
F = F req = FA + FG + FR + FI
Where
FA= Force due to air resistance
FG = Force due to gradient of a slope
FG = Force due to rolling resistance
FI = Force due to moving or static inertia
The last one FI comes into the picture only when the vehicle accelerates or decelerates, while the
first three always offer a resistance even when the vehicle is moving at a constant speed.
Air resistance/ Aerodynamic drag:
When a body travels within a dense medium, the molecules of the medium collide with the
moving object and thereby absorb some of the energy. This is felt as a resistance to the moving
object. If the medium is denser, then the resistance is more. Also when the object moves at a
faster speed, the resistance increases proportionately. Mathematically it can be expressed as:
FA = Cd P V
Where
Cd = Coefficient of discharge
P = Pressure
V = Velocity of the vehicle
Gradient resistance:

18

A truck moving uphill

When the vehicle travels uphill, a component of its weight works in a direction opposite to its
motion. If some energy is not supplied to overcome this backward force, then the vehicle would
slow down, stall and roll backwards. If the vehicle is trading uphill at a slope of , then the
weight of the vehicle, W has two components: one perpendicular to the road surface (with a
value WCos ) and the other along the road surface (with a value WSin ). The component
along the road surface is the one that tries to restrict the motion.
The gradient resistance is given by: FG = WSin
Rolling resistance
When a vehicle rolls, it rolls with its tires in contact with the road surface. The relative motion of
two hard surfaces produces a friction. Further, neither the road, nor the tires are perfectly rigid.
Hence, both flex under the load slightly. As there is a gradual deformation at the contact between
the road and the tire, greatest at the bottom most point and least at the entry and exit points, the
slip of the tire w.r.t. the road produces another type of loss of energy which results in a
resistance.
Rolling resistance is composed of the following components:
Tire Rolling resistance: FR,T
Road rolling resistance: FR,Tr
Resistance due to tire slip angle: FR,
Resistance due to bearing friction and residual braking: FR,fr
Hence the rolling resistance offered may be written as:
FR = FR,T + FR,Tr + FR, + FR,fr
The tire rolling resistance FR,T is a result of the resistance due to flexure of the tire, air resistance
on the tire and friction of tire with the road. These three can be summed up and written as:
FR,T = FR.T.flex + FR.T.A + FR.T.fr.
In a simplified manner the total rolling resistance can be related to the vertical load on the wheels
and can be written as:
Coefficient of rolling friction, kR = FR/FZ.w

19

FACTORS THAT AFFECT THE ROLLING RESISTANCE OF A VEHICLE

Material - different fillers and polymers in tire composition can improve traction while reducing
hysteresis. The replacement of some carbon black with higher-priced silicasilane is one common
way of reducing rolling resistance.

Dimensions - rolling resistance in tires is related to the flex of sidewalls and the contact area
of the tire For example, at the same pressure wider bicycle tires have less flex in sidewalls
and thus lower rolling resistance (although higher air resistance).

Extent of inflation - Lower pressure in tires results in more flexing of sidewalls and higher rolling
resistance. This energy conversion in the sidewalls increases resistance and can also lead to
overheating and may have played a part in the infamous Ford Explorer rollover accidents.
Over inflating tires (such a bicycle tires) may not lower the overall rolling resistance as the tire may
skip and hop over the road surface. Traction is sacrificed, and overall rolling friction may not be
reduced as the wheel rotational speed changes and slippage increases.
casing will benefit the fuel economy through many casing lives (i.e. retreading), while a tire with a
"fuel saving" tread design will only benefit until the tread wears down.
In tires, tread thickness has much to do with rolling resistance. The thicker the tread, the higher the
rolling resistance) Thus, the "fastest" bicycle tires have very little tread and heavy duty trucks get the
best fuel economy as the tire tread wears out.
Hard steel rails last longer but also have lower static friction (traction) than rubber tires. They may
also suffer fatigue cracking because the cracked area is not worn away by the passing trains.
Smaller wheels, all else being equal, have higher rolling resistance than larger wheels. In some laboratory
tests, smaller wheels appeared to have similar or lower losses than large wheels, but these tests were done
rolling the wheels against a small-diameter drum, which would theoretically remove the advantage of
large-diameter wheels, thus making the tests irrelevant for resolving this issue. Virtually all world speed
records have been set on relatively narrow wheels, probably because of their aerodynamic advantage at
high speed, which is much less important at normal speeds.

Why do we need gears?

Let's think about cars. A car has a whole box full of gearsthe gearboxsitting between the
crankshaft and the driveshaft. But what do they actually do?
A car engine makes power in a fairly violent way by harnessing the energy locked in gasoline. It
works efficiently only when the pistons in the cylinders are pumping up and down at high
speedsabout 10-20 times a second. Even when the car is simply idling by the roadside, the
pistons still need to push up and down roughly 1000 times a minute or the engine will cut out. In
other words, the engine has a minimum speed at which it works best of about 1000 rpm. But that
creates an immediate problem because if the engine were connected directly to the wheels, they'd
have a minimum speed of 1000rpm as wellwhich corresponds to roughly 120km/h or 75mph.
Put it another way, if you switched on the ignition in a car like this, your wheels would instantly
turn at 75mph! Suppose you put your foot down until the rev counter reached 7000 rpm. Now the

20

wheels should be turning round about seven times faster and you'd be going at 840 km/h or about
525 mph!
It sounds wildly exciting, but there's a snag. It takes a massive amount of force to get a car
moving from a standstill and an engine that tries to go at top speed, right from the word go, won't
generate enough force to do it. That's why cars need gearboxes. To begin with, a car needs a
huge amount of force and very little speed to get it moving, so the driver uses a low gear. In
effect, the gearbox is reducing the speed of the engine greatly but increasing its force in the same
proportion to get the car moving. Once the car's going, the driver switches to a higher gear. More
of the engine's power switches to making speedand the car goes faster.
Changing gears is about using the engine's power in different ways to match changing driving
conditions. The driver uses the gearshift to make the engine generate more force or more speed
depending on whether hill-climbing power, acceleration from a standstill, or pure speed is
needed.
Transmission Manual Gear Box

o
o
o
o

Gear box
Introduction:The mechanism that transmits engine four to the rear wheel (in case of rear wheel drive
vehicle) or to the front wheel. (In front wheel drive vehicle) or to all the four wheel (in four
wheel drive vehicles) is known as a transmission system.
It comprises of the following man units.
Function of gear box:The gear box and its associated units perform the following function on.
A gear box assists in variation of torque (or tractates effort) produced by the engine in
accordance with the driving conditions.
A large torque is required at the start of the vehicle and a low torque at higher speeds.
It helps in smooth running of the vehicle at different speed since variation a torque induces.
Types of transmission:
Several kinds of transmission are employed on auto vehicles. These can be4 classified as
follows.

1) Manual transmission.
1) Sliding mesh gearbox.
2) Constant mesh gearbox.
3) Synchromesh gearbox.
21

4) Synchromesh gear box with over drive.

2) Semi- Automatic transmission.
1)Electric controlled with a avid drive.
2) Electric controlled with over drive.
3) Fluid torque drive.
3) Automatic drive.
1) Hydromantic drive.
2) Torque converter drive.
Sliding mesh gear box:
Sliding mesh gear box shown in figure.

Sliding mesh gear box

1st Gear:When driver wands to move the vehicle he engage the 1st dog to the with the help of gear
shifting levees as the dog slides on engage to the 1st gear it starts rotate with 1st gear and tends to
rotate the main shaft like 1st gear operates.
2nd Gear:As driver move fast again he slides the second dog and makes engage with second gear on main
shaft (medium gear). As the dog engager to the second gear it rotates with second gear and tents
to rotate the main shaft with high speed and low torque.
3rd Gear(Top gear):To move the vehicle fast a gain the driver shift the second dog and make engages to the third or
top gear. As the dog engages to the 3rdgear the dog rotates with gear and lends to rotate the main
shaft with faster.

22

o
o
o

Constant mesh gear box:

Constant mesh gear box is the modified gear box of sliding mesh gear box.
In this type of gear box all the gears of main shaft are errantly engaged with lag shaft gears.
Do to that the possibility of bricking teeth gets reduced as well as the noise of gear box get
ridicule.
Construction of gear box:The various sizes of helical gears are mounted on main shaft with bearing; they are free to
rotate on main shaft.
The dogs are provided on main shaft in between two gears such that they can slide the two
spines the remaining construction is safe.
Same as sliding mesh gear box.
Working:Constant mesh gear box shown in figure.

Gear box
Neutral gear:When engine start and the clutch get rotate. If rotates clutch gear and lay shaft gear, all the gears
on main shaft also get rotate because the no one dog is engage to the gear.
Reverse gear:As the driver wands to move the vehicle back he shifts the first dog towards digger gear which
is engages to the idler gear. As the dog engages its start rotate with the gear in reverse or
opposite direction and tends to rotate the main shaft in reverse direction.
Overdrive is a device interposed between the transmission (gear box) and propeller shaft to
permit the propeller shaft to turn faster than or-over drive the transmission main shaft. It is so
called because it provides a speed ratio over that of the high speed ratio. The overdrive permits
the engine to operate only about 70 percent of the propeller shaft speed, when the vehicle is
operating in the high speed ranges. The overdrive is suited to high powered cars employing
three-speed gear boxes, since in order to produce flexible top gear performance a low gear final
drive ;nay be necessary resulting in the engine running faster as high speeds than is desired.
Generally an overdrive is fitted to the top gear only, but some sport cars have an over drive on

23

2nd, 3rd and top gear giving seven forward speeds. Overdrive is usually, employed to
supplement' conventional transmission. It is bolted to the rear of the transmission between the
transmission and propeller shaft. A slightly higher rear-axle gear ratio is employed with an
overdrive than without one.
Advantages.'The main advantages of an overdrive are:
1. Prolonged engine life since the engine turns slower for any given speed.
2. Fuel economy.
3. Reduced vibration and noises.
Construction and working of overdrive:
Fig.Shows the simplified diagram of an "overdrive".
Construction.It consists of an "epicyclic gear train in which the sun gear is free to rotate on
The input shaft, while the carrier can move on splines on the input shaft. A "freewheel clutch" is
also fitted on the input shaft splines. The output shaft is connected to the ring-gear.

Automatic gear box:

The parts use in automatic gear box is as follows.
1) Epicyclical gear box.(planetary gear box)
2) Torque converter.
3) Clutch packs and brake bands.
4) Freewheel or overrunning clutch.
5) Hydraulic valve controls.
6) Shifting control.
Epicyclical gear box:o Epicyclical gear box shown in figure.

24

Epicyclical gear box

An epicyclical gear box consists of two or more epicyclical gear sets.

This gear box is having sun gear planet gear and internal gear is also could annular gear the
sun gear is mounted on driving shaft and the annular gear on driven shaft.
To captain the necessary gear combinations needed for gear reduction, direct drive, reverse,
neutral and over drive the planetary set are use in automatic gear box.
The planetary gear set is always in mesh and consists of pinion gear mounted on planetary
Carrier by shaft.

Torque converter:The torque converter is also a kind of fluid flywheel (drive) but change in the torque by
providing variable gear ration so that additional part that is stator is used its gear ration is
maximum when starting from rest and decreases as the vehicle gars speed.
Construction:o It uses
1) Stator.
2)A driving pump impeller.
3) Turbine.
Working:

Torque convertor shown in figure.

25

Torque converter
The fluid fitted in the torque converter is oil circulates under part to the other.
The housing from one oil float B charged by the stationary blade B such way that the oil return
that pump impeller after passing through the turbine as the vehicle picks up the speed the blade
being to turn along with the other member so the torque multiples thus the power from engine
crank shaft transfer to the turbine.

Constant mesh gear box, the gears are fixed to their positions. They are meshed. It is a type of
manual transmission. It is this gear box that we use in todays automobiles, right?
Synchromeshare absent here.
It shows a simple constant mesh gear box though from it you will not be able to understand its
simulation. I would suggest that you try to analyze how the power is transmitted through main
shaft to the wheels through clutch and gear system. We use various gear ratios to control the
vehicle speed.

26

Synchromesh gear box

It is that gear box in which sliding synchronizing units are provided in place of sliding
Clutches as in case of constant mesh gear box. With the help of synchronizing unit, the
speed of both the driving and driven shafts is synchronized before they are clutched
together through train gears. The arrangement of power flow for the various gears
remains the same as in the constant mesh gear box.
Synchromesh gear devices work on the principle that two gears to be engaged are first
Brought into frictional contact which equalizes their speed after which they are engaged
readily and smoothly. The following types of such devices are mostly used in vehicles:
(i) Pin type (ii) Synchronizer ring type.
A synchronizing system is used for smooth meshing. Synchromesh works like a friction
Clutch.
Fig.(i) shows two conical surfaces; cone-1 is the part of the collar and cone-2 is part of
the gear wheel. Cones 1, 2 are revolving at different speeds. While cone-21 revolving,
cone-1 gradually slides into it~ Friction slows or speeds up the gear wheel. Finally both
Cones revolve at the same speed. They revolve one as shown in fig. (ii).

27

Two cones as friction clutch

Fig.(i) Are shown collar (1) and gear wheel (2) as separate and revolving at different
speeds? In Fig.(ii) the internal cone of the collar comes in contact with the outer cone of
the gear wheel. Here agllin, the friction slows or speeds up the gear wheel.
In Fig.(i) The collar and gear wheel rotate at the same speed. Fig.(ii) Thespring-loaded
outer ring of the collar is pushed forward. The dogs slide smooth into mesh without
clashing. The collar and gear wheel lock and revolve at the same speed. This is the
principle of synchromesh.

Collar meshing the gear wheel.

In Fig. (i), the collar and gear wheel are shown close to each other. The cone of gear
wheel and internal cone of the collar are in contact. The collar acquires the same speed as
the gear wheel. In Fig.(ii) a further movement of the collar makes the toothed outer ring
slide into engagement. In most of the cars, the synchromesh devices are not fitted to all
the gears. They are fitted only on the top gears. Reverse gear, and in some cases the first
gear, do not have synchromesh device, since they are intended to be engaged when the
vehicle is stationary.

Collar and gear wheel revolving together.

28

Synchromesh unit

Advantage. The synchromesh type of transmission has the big advantage of allowing
smooth type and quick shifting of gears without danger of damaging the gears and
without necessity for double clutching. The synchromesh gear box is considered the most
advanced and has been adopted in mostcars.

29

UNIT-II

CLUTCH
Clutch is a machine member used to connect the driving shaft to a driven shaft, so that the
driven shaft may be started or stopped at will, without stopping the driving shaft. A clutch thus
provides an interruptible connection between two rotating shafts. Clutches allow a high inertia
load to be stated with a small power.
Clutches are used whenever the ability to limit the transmission of power or motion needs to be
controlled either in amount or over time (e.g. electric screwdrivers limit how much torque is
transmitted through use of a clutch; clutches control whether automobiles transmit engine power
to the wheels).
In the simplest application clutches are employed in devices which have two rotating shafts. In
these devices one shaft is typically attached to a motor or other power unit (the driving member)
while the other shaft (the driven member) provides output power for work to be done. In
a drill for instance, one shaft is driven by a motor and the other drives a drill chuck. The clutch
connects the two shafts so that they may be locked together and spin at the same speed
(engaged), locked together but spinning at different speeds (slipping), or unlocked and spinning
at different speeds (disengaged).
A popularly known application of clutch is in automotive vehicles where it is used to connect the
engine and the gear box. Here the clutch enables to crank and start the engine disengaging the
transmission Disengage the transmission and change the gear to alter the torque on the wheels.
Clutches are also used extensively in production machinery of all types.

30

When your foot is off the pedal, the springs push the pressure plate against the clutch disc, which
in turn presses against the flywheel. This locks the engine to the transmission input shaft, causing
them to spin at the same speed.
Clutch for a drive shaft: The clutch disc (center) spins with the flywheel (left). To disengage, the
lever is pulled (black arrow), causing a white pressure plate (right) to disengage the green clutch
disc from turning the drive shaft, which turns within the thrust-bearing ring of the lever. Never
will all 3 rings connect, with no gaps.
In a car's clutch, a flywheel connects to the engine, and a clutch plate connects to
the transmission.

The amount of force the clutch can hold depends on the friction between the clutch plate and the
flywheel, and how much force the spring puts on the pressure plate. When the clutch pedal is
pressed, a cable or hydraulic piston pushes on the release fork, which presses the throw-out
bearing against the middle of the diaphragm spring. As the middle of the diaphragm spring is
pushed in, a series of pins near the outside of the spring causes the spring to pull the pressure
plate away from the clutch disc (see below). This releases the clutch from the spinning engine.

Clutch
Clutch is a mechanism which enables the rotary motion of one shaft to be transmitted,
when desired, to a second shaft the axis of which is coincident with that of the first.

31

Function of clutch:
Clutch is use the function of clutch to engage and disengage the engine power from gear box
or wheel.
Effortless operation.
Minimum size.
Minimum mass.
Torque transmission will be more.
Friction capacity will be more.
Heat dissipation will be more.
Minimum vibration.
Well balance.
Necessity clutch:
If the engine is directly connected to the gear box. The vehicle will be moved forward of the
time of engine starting and will get stop when the vehicle going to stop the avoid this problem
clutch is necessary.
Requirement of good clutch
Minimum size.
Gradual engagement.
An effortless operation.
Minimum mass.
The working principal of clutch is friction into the clutch is increased by four methods:
Surface contact area should be more.
Pressure on surface should be maximum.
Surface should be rough.
Types of clutch:
Single plate clutch.
Diaphragm type clutch.
Multiplate clutch.
Helical type single plate clutch.
Centrifugal clutch.
Cone clutch.
Semi-centrifugal clutch.
Single plate Clutch: Part- fly wheel, friction plate, pressure plate.
Diagram of single plate clutch is shown in figure.

32

Single plate clutch

When drivers wants to shift the gear or to stop the vehicle. He depress clutch pedal so that the
fork pushed the forward and pushes the clutch bearing and finger.

The finger are pivoted so that they pulls the pressure plate back hence the clutch plate will
get free so the flywheel radiate but the clutch plate will not get rotate. This is the disengage
position on clutch.
Diaphragm type clutch:
In this type of clutch instead of helical spring diaphragm spring is used the remaining parts
spring type clutch.

Multi plate clutch:

Diagram of multi plate clutch is shown in figure.

Multi plate clutch

33

o
o
o
o
o

In this multi plate clutch inside of using single plate more number of clutch plates are used.
In small vehicle like motorcycle, scooter etc. the space is limited so that a big single plate
cannot be sued so that number of plate increased size.
The plates are arranged in such a way that after every.
This type of clutch used in heavy transport vehicle and racing cars where high torque is
required.
The construction is similar to single plate type except that all the friction plates in this case
are in two sets, one set of plates slides in grooves on the flywheel and the other one slides on
splices on the pressure plate hub.
Helical type single plate clutch:
Construction of Helical type single plate Clutch:
Following parts are used in this clutch.
7.
Flywheel.
8. Cover assembly.
9. Helical spring.
10. Clutch plate.
11. Operating linkage.
12. Splinted shaft or clutch shaft.
The clutch plate is hold in between flywheel and pressure plate. The helical spring is given
behind the pressure plate, which is Hal fly compressed, this spring given the force on
pressure plate and clutch plate. The cover assembly mounted on flywheel.

