FORMULAS, DEFINITIONS and TABLES

Additional information about rigid media:

Virtually all formulas and tables presented here have to do with how the media
performs. It's cooling efficiency, static pressure drop across the media relative to
the face velocity and cubic feet per minute of air flow is the measuring rod to which
we apply all other calculations and determinations. In simpler terms, the rigid
media is the heart and soul of evaporative cooling. Without an understanding of
it's operation, it is difficult to design a cooling system or size cooling equipment for
a building.
The part about applications and design are covered in the section "Applications
and Design" which can be reached from the Technical Data section which is
available from our home page. To keep a surprisingly complex subject simple, only
the formulas and tables that relate to this media are covered in this section.

Abbreviations and Definitions:

Let's start with some abbreviations we use in our formulas:

AC = Air Changes. ( Usually expressed in changes per hour or per minute. Air
change is the number of times the air within a structure is exhausted and replaced
during a specified period such as hour or minute).
BTUH = British Thermal Units per Hour. A measure of heat or the absence of
heat ("cold" can be defined as the absence of heat) in a volume of air or space.
BTUH is not commonly used in evaporative cooling terminology but necessary to
calculate heating and mechanical refrigeration. (It is most often used as "heat of
vaporization = 1043 BTU/lb in the formula for calculating evaporation rate and
standard CFM).
(S)CFM = (Standard) Cubic Feet per Minute. Usually referred to as simply
CFM. This is a necessary ingredient in any formula involving evaporative
cooling. It is a measure of air volume movement in one minute.
Fv (or) FV = Face Velocity. Face velocity or "air velocity" is the measure
expressed in feet per minute (FPM) the air is moving at the entry side (face) of the
cooling media. This is another necessary ingredient in any formula in evaporative
cooling to determine efficiency.
FPM = Feet Per Minute. The measure of speed (velocity) of the air .

ESP = External Static Pressure. Expressed in inches, water column. The

pressure against which the air flow must move. The pressure external to the
cooling unit opposing air flow (i.e. restrictive ductwork, etc.)
SPD = Static Pressure Drop. Expressed in inches, water column. The amount
of pressure required to push the air through the media as measured with a
magnehelic gage. The difference between the pressure of the air flow at the intake
of the media and the discharge side of the media. The measure of pressure for
any component through which air flow is measured at the intake and discharge.
This is an important consideration in some evaporative cooling applications.
WG or w.g. or WC or w.c. = Water gauge or water column in inches. This is a
measure of static pressure. A Pitot Tube is used to take this measurement. The
Pitot Tube is a curved (U-shaped) glass tube with a prescribed amount of water
and a scale. The tube is hollow. When air is blown into one end the water column
will be forced up the other side to some level. The level to which the column of
water rises is a measure, in inches, of the pressure of the force required.
GPH = Gallons per hour. A measure of liquid (usually water) moving during one
hour.
GPM = Gallons per minute. A measure of liquid (usually water) moving in one
minute.
(f) or (F) = Fahrenheit. Temperature conforming to a thermometric scale on
which water boils at 212 degrees and freezes at 32 degrees. Named after Gabriel
D. Fahrenheit, 1736.
Db (or) DB = Dry Bulb temperature. Measurement (usually in Fahrenheit) of
temperature taken by a standard thermometer or similar thermal indicator.
Wb (or) WB = Wet Bulb temperature. The lowest temperature that can be
reached by evaporatively cooling the air. This measurement is usually taken with a
"sling psychrometer". This device is a standard thermometer with a "wet sock"
over the sensor bulb. The psychrometer is slung in a circular motion rapidly
enough to cause evaporation to occur around the sensor bulb to drop the
temperature to it's lowest point possible with the evaporation process.
Wbd (or) WBD = Wet Bulb Depression. The difference between the Dry Bulb
and the Wet Bulb temperatures. This temperature is the total amount of cooling
available through the evaporative cooling process. At 100% cooling efficiency, the
temperature drop would be equal to the Wet Bulb Depression. Also known as Wet
Bulb Differential.
SE = Saturation Efficiency. This is the percent of the Wbd (Wet Bulb
Depression) achieved by the cooling process. I.E. At 100 degrees (f) Dry Bulb and

70 degrees (f) Wet Bulb, the Wbd would be 30 degrees (f). If the actual
temperature drop measured at the discharge side of the media was 73 degrees (f),
the percent of saturation efficiency would be 90%. This means that the air passing
through the media has been saturated with water vapor (moisture) to 90% of its
maximum. "Cooling Efficiency" is the same as Saturation Efficiency and is most
often used to define the performance level of the media. Also called just
"efficiency".
Design = This term is used in many ways to define the parameters of an
application or specifications. Some common uses are as follows: IDb = Indoor
Dry Bulb. ODb = Outdoor Dry Bulb. IWb = Indoor Wet Bulb. OWb =
Outdoor Wet Bulb. EDb = Entering Dry Bulb. LDb = Leaving Dry Bulb. EWb
= Entering Wet Bulb. LWb = Leaving Wet Bulb. This term is often used in
conjunction with "conditions" such as "Climate Design Conditions". In evaporative
cooling, climate data is considered to be Dry Bulb and Wet Bulb levels. It would
require a "Psychrometric Chart" to locate the juncture of the Dry Bulb and Wet
Bulb lines to find the grains or pounds of moisture per pound of dry air or relative
humidity (RH). Refer to Table 1 for a psychrometric chart digitalized for easy
reading of relational elements of Db, Wb and RH.
RH = Relative Humidity. Expressed in percent. The percent of water vapor in
the air compared to the amount of water vapor the same air could contain. (i.e.
15% RH indicates the air is 15% saturated with water vapor)

Formulas:

Leaving Dry Bulb = [ODb - (SE x (Odb-OWb)]

Leaving Wet Bulb = Normally considered same as entering Wb.
Wet Bulb Depression = ODb - OWb
Evaporation Rate = [CFM x WBd x (SE / 8700)] ( this is simple method)
Bleed - Off Rate = Evaporation Rate x .20 (prox)
(Recirculation) Water flow Rate = 3 times the evaporation rate (prox)
Standard CFM = Sensible BTU/hr / (1.08 x (IDb - Db) x Density Ratio
Where IDb = Indoor Design Dry Bulb (f)
CFM = Standard CFM / Density Ratio
BTU = CFM X Delta T x 1.08

Density Ratio = 1.325 x Barometric Pressure / (Db(f)

Water weight (US gallon) = 8.33 pounds per gallon (based on distilled water)
Water volume (US gallon) = 7.481 gallons per cubic foot
Water weight (US gallon cubic foot) = 7.481 x 8.33 = weight of cubic foot of
water (62.288#)
Face Area = Width x Height of open face area through which air will flow
(expressed in square feet.)
Face Velocity = CFM / Face Area (Sq Ft) (expressed in Feet per minute (FPM).

