Moral Philosophers in Islam

MORAL PHILOSOPHERS IN ISLAM
Author(s): MAX HORTEN and V. June Hager

Source: Islamic Studies, Vol. 13, No. 1 (MARCH 1974), pp. 1-23
Published by: Islamic Research Institute, International Islamic University, Islamabad
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MORAL PHILOSOPHERS IN ISLAM

MAX HORTEN
Translated from theGerman by V. June Hager
Theology (whichhas been discussed inthepreviouschapter) is the

bridgebetweenphilosophyand ethics. Philosophy is basically a purely
abstract and amoral
method of observing theworld, whereas religion

in an ethical but non-speculative manner.
Theology tries
to combine both points of view. Islam's true nature ismost
clearly evident
in its ethics, so that speculative theology actually seems a foreign element
in the Islamic cultural body. The spirit of Islam manifests itself in
prac
views theworld
tical-ethical turning to God, trusting devotion to Him, which abrogates

(or should abrogate) ancient fatalism; it also demands the fulfillment of
certain prescriptions, which by divine authority should regulate life and
turnmen to God.
The naive philosophical
imagery is simply an acces
sory, a stage setting, a framework for the ethical substance. Moral philo
sophers and jurists should be considered the guardians of original Islamic
thought, i.e. that which can be traced to the oldest precultural period, be
fore Islam penetrated Greek, Persian, and Indian spheres of culture. The
original perspective of early Islam has survived throughout the succeed
It was the criterion according to which a foreign concept
ing centuries.
was
judged acceptable or not. The Indian philosophical concepts of im

personal Being had to be modified according to basic principles of moral
life, that is, according to the idea of a personal God guiding the world by
His
plans and establishing laws for mankind. The Greek doctrines of the
necessary first cause governing nature had firstto be given ethical substance,
provided with purpose and moral ideals; only thus could the religion of the
Prophet consider these ideas as conforming to the essence of Islam. The
Persian conceptions with their basic principle of justice were by their very
nature closer to Islam.
As
a moral
he gives expression
is no champion
of innovation;
philosopher.Ghazall
to the most innate Islamic experience.
It is on the
basis of an ethicalperspectiveof theworld that theadjustmentbetween

the great cultures of Asia and Europe takes place
Islamic era. As far as Spain, where Averroes
in theNear
East of the
claims freedom of ac

MAX HORTEN
(who is actus purus and per se in all categories), "ethics**

term
for any formulation of philosophy. Even the pantheis
is the guiding
tically conceived God of the mystics is presented as acting and ordering
tion for his God
according tomoral principles.

principles are deeply anchored in the Oriental mind. This
is true of the Semitic as well as the Persian Oriental, and is evident in
Semitic and ancient Persian religions, and in the richly developed Persian
ethical literature.1 The Indian also is intensely concerned with ethics,
Moral
although he expresses himself in ascetic and world-denying
terms.
This ethical trend is so dominant in the Orient, that one can regard
the different religions as ideological pillars established to support mora
aspect forces the theoretical-philosophical
lity.The practical-philosophical
Character formation, family life, and public

aspect into the background.
life, i.e. the Greek classifications of individual morality, economics, and
?
these were the main fields. This Aristotle
politics (or the State)
oriented "ethics of four virtues" had as its great task the determination of
"character traits" (afchldq) - and the description of their development and
improvement (tadhib) "refinement".
A strong component also comes from theAvesta.2 "In Mazdakism
the ethical principle appears under the main categories of truth, justice,
peacableness, humility, loyalty, diligence, charity." There is a vigorous
feeling for order. Virtue is practised according to the Persian threefold
division of thought, word, and deed. The basic Semitic virtues of sub
mission
Greek
to God and patience, which are not at all Greek in spirit, join the
idea of a harmonious
life in the world.
In this way the moral
philosophy
develops
into a many-faceted
and refined ethics of conscience.
In Manichaeanism
the system of virtues is composed of two groups
with five virtues each (compare the sanctity of the number five for the
I. gentleness, knowledge, understanding, secrecy, perception,
Druzes):
and II.
love, faith, loyalty, nobility of mind, wisdom.

of the ancient Persian virtues.
These
remind us
The moral philosophy of the Orient is directed towards an other

worldly goal; the forms this philosophy assumes are results of differing
conceptions of this goal and different methods pursued to attain it. If
the ultimate goal is immersion in the Ground of all Being, we find the
If the goal is the God
mystical ethics of world-denial and Maya-belief.
of Light enthroned in the loftyheavens, then ethics is concerned with ascent

MORAL
PHILOSOPHERS
IN ISLAM
and "return" to Him.
The way leads through the sublunary world,

where the forces of good a,nd evil, the angels and demons, contend
for men's souls. Since the final goal is purely spiritual, it is frequently
formulated as disembodiment
and otherworldliness.
principle suggests a difficult ascent,

