ACID RAIN

INTRODUCTION
Acid rain is a rain or any other form of precipitation that is unusually acidic, meaning that it
possesses elevated levels of hydrogen ions (low pH). It can have harmful effects on plants,
aquatic animals and infrastructure. Acid rain is caused by emissions of sulfur
dioxide and nitrogen oxide, which react with the water molecules in the atmosphere to produce
acids. Governments have made efforts since the 1970s to reduce the release of sulfur dioxide into
the atmosphere with positive results. Nitrogen oxides can also be produced naturally
by lightning strikes and sulfur dioxide is produced by volcanic eruptions. The chemicals in acid
rain can cause paint to peel, corrosion of steel structures such as bridges, and erosion of stone
statues.

Definition
"Acid rain" is a popular term referring to the deposition of wet (rain, snow, sleet, fog,
cloudwater, and dew) and dry (acidifying particles and gases) acidic components. Distilled
water, once carbon dioxide is removed, has a neutral pH of 7. Liquids with a pH less than 7 are
acidic, and those with a pH greater than 7 are alkaline. "Clean" or unpolluted rain has an acidic
pH, but usually no lower than 5.7, because carbon dioxide and water in the air react together to
form carbonic acid, a weak acid according to the following reaction:
H2O (l) + CO2 (g)

H2CO3 (aq)

Carbonic acid then can ionize in water forming low concentrations

of hydronium and carbonate ions:
H2O (l) + H2CO3 (aq)

HCO3 (aq) + H3O+ (aq)

However, unpolluted rain can also contain other chemicals which affect its pH (acidity
level). A common example is nitric acid produced by electric discharge in the
atmosphere such as lightning.[1] Acid deposition as an environmental issue (discussed
later in the article) would include additional acids to H2CO3.

History
The corrosive effect of polluted, acidic city air on limestone and marble was noted in the 17th
century by John Evelyn, who remarked upon the poor condition of the Arundel marbles.[2]Since
the Industrial Revolution, emissions of sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides into the atmosphere
have increased.[3][4] In 1852, Robert Angus Smith was the first to show the relationship between
acid rain and atmospheric pollution in Manchester, England.[5]
Though acidic rain was discovered in 1853, it was not until the late 1960s that scientists began
widely observing and studying the phenomenon.[6] The term "acid rain" was coined in 1872 by
Robert Angus Smith.[7] Canadian Harold Harvey was among the first to research a "dead" lake.
Public awareness of acid rain in the U.S increased in the 1970s after The New York
Times published reports from the Hubbard Brook Experimental Forest in New Hampshire of the
myriad deleterious environmental effects shown to result from it.[8][9]
Occasional pH readings in rain and fog water of well below 2.4 have been reported in
industrialized areas.[3] Industrial acid rain is a substantial problem in China and Russia[10][11] and
areas downwind from them. These areas all burn sulfur-containing coal to generate heat and
electricity.[12]
The problem of acid rain has not only increased with population and industrial growth, but has
become more widespread. The use of tall smokestacks to reduce local pollution has contributed
to the spread of acid rain by releasing gases into regional atmospheric circulation.[13][14] Often
deposition occurs a considerable distance downwind of the emissions, with mountainous regions
tending to receive the greatest deposition (simply because of their higher rainfall). An example
of this effect is the low pH of rain which falls in Scandinavia.
Emissions of chemicals leading to acidification
The most important gas which leads to acidification is sulfur dioxide. Emissions of nitrogen
oxides which are oxidized to form nitric acid are of increasing importance due to stricter controls
on emissions of sulfur containing compounds. 70 Tg(S) per year in the form of SO2 comes
from fossil fuel combustion and industry, 2.8 Tg(S) from wildfires and 78 Tg(S) per year
from volcanoes.[24]