Working of Helical type single plate Clutch

:
When the engine starts, the crank shaft will get rotate with flywheel, the clutch plate and
pressure plate also get rotate dew two spring force, the clutch plate rotate the clutch shaft and
so on this is the engage position of clutch.
Centrifugal clutch:
Centrifugal clutch is shown in figure.

34

Centrifugal clutch
In this type of clutch both the spring force the centrifugal force work to engage the clutch.
When engine and vehicle stop the clutch is in disengage on passion. When engine get start
and speed get increased the flyweight moves away (expand) and create a centrifugal force on
pressure plate as well as on clutch plate as speed increases the force also get increases and the
clutch get fully engage.
When driver realest accelerator pedal the speed of engine get reduced so that the centrifugal
force also get reduce and clutch get disengage. This type of clutch does not require clutch
pedal.
This type of clutch is used on mopeds, and scooters.

Semi centrifugal clutch:

Semi centrifugal clutch is shown in figure.

o
o

o
o

Semi centrifugal clutch

In this type of clutch both the spring force the centrifugal force work to engage the clutch.
Clutch plate one pressure plate is given the clutch plate as having external splice and engages
with clutch box, the pressure plate are having internal saplings and engage with engine gears.
35

o
o

The clutch plate and pressure plate are hold together with the help of helical spring.
Cone clutch:
The cone clutch is shown in figure.

Cone clutch
This clutch is having inner cone (flywheel) and outer surface of outer cone friction material is
given to engage this two cone together helical spring is given at the center of outer cone the
outer cone is having internal spines.
Which are engage with clutch shaft? As the inner cone rotates, the outer cone also gets rotate
which rotate the clutch shaft. In this type of clutch the frictional force is more than single
plate clutch but dew to disengage disc advantages this type of clutch is not use in automobile
vehicle.
Clutch operating mechanism:
Following type is the operating mechanism.
Mechanically operated clutch: In this type mechanism linkages are connected in such a way
that the force to operate the clutch gets increased.
Hydraulic operated clutch: In this type mechanism the hydraulic oil is used to increase the
pressure to operate the clutch. In this mechanism master cylinder and slave cylinder are used
to increase the oil pressure.

Overdrive
By definition, an overdrive has a faster output speed than input speed. It's a speed increase -- the
opposite of a reduction. In this transmission, engaging the overdrive accomplishes two things at
once. If you read How Torque Converters Work, you learned about lockup torque converters. In
order to improve efficiency, some cars have a mechanism that locks up the torque converter so
that the output of the engine goes straight to the transmission.
36

In this transmission, when overdrive is engaged, a shaft that is attached to the housing of the
torque converter (which is bolted to the flywheel of the engine) is connected by clutch to the
planet carrier. The small sun gear freewheels, and the larger sun gear is held by the overdrive
band. Nothing is connected to the turbine; the only input comes from the converter housing. Let's
go back to our chart again, this time with the planet carrier for input, the sun gear fixed and the
ring gear for output.
Ratio = 1 / (1 + S/R) = 1 / ( 1 + 36/72) = 0.67:1
So the output spins once for every two-thirds of a rotation of the engine. If the engine is turning
at 2000 rotations per minute (RPM), the output speed is 3000 RPM. This allows cars to drive at
freeway speed while the engine speed stays nice and slow.

A device for transmitting rotation between shafts by means of the acceleration and deceleration o
f a fluid such as oil. Also known as hydraulic coupling.

Fluid coupling
A device for transmitting rotation between shafts by means of the acceleration and deceleration o
f a hydraulic fluid. Structurally, a fluid
coupling consists of an impeller on the input or driving shaft and a runner on the output or driven
shaft. The two contain the fluid (see
illustration). Impeller and runner are bladed rotors, the impeller acting as a pump and the runner r
eacting as a turbine. Basically, the impeller
accelerates the fluid from near its axis, at which the tangential component of absolute velocity is
low, to near its periphery, at which the

37

tangential component of absolute velocity is high. This increase in velocity represents an increas
e in kinetic energy. The fluid mass emerges
at high velocity from the impeller, impinges on the runner blades, gives up its energy, and leaves
the runner at low velocity. See Hydraulics

Hydraulic torque converter is a device used for transmitting increased or decreased power
from one shaft to another. A variable torque is impressed on the driven member without the use
of a gear train or clutch. The torque at the driven shaft maybe increased about five times the
torque available at the driving shaft with an efficiency of about 90percent.
Construction and working:Refer to Fig. The hydraulic torque converter consists of the
following:
(i) Pump impeller coupled to the driving shaft,
(ii) Turbine runner coupled to the driven shaft, and
(iii) Stationary/fixed guide vanes (also known as reaction members) provided between the
impeller and the turbine runner.
The liquid flowing from the pump impeller to turbine runner exerts a torque on the stationary
Guide vanes which change the direction of liquid, thereby making possible the transformation of
Torque and speed. Thus by suitably designing the stationary guide vanes the torque transmitted
to
The~ driving unit can be either increased or decreased.

38

Hydraulic torque converter

Freewheel
In mechanical or automotive engineering, a freewheel or overrunning clutch is a device in
a transmission that disengages the driveshaft from the driven shaft when the driven shaft rotates
faster than the driveshaft. An overdrive is sometimes mistakenly called a freewheel, but is
otherwise unrelated.
The condition of a driven shaft spinning faster than its driveshaft exists in most bicycles when
the rider holds his or her feet still, no longer pushing the pedals. In a fixed-gear bicycle, without
a freewheel, the rear wheel would drive the pedals around.
An analogous condition exists in an automobile with a manual transmission going down hill or
any situation where the driver takes his or her foot off the gas pedal, closing the throttle; the
wheels want to drive the engine, possibly at a higher RPM. In a two-stroke engine this can be a
catastrophic situation: as many two stroke engines depend on a fuel/oil mixture for lubrication, a
shortage of fuel to the engine would result in a shortage of oil in the cylinders, and
the pistons would seize after a very short time causing extensive engine damage. Saab used a
freewheel system in their two-stroke models for this reason and maintained it in the Saab
96 V4 and early Saab 99 for better fuel efficiency.

39

Wheel Alignment
Wheel alignment refers to the positioning of the front wheels and steering mechanism
that gives the vehicle directional stability, promotes ease of steering and reduces tire wear
to a minimum.
A wheel is said to have directional stability or control if it can:
- run straight down a road,
- enter and leave a turn easily, and
- resist road shocks.
The front wheel alignment depends upon the following factors:
Factors pertaining to steering geometry:
1. Camber 2. King pin inclination 3. Caster 4. Toe-in
Factors pertaining to front wheel condition:
1. Balance of wheels 2. Inflation of tyres 3. Brake adjustments.
Camber:
Camber is the tilting in or out of the front wheels from the vertical when viewed from the
front of the vehicle. If the top of the wheel tilts out, it has "positive" camber. If the top of
the wheel tilts in, it has "negative" camber. The amount of tilt measured in degrees from
the vertical, is called "camber angle". Any amount of camber, positive or negative, tends
to cause uneven or more tyre wear on one side than on the other side. Camber should not
exceed two degrees. The front wheels. are not usually mounted parallel to each, but are
fitted outward slightly at the top and inward at the bottom to have positive camber. The
purpose of the camber is to prevent the top of the wheels from tilting inward too much
because of excessive loads or play in kingpins and wheel bearing. When the vehicle is
loaded and rolling along on the road, the load will just bring the wheels to a vertical
position. The opposite is true in case of vehicles having negative chamber.

40

Camber angle (positive) and king-pin inclination.

King-pin inclination:
The king-pin inclination (or steering axle inclination) is the angle between the vertical
line and centre of the kingpin or steering axle, when viewed from the front of the vehicle
(Fig.) The king-pin inclination is absolutely necessary due to the following reasons:
(i) It helps the car to have steering stability.
(ii) It makes the operation of the steering quite easy particularly when the vehicle is stationary.
(iii) It helps in reducing the wear on the tyre.
Included angle:
The combined camber and king-pin inclination is called the "included angle". This angle is
important because it determines the point of intersection of the wheel and king pin centre lines.
This in turn determines whether the wheel will tend to toe-out or toe-in.
- If the point of intersection is above the ground, the wheel tends to toe-in.
- If it is below the ground, the wheel tends to toe-out.
- If it is at the ground, the wheel keeps its straight position without any tendency to toe-in or toeout. In this position the steering is called centre point steering.
Caster:
The angle between the king-pin centre line (or steering axis) and the vertical, in the plane of the
wheel is called Caster angle. If the King-pin centre line meets the ground at a point ahead of the
vertical centre line, as is shown in Fig. 8.11 it is called positive caster while if it is behind the
vertical, wheel centre Front line it is called negative caster. The caster angle in modern vehicles
range from 2 to 8.
The purpose of caster is to give a trailing effect to the front wheels. When the wheel trills the line
of weight, that is, moves in the same direction as the vehicle, it is easy to steer a straight course.
Fig. Caster angle (Positive).
. The positive caster in wheels results in a natural tendency in the wheels to toe-in. The negative
caster would have the opposite effect, i.e., the wheels will tend to toe-out.
- The positive caster increases the effort required to steer and tries to keep the wheels straight
ahead. In the heavy duty trucks negative caster is provided, this makes steering easier.

Caster angle (Positive)

41

When both the wheels have the same positive caster, both will have equal tendencies to toe-in,
which will be balanced by each other because track rod is provided to maintain the distance
between the wheels rigidly. However, when the caster at the two wheels is not equal, the
tendency to toe-in at the wheel with larger caster will be more which will cause the vehicle to
pull constantly towards the side of the wheel with lesser caster. . Since the change of caster angle
results in the change of the other angles of the steering geometry, i.e., camber, king-pin
inclination and toe-in or toe-out, it is very important that this angle is adjusted first of all, while
doing the adjustment job. About 3 of caster gives good results.

Differential assembly
Differential is the mechanism by means of which outer wheel runs faster than the inner
Wheel while taking a turn or moving over upheaval road. Differential is a part of the
inner axle housing assembly, which includes the differential, rear axles, wheels and
bearings. The differential consists of a system of gears arranged in such a way that
connects 'the propeller shaft with the rear axles.The purpose of the differential is to
provide the relative movement to the two rear whee.lswhen the car is taking a turn. The
torque transmitted to each wheel is, however, always equal. Differentials are used in rear
drive axle of front-engine, rear-wheel drive vehicles. Differentials are also used in the
Trans axles on front-engine, front-wheel drive wheels. Also, four-wheel drive vehicles
have differential at both the front and rear wheels. In addition, some four-wheel-drive
vehicles have a third differential in the transfer case.
Construction of differential
Fig.Shows the various parts of a differential unit. The bevel pinion is fixed to the
propeller shaft which rotates the crown wheel. The crown-wheel has another unit called
the differential unit. It consists of two bevel gears (sun gears) and two bevel pinions
(planet pinions). The bevel gears are in contact with the half shafts of the rear axle. When
the crown wheel is rotating, it rotates the differential unit. The bevel (sun) gears of the
differential rotate the two half shafts.
Operation of differential:
When the car is on a straight road, the ring gear, differential case, differential pinion gears, and
two differential side gears all turn 38 a unit. The two differential pinion gears do not rotate on
the pinion shaft. This is because they exert equal force on the two differential siClegears. As a
result, the side gears turn at the same speed as the ring gear, which causes both drive wheels to
turn at the same speed also. However, when the car begins to round a curve, the differential
pinion gears rotate on the pinion shaft. This permits the outer wheel to turn faster than the inner
wheel. .
Suppose one wheel turns slower than the other as the car rounds a curve. As the differential

42

case rotates, the pinion gears must rotate on their shaft. This occurs because the pinion gears
must walk around the slower-turning differential- side gear. Therefore, the pinion gears carry
additional rotary motion to the faster-turning outer wheel on the turn. The action in a typical turn
is shown in Fig. The differential speed is considered to, be 100 percent. The rotating action of the
pinion gears carries 90 percent of this speed to the slower-rotating inner wheel. It sends 110
percent of the speed to the faster-rotating outer wheel. This is how the differential allows one
drive wheel to turn faster than the other.

Whenever the car goes round a turn, the outer drive wheel travels a greater distance than the
inner drive wheel. The two pinion gears rotate on their shaft and send more rotary motion to the
Outer wheel.The gear ratio in the differential is usually referred to as the axle ratio. However it
Would be more accurate to call it the differential ratio.
Types of differential:
Differential is of the following types:
1. Conventional.
2. Power-lock or Non-slip.
3. Double reduction type.

43

.FINAL DRIVEA final drive is that part of a power transmission system between the drive
shaft and the differential. Its function is to change the direction of the power transmitted by
the drive shaft through 90 degrees to the driving axles. At the same time. Itprovides a
fixed reduction between the speed of the drive shaft and the axle driving the wheels. The
reduction or gear ratio of the final drive is determined by dividing the number of teeth on
the ring gear by the number of teeth on the pinion gear. In passenger vehicles, this speed
reduction varies from about 3:1 to 5:1. In trucks it varies from about 5:1 to11:1. To calculate rear
axle ratio, count the number of teeth on each gear. Then divide the number of pinion teeth
into the number of ring gear teeth. For example, if the pinion gear has 10 teeth and the ring gear
has 30 (30divided by 10), the rear axle ratio would be 3:1.Manufacturers install a rear axle
ratio that provides a compromise between performance and economy. The average passenger
car ratio is 3.50:1.The higher axle ratio
PROPELLER SHAF
A propeller shaft is also known drive shaft. It is connected to the universal coupling (DC) at its
two ends. It incorporates a sliding joint in its construction. The sliding joint has a male spline on
propeller shaft and a female spline on sleeve. The up and down movement of rear axle is
accounted for by the universal joints when the moving vehicle experience rough road conditions.
The up and down motion causes a change in the length of propeller shaft which is adjusted by the
slip joint.This joint is provided at the gearbox end. _
The propeller shaft sustains torsion (twisting) during its operation. It is, therefore, made of
solid circular or hollow circular (tubular) cross-section. A tubular section is commonly used as it
is strongest and best suited to resist the torque. It has to be designed to withstand vibration
44

effects also since the phenomenon of whirling may be critical at higher speeds.
There are other designs also in which slip arrangement is different. These designs incorporate
1. A solid shaft and a splined slip yoke,
2. A rubber element between the two sliding tubes.

Mernally splined bush

Splincd slip yoke
Solid section propeller shaft
Details of propeller shafts having
(a) a solid section and a splined slip yoke, and (b) a rubber element between a sliding shaft and a
tube

AXLE

An axle is a central shaft for a rotating wheel or gear. On wheeled vehicles, the axle may be
fixed to the wheels, rotating with them, or fixed to the vehicle, with the wheels rotating around
the axle. In the former case, bearings or bushings are provided at the mounting points where the
axle is supported. In the latter case, a bearing or bushing sits inside a central hole in the wheel to

45

allow the wheel or gear to rotate around the axle. Sometimes, especially on bicycles, the latter
type axle is referred to as a spindle.

Dead axle (lazy axle)

A dead axle, also called lazy axle, is not part of the drive train but is instead free-rotating. The
rear axle of a front-wheel drive car is usually a dead axle. Many trucks and trailers use dead
axles for strictly load-bearing purposes. A dead axle located immediately in front of a drive axle
is called a pusher axle. A tag axle is a dead axle situated behind a drive axle. Dead axles are also
found on semi trailers, farm equipment, and certain heavy construction machinery serving the
same function. On some vehicles (such asmotorcoaches), the tag axle may be steerable. In some
designs the wheels on a lazy axle only come into contact with ground when the load is
significant, thus saving unnecessary tire wear

Full-floating vs. semi-floating

The full-floating design is typically used in most 3/4 and 1-ton light trucks, medium duty trucks
and heavy-duty trucks, as well as most agricultural applications, such as large tractors and selfpropelled agricultural machinery. There are a few exceptions, such as many LandRover vehicles. A full-floating axle can be identified by a protruding hub to which the axle shaft
flange is bolted. These axles can carry more weight than a semi-floating or non-floating axle
assembly because the hubs have two bearings riding on a fixed spindle. The axle shafts
themselves do not carry any mass; they serve only to transmit torque from the differential to the
wheels. Full-floating axle shafts are retained by the aforementioned flange bolted to the hub,
while the hub and bearings are retained on the spindle by a large nut. A benefit of a full-floating
axle is that even if an axle shaft (used to transmit torque or power) breaks, the wheel will not
come off, possibly preventing a serious accident.
The semi-floating design carries the weight of the vehicle on the axle shaft itself; there is a single
bearing at the end of the axle housing that carries the load from the axle and that the axle rotates
through. This design is found under most 1/2 ton and lighter trucks and SUVs.

Live axle vs. Dead axle

A live axle is a type of beam axle in which the shaft (or shafts, since live axles, while connected
to move as a single unit, are seldom one piece) also transmits power to the wheels; a beam axle
46

that does not also transmit power is sometimes called a dead axle. While typically used in
vehicles with Hotchkiss drive, this suspension system can also be used with other types of power
transmission.

Advantages
The principal advantage of the beam axle is its simplicity. This simplicity makes it very spaceefficient and relatively cheap to manufacture. They are nearly universally used in heavy-duty
trucks and most light and medium duty pickup trucks, SUVs, and vans also use a beam axle, at
least in the rear. Beam axles have an important advantage for off-road applications, as they
provide better vehicle articulation and durability in a high load environment.This simplicity also
makes it relatively easy to lift a vehicle.

Disadvantages
The drawbacks are that it does not allow each wheel to move independently in response to
bumps, and the mass of the beam is part of the unsprung weight of the vehicle, which can further
reduce ride quality. Also the cornering ability is typically worse than other suspension designs
because the wheels have zero camber angle gain during body roll.

Axle Casing
The casing used now a day is either a banjo or carrier-type. In the past a split (trumpet) casing
was occasionally used. These three types are shown in Fig. 26.51. The type of axle casing used
decides the method for the removal of the final drive.
Banjo Type.

The tubular axle section of this casing is built up of steel pressings, which is welded together and
suitably strengthened to withstand the bending load. The centre of this casing with the axle tube
on one side resembles a banjo. The final drive assembly is mounted in detachable malleable iron
housing and is secured by a ring of bolts to the axle casing. The axle shafts are slid into this
assembly from the road wheel end of the casing. On some banjo axles a domed plate is bolted to
the rear face of the casing. Removal of this plate provides excess to the final drive gears and in
cases where the axle shaft is secured to the differential; this enablesthe axle shaft to be unlocked
from the sun gear (sidegear).