The concept of the "golden mean"
amidst perpetual dangers,
guiding man on a straight path through dangers on all sides, is therefore
spiritually akin to Oriental thought. Here the image is placed in the
revelation. God has in the Qur'an
shown men
framework of Qur'anic
?
this is the unquestionable presupposition
the way to eternal salvation
ofMuslim culture. Philosophical minds concern themselves with grasping
the basic moral
Universally
to God.
the deeper signification behind these revelations, when the true message
occasionally seems to be obscured by crass imagery. Only unphilosophical
minds
can doubt
this revelation as the basis of man's moral
direction.
the Faithful of Basra
For
example,
well as recognized philosophers
(often regarded as free thinkers) as

both stress this point.
It follows that the ethical element in religion and life constitutes

the very essence of both. One can pierce the superficial exterior to the
heart of the Islamic world only by apreciating the intellectual-spiritual

substance of itsmoral effort. The fundamental Oriental experience is to
be found here.
Even in Zoroastrianism
theories of virtue (justice, bravery, etc.)
were favored; in the Islamic era these were enthusiastically continued by
Then Greek influences also became evident. The enumera
the Persians.
In Kalila wa Dimna, Farisi
tion of four cardinal virtues is pre-Greek
the
has
list
for
the cardinal
('AK ibn-al-Shah)
Bidpai
King Dabshalim,
virtues: wisdom, self-control, understanding, and justice. Greek thought
would have contributed valour in third place. Hermes Trismegistos
names: justice, wisdom, generosity, and mercy.
In Greek thought the
last two virtues are included under justice and here take the place of self
control and bravery.3
The
chological
convincing
foundation
logic of the Platonic

of psychic powers:
system is a result of its psy

is ennobled
understanding
formed; ta/?rfM>--refined)by wisdom, desire by self control,

considers the
anger by bravery, will and action by justice. Avicenna4
last as the crowning and climax cf the others three: "The sum of all
(isldfi?ordered,
however,
is justice".
This
ingenious Neoplatonic
idea has also influenced

MAX HORTEN
4
conservative Islam.
Sharadanl5
in his sermon on character traits traces
his 60 vices to the sevenmain sinsand his 78 virtuesto thefourPlatonic

cardinal virtues; he presents a system strongly influenced by Avicenna,
'addla instead of the customary
and in describing this system he uses
"Know, that the roots of good character traits are four,
'adal?justice:
of which three can be named separately: wisdom, valour, and self-control,
while one is formed from the sum of these, and this is justice". Wisdom
is often praised
as the crown of all virtues.
Jawzlya
lists self-control,
courage, justice, and generosity.6

If virtues are refinements of psychic powers, and if,while operat
can either observe modera
ingwithin a clearly defined field these powers
tion or else tend to one extreme or another, then it is obvious that true
This Aristotelian idea,
virtue is to be found in following the golden mean.
abstracted from the concept of self-control and related to the image of the
scale of justice, was so easily and logically assimilated into the Oriental
was experienced as
concept of ethics as the path to final happiness, that it
"Even before Aristotle's writings began to exert an in
an organic part.
fluence this concept had taken itsplace in Islam as a basic moral attitude."7
Ibn Miskawayh
develops the concept
Avicenna
employs it with
(Raghib).
itself apparently needed no explanation;
schematically, as does
ingenious mastery. The
itwas
Isfahan!
concept
self-evident.
helps us understand Avicenna's doctrine of justice.8

It is harmony (according to the Arabic termW/?
'addla). When there
becomes
this
a
man's
soul
in
is harmony
apparent in his actions, i.e.
the
intellect controls anger and
when
results
Inner harmony
he is just.
In
desire. Then these three powers enjoy their appropriate virtues.
Ibn Miskawayh
order for these to develop properly, the virtue of intellectual power must
control those of anger and desire. This systematic arrangement, "the
In the state, when philosophers (i.e.

sum of all three", results in justice.
intellect) rule over the working class (desires) and the soldiers (anger),
then through their "sum" we find political justice.
INDIVIDUAL MORAL PHILOSOPHERS

Ethics, the voluntaristic trend in philosophy, formulates its world
Ethics attempts to perfect its system,
view according to ideals of action.
then to relate it to the entire cosmic system as if this were a stage cons
tructed for the execution of moral actions. On the other hand, the purely
theoretical world view concentrates first on the superhuman world and only

MORAL PHILOSOPHERSIN ISLAM
second on
the inner-human. Both belong to philosophy

in its wider
sense and so ethics also has its place in the history of
Islam
philosophy.
does not in any way deny the nature of religion. Religion, however, sig
nifies a directing of our intellectual powers towards an ideal world, the

spiritual, designated as the kingdom of heaven, and is characterized by
a certain renunciation of what is physical, material or worldly. World
liness and holiness are in direct opposition.
Islamic ascetism developed
from these basic principles.
For Islam a "religion" which rejects the
very principle of ascetism and proclaims the cult of sensuality is no true
Ideas of justice and brotherly love regulate human relation
religion.
ships. Muslims consider each other as brothers, often to the extent that
Islam managed
strong racial differences are modified or even disappear.
or
conflicts between Muslim
for some time to avoid nationalistic rivalries
peoples.
The Islamic world experiences itself as a strong solidarity.
of the moral
is, in general, truly
philosophers
voluntaristic
it
features: the emo
Only
particularly emphasises
retreat
into
the background;
tional and visionary trends of mysticism
The world-view
Islamic.
law and strict duty. Images of moral