Natural phenomena
The principal natural phenomena that contribute acid-producing gases to the atmosphere are
emissions from volcanoes. Thus, for example, fumaroles from the Laguna Caliente crater of Pos
Volcano create extremely high amounts of acid rain and fog, with acidity as high as a pH of 2,
clearing an area of any vegetation and frequently causing irritation to the eyes and lungs of
inhabitants in nearby settlements.[25] Acid-producing gasses are also created
by biological processes that occur on the land, in wetlands, and in the oceans. The major
biological source of sulfur containing compounds is dimethyl sulfide.
Nitric acid in rainwater is an important source of fixed nitrogen for plant life, and is also
produced by electrical activity in the atmosphere such as lightning.
Acidic deposits have been detected in glacial ice thousands of years old in remote parts of the
globe.[13]
Soils of coniferous forests are naturally very acidic due to the shedding of needles, and the
results of this phenomenon should not be confused with acid rain.
Human activity
The principal cause of acid rain is sulfur and nitrogen compounds from human sources, such
as electricity generation, factories, and motor vehicles. Electrical power complexes utilising coal
are among the greatest contributors to gaseous pollutions that are responsible for acidic rain. The
gases can be carried hundreds of kilometers in the atmosphere before they are converted to acids
and deposited. In the past, factories had short funnels to let out smoke but this caused many
problems locally; thus, factories now have taller smoke funnels. However, dispersal from these
taller stacks causes pollutants to be carried farther, causing widespread ecological damage.
Acid deposition
Wet deposition
Wet deposition of acids occurs when any form of precipitation (rain, snow, and so on.) removes
acids from the atmosphere and delivers it to the Earth's surface. This can result from the
deposition of acids produced in the raindrops (see aqueous phase chemistry above) or by the
precipitation removing the acids either in clouds or below clouds. Wet removal of both gases and
aerosols are both of importance for wet deposition.

Dry deposition
Acid deposition also occurs via dry deposition in the absence of precipitation. This can be
responsible for as much as 20 to 60% of total acid deposition.[27] This occurs when particles and
gases stick to the ground, plants or other surfaces.
Adverse effects
Acid rain has been shown to have adverse impacts on forests, freshwaters and soils, killing insect
and aquatic life-forms as well as causing damage to buildings and having impacts on human
health.

Surface waters and aquatic animals

Both the lower pH and higher aluminium concentrations in surface water that occur as a result of
acid rain can cause damage to fish and other aquatic animals. At pHs lower than 5 most fish eggs
will not hatch and lower pHs can kill adult fish. As lakes and rivers become more acidic
biodiversity is reduced. Acid rain has eliminated insect life and some fish species, including
the brook trout in some lakes, streams, and creeks in geographically sensitive areas, such as the
Adirondack Mountains of the United States.[28] However, the extent to which acid rain
contributes directly or indirectly via runoff from the catchment to lake and river acidity (i.e.,
depending on characteristics of the surrounding watershed) is variable. The United States
Environmental Protection Agency's (EPA) website states: "Of the lakes and streams surveyed,
acid rain caused acidity in 75% of the acidic lakes and about 50% of the acidic streams".[28]
Soils
Soil biology and chemistry can be seriously damaged by acid rain. Some microbes are unable to
tolerate changes to low pH and are killed.[29] The enzymes of these microbes
are denatured (changed in shape so they no longer function) by the acid. The hydronium ions of
acid rain also mobilize toxins such as aluminium, and leach away essential nutrients and
minerals such as magnesium.[30]
2 H+ (aq) + Mg2+ (clay)

2 H+ (clay) + Mg2+ (aq)

Soil chemistry can be dramatically changed when base cations, such as calcium and
magnesium, are leached by acid rain thereby affecting sensitive species, such as sugar
maple(Acer saccharum).[31][32]
Forests and other vegetation
Adverse effects may be indirectly related to acid rain, like the acid's effects on soil (see
above) or high concentration of gaseous precursors to acid rain. High altitude forests are
especially vulnerable as they are often surrounded by clouds and fog which are more acidic
than rain.
Other plants can also be damaged by acid rain, but the effect on food crops is minimized by
the application of lime and fertilizers to replace lost nutrients. In cultivated areas, limestone
may also be added to increase the ability of the soil to keep the pH stable, but this tactic is
largely unusable in the case of wilderness lands. When calcium is leached from the needles
of red spruce, these trees become less cold tolerant and exhibit winter injury and even
death.[33][34]
Ocean acidification
Coral's limestone skeletal is sensitive to pH drop, because the calcium carbonate, core
component of the limestone dissolves in acidic (low pH) solutions.