Tables:

Table 1: Psychrometric Chart

Temperature (Dry Bulb degrees f)

#H20 per

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

110

120

#Dry Air Wb RH% Wb RH% Wb RH% Wb RH% Wb RH% Wb RH% Wb RH% Wb RH% Wb RH%
.001

27

20

34

12

41

10

46

51

54

57

62

65

.002

32

40

36

28

43

19

47

12

53

10

57

60

63

66

.003

35

58

41

40

45

28

50

19

54

15

58

10

62

65

67

.004

36

75

43

51

47

38

52

26

56

19

59

13

63

10

66

69

.005

39

95

45

65

50

47

54

32

57

23

61

17

64

12

67

71

.006

46

78

51

55

55

39

59

27

63

20

66

15

69

10

72

.007

49

91

53

64

57

45

61

31

65

24

67

18

70

12

73

10

.008

55

73

59

51

63

36

66

28

68

20

71

14

74

11

.009

56

82

60

57

64

41

67

30

70

22

72

16

75

13

.010

57

90

62

63

65

46

68

33

72

25

74

18

76

14

.011

60

99

64

70

66

50

70

36

73

27

76

20

77

15

.012

65

76

67

55

71

40

74

29

77

22

78

17

.013

66

83

69

59

72

44

75

31

78

24

80

19

.014

67

90

70

63

74

47

76

33

78

26

81

20

.015

69

95

72

68

75

50

77

36

79

27

82

21

.016

70

99

73

72

76

53

78

39

81

29

83

22

.017

74

76

77

57

79

42

82

31

83

23

.018

75

80

77

59

80

45

82

33

84

24

.019

76

85

78

62

81

47

83

35

85

25

.020

77

90

80

65

82

49

84

37

86

27

.021

78

95

81

69

83

51

85

39

87

28

.022

79

99

82

72

84

53

86

40

87

29

.023

83

75

85

55

87

41

88

31

.024

84

78

86

58

88

42

90

33

.025

85

81

87

60

89

43

91

34

.026

86

85

88

62

90

44

92

35

.027

87

88

89

65

91

46

93

36

.028

88

91

90

67

92

47

94

37

.029

89

95

91

69

93

49

95

39

.030

90

99

92

71

94

51

95

40

Notes: Db is Dry Bulb temperature, Wb is Wet Bulb temperature, #H2o is Pounds

of moisture per pound of dry air which is a measure of absolute humidity. RH is
Relative Humidity.
Read the chart by finding the known elements, such as Dry Bulb and Relative
Humidity and move horizontal to find the Wet Bulb and pounds of moisture per
pound of dry air. I.E. The weather forecast is for 100 degrees at 15% Relative
Humidity. You will find that the Web Bulb is 66 degrees and the pounds of moisture
is .006 per pound of dry air. Knowing the Wet Bulb will allow you to determine the
Wet Bulb depression.
The Psychrometric chart will provide you the necessary information to design
systems, predict outcomes and many other useful applications of the information!
This chart is digitalized to make it simpler to use.
It is necessary to interpolate and extrapolate accordingly for those in-between
conditions not directly covered in the above chart. I.E. if 105 degrees was the
temperature to use, then it would be necessary to interpolate the available data to
reach the right conclusion. In this instance, the Wet Bulb would be 67.5 degrees.
This chart is intended to be reasonably accurate at sea level and should be within
p/m 5%. If greater accuracy is required, it is recommended that you use the proper
Psychrometric chart for the elevation desired or make proper adjustments for
elevation (barometric pressure).

Table 2: Evaporation Rate

Wbd(f)

Gallons Per Hour evaporated per 1000 CFM with a Saturation Efficiency of:

0.80 0.82

0.84

0.86

0.88

0.90

.092

0.94

0.96

0.98

0.50 0.51

0.52

0.53

0.55

0.56

0.57

0.58

0.60

0.61

10

0.99 1.02

1.04

1.07

1.09

1.12

1.14

1.17

1.19

1.22

15

1.49 1.53

1.56

1.60

1.64

1.68

1.71

1.75

1.79

1.83

20

1.99 2.04

2.09

2.14

2.19

2.23

2.28

2.33

2.38

2.43

25

2.48 2.55

2.61

2.67

2.73

2.79

2.86

2.92

2.98

3.04

30

2.98 3.05

3.13

3.20

3.28

3.35

3.43

3.50

3.58

3.65

35

3.48 3.56

3.65

3.74

3.82

3.91

4.00

4.08

4.17

4.26

40

3.97 4.07

4.17

4.27

4.37

4.47

4.57

4.67

4.77

4.87

45

4.47 4.58

4.69

4.80

4.92

5.03

5.14

5.25

5.36

5.48

To determine Gallons per Minute divide by 60. Formula to determine evaporation

rate is shown in Formulas section.

Table 3: Temperature drop across media (@ 500 FPM face velocity)

Wbd Temperature drop (Dry Bulb) for Media Thickness of:

(f)
4"
6"
8"
12"
18"
24"
10.0

5.3

6.8

7.9

8.9

9.8

9.9

12.5

6.6

8.5

9.8

11.1

12.2

12.3

15.0

7.9

10.2

11.8

13.3

14.6

14.8

17.5

9.2

11.9

13.8

15.6

17.1

17.3

20.0

10.5

13.6

15.8

17.8

19.5

19.7

22.5

11.8

15.3

17.7

20.0

21.9

22.2

25.0

13.2

17.0

19.7

22.2

24.4

24.7

27.5

14.5

18.7

21.7

24.4

26.8

27.2

30.0

15.8

20.4

23.6

26.7

29.3

29.6

32.5

17.1

22.1

25.6

28.9

31.7

32.1

35.0

18.4

23.8

27.6

31.1

34.1

34.6

37.5

19.7

25.5

29.5

33.3

36.6

37.0

40.0

21.1

27.2

31.5

35.6

39.0

39.5

Note: 12" thick media @ 500 FPM face velocity is the preferred design . This is
the best trade-off between performance and cost.

Table 3: Air Density Ratio: Density Ratio for Various Elevations and
Temperatures.

Temp.

Elevation/Inches Hg

(f)

0/ 1000/ 2000/ 3000/ 4000/ 5000/ 6000/ 7000/ 8000/ 9000/ 10000/
29.92 28.86 27.82 26.82 25.84 24.90 23.98 23.09 22.22 21.39 20.58

68

1.00 0.97 0.93 0.90 0.87 0.84 0.80 0.77 0.75 0.72 0.69

70

1.00 0.96 0.93 0.90 0.86 0.83 0.80 0.77 0.74 0.71 0.69

72

1.00 0.96 0.93 0.89 0.86 0.83 0.80 0.77 0.74 0.71 0.69

74

0.99 0.96 0.92 0.89 0.86 0.83 0.80 0.77 0.74 0.71 0.68

76

0.99 0.95 0.92 0.89 0.85 0.82 0.79 0.76 0.73 0.71 0.68

78

0.99 0.95 0.92 0.88 0.85 0.82 0.79 0.76 0.73 0.70 0.68

80

0.98 0.95 0.91 0.88 0.85 0.82 0.79 0.76 0.73 0.70 0.68

Table 4: Air Changes suggested per hour.