lack
speculative inspiration or emotional drive,
philosophy accordingly
are
motivated
by deep earnestness and sincere purpose.
although they
what
is cold,
remains
rational
The world-image emerging from thismoral perspective shows God guiding

and predestining the world in an almost arbitrary manner. In this frame
is decidedly insignificant; his freedom either

cannot resist theWorld-Will,
i.e. God (modified predestination), or is not
However, since moralists are
even conceivable (extreme predestination).
work
the human
individual
man and his behavior, they are in

primarily concerned with individual
clined to emphasize man's relative freedom and only admit to modified
predestination. Absolute predestination would nullfy themerit of personal
Thus emphasis on will here
action which is the basis of all morality.
leads to the idea of freedom, although cosmologically
logically suggest a denial of human freedom.
developed,
it should
The question whether the numerous Islamic races exhibit their own
special abilities, and whether particular cultural activities are linked to
languages and physical surroundings, can neither be dismissed nor answered
definitively. The bearers of advanced intellectual civilization were mostly

the most important metaphysical works are to be
Persians.
However,
influence
Areas under Hellenistic
found, not in Persian, but in Arabic.
appear
to have
remained
the cradle of philosophy,
and when Persians

MAX HORTEN
entered this cultural sphere and assimilated Arab culture theywere most
inclined to achieve greatness. Moral philosophy ismore familiar to Per
sians because of their cultural tradition, and they relate this moral philo
sophy to politics. Works on state philosophy and princely biographies
originated in the securely
(Furstenspiegel) continue a tradition which
traditions.
ordained empire of old Persia, with its patriarchal-despotic
this results a socio-politically
perceives "the everlasting wisdom"
From
oriented conception of ethics., which

(Jawidan Khirad), a translation of
as mean
Miskawayh by Arrajani under Emperor Jahanglr around 1620,
ing the wisdom of kings and their subjects, i.e. princely ethics, leadership
ethics was the legend
of men, politics. The foundation of Miskawayh's
shrouded qanunal-hikmat-u-dastur,
Application", which was supposed
and Practical
"Textbook ofWisdom
to be the last will and testament of the
to his son. The "Book of Victory" (Zafar

old Iranian king Hushang
the vizier Buzurgmihr and Shah Nushir
between
natne) reports discussions
wan concerning practical wisdom and politics. Avicenna is believed to
have translated these from Pahlavi into modern Persian at the request of
prince Nuh II. The doctor Barzoye under Khusrau Nushsir
translated Indian wisdom into Pahlavi and this today constitutes, in
the best known didactic story
the form of the Fables of Kalila wa Dimna,9
the Samanid
wan
book of theOrient.
attempt to draw the most general outlines of Islamic ethics
could perhaps trace the following principal ideas. The pivot of ethical
trans
thought in Islam is the concept of justice. This however is given
An
cendental meaning and support, so that an ethics of salvation emerges.

The soul issues forth from God, remains from the beginning of creation
in a pre-worldly existence, descends then to earth ,where darkness and evil
of heaven.
reign, and strives to ascend again to its real home, the kingdom
ethics
judgements which are the framework of Islamic
as
their
are presented as established certainties, and revelation is claimed
are dealing with a moral philosophy which proves
foundation. We
theories of action from the cosmology and which rejects scepticism. A
The world
as its basis, or which con

categorical imperative which did not have this
reveals some
Ghazali
cealed a latent scepticism, would be un-Islamic.
a
extent.
to
modest
a
Socrates, but only
of the ethical-sceptical traits of
He could not clearly define his attitude without overstepping the bounds
of Islamic tradition.
Islamic ethics is, first of all, an ethics of conscience,

as shown in
MORAL
PHILOSOPHERS'
IN ISLAM
the doctrine of intention, and therefore strives to reach man's innermost

being. On the other hand, it is socially-orienfed, in conformity with the
decidedly socialOriental disposition. Moral philosophyin Islam seeks

life as a whole,
to comprehend
treating all its different aspects;
it is moti
vated by high ideals, that is, it hopes to achieve thehighestperfection

(making divine qualities man's second nature-ta/Mtalluq) and to develop
a well-rounded
human personality (excluding narrow-mindedness-the
the
universal
ideal of
man), to "refine" and "purify" natural inclinations,
effecting the "ascent to the kingdom of light."
When
The result is a certain tendency towards world-escapism.
ever ideology considers theworld and worldiness as related to the kingdom
of darkness, or "culture" as we know it is considered to have its roots
in the physical world, a certain cultural aversion must follow; worldliness
is rejected and the real goal is theHereafter.
the era of the Prophet, since

the Bedouins were not inclined towards world-escapism, The monk-ideal
was rejected. "There are no monks in Islam", is a well-known saying
even in the earliest Islamic period earthly
of the Prophet. However,
end of the
possessions were often considered of inferior worth. The
world was experienced as imminent, and submission to God (Islam) was
A
different outlook
proclaimed
characterized
the highest virtue.
intense opposition to egotism in any form is a proof of Islam's