Effects of Acid Rain - Human Health

Human health effects
Acid rain looks, feels, and tastes just like clean rain. The harm to people from acid
rain is not direct. Walking in acid rain, or even swimming in an acid lake, is no more
dangerous than walking or swimming in clean water. However, the pollutants that
cause acid rainsulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx)do damage human
health. These gases interact in the atmosphere to form fine sulfate and nitrate
particles that can be transported long distances by winds and inhaled deep into
people's lungs. Fine particles can also penetrate indoors. Many scientific studies
have identified a relationship between elevated levels of fine particles and increased
illness and premature death from heart and lung disorders, such as asthma and
bronchitis.

Based on health concerns, SO2 and NOx have historically been regulated under the
Clean Air Act, including the Acid Rain Program. In the eastern U.S., sulfate aerosols
make up about 25 percent of fine particles. By lowering SO2 and NOx emissions
from power generation, the Acid Rain Program will reduce the levels of fine sulfate
and nitrate particles and so reduce the incidence and the severity of these health
problems. When fully implemented by the year 2010, the public health benefits of
the Acid Rain Program are estimated to be valued at $50 billion annually, due to
decreased mortality, hospital admissions, and emergency room visits.
Decreases in NOx emissions are also expected to have a beneficial impact on human
health by reducing the nitrogen oxides available to react with volatile organic
compounds and form ozone. Ozone impacts on human health include a number of
morbidity and mortality risks associated with lung inflammation, including asthma
and emphysema.

Acid rain does not directly affect human health. The acid in the rainwater is too dilute to have
direct adverse effects. However, the particulates responsible for acid rain (sulfur dioxide and
nitrogen oxides) do have an adverse effect. Increased amounts of fine particulate matter in the air
do contribute to heart and lung problems including asthma and bronchitis.[35]
Other adverse effects
Acid rain can damage buildings, historic monuments, and statues, especially those made of
rocks, such as limestone and marble, that contain large amounts of calcium carbonate. Acids in
the rain react with the calcium compounds in the stones to create gypsum, which then flakes off.
CaCO3 (s) + H2SO4 (aq)

CaSO4 (s) + CO2 (g) + H2O (l)

The effects of this are commonly seen on old gravestones, where acid rain can cause the
inscriptions to become completely illegible. Acid rain also increases the corrosion rate of
metals, in particular iron, steel, copper and bronze.[36][37]
Affected areas
Places significantly impacted by acid rain around the globe include most of eastern Europe
from Poland northward into Scandinavia,[38] the eastern third of the United States,[39] and
southeastern Canada. Other affected areas include the southeastern coast
of China and Taiwan.[citation needed]

Prevention methods
Technical solutions
Many coal-firing power stations use flue-gas desulfurization (FGD) to remove sulfurcontaining gases from their stack gases. For a typical coal-fired power station, FGD will
remove 95% or more of the SO2 in the flue gases. An example of FGD is the wet scrubber
which is commonly used. A wet scrubber is basically a reaction tower equipped with a fan
that extracts hot smoke stack gases from a power plant into the tower. Lime or limestone in
slurry form is also injected into the tower to mix with the stack gases and combine with the
sulfur dioxide present. The calcium carbonate of the limestone produces pH-neutral calcium
sulfate that is physically removed from the scrubber. That is, the scrubber turns sulfur
pollution into industrial sulfates.
In some areas the sulfates are sold to chemical companies as gypsum when the purity of
calcium sulfate is high. In others, they are placed in landfill. However, the effects of acid rain
can last for generations, as the effects of pH level change can stimulate the continued
leaching of undesirable chemicals into otherwise pristine water sources, killing off
vulnerable insect and fish species and blocking efforts to restore native life.
Fluidized bed combustion also reduces the amount of sulfur emitted by power production.
Vehicle emissions control reduces emissions of nitrogen oxides from motor vehicles.
International treaties
A number of international treaties on the long range transport of atmospheric pollutants have
been agreed for example, Sulphur Emissions Reduction Protocol under the Convention on
Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution. Canada and the US signed the Air Quality
Agreement in 1991. Most European countries and Canada have signed the treaties.
Emissions trading
See also: Acid Rain Program
In this regulatory scheme, every current polluting facility is given or may purchase on an
open market an emissions allowance for each unit of a designated pollutant it emits.
Operators can then install pollution control equipment, and sell portions of their emissions