Leaving Air
Temp (LDb)

Temperature over
outside ambient

Air Changes
Per Hour

Over 78 (f)

20+

30-60

76f to 78f

15 to 20

20 to 40

74f to 76f

10 to 15

15 to 30

72f to 74f

5 to 15

12 to 20

Less than 10

10 to 15

Less than 72f

Notes: The "Air Change" method is a practical approach to assist in the

determination of the size and efficiency of evaporative cooling equipment required
for the structure. The principle behind this method is to determine the difference
between the inside temperature of the structure, without using evaporative cooling
and the outside ambient temperature during its highest condition. While this
method is ideal for existing structures, new structures not yet built can be
estimated on the same scale.
Leaving Air Temperature reflects the output of the evaporative coolers whether
existing or planned. The air change column indicates a range of frequency and is
used in determining air volume requirements. Other criteria are needed to
complete the sizing of equipment. Refer to the section on "Applications and
Design" for more specific information on equipment sizing.

PREMIER RIGID COOLING MEDIA TECHNICAL

DATA
Premier Cooling Media is a generic term for high efficiency fluted evaporative
cooling media. This media is manufactured by several manufacturers in the United
States, China, India and Mexico among others. The most common configuration of
this type media is a 45 /15 degree transverse flute arrangement for typical
evaporative cooling applications.

Description:
This media is a cellulose material impregnated with insoluble anti-rot salts and
rigidifying saturants. The media incorporates an internal geometry of transverse 45
degree and 15 degree alternating flutes. The 45 degree flute carries the water to
the face (intake) side of the media while the 15 degree flute is aligned with the
direction of air flow.
This flute arrangement is self-cleaning and increases cooling efficiency by causing
air turbulence while air is traveling through the media. This media provides
approximately 123 square feet of evaporative surface area per cubic foot of media.
Efficiency of this media is about 90% at 400 to 500 feet per minute face velocity in
12" depth. Life expectancy is dependent upon many factors but is usually 3 to 5
years when properly maintained and water pH is between 6 and 8.

Cooling Efficiency:

Cooling efficiency is based on "saturation efficiency" (ability to transfer water vapor

into the air stream). The two major factors to be considered in determining the
efficiency of the media are media thickness and air flow face velocity . The
following table defines the saturation efficiency by media thickness and face
velocity. Efficiency & Pressure Drop Data is based on typical performance
information as published by certain manufacturers for their 45/15 rigid cooling
media and is approximate.
Face
Velocity

Percent Media Efficiency at Media

Static Pressure Drop at Media Depth:
Depth:
4"

6"

8"

12"

16"

24"

4"

6"

8"

12"

16"

24"

200
FPM

71% 86% 91% 96% 99% 99% 0.02" 0.03" 0.04" 0.06" 0.08" 0.09"

300
FPM

67% 81% 88% 94% 98% 99% 0.03" 0.05" 0.07" 0.10" 0.13" 0.19"

400
FPM

62% 77% 84% 92% 96% 99% 0.05" 0.09" 0.11" 0.18" 0.25" 0.31"

500
FPM

59% 72% 82% 89% 94% 99% 0.09" 0.12" 0.17" 0.26" 0.36" 0.50"

600
FPM

57% 70% 80% 88% 92% 99% 0.12" 0.18" 0.22" 0.36"

Note: Face velocities higher than 600 FPM are not recommended. Contact
Premier Industries, Inc., for information regarding methods available to handle
higher velocities. Example: At air velocity of 500 FPM and media thickness of 12",
the saturation efficiency will be 90%. Recommended design velocity is 500 - 550
feet per minute. This is the best trade-off between performance and cost.

Percent efficiency defined:

It is necessary to know the dry bulb temperature and wet bulb temperature entering
the media to be able to apply the percent efficiency. The difference between the
dry bulb and wet bulb is know as the "wet bulb depression". The wet bulb is the
lowest point the dry bulb temperature can be dropped across the media. The
percent of the wet bulb depression will equal predicted discharge temperature. I.E.
at 100 degree dry bulb and 70 degree wet bulb, the wet bulb depression is 30
degrees (f). To determine expected dry bulb temperature drop across the media,
multiply 30 (wet bulb depression) X .90 (90%). Temperature drop across the media
is 27 degrees (f). To determine expected dry bulb discharge temperature, subtract
the temperature drop from the entering dry bulb temperature. I.E. 100 - 27 = 73
degree (f) discharge temperature. Refer to "Formulas" section for this and
additional information.

Formulas:

The following formulas are provided primarily to determine evaporation rate of

water from the media into the air stream. The evaporation rate is necessary to
calculate water usage, bleed-off rate and total flow rate of water over the media.
The evaporation rate changes with the climate and air flow changes. If desired,
the setting of water flow over the media and bleed-off rates can be adjusted based
on the evaporation rate.
Media efficiency: The first step to determine other data is to establish the
actual media efficiency. Efficiency = (T1 - T2) / (T1 - Tw) X 100 Where T1 =
entering dry bulb temperature, T2 = leaving dry bulb temperature and Tw =
entering wet bulb temperature.
Discharge Temperature: To determine predicted discharge temperature use
the following formula. (% efficiency X (Dry Bulb - Wet Bulb)) = Discharge
Temperature.
Air Velocity: in feet per minute (FPM) Feet per minute (FPM) = Cubic feet
per minute (CFM) / Square feet of face area (open to air flow).

Water evaporation rate: in gallons of water per hour (GPH). = (CFM x

(entering Dry Bulb - leaving Dry Bulb)) / 8700
Bleed-off rate = Evaporation rate x .20 (20%) (approx) = bleed-off rate.
Note: divide by 60 for gallons per minute.
Water flow rate: in gallons of water per hour (GPH). Evaporation rate +
bleed-off rate X 3 = water flow rate in GPH. Note: divide by 60 for gallons per
minute.

Media orientation in use:

The media must be installed in a proper orientation to the air flow. The 45 degree
flute must be aligned upwards in the direction of the air flow (intake side of the
flute must be lower than the discharge side) and the 15 degree flute must be
aligned downwards with the air flow (intake side of the flute must be higher than
the discharge side). If the media is aligned improperly, the water will flow to the
discharge side of the media and can be easily entrained in the air flow.

Media availability:

The media is available in depths up to 24" as required. Premier maintains large

inventories of this media in 24" depths and will cut to size and ship next day in the
great majority of cases. Height (length) is restricted to 72" standard, however
Premier can supply up to 78" lengths. Standard width is 12", however Premier can
cut to smaller width if desired. Media is usually shipped in individual "sticks"
(pieces) to include sufficient number to provide the total width of the unit into which
the media is to be installed.

Refer to our home page for additional sections of technical data such as
installation, removal and replacement, cooling season start up, winter shut down,
water chemistry and others.

Evaporative Cooler Applications:

"Applications" is a term used in this technology to identify or define the purpose for
which the evaporative cooling equipment is selected. It is also sometimes used to define
the method of application or installation.
A simple example would be the need to cool a 40,000 square foot warehouse in the
Southwest. This is usually an application well suited for evaporative cooling,
however some additional information is required to fully qualify the application. Some of
the questions that should be answered are:
1. What is to be cooled? People, Equipment or other? If people, what are they
doing. Office, production, warehousing, etc. If Equipment, what type and operation?
Does the Equipment generate high heat loads, etc?
2. What kind of work is going to be performed? Certain kinds of operations can be
better served than others. An example is printing processes. Color printing cannot dry too
quickly or too slowly. Paper cannot be allowed to absorb too much moisture or it becomes
too limp so humidity is very important.
3. What are the cost parameters?
it is desired?