Any selfish motivation
supra-individual concern with social problems.
an act morally un
renders
of
and
intention
the
right
"destroys"
purity
The
worthy, even evil. The admirable heroism and martyrdom which Islam
Such a moral philosophy de
has evidenced should be duly appreciated.
serves objective recognition.10
be a challenging task to analyze how each racial group,
of so many fundamentally differentOriental cultures, determined not only
its philosophy, but also its ethics: i.e. the mobile Arabs first establish
a voluntaristic-activist norm; this is transplanted into the Hellenistic
cultural sphere of theNear East and there transformed by Hellenistic and
Christian influences: next this germinating moral philosophy finds itsway
to Persia, a reservoir of many cultures; here worked upon by the Persian
It would
even more metamorphoses;

gift of vivid visual representation it undergoes
the
assimilated
conquerors, it is again altered
Mongol-Turk
by
finally,
stream
Oriental
of
the
enters
it
until around 1800
European-influenced

MAX HORTEN
many words! So many tasks for the future! and to facilitate

we
have so far only a few solid preparatory works.
The correct
these tasks
culture. ?So
has been missing, the rightapproach to this

attitudeof investigation
staggering accumulation
of raw material.
A.
Social
Ethics
interpretation of ethics is often developed in

legal works, for instance in discussions of taxes, of holy wars, or of "prin
already
ciples of government" (ahahkdm aUsulfdniya).11 FarabI had
The
collective-social
treated the "ideal
state" in an abstract manner
similar to that of Dante
Thomas
The
important
subject was considered
Aquinas.
relevant and traces can be found in the concept of the ideal caliph and
ideal prince in "The Thousand and One Nights".
and
The
and
the
essence of this idea is expressed in the concept of the vice

and of God.
princes are the vice-regents of Muhammad
The
regent.
The Turk
and Mongol
conquerors retain this theistic and optimistic
a cosmos, the order of which
philosophy, which perceives the world as
must be preserved, strengthened, or re-established in the name of the
Supreme Being according to the demands of the period. Timur himself
writes in his memoirs: "I have taken into my hands the scales of justice
and have never diminished or encroached upon the portion of any person.
As Ghengis Khan and Hulagu be
commands."
"the
himself
shadow of God on earth," "the
considered
Timur
fore him,
on
Allah's behalf."
judge and ruler of theworld
I have followed God's
deeply felt religious idea expressed here is basic and vital

thought. Through its influence the entire culture of the Orient
is imbued with philosophy, and all Being and human life are related to
The
inOriental
theUltimate One.12
B.
IndividualEthics
Individual ethics developed partially from folk traditionsand
(1030) was a pro

partially from scholarly influences. Ibn Miskawayh
of
his
which
awarded
nounced Aristotelian, typical
era,
special homage
to Greek thought. On the other hand, Ibn al-Muqaffa
(d.752), the trans
lator of Kallla wa Dimna, directed his attention to the East
(although
remaining in the Persian tradition) in his Great and Minor Ethics".1 3
An inexhaustible source was contributed to the field of individual ethics
by the many proverbs which had been preserved in Arabic, Persian, and

MORAL
PHILOSOPHERS
IN ISLAM
Turkish, and which continue even today in the folk tradition, i.e. the body
of amthal literature ,which until now has not been thoroughly studied by
In proverbs the Oriental observes life's exterior side
scholars of culture.
in a utilitarian manner.
However
general observations
about
the world
appear and also (in direct opposition to Islamic doctrines)vestigesof
as a dark, inescapable, often irrational

primitive thought (fate experienced
force, senselessly annulling men's plans).
Mystical Ethics
1. Heroic Unselfishness(ithar)
Mystical ethics is essentially a superstructure on the main body
of Islamic ethics. Selfless charity is proclaimed, according to a saying of
sanctioned by Gabriel, as the "innermost essence", the baqiqa
of Islam. This charity includes all good works, whether directed towards
God or towards one's fellow man.
the Prophet
idea, which expresses the mental framework of

Islam, orthodox mystic and ethical thought elaborate further systems,
a
intensifying these concepts and developing them into heroic ideal. The
From
this basic
idealist practises ithar, that is, he disposes of his earthly

an
in
absolutely selfless manner, relinquishing his own pri
possessions
vileges, so that others may enjoy them, expending all his wealth to help
his fellow man.
Muslims
moral
is an example: mystics decline acceptance of alms.14

They
are in fact entitled to accept these alms, for they belong to the poor, and
is a duty of the rich. These voluntarily poor mystics,
theirmaintenance
Here
that is, they prefer to let others

by refusing alms, wish to practice "ithar,'
are
In spite
who
others
their
advantages,
perhaps "worthier".
enjoy
own
of their
need, they leave for others that which they could claim for
themselves.
This unselfishness transcends the idea of tfisan, or selfless charity.
re
A Muslim
Its practice is even extended to spiritual advantages.15
ceives special merit for performing his ritual prayers in the first row of
worshippers. When a great crowd is in the mosque, themonks forgoe
this privilege, leave the first row, and let others profit from praying in the
first row. The lay monks, fityan, make this "heroism" their basic life
rule.
The demands
to the heroic plane.
of selfless charity (tfysan) here elevate the performer

10
2.
MAX HORTEN
Pure
Intention
The
doctrine of pure intention completes the picture of mystical

The rejection of a physical afterlife is the great ray of
ethics in Islam.
Gardens of Paradise with

hope in the ethical development of Islam.
celestial virgins dissolve into thin air. Their existence is denied.
The
renunciation of "both dwelling, earthly and heavenly" (nafy al-darayn)
continually reappears as an expression of this noble trend of thought.