allowances they no longer need for their own operations, thereby recovering some of the
capital cost of their investment in such equipment. The intention is to give operators
economic incentives to install pollution controls.
The first emissions trading market was established in the United States by enactment of
the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990. The overall goal of the Acid Rain Program
established by the Act[40] is to achieve significant environmental and public health benefits
through reductions in emissions of sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx), the
primary causes of acid rain. To achieve this goal at the lowest cost to society, the program
employs both regulatory and market based approaches for controlling air pollution.

Government agencies and scientists are not the only ones that
can take action to stop acid rain. You can become part of the
solution, too!
Understand the Problem
The first step you can take to help control acid rain is to
understand the problem and its solutions. Now that you have
learned about this environmental issue, you can tell others
about it. By telling your classmates, parents, and teachers
about what you learned on this site, you can help educate
them about the problem of acid rain. You CAN make a
difference!
Conserve Energy
Since energy production creates large amounts of the
pollutants that cause acid rain, one important step you can
take is to conserve energy. You can do this in a number of
ways:

Turn off lights, computers, televisions, video games,

and other electrical equipment when you're not using
them.

Encourage your parents to buy equipment that uses

less electricity, including lights, air conditioners,
heaters, refrigerators, and washing machines. Such
equipment might have the Energy Starlabel.

Try to limit the use of air conditioning.

Ask your parents to adjust the thermostat (the device

used to control the temperature in your home) when
you go on vacation.

Minimize the Miles

Driving cars and trucks also produces large amounts of
nitrogen oxides, which cause acid rain. To help cut down on air
pollution from cars, you can carpool or take public
transportation, such as buses and trains. Also, ask your
parents to walk or bike with you to a nearby store or friends
house instead of driving.

Reducing Acid Rain

There are several ways to reduce acid rainmore properly called acid deposition
ranging from societal changes to individual action. It is critical that acid deposition
be reduced, not only in the United States and Canada, but also throughout the
world to preserve the integrity of natural habitats, as well as to reduce damage to
man-made structures.
EPA has taken steps to limit the amount of NOx and SO2 emitted into the
atmosphere because they are the main contributors to acid deposition (for more
information, see EPAs Acid Rain Program).

Additionally, individuals and society as a whole can participate in various efforts to

help reduce acid deposition:
Understand acid depositions causes and effects
Clean up smokestacks and exhaust pipes
Use alternative energy sources
Restore a damaged environment
Look to the future
Take action as individuals

Understand acid depositions causes and

effects
To understand acid deposition's causes and effects, and to track changes in the
environment, scientists from EPA, state governments, and academia study
acidification processes. They collect air and water samples and measure them for
various characteristics such as pH and chemical composition, and research the
effects of acid deposition on human-made materials such as marble and bronze.
Finally, scientists work to understand the effects of sulfur dioxide (SO2) and
nitrogen oxides (NOx)the pollutants that cause acid deposition and contribute to
particulate matter on human health. See the acid rain effects section for more
information.
To solve the acid rain problem, people need to understand how acid rain damages
the environment. They also need to understand what changes could be made to the
air pollution sources that cause the problem. The answers to these questions help
leaders make better decisions about how to control air pollution and therefore, how
to reduceor even eliminateacid rain. Because there are many solutions to the
acid rain problem, leaders have a choice of which options or combination of options
are best. The next section describes some of the steps that can be taken to tackle
the acid deposition problem.