Can mechanical refrigeration be afforded even if

4. What is the structure capable of supporting? Are there other structural

considerations? Is it necessary to locate the equipment on the ground or roof or some
other mounting method?
5. What are the climate conditions?

Is the climate hot and dry or mild conditions?

Qualifying the Application:

Answering the above questions will go a long way in the determination of whether or
not evaporative cooling will be the best type cooling system or not. Some of the following
considerations will help to provide some answers to these questions:
1. People in production or warehousing type jobs are prime uses of evaporative cooling.
Evaporative cooling not only cools by dropping the Dry Bulb temperature but it also cools
by the chill factor of air passing over the body. For people in office type work, it is usually
the practice to use mechanical refrigeration due to the need to maintain very low humidity
levels. In addition to human comfort it is also important to maintain humidity control and
cool equipment (like computers). Production and/or warehousing type jobs are usually best
served by evaporative cooling. It is far easier to exhaust heat than it is to recirculate it and

treat it. Perishable goods usually require mechanical refrigeration. Most mechanical
equipment is best cooled by evaporative cooling due to the need for large volumes of air
passing over the equipment and exhausting the air to the outside.
2. The type of work being performed influences the selection of cooling equipment.
The example of printing on paper is a good case in point. Other types of work to be
considered are those that require large volumes of air flow. Some types of work are just the
opposite. High volumes of air flow may adversely affect the work (such as in some plastic
film manufacturing)
3. Acquisition cost of mechanical refrigeration is usually about 3 times that of
evaporative cooling for a similar structure. Costs vary widely due to type of structure,
climate and other factors. Upkeep and maintenance costs are somewhat lower with
evaporative cooling partially due to the technical expertise required. Operating costs are
usually much higher for mechanical refrigeration. Sometimes 3 to 5 times higher in energy
use alone.
4. Equipment selection must consider the ability of the structure to support it. It is not
too unusual to have to locate equipment on the ground or some other mounting
method because the roof will not support it's weight. Structural integrity is a serious
consideration in selection and location of equipment.
5. The climate is a major consideration in the selection of cooling equipment.
Evaporative cooling is especially effective in hot dry climates. Temperature drops of 30 to
40 degrees are rather easy to achieve. It is not too unusual to achieve lower temperatures
with evaporative cooling than with mechancial refrigeration during very low humidity
periods due the lowered performance of mechanical refrigeration equipment in these
conditions. In the Southwest, it is a common practice to use both methods. Evaporative
cooling can be used during the hot dry periods and mechanical refrigeration during high
humidity periods. Most homes have an evaporative cooler and an air conditioner on the
roof. I.E. in Phoenix, AZ., the evaporative cooler can be used at a cost of about $30.00 a
month while the air conditioner would cost about $80.00 to $200.00 a month based on the
size of the house and the equipment. Most commercial buildings are cooled with
evaporative cooling in the warehouse/production area while refrigeration is used in the
office area.

Evaporative cooling can be successfully used anywhere the wet bulb

temperature is lower than the dry bulb which is almost everywhere.
Premier has shipped evaporative cooling to Louisiana, Florida, Mississippi, Alabama,
Northeast and most other states (in the United States) as well as Korea, Japan, Mexico and
other countries. The Middle East is an excellent example of the ideal climate for evaportive
cooling.

Sizing the Evaporative Cooling Equipment:

The following methods of sizing evaporative cooling equipment is based on the best
information available and some first hand experience. The "reality of results" rule has
been a great teacher. The evaporative cooler technology is still plagued with what I call the
"swamp cooler mentality". This mentality views this technology as if it had not
progressed any during the past 60 or 70 years. The truth is that this technology has changed
enormously during the past 15 to 20 years with the advent of the "Rigid Media" type
cooling medium. Cooling efficiencies have increased from 45% to 50% with the "Swamp
Cooler" to 90% to 99% with the new cooling medium. Today the best answer in selecting
cooling equipment is evaporative cooling!
Sizing evaporative cooling equipment for an existing or planned
production/warehouse type structure:
Step 1: Determine the Cubic Capacity of the structure or that portion of the structure to
be evaporatively cooled.
Formula = Width X Length X Effective Cooling
Height* = Capacity in Cubic Feet.
* = the actual height to
be cooled. I.E. in a 25' tall building, it is the usual practice to cool only to about 16' to 20'
based on the highest point the cooling is required. A heat stratification layer will form at
the roof level which will not adversely affect the cooling process provided that space is not
used. Remember cold air drops and hot air rises.
In example of Step 1. A structure that is 100' wide x 200' long with an effective
height of 16' would equal 320,000 cubic feet.
Step 2: Determine the number of air changes per hour required to maintain desired
indoor temperatures.
This is an extremely important determination. Too many air
changes will result in unnecessary cost while too few air changes will not acheive the
indoor conditions desired. The best approach, short of a major engineering study of heat
gains, etc., is a common sense approach of using the known conditions inside and outside
the structure.
It is first necessary to know the climate design conditions of Dry Bulb and Wet Bulb for
your location. This information is available from ASHRAE publications 1% scale (or from
Premier's web site in section x) if there is a weather reporting station in your area. I.E.
design conditions for Phoenix, AZ., is 109(f) Db and 69(f) Wb. This condition is only
exceeded during 1% of the cooling season therefore the conditions are at the high end of the
range. These conditions are "concurrent" meaning that they are present at the same time.
Using the formula to determine the predicted discharge temperature during these
conditions you can know the temperature of the air you have available to use in the cooling
of the building. ( Discharge temperature = (EDb - EWb) x SE or 109 - 69 = 40 x .9 = LDb
36(f) temperature drop. Db - LDb = 109 - 36 = 73 degrees (f) Dry Bulb discharge
temperature. The air temperature of 73 degrees (f) is necessary to know for the next part of
step 2. (Note: This procedure does not take into consideration the density ratio which
would have to be considered in higher elevations).

Refer to following table to determine the proper number of air changes.

Suggested air changes per hour
Leaving Air
Temperature

Temperature over
ambient*

Air
Changes/Hr**

Above 78(f)

20 degrees (f)

30 to 60

76 (f) to 78 (f)

15 to 20 (f)

20 to 40

74 (f) to 76 (f)

10 to 15 (f)

15 to 30

72 (f) to 74 (f)

5 to 10 (f)

12 to 20

under 72 degrees (f)

less than 10 (f)

10 to 15

* Average amount indoor temperature exceeds the outdoor temperature when evaporative
cooling is not in use at design conditions or interpolation/extrapolation of these conditions.
*It is common practice to cool
only to the height actually used and needs cooling. It is not bad to have a heat layer at the
roof level provided the cool air coming into the structure does not flow through this layer.
Most cooling installations will extend the discharge duct to the height above the floor
where cooling is preferred and the capture area of the exhaust ducts likewise start at this
level. This method does not disturb the heat layer.
Using the above table and a leaving discharge temperature (into the building) of 73
degrees (f) and determining that the indoor air temperature (ambient Db) and the outdoor
temperature (ambient Db) is 120 and 109. The difference is 11 degrees (f) Referring to the
above table, we see that we should plan approximately 12 to 20 air changes per hour. The
reason for the range of air changes is to allow for other conditions not heretofore
considered. Among these other considerations is human comfort cooling as compared to
equipment cooing, etc. let's continue to size the equipment needed.
Let's summarize what we have determined so far. The cubic capacity to be cooled is
320,000 cubic feet. The discharge temperature required is 73 degrees (f). The number of
air changes is between 12 and 20. Let's (I hate to say it) assume that this structure is
heavily populated with people. We should than consider a greater number of air changes to
assure the best human comfort level without increasing costs more than absolutely
necessary.
To determine the total Cubic Feet per Minute of air flow required to cool this structure
as indicated, multiple 320,000 (cubic feet) by 20/ 60 = 106,666 Cubic Feet per Minute
(CFM). (Remember to express the requirement in the same unit of measure as the capacity.