Only the spiritual is recognized as worthy of striving towards in life,and
the final goal is to be no less than "possession of God".

"Whoever seeks
?
i.e. voluntary poverty, the monastic life,16?
poverty
hoping for re
a
in
miserable
dies
wretch".
compense
eternity surely
Mystics esteem
most of all the renunciation of a physical afterlife, the image of which is
considered a threat to the improvement ofmorals.
teristic of Muslim
intellectuals today.
This attitude is charac
for good" (Qur'an, derived from 5,53

us
a profound insight into the fundamental attitude of
and 23, 57) gives
In practicing good we should outdo one another. These
Islamic ethics.
The
lesson of the "contest
ideas are reminiscent of theNew Testament, which could have easily exer
cised a strong influence on Islam through Hellenistic culture. We should
not only live up to our moral ideals, we should do this by "surrendering

our life spirit until our very ego is annihilated, by devoting our very life
blood.17" The heroism of Islamic ethics lies not only in the objects of
action, but also in the intensity of performance and and the nobility of
sacrifice.
3* Communal
Life
The type of communal monastic life found in Islam (as well as the
"contest for good" and the urge "that each should try to outdo the other
in the performance of good" (istibdq?musabaqa=
contest;?compare
This reveals the
Paul's
challenge) reminds us of early Christianity.
fundamental moral
attitude as applied
to social
life, in all its depth, fer
vor, and force.

Raqql came to Tarsos18 and was told: "There is a community of
"I
your brothers (fellow monks).
They live together in one house."
then went into them and saw seventeen poor men (monks). They were
one heart (literally: lived upon the foundation of one heart)".

These
small congregations
lived under a form of communism, which

MORAL
PHILOSOPHERS
IN ISLAM
11
had itsbasis in the idea thatpropertybelonging exclusivelytoonemember

could easily lead to actions contrary to brotherly love. "When speaking
of possessions of earthly goods,19 they do not say: This belongs tome and
'I served for you, though itwas your
that to you', and one never hears
turn to serve for me."
Ibn Shayban relates: "If anyone ever spoke of

or
sandals'
'my begging bowl, we did not allow him into the society.'
'my
I entered a community of poor men (monks).
In
tells:
Ba?ra
QalanisI
They honored and praised me; then one day I used the expression 'my
apron', and I fell from their eyes (that is, lost their respect).
The foundationof thisidylliccommunallifeis love (mababba)and

kindness (rifq)which leads to comradeship (murafaqa); and complete
the community members. "If one (member)
requests another, 'Come, go with me', and the other asks 'where', the second
is no true friend." Since "disparity is the root of all division", and this
trust must prevail
among
is injurious to brotherly love, thesemonks

as much as possible.
strove to equalize all differences
The principle of communal life for these Islamic monks seemed to

be pure Christian brotherly love. Kharraz
relates:20 "For fifty years
I lived in a community with themonks, and no discord ever came between
he was
was
that possible?" he answered: "I

treated them as myself" (literally, on the basis of my own being). The
narrow circumference of stern justice, which governs communication
among normal humans, is here enlarged by a form of brotherly love which
When
us."
asked;
"How
banishes any form of selfishness.

means
that one prefers his fellow man to himself, that one

the very best of his possessions.
When Sarraj
a
was
speaks of monastic colony inMecca and states that it
only because
of their practice ofMar
that they could live in such extreme poverty on
Mar
allows
others
to have
the barren land, this means that each gave others the best of what he had
been able to procure for his support, and that each worked and worried
for others as for himself.
INDIVIDUAL MORAL PHILOSOPHERS

A.
Ibn al-Muqaffa,
Ibn al-Muqaffa, (752), the translator of Kallla wa Dimna, represents

strain in Islamic ethics. In parables and short maxims in the
style of the Pansatantra, he presents an ethics which is primarily con
an Indian

MAX HORTEN
12
cerned with practical life, yet takes social and individual life into account;
is marked by a sober naturalism and straightforward
his philosophy
appeal.21
A thoroughstudyshouldbemade of thisphilosophy,examiningthe
blend of Indian and Persian elements, the slightly hostile attitude towards
the Islamic-Semitic base, and the presentation and development of its
system of norms in Islamic culture.
The
still completely unknown moral
philosophiesof a Makkl (d.996), QushayrI (d.1074),or Juwayni(d.1085),
and of course the well-known jurists, should be considered an important

new field of exploration for future scholars.
The Pseudo-Aristotelian
B.
Princely Biography
(Furstenspiegel),
The princely biography, "The Darkest Secret" (sirr al-asrar\ com

in the tenth or eleventh century from the most diverse sources,
piled
which according to legend, had been translated by Ibn Bitrlq around 815,
passes as an example of Aristotelian etlr'cs. Aristotle supposedly com
posed this for Alexander, when he had become too weak to accompany
This work appeared at a time when
the conqueror on his campaigns.22
themany minor princes demanded from philosophers who frequented the
princely courts compendiums of Greek wisdom on the art of governmen t.