47

Loading of different axle-hub arrangements

A. Semi-floating axle hub.
B. Three-quarter floating axle hub.
C. Fully floating axle hub.
Axle shafts are divided into semi-floating, three-quarter floating and fully floating depending on
the stresses to which the shaft is subjected. Axle half-shafts are situated on each side of the final
drive and convey motion to the road-wheels. There are basically three different arrangements of
supporting axle wheel hubs on the rear-axle casing. These include :
(i) Semi-floating axle hub (commonly used on cars).
(ii) Three quarter floating axle hub (rarely used today).
(iii) Fully floating axle hub (commonly used on heavy vehicles).
Figure demonstrates how loads are resisted with different axle-hub arrangements. A tough, hard
material is used for the axle shaft to withstand the various stresses, resist spline wear and provide
good resistance to fatigue. Medium carbon alloy steel containing nickel, chromium and
molybdenum is generally used to manufacture axle shafts.

Semi-floating Axle Hub.

The road-wheel is attached to the axle hub, which is an extension of the axle half-shaft. A single
bearing inside the tubular axle-casing supports the outer end of the shaft. The inner end of the
shaft is splined and supported by the final-drive unit, which itself is mounted on bearings within
the axle casing (Fig. 26.52A).The semi-floating axle along with its overhanging hub is subjected
to the driving torque as well as to both vertical and horizontal loads. The vertical load produces a

48

shearing force, and the distance between the wheel and the suspension-spring seat on the axle
causes a bending moment, the reaction of which is shared between the axle bearing and the finaldrive-unit bearings. The horizontal load due to tilting of the vehicle, cornering centrifugal force,
or side wind gives rise to both side-thrust and a bending moment. This bending moment may add
to the vertical bending moment or may oppose it, depending on the direction of application of the
side-force.A semi floating axle, suitable for small and medium sized cars, is illustrated in Fig.
26.53. The axle half shaft and flanged hub are forged from a single piece of nickel chrome steel.
The hub end of the shaft is provided with a larger diameter than the rest of its length, which
resists the vertical and horizontal loads. The outer face of the flanged hub is shouldered so that it
centralizes accurately the brake drum. The flange is provided with evenly spaced holes around it
for wheel studs.

Fig..Semi-floatingball-race-bearing.
A pre-greased and sealed deep grooved ball-race bearing is pressed over and along the shaft up
to its shoulder. The bearing is sandwiched on one side by the axle-casing and on the other by the
brake back-plate and the retaining plate by four nuts and bolts. To prevent excess oil leakage to
the end of the axle-casing, a radial-lip oil-seal is pressed into a recess in the casing. Oil level of
the final-drive is considerably lower than the axle shaft. However, the large amount of splash
may cause the lubricant to spread along the shaft and enter the brake drum. An oil retainer is
fitted at the hub end and the lip of the seal is positioned towards the final drive in the sealing
arrangement.A semi-floating axle shown in Fig. 26.54 uses a taper-roller bearing, which is
suitable for larger and higher-performance cars because of its greater load-carrying capacity. A
separate hub is wedged on to a keyed and tapered half-shaft and a castellated nut holds it is
position. The taper-roller-bearing inner cone fits with a light force inside the mouth of the casing.
The exact position of the bearing in the casing is provided by shims packed between the casing
flange and the brake back-plate. Increasing the thickness of the shims on one side and decreasing
it on the other shifts both half-shafts further to one side relative to the axle casing. On either
road-wheel the outward thrust is absorbed by the adjacent hub bearing, while inward thrust is
transmitted to the opposite bearing through the axle half-shafts and a slotted axle-shaft spacer
(not shown). Therefore, each hub bearing takes thrust in one direction only.

49

Fig. Semi-floating taper-roller-bearing axle.

Fully Floating Axle-hub.
This axle-hub arrangement incorporates a flanged sleeve, which is positioned over the axle
casing. The flange is provided to accommodate the road-wheel or wheels. Two bearings widely

Fig. Three-quarter-floating axle.

spaced are installed between the hub and the casing to support the hub assembly (Fig 2652C)
This provides am improvement on the first two types of hub support. The axle-shaft in this case
takes only the turning-effort or torque. Both the vertical and horizontal load reactions are resisted
by a pair of widely spaced taper-roller bearings installed on the axle-casing. The axle half-shaft,
therefore, is free from all the loads except the torsional drive to the wheel. Figure 26.57
illustrates a fully floating axle-hub, based on a concept of the three-quarter-floating axle. The
construction is such that the two hubs on their bearing rotate independently of the half-shaft.
Studs connecting the shaft to the hub transmit the drive and when the nuts on these studs are
removed, the shaft may be removed without jacking up the vehicle and without interfering with
the load-supporting role of the hub. This layout, therefore, allows the vehicle to be towed with a
broken half shaft. This is a larger and more expensive construction than both the other layouts.
This is specifically suitable for all truck and heavy-duty vehicles employing live axles and for
trailers using dead axles where torque and axle loads are greater. Depending upon the
application, single or twin road-wheels are used.

50

Fig.Fully floating axle.

Front Axle and Steering System
Front axle carries the weight of the front part of the automobile as well as facilitates steering and
absorbs shocks due to road surface variations. The front axles are generally dead axles, but are
live axles in small cars of compact designs and also in case of four-wheel drive. The steering
system converts the rotary motion of the drivers steering wheel into the angular turning of the
front wheels as well as to multiply the drivers effort with leverage or mechanical advantage for
turning the wheels. The steering system, in addition to directing the vehicle in a particular
direction must be arranged geometrically in such a way so that the wheels undergo true rolling
motion without slipping or scuffing. Moreover, the steering must be light and stable with a
certain degree of self-adjusting ability. Steering systems may also be power assisted. The chapter
discusses the front axle construction and its alignment, and steering geometry and steering
systems.
Front Axle
The front axle (Fig. 27.1) is designed to transmit the weight of the automobile from the springs
to the front wheels, turning right or left as required. To prevent interference due to front engine
location, and for providing greater stability and safety at high speeds by lowering the centre of
gravity of the road vehicles, the entire centre portion of the axle is dropped. As shown in Fig.
27.1, front axle includes the axle-beam, stub-axles with brake assemblies, u ack-rod and stubxlearm.Front axles can be live axles and dead axles. A live front axle contains the differential
mechanism through which the engine power flows towards the front wheels. For steering the
front wheels, constant velocity joints are contained in the axle half shafts. Without affecting the
power flow through the half shafts, these joints help in turning the stub axles around the kingpin.The front axles are generally dead axles, which does not transmit power. The front wheel
hubs rotate on antifriction bearings of tapered-roller type on the steering spindles, which are an
integral part of steering knuckles. To permit the wheels to be turned by the steering gear, the
steering spindle and steering knuckle assemblies are hinged on the end of axle. The pin that
forms the pivot of this hinge is known as king pin or steering knuckle pin. Generally dead front
axles are three types. In the Elliot type front axles the yoke for king spindle is located on the ends
of I-beam. The axle ends are forked to hold the steering knuckle extension between them. The

51

reverse Elliot front axles have hinged spindle yoke on spindle itself instead of on theaxle. The
forked portion is integral with the steering knuckle. This type is commonly used as this facilitates
the mounting of brake backing plate on the forged legs of the steering knuckle. In the Lemoine
type front axle, instead of a yoke type hinge, an L-shaped spindle is used which is attached to the
end of the axle by means of a pivot. It is normally used in tractors.

Fig. Frontaxle.
The axle beam in use is of I or H-section and is manufactured from alloy forged steel for rigidity
and strength. As compared to dead front axles, a totally different type of swiveling mechanism is
used on the live front axle. To connect the wheel hub axles with driving axle shafts, constant
velocity joints are used for the vehicles fitted with the front live axles. Tracta, Rzeppa (or heppa)
on Bendix constant velocity or universal joints are normally used.Front axles are subjected to
both bending and shear stresses. In the static condition, the axle may be considered as a beam
supported vertically upward at the ends i.e. at the centre of the wheels and loaded vertically
downward at the centers of the spring pads. The vertical bending moment thus caused is zero at
the point of support and rises linearly to a maximum at the point of loading and then remains
constant.
Thus the maximum bending moment = Wl, Nmwhere, W = The load on one wheel, NI = The
distance between the centre of wheel and the spring pad, mUnder dynamic conditions, the
vertical bending moment is increased due to road roughness. But its estimate is difficult and
hence is generally accounted for through a factor of safety. The front axle also experiences a
horizontal bending moment because of resistance to motion and this is of a nature similar to the
vertical one but of very small magnitude and hence can be neglected except in those situations
when it is comparatively large.
The resistance to motion also causes a torque in the case of drop type front axle as shown in Fig.
27.2. Thus the portions projected after the spring pads are subjected to combined bending and
torsion.

52

Steering System
Automobile is fragmentary without the steering system as it gives the vehicle a directional
stability. Steering enables the driver to easily maneuver the vehicle according to the path. It
doesnt mean that automotive, when developed, included steering mechanism. So, how the
steering wheel which we see on todays car was invented? The automotive freaks, during those
days, got the idea of steer the vehicle from boats which used tilters that helped them to turn left
or right. The idea was implemented on automobiles too, but didnt last longer as it required more
effort and the steering ability was almost poor. The ultimate discovery of the steering wheel was
seen in the Pan hard model which was tested in the Paris-Rouen race. This innovation was then
seen in every car model that followed and as such the round steering wheel became important
and compulsory element of the car.
The steering system is however not as easy as it seems, where you simply turn the steering wheel
that turns the road wheels. It is composed of complex mechanisms, linkages, joints and gears that
actually make the wheels to turn.
Let us have a sneak peek on how the steering system actually works-We know that the basic
function of steering system is to turn the wheels in the desired direction. However, it is
interesting to note that when the vehicle is turned, the front wheels do not point in the same
direction. Lets see how

For a proper steering system, each of the wheels must follow different turning circle and when a
perpendicular is drawn from centre of each wheel; all the perpendiculars will meet at one single
point, which is known as instantaneous centre.

53

But then, the question still goes unanswered, that how these wheels actually turn?
Looking closely to the figure, we can see the complex mechanism of the steering system which
makes the car wheels to turn. The system works on four bar chain mechanism where four links
are flexibly connected with each other and imparting motion, to one of the link, will cause other
links to move accordingly.
The steering wheel is directly connected to the steering gear, whose main function is to convert
the rotary motion of the steering wheel into oscillatory motion of the pitman arm. This motion is
transferred to the tie rod through the drag line, which moves the tie rod left or right, depending
on the steering wheel input. The tie rod ends are connected to the pivots that actually turn the
wheels.
The mechanism of steering remains same in all the steering systems, but the difference can be
seen in the type of gearing arrangement used in the steering gearbox. The type of steering gear
mechanism used in automobile power steering is listed below:

Rack and Pinion Steering gear

Worm and Sector steering gear
Worm and Roller steering gear
Cam and Lever steering gear
Worm and Nut steering gear
Most common types include rack and pinion and re-circulating ball (Worm and nut) type
arrangement.
1. Rack and Pinion Steering
The system consists of a pinion attached to the steering shaft, which meshes with the flat rack on
the drag line. Pinion imparts left or right motion to the rack, which causes the tie rods to move
the road wheels consequently. This mechanism is usually adopted universally in all the cars that
are available today with some major improvements.
Earlier, steering system was robust, though it was quite difficult and heavy to use. The need of
more flexible and smooth system was desired and as such some of the vital experiments in 1920
gave birth to the power steering system. The entire credit goes to Francis W. Davis who was an
engineer in automotive company. With his efforts, power steering system began to be used
commercially in all the cars.

54

2. Worm and Sector steering gear

In this type of steering mechanism, worm is connected at the end of steering shaft and sector is
mounted on a sector shaft. The sector looks like a ball and worm looks like a gear. The teeth of
the worm mesh with the teeth of the sector. To provide free play, worm is mounted on a bearing.
It is also known as Pitman arm shaft
3. Worm and Roller steering gear
Worm and roller is similar to the worm and sector type of steering mechanism. A toothed roller
is mounted on a roller shaft and worm gear is mounted on a steering shaft. Gear tooth of worm
gear meshes with that of the roller and motion is transmitted. The roller is mounted on a ball
bearing. This mechanism has low friction compared to Worm and Sector mechanism and is
widely used on American passenger cars.
4. Cam and Lever steering gear
Cam and lever is similar to the worm and sector gear mechanism. The worm is replaced with
cam and sector is replaced with a lever. Cam is engaged by a bearing and lever, carries two studs
that are mounted on bearing. As the driver turns the steering wheel, studs move up and down on
the cam so lever and pitman arm shaft rotates.
5. Worm and Nut steering gear
A nut is meshed with the worm and screws up and down relative to the movement of the worm.
This is also known as re-circulating ball type mechanism. Nut is used with ball that reduces the
friction and power loss.
Without increasing further impatience, let us look the power steering system implemented on a
normal rack and pinion steering system.
Power steering refers to the use of hydraulic power in assisting the steering motion. When
coupled with any of the steering system, the power steering makes use of pump which forces the
fluid under pressure, to help the steering gearbox, to overcome the friction and easily turn the
gears and impart movement to the road wheels. Power steering makes steering wheel to turn
easily and also a small effort, on steering wheel, will give sharp turning of road wheels.
Power steering got a new dimension with the use of electric motor and sensors that do not use
engine power but run separately using battery. The sensors are used to sense the torque and
motion is applied to the steering wheel. Based on this, the control unit, powers the motor to assist
in steering. At this juncture, it is also important to know the term steering ratio which helps to
determine the steering ability of particular steering system. Steering ratio is defined as the ratio
of number of degrees that the steering wheel turns to the number degrees of wheel turn.

55

Steering ratio for cars vary from 12:1 to 20:1. E.g. If we want to turn the wheels to 20 degree by
one complete revolution of steering wheel, the ratio will be 360:20 or 18:1.
A higher steering ratio requires more turns of steering wheel but effort required will be less.

POWER STEERING
The increased use of large section low-pressure balloon tyres has aggravated the steering
problem due to the greater contact area between the tyre and ground. The driver requires a
greater force to be exe11ed on the steering wheel for steering the heavy vehicle or heavily loaded
commercial vehicle, especially when the vehicle has to take a sharp turn. Power steering makes it
easier to turn sharp corners. It is fitted not only to heavy commercial vehicles but also to heavy
and medium weight cars. It is usually arranged to be operative when the effort at the steering
wheel exceeds a pre-determined value. When this effort is excluded, a valve directs the working
fluid to the appropriate side of the power cylinder, and this result in the steered wheels being
turned in the desired direction. The working fluid is high quality lubricating oil having a
viscosity rating equivalent to ASE low for normal conditions. The actual amount of assistance
given depends upon the resistance offered to movement of the road wheels.
There are usually two general types of power steering systems:
1. Integral power steering, in which the power operating assembly is part of the steering
gear.
2. Linkage power steering, in which the power opening assembly is part of the linkage.

INTEGRAL POWER STEERING

The integral power steering is designed to receive power assistance only when the effort
at the steering wheel rim exceeds two pounds and is up to five pou_ds.1t consists of a worm-andball-bearing nut steering gear with a hydraulic rack piston, concentric with the worm shaft,
which can aid in moving the nut in either direction by mean_ of hydraulic pressure. A reaction
contract valve is linked to the worm shaft thrust bearing through a link and actuator lever. Any
moment of the thrust bearing causes the control valve to move which opens and Closes 'oil
passage between the valve body and the housing oftl1e gear and pinion assembly.
The working of the integral power steering during a right turn is shown. When the vehicle
is going straight-ahead, the oil flows from the pump, through the open center of the valves and
back to reservoir.

56

STEERING LINKAGE

"

It also t1ows into the areas on both sides of rack piston to act as a lubricant and to
Cushion the road shocks. These areas are sometimes called "power cy1irider". When the vehicle
is turned to the right, the reaction of the wheels, steering linkage, pitman shaft sector, and ball
nut to the turning of the worm causes the worm to move downward to the left light1y. The
movement forces the worm against the thrust bearing and causes the actuating lever and control
valve links to move control valve to the position. The fluid passage to.The right turn cylinder is
broadened, while that to the left turn cylinder is made narrower. Thus the fluid flow from the
pump is restricted and pump pressure is built up to exert sufficient, pressure on the right turn side
of the rack position, helping the ball nut in the right turn direction the fluid in the1eft turn power
cylinder is forced to return to the pump reservoir through the return line.
When the vehicle has to take a left turn, an opposite reaction of the worm causes the fluid
to enter the left-turn power cylinder in greater volume and to empty the right-turn cylinder. This
reaction.Causes the rack piston and ball nut to move in the left-turn direction.

57

New Technologies and Innovations in the Steering System

Many new innovations in steering system are available today that gives best possible directional
stability to the cars with extreme comfort levels. Some of the improvements include; 4-wheel
steering which assists in steering all the four wheels of the car. This helps in maneuvering the car
at high speeds. Some of the cars today also include a system known as speed sensitive steering,
which uses a concept that during high speed steering requirements are less and as such the power
assistance is reduced. It is increased during low speeds as more steering effort is needed. Future
developments in the steering system are being done and experts have come up with an idea of
steer-by-wire mechanism in which the steering will be achieved completely using electronics.
The main aim of the system is to eliminate the complex system of linkages and joints giving
more space for engine and interior designing aspects.

58

UNIT-III
Braking System
Brakes are employed to stop or slow down the speed of vehicle.
When brake applied to wheel braking force is created that force oppose the speed of wheel or
rotation of force.
Braking requirement:
1) The vehicle must stop in smallest distance.
2) It must act suddenly in emergency.
3) It must have strong braking force.
4) It must neither slip nor kid the vehicle.
And less heat production.
5) It must operate on least effort.
Types of brakes:
Breaks are divided into seven types as per there uses, functionality, locations etc.
1) On the basis of purpose saved.
a) Main brake.
b) Parking brake.
2) On the basis of location.
a) Wheel mounted.
b) Transmission mounted.
3) On the basis of drivers ergonomics.
a) Foot brake.
b) Hand brake.
4) On the basis of actuating.
a) Mechanical brake.
b) Hydraulic brake.
c) Air brake.
D) Electric brake.
5) On the basis of construction.
a) Drum brake.
b) Disc brake.
6) On the basis of application of brake efforts.
A) Manual brake.
b) Power brake.
59

c) Power assisted.
7) On the basis of action of brake shoes.
A) Internal expanding brake.
b) External contracting brake.
Brake Drum:
Construction of Brake Drum:
The brake drum is mounted on axle hub and whole assembly is hold in wheel to brake shoes
are handed on the back plate by mines of pin expander is fitted in between shoes.

The friction material is pasted or biretta on brake shoes the expanded (cam) expander.
The brake shoe and press on drum. Due to friction action brake will get applied.
Brake drum is shown in figure.

Brake Drum
Following parts used in break drum
1) Brake drum.
2) Back plate.
3) Brake shoe.
4) Brake lining.
5) Expander.
6) Anchor.
7) Returning spring.
8) Adjuster.
Disc brake:
Construction of disc break:
1) Caliper or cylinder casing.
2) Rooter disc.
3) Piston.