In this instance, that is Cubic Feet per minute rather than per hour and that is the reason I
added the "divide by 60" into the formula). It is alright to round off this amount of CFM to
107,000 if you like round numbers. In fact if the number of air changes was reduced to, say
18 changes per hour, the amount of CFM would be 96,000 CFM. You can readily see why
the number of air changes is so important.
It is common practice to refer to air changes as minutes of air change. I.E. in this
instance, the 20 changes would be expressed as one (1) air change every 3 minutes.
Another way to prove the process is to multiple the CFM X air changes (107,000 X 3 =
321,000 CFM which is close enough) Remember, we are not sizing a rocket ship and
afterall, we are dealing with climate conditions that are exceeded only 1% of the time
during the cooling season.
Next, we need to answer the question of how many individual coolers and the location
of the equipment. Do we want to put ten (10 )10,700 CFM coolers across the roof of the
strucure (on mounted on the side or ground) or do we want to install two (2) 53,500 CFM
coolers or perhaps five (5) 21,400 CFM units? The answer to this question lies mostly in
the consideration of costs. Cost of acquiring the five (5) units in this example would cost
less than either of the other options.
The next step would be to click here to send e-mail to Premier Industries, Inc., and ask
for a quotation and written specifications for any or all the sizes considered. Just tell us the
CFM and External Static Pressure (pressure required to push the air through the duct
system external to the cooler). From this simple information, we can quote you prices.
Important postscript: The air change method of sizing is a common sense approach. Since
evaporative cooling quickly exhausts heat (in this case every 3 minutes), heat gain is
considered in the above steps we took and is controlled by the number of air changes. It
stands to reason that the indoor heat gain is reflected in the Dry Bulb difference between
indoor and outdoor temperatures. This method automatically considers all the pertinent
data by measuring the actual conditions in an existing strucure that must be dealt with.
This method is also useful in new structures to design the cooling system except the heat
gain has to be determined in advance of having the structure available to measure.
After going through the above detail to approach the sizing of evaporative cooling on a
quasi scientific basis, experience tells us that 1 air exchange every 3 minutes is more than
adequate for any conditions that would arise in Phoenix, AZ.
In new buildings, the Engineer would predict the outcome based on the known factors of
discharge temperatures and outdoor Dry Bulb. Indoor heat gain would have to be
determined to complete the process.
SENSIBLE HEAT REMOVAL SIZING METHOD:
To determine the amount of air volume (measured in CFM) required to remove indoor heat
gain, the following formula can be used.

SCFM = Indoor Sensible Heat Gain (BTUH)

1.08 x (IDB-LDB) x Density Ratio
Where IDB = Indoor (Design) Dry Bulb

LDB = Leaving Dry Bulb from

Cooler
Example: An indoor heat gain of 144,000 BTUH at an altitude of 4000 feet. An
Evaporative Cooler with 12" cooling media @ 500 FPM velocity is to be used to remove
this heat gain. Outside design conditions are 94 Dry Bulb and 64 Wet Bulb with a design
indoor temperature of 800 (f) Dry Bulb.
The discharge temperature (Db) must first be determined. Using the formula of ODb (SE x (ODb - OWb)), the following result is reached. 94 - (.89 x (94 - 64) = 67.30 (f)
LDb.
The Density Ratio is determined from tables available in the formulas and tables section.
At 4000 feet elevation the Density Ratio is .87.
To determine SCFM to offset this indoor heat gain we can now utilize the formula:
144,000 BTUH

=
144,000
1.08 x (80 - 67.3) x .87

11.933

SCFM 12,067
This result indicates we need at least 12,067 Cubic Feet per Minute of air flow @ 67.30 (f)
to offset the indoor heat gain of 144,000 BTUH.

Other types of applications:

Inviron Cooling System (ICS)

A very effective and low cost application of evaporative cooling in a building such as the
one described above could be cooled with a system we have named "Inviron Cooling". In
it's simplest form, this type system uses cooling sections mounted in one wall and exhaust
fans in the opposite wall. The exhaust fans pull the air through the cooling sections and
exhausts the air to the outside. It is somewhat like making the entire structure into an
evaporative cooler. Since exhaust fans are required, even with powered air systems, it is
not an extra cost and since there is no expensive blower and motor, the cost is at the lowest
possible.
This type cooling system is presently being used very successfully in several 40,000
square foot warehouse/production type buildings in Las Vegas, NV.

Converta-Pak(tm-AZ)

The Converta-Pak(tm-AZ) is a conversion and upgrade system that consists of a wet

section and blank panels. It is intended to convert the old, existing Swamp Cooler to the
new high efficient evaporative cooling technology. In the above example of 109Db and
69Wb conditions with a discharge temperature of 73 degrees (f) using 12" thick rigid
media, the old swamp cooler would have discharged 91 degree ((F) air.
This simple and low cost upgrade/conversion system can also be very effectively used
on Rotary Wheel type coolers. These type coolers are really archaic but many are still in
use. It is a simple process of removing the "evaporative wheel" and replacing it with a
properly sized Converta-Pak. Since the Rotary Wheel type unit blocks almost half the face
area, the conversion also almost doubles the air volume in addition to much lower
discharge temperatures.
Refer to the section on Converta-Pak(tm-AZ) from our home page for much more
information about this system.

Precooler

The Premier Precooler is a wet section with rigid media, usually 3" to 6" thick. This unit is
used to pre-cool the air passing over/through heat exchangers or heat generating equipment.
The best example is conventional air conditioners. The precooler is placed over the air
intake of the condenser coil. The colder air passing over the condenser will increase the
heat transfer rate considerably thereby allowing it to operate at a much higher efficiency
and lower cost. It will also extend the useful life of compressors, etc.
The principle is simply to present an air intake temperature at the condenser coil that the
equipment was designed for. All manufacturers specifications indicate that the hotter the
air across the condenser, during cooling mode, the lower the efficiency. A 60,000 BTUH
air conditioner at 80 degrees (f) ambient, may drop to only 45,000 to 50,000 BTUH when
the ambient temperature rises to the 100 - 120 degree (f) level. In the Southwest, it is
common for rooftop temperatures to reach 140 degrees or more during high heat periods.
Refer to this section from our home page for more information about Precoolers.

Custom Design/Manufactured Equipment

Premier specializes in custom designed and manufactured equipment. The "Make-Up Air
Unit" or "Evaporative Cooling with Heat" type unit is a specialty with us. We can assist in
the initial design of the Equipment and then produce the item to specifications required.
This allows the customer to build the equipment to meet the need rather than have to
change the need to accommodate existing equipment.
Refer to that section from our home page for more information.