The princes hoped thatGreece could yield thewisdom they desired.
This Aristotelian princely biography, which also carries the title
"The Right Management
of Men
concerning the Exer
(poli's-siydsa)
cise of Power (leadership-rzVastf)" was the model for the many princely
biographies now known in theOrient, including probably themost famous
of the importance of this
Because
(d. 1186) in Alexandria.
literary form,we will give the short table of contents, which is divided into
and reads.
chapters {maqdlat-"lessons")
Tarushi
1.
The types of kings.

and exterior aspect of the king, and the method he must
followr in regard to himself, his relations, and his regulations.
2.
Position
3.
The form of justice by which

led and uplifted.
4.
The
5.
The keepers of the Seal (chancellery officials) and their grades.
6.
The
viziers,
the nobles and common people will be
their number and how
they will
envoys, their dress (how they shall appear
govern
(leadership).
in public)
dispatch.

and their

7.
The ministers
8.
The officers, cavalry, and subordinate grades of the army,
("supervisors of the kitchen"),

their subordinate departments.
tax collectors,
13
and
9. Warfare,
stratagem, defense, army command during engagements
with the enemy, disadvantages to be reckoned with, timing of attack,
war councils, standards, timing of battle end, name of army and war
commander.
science of talismans, astrology, inclinations of the senses, secret

powers of stones, plants, and similar objects,which could be of some
advantage in the above mentioned areas (politics, etc.).
10. The
C.
Ibn Miskawayh
influences were dominant

During the period when Neo-Platonic
ethics took on a Neo-Platonic
and crystallized in the works of Avicenna,
of the times.
character, a natural consequence
IbnMiskawayh (1030) setsforththe doctrineof the innerkernel
of divinity, themysterious essence ofman. which is hidden in thematerial

physical body hull, and strives from its prison towards the Platonic "pure
good", This divine spark seeks to ascend by purification as if to its original

The Gnostic ideal
source, the eternal light,which illuminates each man.
of the pneumatic man and the stripping away of crass corporeality as a
return to the spiritual source is related to elements of Nicaean

ethics. A
Christian concept here seems to be the idea of love, which expands at dif
ferent levels to the highest perfection in divine love.
itself as an independent
to
due
the
of
the later theologians
school,
overwhelming predominance
(mutahaqqiqun) the "true scholars. The most essential ideas of this trend
This element in Islam could not maintain
so familiar to Islam, that theywere assimilated into the theo

as
self-explanatory; a specific representative of the trend would have
logy
been superfluous.
had become
Ibn Miskawayh's
"Improvement of Character Traits" is a conti
In thiswork
nuation of his other work "The Order of Earthly Goods".
to
in
the soul to
order
lead
he presents all forms of higher knowledge
is highly intellectualized,
His moral philosophy
happiness.
since he recognizes knowledge as the strongest moral incentive. He there
fore bases his philosophy on a system of Hellenistic metaphysics, rich in
to become God
original ideas. The aim of the soul, a divine force,23 is
ultimate

MAX HORTEN
14
like. Selfless intention is the perfection of action.

Innate character ten
The state is seen as the great educator
dencies are thoroughly discussed.
of the people.24
Life consists of three levels?
lower, higher, and the
- the divine. The ideal of a natural life is the harmonization of all
highest
virtues and psychic powers. Attainment of this goal will make a good,
as well as happy, human being.
Tradition
He
into contact with Persian ethics,

brings Ibn Miskawayh
-Custom of Arabs and Per
included in his book "Good
supposedly
sians" a Jawidan book in an extract from Pahlavi, that is, "eternal" (jdwiddri)
lessons of wisdom in the style of a philosophis perennis of Zoroaster.25
D.
Ghazali
The Islamic moral philosopher par excellence isGhazali

(d.l 111).26
His position can only be understood in the light of the culture of his time
and the convergence of all its different trends. In the tolerant era of
and later the Buyids, more liberal ideas emerged and
Harun, Ma'mun,
and
the stability of the dogmatists.
undermined
these
Re
spread,
ligious doubts were quite prevalent. A deeply ethical strain was contri
buted by mysticism,which leftfar behind theboundaries of orthodox

innate justness of
contested and was closely related
belief.
The
strain could not be

this mystical
to Persian philosophy, with its em
phasis on the essential and spiritual; the threat of a heterodox movement

was increased since this idealistic ethics seemed to be necessarily related
to a Light-monistic and Brahmanistic world-view.
ideas, foremost among theseHellenized Aristotelian concepts,
had become predominant through Avicenna and could only be rejected
inminor points;27 that is, collectively they became the common property
Greek
of the intellectuals.
Not
this out. Ghazali
bears
but the entire later development

only ghazali,
also borrowed extensively from Christianity,
the same impression as thewritings of a Christian
and his exposition makes

father of the Church. Qhazall
undoubtedly
experienced
a force far superior to the Islam of the jurists, thefuqahd\
in Christianity
forces appear as political threats storming the sacred

tradition. Gnosticism lives on in the Ismailite sect; the Druzes
The various
Prophetic
consider themselves Gnostic
sanes.
manism
There
Barde
sects, stemming from ibn Daisan?
is also a doctrine of the All-Soul,
reminiscent of Brah
(s. Avicenna's
argument for the substantiality of the individual