60

4) Friction pad.
5) Pad supporting plate.
6) Bleeder plug.
Working of disc break:
Disc brake is shown in figure.

Disc brake
The disc brake are appeaser hydraulically when the vehicle is to brake the brake fluid pumped
by the master cylinder it them flows and pushes the piston and pad which makes friction with
rooter disc and due to frictional action brake will get applied.
Mechanical brake:
This brake system is operated by mechanical linkage.
This brake system applied light vehicle two wheeler and some three wheeler this system
required more efforts from driver and applied less force to the brake system to that system
doesnt used on four wheeler or heavy vehicle.
Hydraulic brake system : In this system the brake is operated with the help of oil pressure in this system master cylinder
and wheel cylinder is most important part.
This system is very popular on four wheeler vehicle basically light and medium vehicle.
Working of hydraulic break system : The diagram of hydraulic brake system is shown in figure.

61

Hydraulic brake
The brake system is fitted with brake oil when driver presses the brake pedal the master
cylinder creates oil pressure and sent to wheel cylinder.
Piston in wheel cylinder get expands due to oil pressure and the brake shoes also get expand
and rub on brake shoes.
Also get expand and rub on brake drum so that brake will get apply.
Master cylinder:
Master cylinder it is having following part:
1) Cylinder body.
2) Piston.
3) Primary cup.
4) Secondary cup.
5) Check valve.
6) Return spring.
7) Push rod.
8) Dust cover.
Working of master cylinder:

The diagram of master cylinder is

shown in figure.

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Master cylinder
When driver depress the brake pedal the push rod pushes the piston forward and oil get
compresses due to pressure the brake fluid open the hole of check valve and flows to wheel
cylinder when driver release the brake pedal brake flied come back and pushes the check
valve return spring and piston back ward and oil stores in reverie.
Wheel cylinder:
The diagram of wheel cylinder is shown in figure.

Wheel cylinder
As driver pressure the brake pedal and increases the pressure of oil that oil inters in the wheel
cylinder it expand the piston towards outside they expand brake shoe and applies the brake.
When release the spring pushes the piston tension and flows the oil return to the master
cylinder like this brake get release.
Pneumatic or air brake system: In this brake system air pressure is used to apply brake.
Parts or components used in air brake system:1) Air compressor.
2) Reservoir air tank.
3) Water and oil separator.
4) Brake valve.
5) Air pressure gauge.
6) Safety valve.
7) Brake chamber.
8) Pipes.
Working of air brake system: The diagram of pneumatic or air brake system is shown in figure.

63

Pneumatic or Air Brake System

Mostly it is used heavy vehicle the compressor run by engine sucked air from atmosphere and
the piston of compressor compress the air and supplied to air tank.

In between compressor and tank water separator is used which remove the water partial from
air the air tank stores the air with pressure up to 8kg/cm2.the safety valve is used in the tank
to manifold constant air pressure.

The pipe is connected from tank to brake valve and from brake valve to brake pedal the brake
valve get open and pressure air flows from tank to brake chamber as soon as the air pressure
inter in brake chamber the diaphragm get deflect which pushes the push rod for tarring the
cam as the cam get turned it expand the brake shoe and brake will get applied.
When driver release the brake pedal the brake valve gets closed and air pressure cannot
supplied to the brake chamber so that brake will get not applied.
Brake lining:
The brake lining are high friction material beings used rub again the rotating brake drums and to
stop them will the brake are applied for on efficient braking and longer lifer they are expect to
have high standard of quality they are required to full fill various requirement such as given
below:1) No water swells.
2) Low heat swells.
3) Low wear rate.
4) The high coefficient of normal and hot friction.
5) High strange and physically properties.
Brake lining material:
The brake lining are made of asbestos, rubber, metallic particles, resin, minerals, and
coefficient of friction modifies among these the asbestos is most important there for brake.
Lining are commonly known as asbestos brake linings.

64

1) Chrysalides asbestos fibers are comparatively cheap posses the hot coefficient of friction
around 0.33 to 0.40 in the temperature range of 200 to 300.
2) The metallic partial of aluminum brass and zinc are used for high heat dissipation and better
antiwar characteristics.
3) The asbestos can resist temperature up to 350 without folding.
Types of brake linings:
On the basis of manufacturing the brake lining are group in to following types.
1) Rigid molded.
2) Flexible molded.
3) With metallic partial.
4) The wealth out metallic partial.
1) Non asbestos brake lining.
i) Flexible.
ii) Roll lining.
Rigid molded asbestos brake lining:o Rigid molded asbestos brake lining has a random asbestos filigrees friction material with
metallic inclusion in the form of steel wool brass chips.
o
The coefficient of friction is well maintained even at higher temperature it is suitable for used
under dry operating condition only it offer exceptional resistance to wear wealth out any
penalty in the form of drum damage it finds application in light the medium and heavy
commercial drum brake such a lining are two types:3. With Metallic Partial
4. Without Metallic Partial
Flexible molded roll brake lining:The flexible molded non metallic roll brake lining are of a dark gray in color having a random
asbestos they have a random asbestos they have a high level of friction with a good anti squall
properties and excellent temperature and wear resistance they are produce in roll and liner form
and are suitable used under a dry operating condition only its material is manufactured with a
good finish on both the surface suit may be bounded on inter surface.
Wire meshed roll lining:
The molded rubberized and flexible wire meshed backed and with medium coefficient of
partition these brake lining are suitable car and light commercial vehicle running in cities and
also for agricultural tractors.
Woven brake lining:
These are solid non magically using women the configuration of abbots fabric this lining do not
feed up to 250 to 300 wire inclusion is also done for better heat transfer the turnery since copper
or this alloys are preferred there coefficient of friction morally lies in the vicinity of 0.4.
The wear properties of brake lining:
65

The wear resistance is a very important properties aliening should have the backing efficient
will be have only of the timing are capable of sustaining a large number of braking stroke at a
elevated temperature a test report conducted on lining at a 400 if show that the lining are stable
or a long period of time and there is no reduction in brake effective even a after 100 cycle of
inter brake operation a good brake lining should work well over about 800 km.

POWER BRAKES
Brakes operated by power other than physical effort applied at 'brake pedal, are known as Power
brakes. The power may be exerted by air pressure, engine vacuum or electrical energy. There are
semi-power or power assisted brakes too, in which the power assists or supplements the power in
actuating the brakes. Hydraulic brakes are semi-power brakes in these brakes the engine vacuum
assists in the actuation of hydraulically operated brakes.
Main features
The main features of the power brake system are:
1. "Time-lag" or the time internal between the moment when pedal is pressed down and the
Moment when the brakes are put on must be very small.
2. The force applying the brakes should be closely proportional to the force exerted by the
Driver on the brake pedal.
The brake system should be such that the driver may judge the intensity of the application
Of brakes fairly accurately.
These days the following systems are predominantly used for actuating the brakes:
1. Air brakes.
2. Air hydraulic brakes.
3. Vacuum brakes.
4. Electric brakes.
Air Brakes
Description of air brakes
In air brakes, the brake shoe operating cam is operated by means of air pressure which is
developed by an air compressor driven by the engine. There are separate brake chambers for the
Separate brake shoe operating cams. The brake chambers are connected with the air reservoir by
Means of pipe line; A brake valve operated by the foot pedal controls the pressure of air which
Affects the brake chambers. Fig. shows the general arrangement (simple line diagram) of an air
Brake system. Fig. shows the layout of an air brake system for bus or truck.

66

General arrangement of an air brake system.

When the foot pedal is pressed down, air pressure acts on the diaphragm of brake chamber. The
diaphragm is linked with the brake shoe operating camshaft. The diaphragm is pushed outward
in the brake chamber causing movement of brake shoe operating earn. The brake shoe expands
outwards and holds the moving brake drums as they come into its contact. The brakes are thus
applied. As soon as the pressure is released from the brake pedal, it comes back with the help of
return spring. This results in closing of brake valve and release of pressure inside the brake
chamber. The brake shoe operating cam moves in the reverse direction as a result of pressure
release on the brake chamber. The brake shoe contracts inward with the help of retracting spring,
releasing -the brake drum of the binding effect. The brakes are thus released.

Layout of an air brake system for bus or truck.

Main parts of an air brake:
Following are the main parts of an air brake:
(i) Air compressor.
(ij) Unloaded valve.
(iii) Reservoir.
(iv) Brake valve.
(v) Brake chamber.
(vi) Quick release valve.
(vii) Relay valve.
(viii) Warning signal.

67

Advantages and disadvantages of air brakes

Air brakes entail the following advantages:
1. Much more powerful than the ordinary mechanical or hydraulic brakes (that is why these
Are exclusively used in heavy vehicles).
2. Simplified chassis design.
3. The compressed air from reservoir, apart from braking, can be used .for tyre inflation,
Windscreen wipers, horns etc.
Disadvantages:
1. Involve relatively more parts.
2. The air compressor uses a certain amount of the engine power. .

Loads on the Frame:

The frame experiences loads of different nature during motion of the vehicle. These loads, in
turn, produce stresses and strains of various kinds. Generally, the frame sustains the following
types of loads.
Flexural (or bending) load. It is produced in a vertical plane of the side members due to
o dead weight of the vehicle
o weight of the passengers
o engine torque
o braking torque
Flexural load also develops in lateral plane of the side members due to
road camber
cornering force
side wind
The effect of flexural load is to cause flexural stresses which can be either tensile or compressive
in nature. The compressive stress is resisted by placing thrust-taking members between the frame
and the back axle. The tension is resisted by using material of sufficient strength.
Torsional load (or twisting moment). It is caused due to vertical load when the vehicle comes
across a road bump. The twisting induces a shear stress in the frame. The frame is designed
strong enough to resist torsion by providing
o
o
o
o

torque-resisting members
cross-members
a radius rod
Benzo-frame type torque members

68

Impact load. It is caused due to impact of wheels with road obstacles. It may result in distortion
of the frame or its collapse. Bumpers and over-riders are used to sustain impact loads, thereby
providing safety and longer life to the frame

SUSPENSION SYSTEMS
Introduction
The modern automobile has come along way since the days when just being self propelled was
enough to satisfy the car owner. Improvement in suspension, increased strength & durability of
components, and advances in tire design and construction has made large contributions to tiding
comfort and driving safety.
Basically, suspension refers to the use of front and rear springs to suspend a vehicles frame,
body, engine & power train above the wheels. These relatively heavy assemblies constitute what
is known as Sprung weight. Unsprung weight, on the other hand, includes wheels and tire,
break assemblies and other structural members not supported by the springs.
The springs used in today's cars and trucks are engineered in a wide variety of types, shapes,
sizes, rates and capacities. Types include leaf springs, coil springs, air springs and torsion bars.
These are used in sets of four per vehicle, or they are paired off in various combinations and are
attached to the vehicle by a number of different mounting techniques.
Front suspension types
there are two types of front suspension in general use: the independent system & the solid axle
system. Independent suspensions usually operate through heavy-duty coil springs or torsion bars
and direct, double acting shock absorbers. In solid axle construction, the axle beam and wheel
assemblies are connected to the car by leaf springs and direct or in-direct shock absorber.
With the solid axle setup, the steering knuckle and wheel spindle assemblies are
Connected to the axle beam by bronze-bushed kingpins, or spindle bolts, which provide pivot
points for each front wheel. Modern independent front wheel suspension systems use ball joints,
or spherical joints, accomplish the purpose. In operation, the swiveling action of the ball joints
allows the wheel and spindle assemblies to be turned left and right and to move up & down with
changed in road service.
Leaf spring
69

Front leaf, or late, springs are used in conjunction with solid axle beams in most truck
applications. Rear leaf springs are used on trucks and some passenger cars. Single leaf or multileaf springs are usually mounted longitudinally over the front axle beam or under the rear axle
housing.
The spring center bolt fastens the leaves together, and its head locates the spring in the front axle
beam or saddle on the rear axle housing. U-bolts clamp the spring firmly in place and keep it
from shifting. Eyebolts, brackets and shackles attach it to the frame at each end.
In many cases, leaf springs are used at the rear of the vehicle in combination with another type of
spring in front. Chrysler, for example, uses leaf springs at the rear, torsion bars in front.
For many years, Ford used leaf springs at rear, coil springs in front. Now, full-size cars have coil
spring suspension, front and rear. Fords small cars have coil springs in front; leaf springs at rear.
Buick still uses coil spring at all around. In some foreign cars, torsion bars are used front and
rear; in others, leaf springs are mounted crosswise for use with independently suspended wheels.
Rear leaf spring in U.S vehicles generally are placed parallel to the frame to absorb the torque of
the driving wheels the front half of each leaf spring acts like a radius rod or control arm to
transmit the driving force from the rear wheels to the frame. With this suspension setup, the leaf
springs also serve as stabilizer side sway of the chassis.
Coil springs
Many independent front suspension systems incorporate compression-type coil springs mounted
between the lower control arms and spring housing in the frame. Others have the coil springs
mounted above the upper control arms, compressed between a pivoting spring seat bolted to the
control arm and a spring tower formed in the front-end sheet metal.
Generally, the upper control arm pivots on a bushing and shaft assembly, which is bolted to the
frame. The lower arm pivots on a bushing and shaft assembly or on a bolt cross frame member.
When the lower control arm is not the A-frame type, its supported by strut, which runs
diagonally from the lower control arm to a bracket attached to the frame. On some models, this
strut serves as a support; on others, it provides a means of adjusting caster.
Stabilizers or sway bars are used in conjunction with front suspension on many cars to dampen
rod shocks and minimize road sway. These bars are bracketed to the frame front cross member
and extend from one lower control arm to the other.

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Actually, the S.L.A (short-long arms) system of front suspension has been adopted almost
universally for passenger cars. The proportional lengths of the upper and lower control arms (and
their engineered placement) are designed to keep the rise and fall of each front wheel in a
vertical plane. With this arrangement, changes in wheel angularity, weight balance and tirescuffing tendencies are negligible when compared with solid axle suspension.
Another coil spring setup that is gaining application in small cars is Macpherson strut
suspension. It combines coil spring, shock absorber and strut in a single assembly.
When coil springs are used in both front and rear suspension, three or four control arms are
placed between the rear housing axle and the frame to carry driving and braking torque. The
lower control arms pivot in the frame members and sometimes support the rear coil spring to
provide for up & down movement of the axle & wheel assembly.
In addition, a sway bar (track bar) is usually attached from the upper control arm to the frame
side rail to hold the rear axle housing in proper alignment with the frame and to prevent side
sway of the body. However, if the rear coil springs are mounted between the frame and the
swinging half axle, the independently suspended rear wheels have a sturdy axle housing attached
to the deferential housing which, in turns, is bolted to the frame.
Torsion bars
Although torsion bars were and are used extensively on European cars, this type of suspension
system received only token attention from the U.S. manufacturers until Chrysler developed their
system in the early 1950s. Before that only a few buses, trailers and race cars were equipped with
torsion
bar
suspension.
Basically, torsion bar suspension is a method of utilizing the flexibility of a steel bar or tube
twisting lengthwise to provide spring action. Instead of the flexing action of a leaf spring, the
torsion bar twists to exert resistance against up and down movement.
For example, an independently suspended front system with torsion bars mounted lengthwise
would have one end of the bars anchored to the car frame and the other end attached to the lower
control arms. With each rise and fall of a front wheel, the control arm pivots up and down,
twisting the torsion bar along its length to absorb road chock and cushion the ride.
Chrysler cars are equipped with left and rights, non-interchangeable, front torsion bars with hexshaped ends. In position, the bars extend from hex-shaped rear anchors in the frame cross
members to hex-shaped holes in the front lower control arm, adjusting bolts are provided at the
front mounting to increase or decrease torsion bar twist and thereby control front suspension
height. Over the years, Chrysler has made many improvements in the system, including
lengthening the torsion to lower the spring rate; adding a removable rear anchor cross member
that rubber-isolated from the frame; devising a plastic plug and a balloon seal for the rear anchor.
Olds mobile Tornado and Cadillac Eldorado front wheel drive cars also use lengthwise mounted
71

torsion

to

support

the

front

and

to

provide

for

high

adjustment.

Torsion bars can also be used laterally to provide spring action for front and/or rear wheel
independent suspension system. Older Volkswagen cars offer a unique torsion bar arrangement
with all four wheels independently suspended, but with two different torsion bar setup in use. At
the front, two laminated square torsion bars hin separate axle tubes are anchored at the center to
counteract twisting and lateral movement. Each has a lever or torsion arm attached to its outer
end. Ball joints connect the torsion arms to the steering knuckle. The wheel spindle trails behind
the axle and tends to swing in an arc when moved up and down by road irregularities.
At the rear, Volkswagen utilized one short, round torsion bar on each side. These bars are
splendid at each both ends and anchored in the center of the frame cross member. The outer ends
of the torsion bars carry the spring plates to which the wheels are attached. Here, too, the wheels
follow
behind
the
torsion
bar
on
trailing
arms.
Air

suspension

Air suspension system are designed to cushion the ride and keep the car, bus or truck level fore
and aft and at a constant height regardless of load. Air suspension was introduced on many
luxury cars in the late 1950s, but it was dropped after one or two model years. Recently,
however, new leveling systems have been researched and developed for passenger car use,
including
airadjustable
rear
shock
absorber.
A typical air suspension system consists of an engine-driven air compressor, supply tank, filter or
condenser, valves, piping, controls and air springs or bellows. in operation, the air compressor
maintains a constant pressure in the supply tank. Air is piped to the control valves, which feed air
to each spring as needed. Pressure is automatically increased on either side or at front or rear as
required to keep the car level and to keep any desired height from the road (within limit of
system).
Automatic

level

control

Air springs are not used in Cadillacs automatic level control system. Rather, the rear shock
absorber extends or compresses to bring the rear of the car to the same level as the front. This
automatic system utilizes on air compressor, reservoir tank assembly, pressure regulator, hoses,
flexible
airlines,
height
control
valve
and
special
shock
absorbers.
Older Ford cars used one of two leveling systems that utilize air bags in conjunction with rear
coil springs. The automatic system consists of air reservoir and pump, leveling valve, air bags,
nylon tubing & metal fittings and connectors. The manual system has similar air bags connected

72

to lines leading to the trunk of the car where an air valve connection permits leveling by
application of air under pressure from an outside compressed air source.
Late model Ford cars carry an option for a rear suspension automatic load-leveling system that
functions only after a load (approximately 400 lbs.) is added to the vehicle.When the load lowers
the vehicle to a specific level, air sleeve rear shock absorber inflates and extend, raising the
vehicle to design height. When the load is removed, the air sleeve shock absorbers deflate and
lower
the
vehicle
to
design
height.
Fords rear suspension automatic load-leveling system includes a compressor and air bleed
valve, pressure reservoir tank height control valve and link, three flexible nylon air lines and a
rubber
vacuum
hose.
The compressor maintains 60 or 125 psi in the system. The air bleed valve permits air to bleed
for testing and servicing or for hooking up a trailer. The pressure tank stores high - pressure air.
The height control valve and link maintain vehicle design height at rear.
The lever on the height control valves is attached to the rear suspension upper arm by means of
the link. The control valves senses riding height and either admits or exhausts height pressure air
to or from the air sleeve shock absorber. A time delay mechanism in the height control valve
prevents the transfer of air when the lever is moving during normal ride motions.