Rigid Media

Premier stocks large quantities of Rigid Media, . We can cut to size and ship next day.
Click here to send e-mail to us for a price quotation or answer questions you may have
about this media.
Refer to this section from our home page for more information about Rigid Media.

Mobile Coolers

The Premier Mobile-Cool (c) unit is a portable evaporative cooler with 8" thick Rigid
Media and Fan. This unit is designed to be moved to the area where spot cooling is needed.
A water hose and 120VAC power supply is all it takes to be in operation. It also works
very well as a "through the wall" permanent mount cooler!
Bakersfield AP

495 104 70 73

Little Rock AP

257

99 76 80 -- Barstow AP

2142 106 68 73

Texarkana AP

361

98 76 80 -- Blythe AP

390 112 71 75

Colorado:

Boulder

- -- Burbank AP

699

5385 93 59 64 -- Chico

95 68 71

205 103 69 71

Colorado Springs AP 6173 91 58 63 -- El Centro AP

-30 112 74 81

Denver AP

5283 93 59 64 -- Eureaka AP

217

Pueblo AP

4639 97 61 67 -- Fresno AP

326 102 70 72

Idaho:

Boise AP

- -- Los Angeles AP

2842 96 65 68 -- Needles AP

99

68 60 62
83 68 70

913 112 71 75

DIMENSIONS/SPECIFICATIONS:
MODEL
NO.

CFM
RANGE

CABINET DIMENSIONS
WIDTH HEIGHT LENGTH

MEDIA
DEPTH

MOTOR HP @ EXTERNAL STATIC

PRESSURE (inches w.g.)

PUMP FAN
HP

DIA

.
25"

.50"

.75"

1.0"

1.25"

1.5" 1.75"

2.0"

2.5"

PCEC-60

45006500

52"

41"

54"

12"

1/60

18"

1.0

1.5

1.5

2.0

3.0

3.0

5.0

5.0

5.0

PCEC-80

65009500

52"

53"

60"

12"

1/30

20"

2.0

2.0

3.0

3.0

5.0

5.0

5.0

7.5

7.5

PCEC-120

950012500

62"

60"

64"

12"

1/30

22"

3.0

3.0

5.0

5.0

5.0

7.5

7.5

7.5

10.0

PCEC-160

1250016000

68"

67"

72"

12"

1/6

25"

3.0

5.0

5.0

7.5

10.0

10.0

15.0

15.0

15.0

Note: Inquire with factory for details on accessories.

Note: CFM is based on delivered air (not nominal or industry standard) at static pressures
shown to determine motor horsepower.

PERFORMANCE DATA
INLET TEMPERATURE

TEMP
DROP

DRY BULB

WET BULB

RH %

WEB BULB
DEPRESSION

70

54

30

16

90%

14.4

55.6

80

58

25

22

90%

19.8

60.2

90

63

20

27

90%

24.3

65.7

100

66

15

34

90%

30.6

69.4

110

69

10

41

90%

36.9

73.1

120

69

51

90%

45.9

74.1

EFFICIENCY %

DISCHARGE
TEMP

Note: All temperatures are degrees Fahrenheit. RH% = Percent Relative Humidity. Temp Drop is Dry bulb
temperature drop across the cooling media. Discharge Temp is degrees (f) as measured immediately behind
the discharge side of the media.

Evaporative cooling is effective anytime there is a web bulb depression (difference between dry bulb
and wet bulb temperatures). In fact, "dry bulb temperature reduction due to the evaporation of water
always results in lower effective temperature regardless of relative humidity level" (1995 ASHRAE
handbook, chapter 47, Evaporative cooling)

Air Velocity
Air Ducts
(m/s)

(ft/s)

Combustion air ducts

12 - 20

40 - 66

Air inlet to boiler room

1-3

3.3 - 9.8

Warm air for house heating

0.8 - 1.0

2.6 - 3.3

Vacuum cleaning pipe

8 - 15

26 - 49

Compressed air pipe

20 - 30

66 - 98

Ventilation ducts (hospitals)

1.8 - 4

5.9 - 13

Ventilation ducts (office buildings)

2.0 - 4.5

6.5 - 15

1 m/s = 196.85 ft/min

1 m3/s = 3600 m3/h = 1000 dm3(liter)/s = 35.32 ft3/s = 2118.9 ft3/min =
13200 Imp.gal (UK)/min = 15852 gal (US)/min

1 Pa = 1 N/m2 = 1.4504x10-4 lb/in2 = 1x10-5 bar = 4.03x10-3 in water =

0.336x10-3 ft water = 0.1024 mm water = 0.295x10-3 in mercury =
7.55x10-3 mm mercury = 0.1024 kg/m2 = 0.993x10-5 atm

Low and Medium Pressure Ducts

Maximum friction rate 0.1 - 0.2 inches W.G./100 ft

Velocity 1,500 - 2,000 ft/min (8 - 10 m/s)

Air Flow Rate

Maximum Velocity

(m3/h)

(CFM)

(m/s)

(ft/min)

< 300

< 175

2.5

490

< 1,000

< 590

590

< 2,000

< 1,200

785

< 4,000

< 2,350

980

< 10,000

< 5,900

1,180

> 10,000

> 5,900

1,380

High Pressure Ducts

Maximum friction rate less than 0.4 inches W.G./100 ft

Velocity 2,000 - 3,500 ft/min (10 - 18 m/s)

Shafts
Air Flow Rate

Maximum Velocity

(m3/h)

(CFM)

(m/s)

(ft/min)

< 5,000

< 2,950

12

2,350

< 10,000

< 5,900

15

2,950

< 17,000

< 10,000

17

3,350

< 25,000

< 14,700

20

3,940

< 40,000

< 23,500

22

4,300

< 70,000

< 41,000

25

4,900

< 100,000

< 59,000

30

5,800

It is common to keep main duct velocity above 20 m/s (3940 ft/min).

Corridors
Air Flow Rate

Maximum Velocity

(m3/h)

(CFM)

(m/s)

(ft/min)

< 5,000

< 2,950

10

2,000

< 10,000

< 5,900

12

2,350

< 17,000

< 10,000

15

2,950

< 25,000

< 14,700

17

3,350

< 40,000

< 23,500

20

3,940

User Areas

Offices, receptions, lounges and similar

Air Flow Rate

Maximum Velocity

(m3/h)

(CFM)

(m/s)

(ft/min)

< 5,000

< 2,950

10

2,000

< 10,000

< 5,900

12

2,350

The duct velocity in air condition and ventilation systems should not exceed certain limits to avoid
unnecessary noise generation and pressure drop in the duct work.