15
soul vs. the Ismailite belief
in a ground of substantiality common to all

men's souls). Underlying motives of Persian thought boldly make them
selves evident. Al-Hallaj's
Light-monism gains wide influence, and that
grows stronger. Even pure dualism is still widespread. The
are
fond of dallying with vague Nirvana
concepts. All these
mystics
intellectually influential forces produced inghazal! a crisis of such impact,
that, fearing himself intellectually doomed., he also collasped physically
In his main work,
and had to relinquish his professorship in Baghdad.
of the Yazldl
of Religious Sciences", he seeks to recover his faith, reach

in the stormy seas of his doubts, and achieve, on the basis
of Islamic ideals, a new synthesis capable of withstanding "hostile" forces.
"The Revival
a safe haven
foundations of faith, profoundly shaken , had to be secured, and

upon this a new Islamic structure was to be erected, an apology for Islam,
which, because of the perspective of the times, had to be highly ethical.
The
for an important step forward in internal reform, which

could perhaps prevent revolt on a grand scale and could suggest to scholars
an inner development based upon traditional forms and symbols.
Scho
Ghazali
hoped
larly circles remained loyal to the ideals of ihis period of "Sturm und
Drang", whether these were of Hellenistic, Gnostic, Christian, Persian,
or Indian origin; at the same time a split into new, ritually constituted
This was the work of Ghazali, who explained to his
can
be
time: "We
'modern', preserve the achievements of our finer culture,
meet its highest intellectual demands, and still retain the sacred old tradi
sects was
avoided.
tions." He drew attention to conscience in religion, the spiritual-intel

lectual element, in the light of which the store of positive and external
Islamic elements could be understood and reverentially conserved.
objectivity, that is the preservation of this posi
tive fund in Islam, essential; he also called for a victory over subjectivity
which would have sublimated the sacred traditions and which threatened
invasion from extremely leftist - oriented mysticism. The essence of
life-work was the re-assertion of the positive aspect of religion,
GhazaB's
Ghazali
considered
the preservation of Islam's material

inheritance, the re-invigoration of
A subjective,
this with deeper feeling and a tolerant liberal perspective.
overcome
and ex
reduction of Islam to the unique individual was thus
cluded.
?which
emphasis a certain scepticism is latent

Along with the moral
no student of human nature will contest? and this is occasionally
even admitted.
This
is, however, a very moderate
scepticism, experienced

MAX HORTEN
16
intuitively rather than intellectually, and manages

of a Protagoras or that of an antinomist mystic.
to avoid
the subjectivity
The system of Islamic forms and symbols and that of natural mora
lity(justice and brotherlylove) are elevatedbyGhazall to thedominant
plane occupied by mysticism's victory over the world of senses and religious
is himself mystic and ascetic.
conscience. Ghazall
Through religious
motivation
the insignificant things of everyday exterior life are given ab
transcendental value, and the gaping chasm between nature and
The total contribution of world civilization is
spirituality is bridged.
solute
in his philosophy of
included categorically, even passionately by Ghazall
life.He isGreek according to the Hellenism
of an Avicenna; at the same
time he is a Muslim who, eagerly accepting any intellectual advance,
gives the Islamic material inheritance its important place in his life. The
Gordian knot is unravelled without being cut?
by discovery of the bdfln,
"inner
essence
the
common
the
to all elements in
meaning",
deeper
in agreement with
the most advanced

intellectual civilization, a
achievement
which
Ghazall
and
mystical
accepts
develops without obvious
affirmation of emphasis.
The mystics misused
this idea so blatantly,
Islam,
that Ghazall
would never have dared formally declare it a definite principle.

latent in his thought.
It is however
it is no
to speak of a negative Islamic

culture: "Islamic culture has only operated destructively; it has not en
riched the civilization of mankind, but rather inhibited progress; advance
is only possible when Islam is destroyed" ?
vociferous
ignorants have
never
been
of
the
long
claiming.Ghazall
rejected any
genuinely worthwhile
values of his time, but rather reconciled them into a unified system, so
that Islam has in his work standards and values which afford a broad
Since Ghazall
longer possible
into the future.
Since Ghazall,
Islam's capacity for development
into question. With ghazall
great masses of Christian
ideas penetrate Islam and contribute new vitality, and there have roots in
the very sources of Islam, in themoments of conviction of early Islam.
outlook
cannot be called
moral activism which harmonizes

Fundamentally, however, it isghazall's
all the theoretical tensions and conflicting forces by giving them a prac
tical goal.
The demand for each to make an extreme effort towards
his own moral improvement ismade with such urgency, that in the face
of this, all theoretical doubts and inhibitions are overcome. Ghazall
found peace
again in this solution, as we see in his work "The

for God's
Servants' (minhdj), the utlimate result of his
of mind
Way Prepared
life struggle.28

17
activist ethics we can appreciate
After considering Ghazalfs
the
at theend ofhis career. Here

whichhe formulated
ruleof lifeand religion
we come face to face with a pronounced humanist emphasis on individuality.

soul faces God alone, other heteronomous
influences or institutions
The
are not experienced as constraining factors between God

and the soul.
are
are
such elements, but they
not considered inhibiting;
Of course there
they are surmounted and suffused with an all-consuming
withGod.
striving for union
bases his ideas on the planetary motive of the seven stages

Seven "ascents"
in Christianity as the Climax).
lead man to
Ghazall
(known
1. "Knowledge
God:
and theGnosis",
that is intuitive perception of the
praeambelafidei. The teleologicalproof ofGod ismade fromexamples

miraculous works and blessings; factual proof is taken from the
Thus man achieves absolute conviction
revelation through Muhammad.
the
Gnosis, the innermost knowledge of God.
(yaqlri) of theTranscendent,
of God's
bestows His grace to inspire and strengthen man

ciation of the world and his search forGod.
Then God
2.
"Conversion",
repentance
and
amendment
standingof thedutiesGod has prescribed.