GAS-FILLED SHOCK ABSORBERS

Gas-filled shocks absorbers are the new concept in riding stability and driving pleasure. These
are automatically adjusting, double-action shock absorbers.
The basic secret in its construction is the combination of highly pressurized N2 and an allweather fluid which helps minimize bounce and sway to deliver more comfortable rides. Less
bounce and sway improves steering and cornering. In addition, top road contact means less wear
on parts and tyres. These features magnify in importance for vehicles with radial tyres or those
driven extensively, for sports car and performance buffs. This is truly a remarkable shock
absorber that fits most vehicles.
Construction Features. Main constructional features are as follows.
1. Breakage is reduced by seamless eye ring mountings.
2. Oil leakage is reduced by self-sealing packing.

73

3. Rubber cushion protects shock inside on extreme extension strokes.

4. Hard chromed piston rod reduces wear, minimizes friction.
5. Constant performance from wear resistant piston ring.
6. Large diameter seamless steel cyliI1der resist splitting.
7. Single tube design reduces heat build-up.
8. Both the extension and compression valves are located in piston for quick response to the
forces in either direction.

INDEPENDENT SUSPENSION SYSTEM

Another early form of front independent suspension is called the trailing link suspension. This
suspension design uses a set of arms located ahead of the wheels to support the unsprung
mass. In essence the wheel trails the suspension links. Hence the name. Since independent
front suspensions were pioneered in production cars to improve the ride characteristics of
vehicles as well as minimize the space needed for the suspension itself, early designs like the
trailing link suspension attempted to excel in those areas of improvement. Trailing link systems
like the one in the front of the old beetle were a success from the manufacturer standpoint as
they did improve ride and reduce the packaging size of the suspension. However, there were
74

some considerable drawbacks to the trailing link system when applied to vehicles that generate
high cornering loads.

Going in chronological order, the first mass produced front suspension design was the solid
beam axle. Just as it sounds, in the beam axle setup both of the front wheels are connected to
each other by a solid axle. This style was carried over to the first automobiles from the horse
drawn carriages of the past and worked well enough so that initially no other suspension even
needed to be considered. In fact the beam axle can still be found today. New developments in
springs, roll bars, and shocks have kept the solid axle practical for some applications. Have you
ever taken a look at the front end of a semi or heavy duty truck? If you have, you wouldve
noticed that both of the front wheels are connect by a solid axle. Well make a quick list of the
advantages versus the disadvantages for the beam axle front suspension to help understand why
it can be used on heavy trucks but is far from desirable on a performance or passenger car.

75

After designers had come to realize the severe drawbacks of the solid axle front suspension,
they moved on to early attempts at an independent style of front suspension. One of these
attempts came to be known as a swing axle suspension. It is, as the name suggests, set up so
that the axles pivot about a location somewhere near the center of the car and allow the wheels
to travel up and down through their respective arcs. This system was eventually adapted for
rear suspensions as can be found on the old beetles. Ill use a simple chart to help identify the
advantages the swing axle has over the solid axle and highlight some of the shortcomings of this
suspension design as well.

In the 70s the MacPherson front suspension assembly became a very popular design on front
wheel drive cars. This strut based system, where the spring/shock directly connects the steering
knuckle to the chassis and acts as a link in the suspension, offers a simple and compact
76

suspension package. This is perfect for small front wheel drive cars where space is tight and
even allows room for the drive shaft to pass through the knuckle. Today most small cars will
use this type of suspension because it is cheap, has good ride qualities, and has the compact
dimensions necessary for front wheel drive cars. As with the trailing link style independent
suspension, while the MacPherson assembly works very well for production road going cars, on
performance cars it is less than ideal. The chart below illustrates this point.

The next evolution in suspension design was to move towards the equal length Aarm setup. This is commonly referred to as a double wishbone suspension as the A shaped
control arms resemble a wishbone. In this design the suspension is supported by a triangulated
A-arm at the top and bottom of the knuckle. The earliest designs of the A-arm suspension
included equal length upper and lower arms mounted parallel to the ground. This design has
many advantages over any of the previous independent front suspensions. The chart below
covers these and details the shortcomings of the first generation of double A-arm designs.
After designing, implementing, and experimenting with the equal length double A-arm
suspension it was vary apparent that all that was needed to make the double A-arm front
suspension satisfactory for high performance use was to determine a way for the suspension to
gain negative camber as it was compressed. (I.e. during chassis roll) The problem was solved
by implementing upper and lower A-arms of different length. The resulting unequal length
double A-arm suspension was born.

77

78

UNIT-IV
A starter is an electric motor, pneumatic motor, hydraulic motor, or other device for rotating
an internal-combustion engine so as to initiate the engine's operation under its own power.
Engines are feedback systems which once started, rely on the motion from each nth cycle to
initiate the next cycle. In a four-stroke engine, the third stroke releases energy from the fuel,
powering the fourth (exhaust) stroke and also the first two (intake, compression) strokes of the
next cycle, as well as powering the engine's external load. To get this feedback started, the first
two strokes must be powered in some other way. The starter motor is used for this purpose, and
then is not needed once the feedback system is running.
The electric starter motor or starting motor is the most common type used on gasoline engines
and small Diesel engines. The modern starter motor is either a permanent-magnet or a seriesparallel wound direct current electric motor with a starter solenoid (similar to a relay) mounted
on it. When current from the starting battery is applied to the solenoid, usually through a keyoperated switch, the solenoid engages a lever that pushes out the drive pinion on the starter
driveshaft and meshes the pinion with the starter ring gear on the flywheel of the engine.
The solenoid also closes high-current contacts for the starter motor, which begins to turn. Once
the engine starts, the key-operated switch is opened; a spring in the solenoid assembly pulls the
pinion gear away from the ring gear, and the starter motor stops. The starter's pinion is clutched
to its drive shaft through an overrunning sprag clutch which permits the pinion to transmit drive
in only one direction. In this manner, drive is transmitted through the pinion to the flywheel ring
gear, but if the pinion remains engaged (as for example because the operator fails to release the
key as soon as the engine starts, or if there is a short and the solenoid remains engaged), the
pinion will spin independently of its drive shaft. This prevents the engine driving the starter, for
such back drive would cause the starter to spin so fast as to fly apart. However, this sprag clutch
arrangement would preclude the use of the starter as a generator if employed in hybrid scheme
mentioned above, unless modifications were made. Also, a standard starter motor is only
designed for intermittent use which would preclude its use as a generator; the electrical
components are designed only to operate for typically under 30 seconds before overheating (by
too-slow dissipation of heat from ohmic losses), to save weight and cost. This is the same reason
why most automobile owner's manuals instruct the operator to pause for at least ten seconds after
each ten or fifteen seconds of cranking the engine, when trying to start an engine that does not
start immediately.

This overrunning-clutch pinion arrangement was phased into use beginning in the early
1960s; before that time, a Bendix drive was used. The Bendix system places the starter

79

drive pinion on a helically cut drive shaft. When the starter motor begins turning, the
inertia of the drive pinion assembly causes it to ride forward on the helix and thus
engage with the ring gear. When the engine starts, back drive from the ring gear causes
the drive pinion to exceed the relative speed of the starter, at which point the drive
pinion is forced back down the helical shaft and thus out of mesh with the ring gear.
An intermediate development between the Bendix drive developed in the 1930s and the
overrunning-clutch designs introduced in the 1960s was the BendixFolo-Thru drive. The
standard Bendix drive would disengage from the ring gear as soon as the engine fired, even if it
did not continue to run. The Folo-Thru drive contains a latching mechanism and a set
of flyweights in the body of the drive unit. When the starter motor begins turning and the drive
unit is forced forward on the helical shaft by inertia, it is latched into the engaged position. Only
once the drive unit is spun at a speed higher than that attained by the starter motor itself (i.e., it
is back driven by the running engine) will the flyweights pull radially outward, releasing the
latch and permitting the overdriven drive unit to be spun out of engagement. In this manner,
unwanted starter disengagement is avoided before a successful engine start.

1. Main Housing (yoke)

2. Freewheel and pinion gear assembly
3. Armature
4. Field coils with Brushes attached
5. Brush-carrier
6. Solenoid

Inertia starter
A variant on the electric starter motor is the inertia starter (not to be confused with the Bendixtype starter described above). Here the starter motor does not turn the engine directly. Instead,
when energized, the motor turns a heavy flywheel built into its casing (not the main flywheel of
the engine). Once the flywheel/motor unit has reached a constant speed the current to the motor
is turned off and the drive between the motor and flywheel is disengaged by
a freewheel mechanism. The spinning flywheel is then connected to the main engine and its
inertia turns it over to start it. These stages are commonly automated by solenoid switches, with
the machine operator using a two-position control switch, which is held in one position to spin

80

the motor and then moved to the other to cut the current to the motor and engage the flywheel to
the engine.
The advantage of the inertia starter is that, because the motor is not driving the engine directly, it
can be of much lower power than the standard starter for an engine of the same size. This allows
for a motor of much lower weight and smaller size, as well as lighter cables and smaller batteries
to power the motor. This made the inertia starter a common choice for aircraft with
large radial piston engines. The disadvantage is the increased time required to start the engine spinning up the flywheel to the required speed can take between 10 and 20 seconds. If the engine
does not start by the time the flywheel has lost its inertia then the process must be repeated for
the next attempt.

Vehicle Alternators

Advantages: cheap, easy to find, pre-assembled.

Disadvantages: high rpms required, gears or pulleys needed, low power output, slip rings
need maintenance.

A standard car or truck alternator is electromagnetic-- meaning that some of the electricity
produced by the unit must be used internally and sent to the armature through brushes and slip
rings to make the magnetic field. Alternators that use electricity to generate the field current are
less efficient and more complicated. They are quite easy to regulate, however, since the magnetic
flux inside can be changed by adjusting the field power.
Also, the brushes and slip rings wear out, requiring more maintenance. Car and truck alternators
can also be rewound to produce power at lower speeds. This is done by replacing the existing
stator windings with more turns of smaller gauge wire.

Advantages: Low cost per watt of output, very efficient, huge power output possible,
extremely sturdy construction
Disadvantages: A time-consuming, somewhat complicated project, machining needed.
Suitability for Wind Power: GOOD

81

Our experiments have consistently shown that homemade PM alternators are the most powerful
and cost-effective solution for building a wind generator. Their low-rpm performance is
excellent, and at high speeds they can really crank out the amps thanks to their efficiency. Our
more recent PM alternators have been based on Volvo disc brake assemblies, which are very
sturdy and have thrust bearings built into the unit. Our larger units are "Disc" or "Axial"
designs...a flat plate of magnets rotating next to a flat plate of coils. Our smaller PM alternators
are "Radial" designs, where the magnets are fastened to the outside radius of the armature. Since
all alternators produce AC, the output must be converted to DC with bridge rectifiers for battery
charging.
Our designs to date have been single phase for ease of construction. Three-phase alternators have
some advantages (they are somewhat more efficient, and make better use of available space), but
they are somewhat more difficult to build.
With a 7 ft diameter prop, our Volvo brake designs can put more than 60 amps into a 12 volt
battery in a 30-mph breeze--that's about 700 watts. We've seen the Volvo design peak at over
100 amps during high winds! This gives these homebrew designs a big advantage over similarsized converted induction motors, which become inefficient quickly and top out at 20-25 amps
output with a 7 ft. diameter prop.
Induction Motor Conversion Alternators

Advantages: cheap, easy to find, fairly easy to convert, good low-rpm performance.

82

Disadvantages: power output limited by internal resistance, inefficient at higher speeds,

machining needed.
Suitability for Wind Power: OK

Armature converted with permanent magnets

A normal AC induction motor can be converted into a permanent magnet alternator at very low
cost. Our experiments have shown that these conversions produce significant power at very low
speeds, but become inefficient quickly at higher power levels.
An induction motor has a center core with no wires in it, just alternating plates of aluminum and
steel (it will look smooth from the outside). If you rout a groove in this center core to accept
permanent magnets, the unit becomes a permanent magnet alternator! We sell super-powerful
neodymium magnets that are shaped and polarized perfectly for this application--check our
products page.
In practice, our wind generators made with these do quite well until they reach 10-20 amps of
output. At this point, they become inefficient quickly--it takes a large increase in wind speed to
make only slightly more power, and the rest is wasted as heat inside the unit. The induction
motors are wound with wire that's simply too thin for generating large amounts of power. In our
tests, Danbys PM induction motor conversion windmill peaks at around 25 amps in 30 mph
winds, with a 7-foot diameter prop. By comparison, a 7-foot prop on an efficient PM alternator
made from scratch gives peaks of 50-60 amps in similar winds! Converted motors also have the
tendency to "cog" when starting...you can feel the resistance when you turn the shaft. This affects
low-speed startup somewhat.
If the lesser output in high winds is acceptable to you, these units can make for a pretty easy
wind generator project. Look for AC induction motors of the lowest rpm rating possible. 3-phase
motors will perform better than single phase. Since alternators produce alternating current (AC),
the power must be converted to DC with bridge rectifiers.

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DC Generators

Advantages: Simple and pre-assembled, some are good at low rpm.

Disadvantages: High maintenance, most are not good at low rpm, large sizes very hard to
find, small ones have limited power output.
Suitability for Wind Power: POOR to OK

Brushless DC PM Servo Motors

A brushless DC permanent magnet motor is really just a permanent magnet alternator! A special
driver circuit provides AC power that is in phase with the rotation. If you are able to find a large
one of these surplus, it's possible you might have an excellent start for a wind power project.
They are used in robotics and precision control applications, and some use Nd-Fe-B magnets for
high torque in a small space.

Induction Motors as Alternators

It's possible to make a 3-phase induction motor produce electricity, either 3-phase or single
phase. This requires a controller and capacitor. The generator must run at a fairly constant speed.
For this reason, this type of generator is more suitable for constant-speed hydro power
installations than for wind, where speed varies--though it can be done. We have not
experimented with this technique yet, since we don't have a suitable hydropower source. For
more information, check out the book Motors as Generators for Micro-Hydro Power by Nigel
Smith
Cut-OutRelayatHigh/LowRPMs
When the armature in the generator is spinning fast enough (about 1000 generator RPM or 750
engine RPM), the current in the shunt windings (3g) of the cut-out relay will generate a magnetic
field strong enough to overcome the natural spring tension of the contact arm (3d). It snaps own,
bringing the two contacts together. Current now flows through the series windings (3e), across
the contacts and out the arm (3d), finally reaching the output terminal (usually A) on the
control box. From there, it goes on to the ammeter (if fitted) and then to the battery.
This current now flowing through the series windings (3e) actually intensifies the magnetic field
around the core (3f) of the cut-out relay, and this in turn holds the arm down even more firmly,
pressing the contacts (3d) together. The point when the contacts close is usually adjusted so that
the internal voltage of the regulator is about 12.7 to 13 volts. When the engine slows to idle, the
armature slows down as well. This means that the voltage induced in the spinning armature
drops. Lower voltage reduces the strength of the magnetic field holding the series windings
contacts (3d) closed. Eventually, the weakened magnetic field can no longer hold against the

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arms spring tension and the contacts open. (The way the contacts open is more complex, but this
description covers it.) This immediately stops all current flow to or from the generator. The point
that the contacts open (around 8.5 to 11 volts) is known as the drop-off point.
If the series winding contacts in the cut-out relay did not open at low generator output, the higher
battery voltage would flow back through the control box, through the wiring harness and into the
armatures fine wire windings in the generator. The reverse current flow would melt the
windings and destroy the generator. You can see why the control box is so important.

VoltageRegulator
The other half of the control box, the voltage regulator (2b, 3b), limits the voltage in the charging
system to a safe value by controlling the internal voltage of the generator. The voltage regulator,
like the cut-out, has a shunt winding (3h) made up of many turns of fine wire wrapped around a
soft iron core. Suspended above the regulator core are a pair of contact points (3i) similar to the
cut-out relay. However, these points are normally closed, rather than open. When the points are
closed, the output current from the D terminal on the generator goes through the regulator
frame (3l), then through the regulator contacts (3n) to the field terminal on the control box
(usually F). From this field terminal, the current flows to the field terminal (F) on the
generator and then through the field windings (3d) around the field poles of the generator. The
current in the field windings (3d) creates the magnetic field around the armature (3a). The
armature spinning inside this magnetic field generates the electric current that feeds the battery
and the rest of the electrical system. The function of the voltage regulator is to break this
connection.

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When the generator is spinning slowly, generator output voltage is low. This means that the
current in the regulator shunt windings (3m) is weak, and the magnetic field created by this weak
current is unable to overcome the spring tension in the arm holding the regulator contact points
(3n) closed. As the generator spins faster, the output voltage increases. This results in increased
current flowing into the voltage regulator through the D terminal. The increased current
continues, flowing through the regulator shunt windings (3m), through the regulator contacts
(3n), out through the F terminal on the voltage regulator and back through the field windings
in the generator. Since there is a direct connection through the regulator contacts (3n), current in
the field windings (3d) increases as the generator spins faster. Consequently, the magnetic field
(in which the armature spins) created by the increased current in the field windings (3d) is also
increasing. Because the magnetic field is stronger, the induced voltage in the armature increases.
As the output voltage from the generator continues to increase, the current in the shunt windings
(3m) of the regulator relay also increases, which increases the strength of the magnetic field
trying to pull the regulator contacts (3i) apart. When the generator output is high enough, the
strength of the magnetic field generated by the current in the regulator shunt windings (3m)
finally overcomes the natural tension of the contact arm, resulting in the separation of the
regulator contacts (3i). The direct connection between the armature terminal D of the generator
and the field terminal F of the control box is broken.
IGNITION SYSTEM
Fuel mixture of IC engine must be ignited in the engine cylinder at proper time for useful work.
Arrangement of different components for providing ignition at proper time in the engine cylinder
is called Ignition system
Types of ignition systems
1. Ignition by electric spark or spark ignition
2. Ignition by heat of compression or compression ignition
3. Ignition by hot tube or hot bulb
4. Ignition by open fire
Only the first two are important methods for modern engines
SPARK IGNITION
The purpose of spark ignition is to deliver a perfectly timed surge of electricity across an open
gap in each cylinder at the exact moment so that the charge may start burning with maximum
efficiency
Two types of spark ignition are
a) Battery ignition b) magneto ignition

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MAGNETO IGNITION SYSTEM

In magneto ignition system a magneto is used to generate electric current for producing spark. A
high tension magneto generates a very high voltage needed for spark plug

Main components of magneto ignition system

a) Frame
b) Permanent magnet
c) Armature
d) Soft iron field
e) rotor
f) Primary and secondary winding
g) Breaker points
h) Condenser

The armature consists of an iron core on which there are two sets of windings
1) Primary
2) Secondary
The armature is driven by the engine. As the armature rotates, primary windings cut the lines of
force of magnetic field and an induced current flows in the primary circuit. As the primary
current reaches its maximum value in each direction, the primary circuit is suddenly opened by a
contact breaker and the current collapses. This action induces a very high voltage in the
secondary winding which causes a momentary spark to jump at the spark plug gap. A distributor
is provided which carries current to the spark plug through high tension wires. The condenser is
used to eliminate the arching at the breaker points and intensifying the current in the secondary
circuit. For multi cylinder engines, a distributor and a rotor are required to distribute the current
to different spark plugs.