The limits of velocities depends on the actual application. The background noise in an industrial building
is significant higher than the noise in a public building and more duct generated noise can be accepted.
Commonly accepted duct velocities can be found in the table below.
Velocity - v
Service

Public buildings

Industrial plant

(m/s)

(ft/min)

(m/s)

(ft/min)

Air intake from outside

2.5 - 4.5

500 - 900

5-6

1000 - 1200

Heater connection to fan

3.5 - 4.5

700 - 900

5-7

1000 - 1400

Main supply ducts

5.0 - 8.0

1000 - 1500

6 - 12

1200 - 2400

Branch supply ducts

2.5 - 3.0

500 - 600

4.5 - 9

900 - 1800

Supply registers and grilles

1.2 - 2.3

250 - 450

1.5 - 2.5

350 - 500

Low level supply registers

0.8 - 1.2

150 - 250

Main extract ducts

4.5 - 8.0

900 - 1500

6 - 12

1200 - 2400

Branch extract ducts

2.5 - 3.0

500 - 600

4.5 - 9

900 - 1800

The design of the ductworks in ventilation systems are often done by using the

Velocity Method
Constant Pressure Loss Method (or Equal Friction Method)

Static Pressure Recovery Method

The Velocity Method

Proper air flow velocities for the application considering the environment are selected. Sizes of ducts are
then given by the continuity equation like:
A=q/v

(1)

where
A = duct cross sectional area (m2)
q = air flow rate (m3/s)
v= air speed (m/s)
A proper velocity will depend on the application and the environment. The table below indicate commonly
used velocity limits:

Type of Duct

Comfort Systems

Industrial Systems

High Speed
Systems

Main ducts

4 - 7 m/s

8 - 12 m/s

10 - 18 m/s

Main branch ducts

3 - 5 m/s

5 - 8 m/s

6 - 12 m/s

Branch ducts

1 - 3 m/s

3 - 5 m/s

5 - 8 m/s

Be aware that high velocities close to outlets and inlets may generate unacceptable noise.

The Constant Pressure Loss Method (or Equal Friction Loss Method)
A proper speed is selected in the main duct close to the fan. The pressure loss in the main duct are then
used as a template for the rest of the system. The pressure (or friction) loss is kept at a constant level
throughout the system. The method gives an automatic velocity reduction through the system. The
method may add more duct cross sectional changes and can increase the number of components in the
system compared to other methods.

The Static Pressure Recovery Method

With the static pressure recovery method the secondary and branch ducts are selected to achieve more
or less the same static pressure in front of all outlets or inlets. The major advantage of the method are
more common conditions for outlets and inlets. Unfortunate the method is complicated to use and
therefore seldom used.
Support spacing for the ductwork is typical based upon deflection, stress and cylinder buckling analysis.

For sheet metal ductwork the spacing between hangers should not exceed the maximum distances listed
in the table below.

Horizontal Ductwork
Ducts Size
Maximum Spacing
(Feet)

Area
(Sq.Ft)

Diameter
(Inches)

less than 4

less than 5

4 to 10

5 to 38

more than 10

more than 38

Vertical Ductwork

Ducts Type

Maximum Spacing
(Feet)

round

12

rectangular

10

1 ft2 = 0.0929 m2 = 144 in2

1 ft (foot) = 0.3048 m = 12 in

Note! The support systems for ducting may provide restraint in three directions against displacement and
rotation and consideration must be given when restraining ducts to avoid the development of excessive
internal duct stresses such as possible expansion or contraction due to temperature variations.

Recommended maximum space between hangers for straight horizontal pipes and tubes can be found in
the table below. The values does not apply where loads are concentrated with flanges, valves,

specialties, etc. A common rule of thumb is to support load of this type with hangers on both sides of the
load.

Nominal
Diameter
Pipe
NPS
(inches)

Recommended maximum space between

Hangers (feet)
Standard Steel Pipe

Recommended Rod Size

(inches)

Copper Tube

Water

Steam

Water

Copper

Stainless
Steel

1/2

3/8

3/8

3/4

3/8

3/8

3/8

3/8

1 1/2

12

3/8

3/8

10

13

3/8

3/8

2 1/2

11

14

1/2

1/2

12

15

10

1/2

1/2

14

17

12

1/2

5/8

17

21

14

5/8

3/4

19

24

16

3/4

3/4

10

22

26

18

3/4

7/8

12

23

30

19

3/4

7/8

14

25

32

16

27

35

18

28

37

20

30

39

1-1/4

24

32

42

1-1/4

1 ft (foot) = 0.3048 m
Ductwork sheet metal gauges are indicated in the table below:

Comments

Sheet Metal Gauge

Sheet Thickness
(inches)

Welded Ductwork

0.312

0.2810

0.2650

0.2500

0.2340

0.2187

0.2030

0.1875

0.1720

0.1560

10

0.1400

11

0.1250

12

0.1090

13

0.0937

SMACNA1)
Ductwork

Not Suited for

Ductwork

14

0.0780

15

0.0700

16

0.0625

17

0.0560

18

0.0500

19

0.0437

20

0.0375

21

0.0343

22

0.0312

23

0.0280

24

0.0250

25

0.0218

26

0.0187

27

0.0170

28

0.0156

29

0.0140

30

0.0125

31

0.0109

32

0.0100

33

0.0093

34

0.0085

35

0.0078

36

0.0070

Friction loss (head loss) in standard air ducts are indicated in the diagram below:

The diagram is based on standard air 0.075 lb/ft3 in clean round galvanized metal ducts.

1 inch water = 248.8 N/m2 (Pa)= 0.0361 lb/in2 (psi) = 25.4 kg/m2 = 0.0739
in mercury
1 ft3/min (cfm) = 1.7 m3/h = 0.47 l/s

1 ft/min = 5.08x10-3 m/s

1 inch = 25.4 mm = 2.54 cm = 0.0254 m = 0.08333 ft

Friction loss (head loss) in standard air ducts are indicated in the diagram below:

Air flow - volume and velocity - due to stack or flue effect

caused by indoor hot and outdoor cold temperature
difference
Sponsored Links
A temperature difference between the outside and inside air will create a "natural draft" forcing the air to
flow through the building.
The direction of the flow depends on the temperatures. If inside temperature is higher than outside
temperature, inside air density is less than outside air density, and inside air will flow up and out of the
upper parts of the building. Cold outside air will flow into the lower parts of the building.
If outside temperature is higher than inside air temperature - the air flow will be in the opposite direction.

Natural Draft Head

The natural draft is caused by the difference in outside and inside air density. The natural draft head can
therefore be expressed as
dpmmH2O = (o - r) h

(1)

where
dpmmH2O = head in millimeter water column (mm H2O)
o = density outside air (kg/m3)

r = density inside air (kg/m3)

h = height between outlet and inlet air (m)

Natural Draft Pressure

Equation (1) can be modified to SI pressure units like
p = g (o - r) h

(1b)

where
p = pressure (Pa, N/m2)
g = acceleration of gravity - 9.81 (m/s2)

Density and Temperature

With air density of 1.293 kg/m3 at 0oC, the air density at any temperature can be expressed as
= (1.293 kg/m3) (273 K) / (273 K + t)

(2)

or
= 353 / (273 + t) (2b)
where
= density of air (kg/m3)
t = the actual temperature (oC)
Equation (1) above can easily be modified by replacing the densities with equation (2).