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Electronic ignition
The disadvantage of the mechanical system is the use of breaker points to interrupt the lowvoltage high-current through the primary winding of the coil; the points are subject to
mechanical wear where they ride the cam to open and shut, as well as oxidation and burning at
the contact surfaces from the constant sparking. They require regular adjustment to compensate
for wear, and the opening of the contact breakers, which is responsible for spark timing, is
subject to mechanical variations.

In addition, the spark voltage is also dependent on contact effectiveness, and poor sparking can
lead to lower engine efficiency. A mechanical contact breaker system cannot control an average
ignition current of more than about 3 A while still giving a reasonable service life, and this may
limit the power of the spark and ultimate engine speed.

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Lighting system

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Horn
A vehicle horn is a sound-making device used to warn others of the approach of the vehicle or
of its presence. Automobiles, trucks, ships, and trains are all required by law in some countries to
have horns. Bicycles in many areas are also legally required to have an audible warning device in
many jurisdictions, but not universally, and not always a horn.
Lead-based Batteries
Invented by the French physician Gaston Plant in 1859, lead acid was the first rechargeable
battery for commercial use. Despite its advanced age, the lead chemistry continues to be in wide
use today, and there are good reasons for its popularity; lead acid is dependable and inexpensive
on cost-per-watt base. There are few other batteries that deliver bulk power as cheaply as lead
acid, and this makes the battery cost-effective for automobiles, golf cars, forklifts, marine and
uninterruptible power supplies (UPS).
But lead acid has disadvantages; it is heavy and is less durable than nickel- and lithium-based
systems when deep-cycled. A full discharge causes strain and each discharge/charge cycle
permanently robs the battery of a small amount of capacity. This loss is small while the battery is
in good operating condition, but the fading increases once the performance drops to half the
nominal capacity. This wear-down characteristic applies to all batteries in various degrees.
Depending on the depth of discharge, lead acid for deep-cycle applications provides 200 to 300
discharge/charge cycles. The primary reasons for its relatively short cycle life are grid corrosion
on the positive electrode, depletion of the active material and expansion of the positive plates.
These changes are most prevalent at elevated operating temperatures and high-current
discharges.
Charging a lead acid battery is simple but the correct voltage limits must be observed, and here
there are compromises. Choosing allows voltage limit shelters the battery but this produces poor
performance and causes a buildup of sulfation on the negative plate. A high voltage limit
improves performance but form grid corrosion on the positive plate. While sulfation can be
reversed if serviced in time, corrosion is permanent.
Lead acid does not lend itself to fast charging and with most types, a full charge takes 14 to16
hours. The battery must always be stored at full state-of-charge. Low charge causes sulfation, a
condition that robs the battery of performance. Adding carbon on the negative electrode reduces
this problem but this lowers the specific energy.
Lead acid has a moderate life span and is not subject to memory as nickel-based systems are.
Charge retention is best among rechargeable batteries. While NiCd loses approximately 40
percent of its stored energy in three months, lead acid self-discharges the same amount in one
year. Lead acid work well at cold temperatures and is superior to lithium-ion when operating in
subzero conditions.

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Sealed Lead Acid

The first sealed, or maintenance-free, lead acid emerge in the mid-1970s. The engineers argued
that the term sealed lead acid is a misnomer because no lead acid battery can be totally sealed.
This is true and battery designers added a valve to control venting of gases during stressful
charge and rapid discharge. Rather than submerging the plates in a liquid, the electrolyte is
impregnated into a moistened separator, a design that resembles nickel- and lithium-bases
system. This enables to operate the battery in any physical orientation without leakage.
The sealed battery contains less electrolyte than the flooded type, hence the term acid-starved.
Perhaps the most significant advantage of the sealed lead acid is the ability to combine oxygen
and hydrogen to create water and prevent water loss. The recombination occurs at a moderate
pressure of 0.14 bar (2psi). The valve serves as safety vent if gases buildup during overovercharge or stressful discharge. Repeated venting would lead to an eventual dry out.
Driven by these advantages, several types of sealed lead acid have emerged and the most
common are gel, also known as valve-regulated lead acid (VRLA), and absorbent glass
mat (AGM). The gel cell contains a silica type gel that suspends the electrolyte in a paste.
Smaller packs with capacities of up to 30A are called SLA (sealed lead acid). Packaged in a
plastic container, these batteries are used for small UPS, emergency lighting, ventilators for
healthcare and wheelchairs. Because of economical price, dependable service and low
maintenance, the SLA remains the preferred choice for biomedical and healthcare in hospitals
and retirement homes. The VRLA is the larger gel variant used as power backup for cellular
repeater towers, Internet hubs, banks, hospitals, airports and other sites.
The AGM is a newer design and suspends the electrolyte inespecially designed glass mat. This
offers several advantages to lead acid systems, including faster charging and instant high load
currents on demand. AGM works best as a mid-range battery with capacities of 30 to 100Ah and
is less suited for large systems, such as UPS. Typical uses are starter batter for
motorcycles, start-stop function for micro-hybrid cars, as well as marine and RV that need some
cycling.
With cycling and age, the capacity of AGM fades gradually; gel, on the other hand, has a dome
shaped performance curve and stays in the high performance range longer but then drops
suddenly towards the end of life. AGM is more expensive than flooded, but is cheaper than
gel.(Gel would be too expensive for start/stop use in cars.)
Unlike the flooded, the sealed lead acid battery is designed with a low over-voltage potential to
prohibit the battery from reaching its gas-generating potential during charge. Excess charging
causes gassing, venting and subsequent water depletion and dry out. Consequently, gel, and in
part also AGM, cannot be charged to their full potential and the charge voltage limit must be set
lower than that of a flooded. The float charge on full charge must also be lowered. In respect to
charging, the gel and AGM are no direct replacements to the flooded type. If no designated
charger is available with lower voltage settings, disconnect the charger after 24 hours of charge.
This prevents gassing due to a float voltage that is set too high.

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The optimum operating temperature for a VRLA battery is 25C (77F); every 8C (15F) rise
above this temperature threshold cuts battery life in half.
Lead acid batteries are rated at a 5-hour (0.2C) and 20-hour (0.05C) discharge. The battery
performs best when discharged slowly and the capacity readings are notably higher at a slow
discharge rate. Lead acid can, however, deliver high pulse currents of several C if done for only a
few seconds. This makes the lead acid well suited as a starter battery, also known as starter-lightignition (SLI). The high lead content and the sulfuric acid make lead acid environmentally
unfriendly.
The following paragraphs look at the different architectures within the lead acid family and
explain why one battery type does not fit all.
Starter and Deep-cycle Batteries
The starter battery is designed to crank an engine with a momentary high power burst; the deepcycle battery, on the other hand, is built to provide continuous power for a wheelchair or golf car.
From the outside, both batteries look alike; however, there are fundamental differences in design.
While the starter battery is made for high peak power and does not like deep cycling, the deepcycle battery has a moderate power output but permits cycling. Lets examine the architectural
difference between these batteries further.
Starter batteries have a CCA rating imprinted in amperes; CCA refers to cold cranking amps,
which represents the amount of current a battery can deliver at cold temperature. SAE J537
specifies 30 seconds of discharge at 18C (0F) at the rated CCA ampere without dropping
below 7.2 volts. (SAE stands for Society of Automotive Engineers.)
Starter batteries have a very low internal resistance, and the manufacturer achieves this by
adding extra plates for maximum surface area (Figure 1). The plates are thin and the lead is
applied in a sponge-like form that has the appearance of fine foam. This method extends the
surface area of the plates to achieve low resistance and maximum power. Plate thickness isless
important here because the discharge is short and the battery is recharged while driving; the
emphasis is on power rather than capacity.
Figure 1: Starter battery
The starter battery has many thin plates in
parallel to achieve low resistance with
high surface area. The starter battery does
not allow deep cycling.
Courtesy of Cadex
Deep-cycle lead acid batteries for golf cars, scooters and wheelchairs are built for maximum
capacity and high cycle count. The manufacturer achieves this by making the lead plates thick
(Figure 2). Although the battery is designed for cycling, full discharges still induce stress, and
the cycle count depends on the depth-of-discharge (DoD). Deep-cycle batteries are marked in Ah
or minute of runtime.

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Figure 2: Deep-cycle battery

The deep-cycle battery has thick plates for improved cycling abilities. The deep-cycle battery
generally allows about 300 cycles. Courtesy of CadexA starter battery cannot be swapped with a
deep-cycle battery and vice versa. While an inventive senior may be tempted to install a starter
battery instead of the more expensive deep-cycle on his wheelchair to save money, the starter
battery wont last because the thin sponge-like plates would quickly dissolve with repeated deep
cycling. There are combination starter/deep-cycle batteries available for trucks, buses, public
safety and military vehicles, but these units are big and heavy. As a simple guideline, the heavier
the battery is, the more lead it contains, and the longer it will last. Table 3 compares the typical
life of starter and deep-cycle batteries when deep-cycled
Charging system used in an automobile
Automotive vehicles include a storage battery for operating electronics in the vehicle and using
an electric starter to start the vehicle engine. Automotive batteries provide power for the
vehicle's starting, lighting and ignition (SLI) components of the car. The rechargeable battery
provides cranking power to start the vehicle and also is the only source of power to continue to
maintain the lights or other devices in operation when the vehicle ignition has been turned off.
When the vehicle is running, the engine is used to charge the battery. Additionally, the battery is
also used to power electrical components of the vehicle when the engine is running. Automotive
battery terminals typically comprise a conical contact section for mounting to a conical battery
post terminal, and having a clamping mechanism for tightening the contact section to the battery
terminal, the terminal further comprising a conductor connection section. A battery charging
system is coupled to the engine and is powered by the engine when the vehicle is running. The
charging system is used to charge the storage battery when the vehicle is operating. Typical
charging systems include a simple voltage regulator connected to the output of an alternator. The
voltage regulator is used to set a voltage generated by the alternator which is applied to the
battery. Voltage regulator controlled car battery charging systems keep an automotive storage
battery at full charge level and to provide sufficient electrical power for the operation of the
various automobile electrical accessories.

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Translation Auto Care Center is the leader in Missoula for the service and repair of auto
chartings systems. Our Missoula auto shop staff takes the time to educate our customers in
knowing that the battery, starting and charging systems in their car or truck play pivotal roles in
ensuring the dependable operation of your vehicle while driving in and around Missoula. The car
battery stores electrical energy that is then converted by the starter into the mechanical force
necessary to start your engine. The alternator then serves the purpose of producing the electrical
current-initially provided by the car battery-that is necessary for the vehicle's electrical needs
when the engine is running. The ignition module turns the low voltage supply to the ignition coil
on and off, which in turn is converted to a higher voltage that is necessary for the vehicle's
ignition system to operate. The voltage is used to engage the spark plugs and create the sparks
that are necessary to ignite the combined air/fuel mixture in the car engines cylinders. It is this
ignition that is ultimately used to power the pistons that in turn begin the rest of the process of
powering your car or truck.
There are various factors that contribute to the wear and tear of your vehicle's battery, charging
and starting systems. For example the frequent turning on and off of your automobile when
running errands in Missoula will cause more wear and tear than a daily commute to and from
your Missoula workplace. Other factors that affect the wear and tear of the battery, charging, and
starting system include Missoula driving and weather conditions, overall mileage, vehicle age,

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and various automotive components like in vehicle entertainment systems that cause an
excessive electrical draw.

The symptoms you may experience that indicate possible problems with your battery, charging,
and starting systems include the dimming of headlights and interior lights, the "check engine"
and/or battery light coming on, or the failure of various car or truck accessories.
The mechanics at our Missoula auto repair shop are expertly trained in the complete service and
repair of car and truck batteries, charging, and starting systems. If you think you are having
problems with any of the components of your charging and starting system bring your car or
truck to our Missoula automotive repair service center and let us.

INSTRUMENTS AND THEIR FUNCTIONS

The list of dashboard instruments is too long. Most of them have been enumerated below with
their functions given in brief, and details of few of them are given in continuing articles.
Speedometer. It shows instant speed of the vehicle in kilometer per hour (km/ph) throughout its
running.

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Odometer. It records the distance traveled by the vehicle in kilometer ever since the vehicle is in
operation.
Tachometer. It shows the engine speed in r.p.m. It is provided with a RED zone mark, which
implies that the engine operation in this speed range may cause serious damage to it.
Ammeter. It is used to indicate the charging current generated by the dynamo and the
discharging current form the battery: Automobile ammeters are usually of centre zero style in
which right side of scale shows charging current and the left side depicts discharging current.
They are available in different range of scales, the most common being 30 amperes on each side
with respect to zero in the centre.
Trip Computer. It displays several information such as

Average speed of the vehicle since the computer was reset.

Average fuel consumption in litres/100 km since the computer was reset.
Total running time of the vehicle since the computer was reset.
Distance traveled from start of a particular trip since the computer was reset total quantity
of fuel consumed computer was reset.
The distance after which the fuel tank will be empty.
The time of arrival at a particular destination of the journey.
Overspending of the vehicle than the preset speed given by the speedometer, odometer,
and tachometer.

Besides these, there are many other auxiliary information modes. The computer can be reset
for any quantity as and when desired. These auxiliary modes are as follows.
In-car temperature sensor. It senses-the temperature inside the car compartment and
accordingly sets the heater/cooler, or air-conditioning system automatically.
Fuel sensor. It keeps vigil on fuel quantity and informs it through a gauge.
Sunlight sensor. It senses the intensity of sunlight and informs to the temperature sensor inside
the car. Accordingly the heater, cooler, or A/C will set-on.
Pressure sensor. It senses the pressure of oil in lubrication system and informs to the gauge for
display. Temperature gauge. It indicates the temperature of engine cooling water when the
ignition is switched ON. Lubricating oil pressure gauge. It displays the oil pressure. If the
pressure is lower than the stipulated value, a red bulb indication appears on dashboard.
Fuel level gauge. The fuel gauge shows the level of fuel in the fuel tank when the ignition is
switched ON. It shows E for empty and F for full at the two extremes.

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FUEL SUPPLY SYSTEM IN SPARK IGNITION ENGINE

The fuel supply system of spark ignition engine consists of

1. Fuel tank
2. Sediment bowl
3. Fuel lift pump
4. Carburetor
5. Fuel pipes
In some spark ignition engines the fuel tank is placed above the level of the carburetor. The fuel
flows from fuel tank to the carburetor under the action of gravity. There are one or two filters
between fuel tank and carburetor. A transparent sediment bowl is also provided to hold the dust
and dirt of the fuel. If the tank is below the level of carburetor, a lift pump is provided in between
the tank and the carburetor for forcing fuel from tank to the carburetor of the engine.The fuel
comes from fuel tank to sediment bowl and then to the lift pump. From there the fuel goes to the
carburetor through suitable pipes. From carburetor the fuel goes to the engin cylinder through
inlet manifold of the engine

FUEL SUPPLY SYSTEM IN DIESEL ENGINE

Fuel supply system of diesel engine consists of the following components
1. Fuel tank
2. Fuel lift pump or fuel feed pump
3. Fuel filter
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4. Fuel injection pump

5. High pressure pipe
6.Over flow valve
7. Fuel injector
Fuel is drawn from fuel tank by fuel feed pump and forced to injection pump through fuel filter.
The injection pump supplies high pressure fuel to injection nozzles through delivery valves and
high pressure pipes. Fuel is injected into the combustion chamber through injection nozzles. The
fuel that leaks out from the injection nozzles passes out through leakage pipe and returns to the
fuel tank through the over flow pipe. Over flow valve installed at the top of the filter keeps the
feed pressure under specified limit. If the feed pressure exceeds the specified limit , the over flow
valve opens and then the excess fuel returns to fuel tank through over flow pipe.

Fuel tank
It is a storage tank for diesel. A wire gauge strainer is provided under the cap to prevent foreign
particles entering the tank
Fuel lift pump
It transfers fuel from fuel tank to inlet gallery of fuel injection pump
Preliminary filter (sediment bowl assembly)
This filter is mostly fitted on fuel lifts pump. It prevents foreign materials from reaching inside
the fuel line. It consists of a glass cap with a gasket.
Fuel filter
Mostly two stage filters are used in diesel engines
1. Primary filter 2. Secondary filter
Primary filter removes coarse materials, water and dust. Secondary filter removes fine dust
particles.
Fuel injection pump
It is a high pressure pump which supplies fuel to the injectors according to the firing order of the
engine. It is used to create pressure varying from 120 kg/cm2 to 300 kg/cm2. It supplies the
required quantity of fuel to each cylinder at appropriate time.
Air venting of fuel system
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When air has entered the fuel lines or suction chamber of the injection pump, venting should be
done properly.. Air is removed by the priming pump through the bleeding holes of the injection
pump.
Fuel injector
It is the component which delivers finely atomized fuel under high pressure to combustion
chamber of the engine. Modern tractor engines use fuel injectors which have multiple holes.
Main parts of injectors are nozzle body, and needle valve. The needle valve is pressed against a
conical seat in the nozzle body by a spring. The injection pressure is adjusted by adjusting a
screw. In operation, fuel from injection pump enters the nozzle body through high pressure pipe.
When fuel pressure becomes so high that it exceeds the set spring pressure, the needle valve lifts
off its seat. The fuel is forced out of the nozzle spray holes into the combustion

Main types of modern fuel injection systems:

1. Common-rail injection system.
2. Individual pump injection system.
3. Distributor system.

Common-rail injection system

Individual pump injection system:

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Distributor system:
Main Components:
The main components of a fuel injection system are
(i) Fuel tank.
(ii) Fuel feed pump to supply the fuel from the main fuel tank to the injection pump.
(iii) Fuel filters to prevent dust and abrasive particles from entering the pump and injectors.
(iv) Injection pumps to meter and pressurize the fuel for injection.
(v) Governor to ensure that the amount of fuel is in accordance with variation in load.
(vi) Fuel piping and injectors to take the fuel from the pump and distribute it in the combination
chamber by atomizing it in fine droplets.
(vii) Fuel atomizer or injector to inject the fuel

FUEL INJECTOR
Also known as atomizer or fuel valve, a fuel injector is used to inject the fuel in the cylinder in
atomized form and in proper quantity. Fuel injectors are available in several designs; one such
design is shown in Fig. It consists of an atomizer (or nozzle) 1, valve 2, body 4, spring 6 etc. The
nozzle is its main part, which is attached to the nozzle holder. The entry of fuel in the injector is
from the fuel injection pump.
To obtain the required degree of pulverization, the fuel is passed at high velocity through a small
orifice in the nozzle. An abrupt beginning and end of injection are-attained by means of a special
spring-loaded valve. Injection begins when the pressure of fuel supplied by the pump increases
so much as to lift the valve. Nozzles provided-with such valve are known as closed-type nozzles.
Each nozzle of the fuel injector has a spring-loaded check Valve that is closed except when high
pressure is applied to the fuel.