Natural Draft Pressure Calculator

The calculator below can be used to calculate the natural draft pressure generated by the inside and
outside temperature difference.
-20

20

10

outside temperature (oC)

inside temperature (oC)

height (m)

Major and Minor System Loss

The natural draft force will be balanced to the major and minor loss in ducts, inlets and outlets. The major
and minor loss in the system can be expressed as
p = (l / dh) (r v2 / 2) + 1/2 r v2

(3)

where
p = pressure loss (Pa, N/m2, lbf/ft2)
= D'Arcy-Weisbach friction coefficient
l = length of duct or pipe (m, ft)
dh = hydraulic diameter (m, ft)
= minor loss coefficient (summarized)

Air Flow and Air Velocity

Equation (1) and (3) can be combined to express the air velocity through the duct
v = [ (2 g (o - r) h ) / ( (l r / dh) + r ) ]1/2

(4)

Equation (4) can also be modified to express the air flow volume through the duct
q = dh2 /4 [ (2 g (o - r) h ) / ( (l r / dh) + r ) ]1/2

(5)

where
q = air volume (m3/s)

Natural Draft Air Flow and Velocity Calculator

The calculator below can be used to calculate the air flow volume and velocity in a duct similar to the
drawing above. The friction coefficient used is 0.019 which is appropriate for normal galvanized steel
ducts.
-10

20

0.2

3.5

outside temperature (oC)

inside temperature (oC)

height (m)

duct hydraulic diameter (m)

duct length (m)

minor loss coefficient (summarized)

Example - Natural Draft

Calculate the air flow caused by natural draft in a normal family house with two floors. The height of the
hot air column from ground floor to outlet air duct above roof is approximately 8 m. The outside
temperature is -10 oC, the inside temperature is 20 oC.
A duct of diameter 0.2 m goes from 1. floor to the outlet above the roof. The length of the duct is 3.5 m.
Air leakages through the building are neglected. The minor coefficients are summarized to 1.
The density of the outside air can be calculated like
o = (1.293 kg/m3) (273 K) / ((273 K) + (-10 oC))
= 1.342 kg/m3
The density of the inside air can be calculated like
r = (1.293 kg/m3) ( 273 K) / ((273 K) + (20 oC))
= 1.205 kg/m3
The velocity through the duct can be calculated like
v = [ (2 (9.81m/s2) ((1.342 kg/m3) - (1.205 kg/m3)) (8 m) ) / ( 0.019 (3.5m)(1.205 kg/m3)/(0.2 m) + 1(1.205
kg/m3) ) ]1/2
= 3.7 m/s
The air flow can be calculated like
q = (3.7 m/s) 3.14 (0.2 m)2 / 4
= 0.12 m3/s

Note!
that these equations can be used for dry air, not for mass flow and energy loss calculations where air
humidity may have vast effects.

Air curtains and air screens blows heated air (or cooled air in summertime) across door openings and
reduces the ingress of cold air (or hot air in summertime) from the outside due to wind forces and natural
draught through the building.

Air screens acts with heated (or cooled) air

Air curtains acts with unheated (or not cooled) air

Actual Applications

Door-less shop fronts

Workshop entrances

Doors of public buildings which are frequently opened

Actual Designs

Vertically mounted - on one or both sides of the opening

Horizontally mounted - on top, bottom or both top and bottom of the opening

Forces acting on an opening in the wall

The forces acting on an opening like a door into a warehouse, mall or similar can be summarized to

wind
natural draught

The natural draught depends on the height of the building (open inside height) and the temperature
difference between outside and inside air. The differential pressure due to natural draught in a building
doorway with inside temperature 20oC, outside temperature 0oC and building height 10 m is
approximately 10 Pa. With -20oC and a building height of 20 m the natural draught pressure is close to
40 Pa.

Calculate the natural draught force!

The wind force acting on an opening in the wall is proportional with mass times the velocity squared. The
pressure at 10 m/s (36 km/h, 22 mph, Beaufort Fresh Breeze ) is 60 Pa.

Air Velocities
By direction the airflow with an angel out of the door it is possible to resist the natural draught and wind
forces. The strength of an air curtain follows the formula

mass times the velocity squared

An Air Curtain that blows at twice the speed has four times the resisting power at the same air volume.
In general the discharge velocities should not exceed

discharge from above > 5 - 15 m/s (15 - 50 ft/s)

discharge from below > 2 - 5 m/s (5 - 15 ft/s)

discharge from side > 10 - 15 m/s (30 - 50 ft/s)

Note that maximum discharge velocities depends on location of the discharge nozzles. The discharge
velocity must be increased if the air curtain unit is mounted higher if the air stream shall hit the floor with
the required velocity that shall stabilize the air stream.

For ware houses, shopping malls and similar buildings with openings up to 2.5 m the velocity should not
exceed 5 - 9 m/s. For industrial buildings the velocity can be exceeded to 35 - 40 m/s.

Air quantities
The quantities required depends on many variables and an exact calculation may often be hard to
perform. Values of 2,000 - 5,000 m3/h air per m2 door opening are common.
Note! Exposed systems with

lot of wind
low out door temperatures

high buildings

may even double the values.

Air Flow and Potential Differential Pressure

The strength of an air curtain is the maximum potential differential pressure it can resist. The potential
pressure resistance generated by an airflow through an inlet opening can be expressed as
p = 2.2 q2 sin() / b H3/4

(1)

where
p = potential differential pressure over the opening in the wall (Pa, N/m 2)
q = air flow through discharge nozzle (m3/s per meter opening width in wall)
= airflow angle (normally between 20 - 30o)
b = depth of discharge nozzle (m)
H = height of door opening (m)
The average air velocity through the discharge nozzle can be expressed as
v=q/b

(2)

where
v = average velocity (m/s)
Note! The average air velocity is per meter opening width in wall. The velocity should not exceed the
values mentioned above.

Air Curtains Calculator

The calculator below can be used to estimate the strength of an air curtain by calculating the pressure
difference and velocity in the air flow. Replace the default values with the actual values.
8

q - volume capacity per meter port - (m3/s)

25

- airflow angle (degrees)

b - depth of inlet opening (m)

2.5

H - height of port (m)

The differential pressure shall compensate the differential pressure caused by natural draught and wind
velocity.

Calculate the natural draught force

Calculate dynamic pressure due to wind velocity

Example - Air Curtain

The height of an entrance opening in to a mall is 2.5 m. The depth of the inlet is 1 m. The air flow angle
through the inlet is 25 degrees and the air flow per meter width of the opening is 8 m3/s.
The force against natural draught and wind forces can be calculated with (1) as
p = 2.2 (8 m3/s)2 sin(25) / 1 (2.5 m)3/4
= 29.9 Pa
The velocity through the inlet can be calculated with (2) as
v = (8 m3/s) / (1 m)
= 8 m/s

Modulating Air Curtains

Forces compensated with air curtains constantly varies with outside temperature and wind velocity and
some control devices modulating the air flow angles and volumes are often required.

with outside temperature close to inside temperature and low wind - the curtain air flow is
minimized and the air flow is directed straight through the doorway
with outside temperatures far from inside temperature - and a lot of wind - the curtain air flow is
maximized and the air flow is directed out of the doorway

A modulated control can be achieved with one or more temperature transmitters located as indicated in
the figure above.

Discharge temperatures (winter conditions)

The air screen discharge temperature should be kept within certain limits. For winter conditions

smaller systems - temperature range 35 - 50oC (95 - 125oF)

larger systems - temperature range 25 - 35oC (80 - 95oF)

suction temperature - temperature range 5 - 15oC (40 - 60oF)