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When this happens, the check valve opens, allowing fuel to pass through. The fuel exits from the
nozzle tip through small holes. The holes are located so as to send the fuel into the center of the
compressed air. The fuel ignites the instant it hits this hot air. When the fuel pressure drops, the
check valve closes, so the flow of fuel through the nozzle stops.
Open-type nozzles are designed without valves that shut-off the access of fuel to the pulverizer,
and their cavities are in free communication with the combustion chamber. Such nozzles can be
employed only when the fuel pump builds-up pressure abruptly, has a small duration of delivery
and a sharp cut-off. The pump and nozzle unit used in many types of diesel engines where the
high-pressure pump and the nozzle are incorporated in one mechanism may illustrate the case in
hand.
The advantage of pump and nozzle units is that they have no high-pressure fuel lines, the
elasticity of which makes it difficult to obtain the required fuel pressure, and increase it sharply.
For this reason, pump and nozzle units are used predominantly in diesel engines where the
injection pressure is very high (up to or above 300 kgf/cm2). Pump and nozzle units have the
drawback that they are difficult to control.

INJECTION NOZZLES
When air injection is employed, the injection nozzles are operated by a cam provided on the
camshaft. The mechanically operated injection nozzles are sometimes used with mechanical

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injection, usually when this is arranged on the common rail system. When the jerk-pump system
is used the nozzle operation is automatic. Two types of nozzle are used viz. 1. Closed, and
2.Open. The distinction being according to whether the injection pressure is controlled by a
spring loaded needle valve, or whether a valve is dispensed with. Open nozzles are not much
used.
Closed nozzles may have an outlet in the form of one or more holes drilled in the nozzle cap.
Diameter of these holes may be as small as 0.2 mm, and their length/diameter ratio controls the
penetration of the spray to some extent. Alternatively the outlet may be in the form of an annular
space between a pin (orpintle) at the end of needle valve and a relatively larger hole in the nozzle
cap. The pintle has an inverted conical end, which can direct the spray into a cone of 4 to 60
depending on the angle to which the pintle is ground. The ratio pump plunger area/nozzle hole
area controls the maximum pressure attained during injection, and also to some extent the
duration and degree of atomization of the spray. Rate of rise and fall of the injection pressure
greatly affects dribble from the nozzles. A low valve-closing rate being usually accompanied by
some dribble is prejudicial to economy.
Types of Nozzles. According to above discussion and also based on some other considerations,
the closed type injection nozzles may be classified into following types.
1. Hole type: single hole type, multiple hole type
2. Pintle type
3. Pintaux type
4. Long stem type
5. Delayed action type
6. Throttle type such as used on HM Diesel car
Carburetor
Engines works on fuel. The earliest form of fuel supply mechanism for modern automobile is
carburetor. The primary function of carburetor is to provide the air-fuel mixture to the engine in
the required proportion. he goal of a carburetor is to mix just the right amount of gasoline with
air so that the engine runs properly. If there is not enough fuel mixed with the air, the engine
"runs lean" and either will not run or potentially damages the engine. If there is too much fuel
mixed with the air, the engine runs rich and either will not run (it floods), runs very smoky, runs
poorly (bogs down, stalls easily), or at the very least wastes fuel. The carb is in charge of getting
the mixture just right.

Carburetor basics
A carburetor basically consists of an open pipe, a "Pengina" or "barrel" through which the air
passes into the inlet manifold of the engine. The pipe is in the form of a venturi: it narrows in

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section and then widens again, causing the airflow to increase in speed in the narrowest part.
Below the venturi is a butterfly valve called the throttle valve a rotating disc that can be
turned end-on to the airflow, so as to hardly restrict the flow at all, or can be rotated so that it
(almost) completely blocks the flow of air. This valve controls the flow of air through the
carburetor throat and thus the quantity of air/fuel mixture the system will deliver, thereby
regulating engine power and speed. The throttle is connected, usually through a cable or a
mechanical linkage of rods and joints or rarely by pneumatic link, to the accelerator pedal on a
car or the equivalent control on other vehicles or equipment.
Fuel is introduced into the air stream through small holes at the narrowest part of the venturi and
at other places where pressure will be lowered when not running on full throttle. Fuel flow is
adjusted by means of precisely-calibrated orifices, referred to as jets, in the fuel path.

Parts of carburetor
A carburetor is essentially a tube.
There is an adjustable plate across the tube called the throttle plate that controls how much air
can flow through the tube.
At some point in the tube there is a narrowing, called the venturi, and in this narrowing a
vacuum is created.
In this narrowing there is a hole, called a jet, that lets the vacuum draw in fuel.

How carburetors work

All carburetors work on "the Bernoulli Principle. Bernoulli principle states that as the velocity of
an ideal gas increases, the pressure drops. Within a certain range of velocity and pressure, the
change in pressure is pretty much linear with velocity-if the velocity doubles the pressure halves.
However, this linear relationship only holds within a certain range. Carburetors work because as
air is pulled into the carburetor throat, the venturi. It has to accelerate from rest, to some speed.
How fast depends upon the air flow demanded by the engine speed and the throttle butterfly
setting. According to Bernoulli, this air flowing through the throat of the carb will be at a
pressure less than atmospheric pressure, and related to the velocity (and hence to how much air is
being fed into the engine).
If a small port is drilled into the carb throat in this low pressure region, there will be a pressure
difference between the throat side of the port, and the side that is exposed to the atmosphere. If a
reservoir of gasoline, the float bowl, is between the inside of the port, and the atmosphere, the
pressure difference will pull gasoline through the port, into the air stream. At this point, the port
gets the name of a jet in the concept of a carburetor. The more air that the engine pulls through
the carburetor throat, the greater the pressure drop across the jet, and the more fuel that gets
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pulled in. As noted above, within a range of airflow in the throat, and fuel flow in the jet, the
ratio of fuel to air that flows will stay constant. And if the jet is the right size, that ratio will be
what the engine wants for best performance.

A venturi/jet arrangement can only meter fuel accurately over a certain range of flow rates and
pressures. As flow rates increase, either the venturi or the jet, or both, will begin to choke, that is
they reach a point where the flow rate will not increase, no matter how hard the engine tries to
pull air through. At the other extreme, when the velocity of the air in the venturi is very low-like
at idle or during startup, the pressure drop across the jet becomes vanishingly small. It is this
extreme that concerns us with respect to starting, idle and low-speed throttle response.

At idle, the pressure drop in a 32 mm venturi is so small that essentially no fuel will be pulled
through the main jets. But the pressure difference across the throttle butterfly (which is almost
completely closed) can be as high as 25+ mm Hg. Carb designers take advantage of this situation
by placing an extra jet, the "idle jet" notch, just downstream of the throttle butterfly. Because of
the very high pressure difference at idle, and the very small amount of fuel required, this jet is
tiny. When the throttle is open any significant amount, the amount of fuel that flows through this
jet is small, and for all intents and purposes, constant. So its effect on the midrange and up
mixture is easily compensated for.

During startup, the amount of air flowing through the carburetor is smaller still. At least till the
engine begins to run on it's own. But when it is being turned by the starter or the kicker, rpm is in
the sub 100 range sometimes. So the pressure difference across the jets is again in the
insignificant range. If the engine is cold, it wants the mixture extra- rich to compensate for the
fact that a lot of the fuel that does get mixed with air in the carb precipitates out on the cold walls
of the intake port. Bing carburetors, and most bike carburetors, use enrichener circuits. All this
really is another port or jet from the float bowl to just downstream of the throttle butterfly.
Except that the fuel flow to this jet is regulated by a valve that is built into the carb body. At
startup, when the lever is in the full on position, the valve is wide open, and the fuel supply to the
cold start jet is more or less unlimited. In this condition, the amount of fuel that flows through
the cold start jet is regulated just like the idle jet is. When the throttle is closed, the pressure drop
across the jet is high, and lots of fuel flows, resulting in a very rich mixture, just perfect for
ignition of a cold motor. If the throttle butterfly is opened, the pressure difference is less, and less
fuel flows. This is why R bikes like no throttle at all until the engine catches. However, the
mixture quickly gets too rich, and opening the throttle a tad will make things better. Just like the
idle jet, this cold start jet is small enough that even when the circuit is wide open, the amount of
fuel that can flow is small enough that at large throttle openings, it has little impact on the
mixture. This is why you can ride off with the starting circuit on full, and the bike will run pretty
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well-until you close the throttle for the first time, and the mixture gets so rich the engine stalls.
The valve that controls fuel supply to the cold start jet allows the rider to cut the fuel available
through that jet down from full during startup, to none or almost none once the engine is warm.
In most cases, at the intermediate setting, fuel to the cold start jet is cut to the point where the
engine will still idle when warm, although very poorly since it is way too rich.

True "chokes" are different. But very aptly named. A choke is simply a plate that can be
maneuvered so that it completely (or very nearly) blocks off the carburetor throat at it's entrance
("choking" the carb, just like a killer to a victim in a bad movie). That means that the main, idle,
intermediate, etc., jets are all downstream of the choke plate. Then, when the engine tries to pull
air through the crab, it can't. The only place that anything at all can come in to the carb venturi is
through the various jets. Since there is little or no air coming in, this results in an extremely rich
mixture. The effect is maximized if the throttle butterfly (which is downstream of the big main
jets and the choke plate) is wide open, not impeding things in any way. If the throttle butterfly is
completely closed, the engine does not really know that the choke is there-all the engine "sees" is
a closed throttle, so there is little enrichening effect. The engine will pull as much fuel as
possible through the idle jet, but that is so small it won't have much effect. So a carb with a
choke behaves in exactly the opposite manner as one with an enrichener. During the cranking
phase, it is best to have the throttle pegged at WFO so that the most fuel gets pulled in, resulting
in a nice rich mixture. But as soon as the motor starts, you want to close the throttle to cut down
the effect of the choke. Even that is not enough, and most chokes are designed so that as soon as
there is any significant airflow, they automatically open part way. Otherwise the engine would
flood. Even "manual" chokes have this feature most of the time.

MPFI
Multi-point fuel injection injects fuel into the intake port just upstream of the cylinder's intake
valve, rather than at a central point within an intake manifold. MPFI (or just MPI) systems can
be sequential, in which injection is timed to coincide with each cylinder's intake
stroke, batched, in which fuel is injected to the cylinders in groups, without precise
synchronization to any particular cylinder's intake stroke, or Simultaneous, in which fuel is
injected at the same time to all the cylinders.
Many modern EFI systems utilize sequential MPFI; however, it is beginning to be replaced by
direct injection systems in newer gasoline engines.
The multi-point injector is an electromechanical device which is fed by a 12 volt supply from
either the fuel injection relay or from the Electronic Control Module (ECM).

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The voltage in both cases will only be present when the engine is cranking or running, due to
both voltage supplies being controlled by a tachometric relay.
The injector is supplied with fuel from a common fuel rail. The length of time that the injector is
held open for will depend on the input signals seen by the engine management ECM from its
various engine sensors. These input signals will include:

The resistance of the coolant temperature.

The output voltage from the airflow meter (when fitted).
The resistance of the air temperature sensor.
The signal from the Manifold Absolute Pressure (MAP) sensor (when fitted).
The position of the throttle switch / potentiometer.

The held open time or injector duration will vary to compensate for cold engine starting and
warm-up periods, i.e. a large duration that decreases the injection time as the engine warms to
operatingtemperature.Duration time will also expand under acceleration and contract under light
load conditions.
Depending on the system encountered the injectors can fire either once or twice per cycle. The
injectors are wired in parallel with simultaneous injection and will all fire together at the same
time. Sequential injection, as with simultaneous, has a common supply to each injector but
unlike simultaneous has a separate earth path for each injector. This individual firing allows the
system, when used in conjunction with a phase sensor, to deliver the fuel when the inlet valve is
open and the incoming air helps to atomize the fuel.It is also common for injectors to be fired in
'banks' on 'V' configured engines. The fuel will be delivered to each bank alternately. In the case
of a Jaguar V12 the injectors are fired in 4 groups of3injectors. Because of the frequency of the
firing of the injectors, it is expected that a sequential injector will have twice the duration, or
opening, than that of a simultaneous pulse. This will however be determined by the injector flow
rate.

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UNIT-V
The basic working principle of air conditioner
Air-conditioning Basics an air conditioner is basically a refrigerator without the insulated box. It
uses the evaporation of a refrigerant, like Freon, to provide cooling. The mechanics of the Freon
evaporation cycle are the same in a refrigerator as in an air conditioner. According to the
Merriam-Webster Dictionary Online, the term Freon is generically "used for any of various
nonflammable fluorocarbons used as refrigerants and as propellants for aerosols." Diagram of a
typical air conditioner This is how the evaporation cycle in an air conditioner works (See How
Refrigerators Work for complete details on this cycle): The compressor compresses cool Freon
gas, causing it to become hot, high-pressure Freon gas (red in the diagram above).This hot gas
runs through a set of coils so it can dissipate its heat, and it condenses into a liquid. The Freon
liquid runs through an expansion valve, and in the process it evaporates to become cold, lowpressure Freon gas (light blue in the diagram above).This cold gas runs through a set of coils that
allow the gas to absorb heat and cool down the air inside the building. Mixed in with the Freon is

COOLING SYSTEM
Fuel is burnt inside the cylinder of an internal combustion engine to produce power. The
temperature produced on the power stroke of an engine can be as high as 1600 C and this
isgreater than melting point of engine parts.. The best operating temperature of IC engines lie
between 140 F and 200 F and hence cooling of an IC engine is highly essential. . It is estimated
that about 40% of total heat produced is passed to atmosphere via exhaust, 30% is removed by
cooling and about 30% is used to produce power.
Purpose of cooling
1. To maintain optimum temperature of engine for efficient operation under all conditions.
2. To dissipate surplus heat for protection of engine components like cylinder, cylinder head,
piston, piston rings, and valves
3. To maintain the lubricating property of oil inside engine
Methods of cooling
1. Air cooled system
2. Water cooled system
AIR COOLING SYSTEM

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Air cooled engines are those engines in which heat is conducted from the working components
of the engine to the atmosphere directly.
Principle of air cooling- The cylinder of an air cooled engine has fins to increase the area of
contact of air for speedy cooling. The cylinder is normally enclosed in a sheet metal casing
called cowling. The fly wheel has blades projecting from its face, so that it acts like a fan
drawing air through a hole in the cowling and directed it around the finned cylinder. For
maintenance of air cooled system, passage of air is kept clean by removing grasses etc. bya stiff
brush of compressed air
Advantages of air cooled engine
1. It is simple in design and construction
2. Water jackets, radiators, water pump, thermostat, pipes, hoses are not required
3. It is more compact
4. Lighter in weight
Disadvantages
1. There is uneven cooling of engine parts
2. Engine temperature is generally high during working period Air cooled engine

WATER COOLING SYSTEM

Engines using water as cooling medium are called water cooled engines. Water is circulated
round the cylinders to absorb heat from the cylinder walls. The heated water isconducted through
a radiator to remove the heat and cool the water.
Methods of water cooling
1. Open jacket or hopper method
2. Thermo siphon method
3. Forced circulation method
1. Open jacket method
There is a hopper or jacket containing water which surrounds the engine cylinder. Solong as the
hopper contains water the engine continues to operate satisfactorily. As soon asthe water starts
boiling it is replaced by cold water.. The hopper is large enough to run forseveral hours without
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refilling. A drain plug is provided in a low accessible position fordraining water as and when
required.
2. Thermo siphon method
It consists of a radiator, water jacket, fan, temperature gauge and hose connections. Thesystem is
based on the principle that heated water which surrounds the cylinder becomeslighter and it rises
upwards in liquid column. Hot water goes to the radiator where it passesthrough tubes
surrounded by air. Circulation of water takes place due to the reason thatwater jacket and radiator
are connected at both sides i.e. at top and bottom. A fan is drivenwith the help of a V belt to suck
air through tubes of the radiator unit, cooling radiator water. The disadvantage of the system is
that circulation of water is greatly reduced byaccumulation of scale or foreign matter in the
passage and consequently causing overheating of the engine.
3. Forced Circulation system
In this method, a water pump is used to force water from radiator to the water jacket ofthe
engine. After circulating the entire run of water jacket, water comes back to the radiatorwhere it
loses its heat by the process of radiation. To maintain the correct enginetemperature, a thermostat
valve is placed at the outer end of cylinder head. Cooling liquid isby-passed through the water
jacket of th3e engine until the engine attains the desiredtemperature. The thermostat valve opens
and the by-pass is closed, allowing the water togo to the radiator. The system consists of the
following components
1. Water pump 2. Radiator
3. Fan 4. Fan-belt
5. Water jacket 6. Thermostat valve
7. Temperature gauge 7. Hose pipe
Water pump
It is a centrifugal pump. It draws the cooled water from bottom of the radiator anddelivers it to
the water jackets surrounding the engine..
Thermostat valve
It is a control valve used in cooling system to control the flow of water when activated bya
temperature signal.
Fan
The fan is mounted on the water pump shaft. It is driven by the same belt that drives thepump
and dynamo. The purpose of radiator is to provide strong draft of air through theradiator to
improve engine cooling

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Water jacket - Water jackets are passages cored out around the engine cylinder as well asaround
the valve opening

Forced Circulation cooling system- Water cooled engine

LUBRICATION SYSTEM
IC engine is made of moving parts. Duo to continuous movement of two metallic surfaces over
each other, there is wearing of moving parts, generation of heat and loss of power in engine.
Lubrication of moving parts is essential to prevent all these harmful effects.
Purpose of lubrication1. Reducing frictional effect
2. Cooling effect
3. Sealing effect
4. Cleaning effect
Types of lubricants
Lubricants are obtained from animal fat, vegetables and minerals. Vegetable lubricants are
obtained from seeds, fruits and plants. Cotton seed oil, olive oil, linseed oil, caster oil are used as
lubricants. Mineral lubricants are most popular for engines and machines. It is obtained from
crude petroleum found in nature.. Petroleum lubricants are less expensive and suitable for
internal combustion engines
Engine lubrication system
The lubricating system of an engine is an arrangement of mechanisms which maintains the
supply of lubricating oil to the rubbing surfaces of an engine at correct pressure and temperature.
The parts which require lubrication are
1. Cylinder walls and piston]
2. Piston pin
3. Crankshaft and connecting rod bearings
4. Camshaft bearings
5. Valve operating mechanism
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6. Cooling fan
7. Water pump and
8. Ignition mechanism
Types of lubricating systems
1. Splash system
2. Forced feed system
Splash Lubrication
Splash lubrication is a method of applying lubricant, a compound that reduces friction, to parts of
a machine. In the splash lubrication of an engine, dippers on the connecting-rod bearing caps are
submerged in oil with every rotation. When the dippers emerge from the oil trough, the oil is
splashed onto the cylinders and pistons, lubricating them.
Experts agree that splash lubrication is suitable for small engines such as those used in
lawnmowers and outboard boat motors, but not for automobile engines. This is because the
amount of oil in the trough has a dramatic impact on how well the engine parts can be lubricated.
If there is not enough oil, the amount splashed onto the machinery will be insufficient. Too much
oil will cause excessive lubrication, which can also cause problems.
Engines are often lubricated through a combination of splash lubrication and force feeding. In
some cases, an oil pump keeps the trough full so that the engine bearings can always splash
enough oil onto the other parts of the engine. As the engine speeds up, so does the oil pump,
producing a stream of lubricant powerful enough to coat the dippers directly and ensure a
sufficient splash. In other cases, the oil pump directs oil to the bearings. Holes drilled in the
bearings allow it to flow to the crankshaft and connecting rod bearings, lubricating them in the
process.

Combination Splash and Force Feed

In a combination splash and force feed, oil is delivered to some parts by means of splashing and
other parts through oil passages under pressure from the oil pump. The oil from the pump enters
the oil galleries. From the oil galleries, it flows to the main bearings and camshaft bearings. The
main bearings have oil-feed holes or grooves that feed oil into drilled passages in the crankshaft.
The oil flows through these passages to the connecting rod bearings. From there, on some
engines, it flows through holes drilled in the connecting rods to the piston-pin bearings. Cylinder
walls are lubricated by splashing oil thrown off from the connecting-rod bearings. Some engines
use small troughs under each connecting rod that are kept full by small nozzles which deliver oil
under pressure from the oil pump. These oil nozzles deliver an increasingly heavy stream as
speed increases. At very high speeds these oil streams are powerful enough to strike the dippers

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directly. This causes a much heavier splash so that adequate lubrication of the pistons and the
connecting-rod bearings is provided at higher speeds. If a combination system is used on an
overhead valve engine, the upper valve train is lubricated by pressure from the pump.
Force-feed
A somewhat more complete pressurization of lubrication is achieved in the force-feed lubrication
system. Oil is forced by the oil pump from the crankcase to the main bearings and the camshaft
bearings. Unlike the combination system the connecting-rod bearings are also fed oil under
pressure from the pump. Oil passages are drilled in the crankshaft to lead oil to the connectingrod bearings. The passages deliver oil from the main bearing journals to the rod bearing journals.
In some engines, these opening are holes that line up once for every crankshaft revolution. In
other engines, there are annular grooves in the main bearings through which oil can feed
constantly into the hole in the crankshaft. The pressurized oil that lubricates the connecting- rod
bearings goes on to lubricate the pistons and walls by squirting out through strategically drilled
holes. This lubrication system is used in virtually all engines that are equipped with semi floating
piston pins.
Full Force Feed
In a full force-feed lubrication system, the main bearings, rod bearings, camshaft bearings, and
the complete valve mechanism are lubricated by oil under pressure. In addition, the full forcefeed lubrication system provides lubrication under pressure to the pistons and the piston pins.
This is accomplished by holes drilled the length of the connecting rod, creating an oil passage
from the connecting rod bearing to the piston pin bearing. This passage not only feeds the piston
pin bearings but also provides lubrication for the pistons and cylinder walls. This system is used
in virtually all engines that are equipped with full-floating piston pins.
Need of lubrication system
Lubrication is the admittance of oil between two surfaces having relative motion. The objects of
lubrication may be one or more of the following:
1. To reduce motion between the parts having relative motion.
2. To reduce wear of the moving part.
3. To cool the surfaces by carrying away heat generated due to friction.
4. To seal a space adjoining the surfaces.
5. To absorb shocks between bearings and other parts and consequently reduce noise.
6. To remove dirt and grit that might have crept between the rubbing parts.

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Flow diagram

Dry sump lubrication system.

Additives in lubricating oil

In addition to the viscosity index improvers, motor oil manufacturers often include other
additives such as detergents and dispersants to help keep the engine clean by minimizing sludge
buildup, corrosion inhibitors, and alkaline additives to neutralize acidic oxidation products of the
oil. Most commercial oils have a minimal amount of zinc dialkyldithiophosphate as an anti-wear
additive to protect contacting metal surfaces with zinc and other compounds in case of metal to
metal contact. The quantity of zinc dialkyldithiophosphate is limited to minimize adverse effect
on catalytic converters. Another aspect for after-treatment devices is the deposition of oil ash,
which increases the exhaust back pressure and reduces over time the fuel economy. The socalled "chemical box" limits today the concentrations of sulfur, ash and phosphorus (SAP).
There are other additives available commercially which can be added to the oil by the user for
purported additional benefit. Some of these additives include:

Zinc dialkyldithiophosphate (ZDDP) additives, which typically also contain calcium

sulfonates, are available to consumers for additional protection under extreme-pressure
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conditions or in heavy duty performance situations. ZDDP and calcium additives are also
added to protect motor oil from oxidative breakdown and to prevent the formation of
sludge and varnish deposits.
In the 1980s and 1990s, additives with suspended PTFE particles were available e.g.
"Slick50" to consumers to increase motor oil's ability to coat and protect metal surfaces.
There is controversy as to the actual effectiveness of these products as they can coagulate
and clog the oil filters.
Some molybdenum disulfide containing additives to lubricating oils are claimed to
reduce friction, bond to metal, or have anti-wear properties. They were used in WWII in
flight engines and became commercial after WWII until the 1990s. They were
commercialized in the 1970s (ELF ANTAR Mol graphite) and are today still available
(Liquid Moly MoS2 10 W-40, www.liqui-moly.de).
Various other extreme-pressure additives and antiwear additives.

Introduction
Preventive Maintenance is essential to every effective maintenance program as it helps to ensure
maximum vehicle reliability, safety, and longevity. It entails performing regularly scheduled
maintenance procedures in order to minimize malfunctions, rather than simply making repairs
when something goes wrong. It also involves performing necessary repairs promptly to prevent
further damage and maintain vehicle safety. While PM may be more expensive in the short run,
it will likely result in the lowest overall life cycle costs when all vehicle related expenses are
considered.
Before taking delivery of your new vehicle you should develop a comprehensive preventive
maintenance program. This section is designed to help you develop such a program, since
maintaining your vehicle and keeping accurate, complete records is as important to successful
service as the vehicle purchase itself.
Please note that several of the tables in this section were adapted from other preventive
maintenance publications.
Essential Elements of a Successful Preventive Maintenance Program
A successful PM program consists of a number of different elements. The following discussion
highlights these elements and the issues you should consider when developing your program.

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Routine Servicing and Maintenance

Routine servicing and maintenance is the heart of any PM program. Every vehicle has its own
maintenance requirements and recommended program lay out by the manufacturer. In many
cases, it will be desirable to exceed the recommendations, depending on factors such as weather,
terrain, service type, and annual mileage. Maintenance intervals should never exceed those
recommended by the manufacturer. Table A and B lists items to be considered in developing a
PM schedule for the expected life of the vehicle.
In establishing your service program, consider the following suggestions:
Make all service intervals mileage multiples of some common denominator. For example, if the
oil change interval is 3,000 miles, consider performing tire rotations every 6,000 miles and
transmission fluid services every 24,000 miles. Consistent service intervals increase the efficient
use of labor and minimize the number of times the vehicle is in the shop.
Consider seasonal variations that may alter service intervals. For example, harsh winters may
dictate shorter oil change intervals due to cold starts/running and earlier replacement of air filters
when operating over salted or sanded roads. Also, plan seasonal fleet-wide service checks, such
as a spring campaign to prepare air-conditioning systems for the summer, and a fall campaign to
prepare for adequate winter heating and defrosting.
Consider local conditions when planning your maintenance program. For example, services
operated over unpaved, dusty roads may require more frequent oil changes and shock absorber
replacement. Constant slow or stop-and-go driving and low annual mileage are other examples of
situations where service intervals for some items should be shortened.
Have a regular program for washing and cleaning the vehicles. Accumulated salt will greatly
accelerate rusting and, where chloride compounds are used to control dust on unpaved roads,
corrosion can occur even in summer.
Inspections
Inspections are a key element in the early detection and remedy of potential failures. Both drivers
and mechanics should perform them, to varying degrees. Investing a short time on a daily basis
to inspect each vehicle will help detect problems, thereby improving safety, decreasing vehicle
repair costs and vehicle downtime.
Drivers should perform a regular pre-trip inspection of the vehicle (Table C, in addition to
inspecting the vehicle when it is cleaned and refueled. Both mechanics and drivers should
inspect the vehicle through observations and checks during routine servicing procedures (it is
quite possible to perform a complete vehicle inspection while the oil is being drained). Table D
lists items that should be included in the mechanics inspection at a service interval.4

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Replacement versus Repair

If it aint broke, dont fix it! is a time-honored clich and if we could always predict the exact
point of any component failure, it would be a reasonable way to operate. However, without such
predictability, it makes sense to replace or rebuild certain components prior to failure (whenever
there is the data to justify doing so without incurring extraordinary costs).
While this routine replacement concept can be applied to a wide variety of components, it does
require that you gain experience with your particular vehicles in your unique environment. If you
have no prior experience with your new vehicle, we recommend contracting other operators
using the same vehicle, under similar circumstances, with good maintenance records to assist in
developing a routine component replacement schedule.
Routine replacement is typically applied to those components where little if any diagnostic aid is
available, other than visual inspection. These include items such as:
Fluids (except windshield washer and refrigerant)
Hoses
Belts
Wiper blades
TYPES OF MAINTENANCE
Breakdown Maintenance:
Breakdown maintenance is referred to by many different names: reactive maintenance, repair, fix
when-fail, and run-to-failure (RTF) maintenance. When applying this maintenance strategy, a
piece of equipment receives maintenance (e.g., repair or replacement) only when the
deterioration of the equipments condition causes a functional failure. The strategy of breakdown
maintenance assumesthat failure is equally likely to occur in any part, component, or system.
Thus, this assumption precludes identifying a specific group of repair parts as being more
necessary or desirable than others. The major downside of breakdown maintenance is
unexpected and unscheduled equipment downtime. If a piece of equipment fails and repair parts
are not available, delays occur while the parts are ordered and delivered. If these parts are
urgently required, a premium for expedited delivery must be paid. If the failed part is no longer
manufactured or stocked, more drastic and expensive actions are required to restore equipment
function. Cannibalization of like equipment or rapid prototyping technology may satisfy a
temporary need but at substantial cost. Also, there is no ability to influence when failures occur
because no (or minimal) action is taken to control or prevent them. When this is the sole type of
maintenance practiced, both labor and materials are used inefficiently. Labour resources are
thrown at whatever breakdown is most pressing. In the event that several breakdowns occur
simultaneously, it is necessary to practice a kind of maintenance in an attempt to bring all the
breakdowns under control. Maintenance labour is used to stabilize (but not necessarily fix) the
most urgent repair situation, then it is moved on to the next most urgent situation, etc.
Replacement parts must be constantly stocked at high levels, since their use cannot
beanticipated. This incurs high carrying charges and is not an efficient ay to run a storeroom. A

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purelyreactive maintenance program ignores the many opportunities to influence equipment

survivability.
Preventive Maintenance (PM):
Maintenance repairs performed on a regular schedule to minimize component degradation
andextend the life of equipment. Preventive maintenance is performed after a set amount of
elapsedcalendar time or machine run time, regardless of whether the repair is needed. While
more costeffectivethan reactive maintenance, preventive maintenance still requires substantial
humanresources and replacement parts inventories.It may be a daily maintenance (cleaning,
inspection, oiling and re-tightening), designed to retain thehealthy condition of equipment and
prevent failure through the prevention of deterioration, periodicinspection or equipment
condition diagnosis, to measure deterioration. It entails understanding andmaintaining all the
physical elements of manufacturing-machine components, equipment, andsystems- so that they
consistently perform at all levels required of them. Such maintenance is usuallyscheduled by
providing for monitoring inspections and special operating procedures.The intent of PM is to
prevent maintenance problems or failures before they take place byfollowing routine and
comprehensive maintenance procedures. The goal is to achieve fewer, shorter,and more
predictable outages.
Advantages of PM
1. It is predictable, making budgeting, planning, and resource leveling possible.
2. When properly practiced, it generally prevents most major problems, thus reducing
forcedoutages, reactive maintenance, and maintenance costs in general.
3. It assures managers that equipment is being maintained.
4. It is easily understood and justified.
Disadvantages of PM
1. It is time consuming and resource intensive.
2. It does not consider actual equipment condition when scheduling or performing the
maintenance.
3. It can cause problems in equipment in addition to solving them (e.g. damaging seals, stripping
Threads).
It is further divided into periodic maintenance and predictive maintenance. Just like human life is
Extended by preventive medicine, the equipment service life can be prolonged by doing
preventivemaintenance.
a. Periodic Maintenance (Time based maintenance - TBM):
Time based maintenance consists of periodically inspecting, servicing and cleaning equipment
and replacing parts to prevent sudden failure and process problems.
b. Predictive Maintenance:
This is a method in which the service life of important part is predicted based on inspection
ordiagnosis, in order to use the parts to the limit of their service life. Compared to

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periodicmaintenance, predictive maintenance is condition based maintenance. Predictive

maintenanceprograms measure equipment on a regular basis, track the measurements over time,
and takecorrective action when measurements are about to go outside the equipment operating
limits.Repairing equipment as-needed requires fewer man-hours and parts than preventive
maintenance.
However, tracking the measurements requires new tools, training, and software to collect
andanalyze the data and predict repair cycles. It manages trend values, by measuring and
analyzing dataabout deterioration and employs a surveillance system, designed to monitor
conditions through anon-line system.
Corrective Maintenance:
It improves equipment and its components so that preventive maintenance can be carried
outreliably. Equipment with design weakness must be redesigned to improve reliability or
improvingmaintainability.
Condition Based Maintenance
The condition of the equipment or some critical parts of the equipment are continuously
monitoredusing sophisticated monitoring instruments so that failure may be predicted well
before it occurs andcorrective steps are taken to prevent failure.
Design out Maintenance
A design out maintenance is a design oriented curative means aimed at rectifying a design defect
Originated from improper method of installation or poor choice of materials etc. It calls for
strongdesign and maintenance interface. Design out maintenance aims to eliminate the cause
ofmaintenance.
Opportunistic Maintenance
When equipment is taken down for maintenance of one of few worn out parts, the opportunity
can beutilized to change or maintain other parts which are wearing out even though they have yet
to fail.This maintenance strategy is for non-monitored components.
Proactive Maintenance
Unlike the three type of maintenance strategies which have been discussed earlier,
proactivemaintenance can be considered as another new approach to maintenance strategy.
Dissimilar topreventive maintenance that based on time intervals or predictive maintenance that
based oncondition monitoring, proactive maintenance concentrate on the monitoring and
correction of rootcauses to equipment failures. The proactive maintenance strategy is also
designed to extend theuseful age of the equipment to reach the wear-out stage by adaptation a
high mastery level of

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Operating precision.Output in a sold-out condition or maintenance cost or capital resources in a

constrained budgetcycle, environmental excursions or safety, etc.Failure rate is the time rate of
change of the probability of failure. Since the latter is a function oftime, failure rate is also a
function of time. However, in terms of failure rate, one can obtain physicalinformation as to
which factor is controlling the failure behavior and/or when it is controlling thefailure behavior.
The failure rate is a basic component of many more complex reliabilitycalculations. Depending
upon the mechanical/electrical design, operating context, environmentand/or maintenance
effectiveness, a machines failure rate as a function of time may decline, remain

Overhauling system
An overhauled engine is an engine which has been removed, disassembled (tear down), cleaned,
inspected, repaired as necessary and tested using factory service manual approved procedures. he
procedure generally involves honing, new piston rings, bearings, gaskets, oil seals. When done
by a competent engine builder the engine will perform as new. The engine may be overhauled to
'new limits' or 'service limits', or a combination of the two using used parts, new original
equipment manufacturer (OEM) parts, or new aftermarket parts. The engine's previous operating
history is maintained and it is returned with zero hours since major overhaul.
Many times aftermarket part manufacturers are the OEM part suppliers to major engine
manufacturers (e.g. Ishino manufactures both the OEM and the aftermarket cylinder head and
valve cover gaskets for the Nissan VG30E. Often the Nissan logo is imprinted on the OEM part
while the OEM suppliers brand will be imprinted on the same exact part when offered
aftermarket.)[1]
A top overhaul only covers the replacement of components inside the cylinder head without
removing the engine from the vehicle, such as valve and rocker arm replacement. It may or may
not include a valve job. A major overhaul however covers the whole engine assembly, which
requires the engine to be removed from the vehicle and transferred to an engine stand. An
overhauled engine refers to a major overhaul. By comparison, a major overhaul costs more than
a top overhaul. New limits' are the factory service manual's approved fits and tolerances that a
new engine is manufactured to. This may be accomplished by using standard or
approved undersized and oversized tolerances. 'Service limits' are the factory service manual's
allowable wear fits and tolerances that a new limit part may deteriorate to and still be a usable
component.
Engine requires overhaul when there is
(i) Loss of power ii) Heavy oil consumption, and (iii) Increased mechanical noise.
Overhauling is a general purposes consisting of cleaning, inspection, diagnosis, re-adjustment,
replacement and tuning up an engine.

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Engine overhauling is "Engine re-building". Some companies set up special engine disassembly
and re-building lines. They bring in old, worn engines, disassemble them completely, repair or
replace all worn parts and then completely rebuild the engine, using only the old parts that are
still in good condition. By re-building the engine becomes as good as new.
The troubles and repairs of engine parts can be divided into the following six groups:
1. Connecting rod assembly:
(i)Connecting rod
(ii) Connecting rod and bearing
(iii) Piston pin and bearings
(iv) Cylinder wall
(v) Piston and piston rings.
2. Crankshaft assembly:
(i) Crankshaft
(ii)Main Bearings
(iii) Flywheel
(iv) Crankshaft gear or sprocket
3. Valve mechanism:
(i).Valves
(ii) Valve guides
(iii) Springs
(iv) Seats and inserts
(v) Valve lifters and adjusting screws.
(vi) Rocker arms and push rods for overhead valves
(vii) Hydraulic valve lifters.
(viii) Camshaft
(ix) Camshaft bearings
(x) Camshaft gear or sprocket.
4. Cylinder head and cylinder block
5. Oil pan
6. Various systems:
(i) Ignition system
(ii) Cooling System
(iii) Fuel system
(iii) Lubrication system
(v) Starting and generator systems.

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