3.
"Obstacles",
in Dante's
mals
according
in his renun
to an under
which can be compared to the three symbolic wild ani

Inferno, keep the converted seeker of God far from his
overcome.
These obstacles are of four different kinds :
goal and must be
c.
other
b.
a. the world,
men,
devils, and d. impulses of the senses. They
a. world-denial, drawing
are conquered by four corresponding weapons:
b.
and
the
from
world,
freeing
separating oneself from other men,
away
c. struggle against the devil, and d. curbing and control of the senses.
(wSrid-shawaghH) then obstruct the path: a. nour
ishment~ worldly concerns, b. intellectual distraction and dangers, c. mis
fortune because of a fate ordained by God
(qaAS), d. mental depression.
4.
"Four Diversions"
a. faith in God b.
are also conquered by four parallel methods:
c. patience d. submission toGod's
leaving all dangers in the hands of God,
These
will (rilffl.
5.
"Incentives, Motivation":
hope and fear, that is the prospect of either
accelerate the steps,aid thepilgrim

rewardor punishmentin theafterlife,
to ascend
6.
and
"Personal
surmount?
Inadaquacies
and Faults",
which
if not completely

rooted
HORTEN
MAX
18
value:
out can rob actions of theirmoral
Self-contemplation
~
self
Cw'b
any form of
and sensual gratification, arrogance, vanity;

must
be banished from human action through purity of intention
egotism
sincerity, and unselfish will. Then we have reached the plane where we
admiration)
only to prudently guard our achievements

grace of perseverance through.
have
7.
"Praise
and Gratitude
is only attained
final perfection.
benefit from the
this seven-phased ascent

is its
grace, humble gratitude to God
to God".
through God's
and
Since
the pilgrim29 who has conquered these seven summits attains

the "the plains of God's overflowing empire (fa40> the broad steppes of
of God's
pleasure,
desire, the courts of the pious, the fertile meadows
halls of
the
with
the gardens of intimacy (uns), that is, intimacy
God,
and attains miraculous
intimate dialogue with God,
powers divinely
To
Then he desires only to be near God
bestowed.
(compare Paul's:
So
become
free of the world and close
to Christ)
and death
is a welcome
herald from the Ruler of the Universe".

But one must keep in mind that beneath the strongly Christian
lies hidden a cultural world with Greek character
ascetic motivation
a well-schooled
a
istics. Ghazali
is
doctrines,
partisan of Platonic
on
in
in spite of his emphasis
Hellenistic philosopher,
world-escapism
the later phase of his life.30 For a modern Muslim who wishes to support
his faith fromGhazall's works, these intellectual testimonies appear side
one and the same person.
by side, equally authoriative, as expressions of
Ghazali's
example
therefore reconciles themost heterogeneous
worlds.
(1240) represents the further development. Ghaza

'Arabi's conception of religion as
had
li's thought
already approached
awe
before theDivine, inwhichever symbols
essentially brotherly love and
Ibn-al-'ArabI
these feelings are expressed.

True, the Islamic symbols
for all mankind, but
intended
most
and
to
the
be
are considered
perfect
even
when not conforming to
other religions agree in spirit with Islam,
the absolute authority of its symbols. External appearance is not essence31.
or formulations
ghazali
characteristically
represents the attack
on petty legalistic
and the highly in
casuistry, lofty dogmatic speculation (mutakallimun\

tellectualized world view of the philosophers, which sublimated the yolun
called for an ethical
Ghazali
God.
taristic traits of theWorld-Cause,
WhichGreek thoughtcould riot supply;He attackedthe

world-principle,

19
Greek philosophersfor theirethicaland religiousdoctrines,althoughhe

gladly accepted their contributions in other fields. Here is suggested the
foundation for a many-faceted
1. new formulation of
development:
was
not
until
then
which
speculative theology,
acceptable to the voluntarist
2. a further deepening of mysticism, 3. a reform of Greek
fibazall,
oriented philosophy which should abdicate its extreme intellectualism,
the development of ethics which should not exclusively emphasize
4.
voluntarism at the expense of intellect.
In all these fields Islam has since
great personalities, and Islam can claim cultural

in
each
flowerings
following era. The oft-touted legend of the "decline"
formed and witnessed
of Islamic culturefollowingGliazali should finallybe banished to the

curiosity museums of outdated European bookworms,
in the last analysis, intellectual blindness.
since it represents,
does not narrowly conceive religion as "dependence on God",

could be considered servile, but rather as "striving towards God"
"Slavery" in religion is
(qurba), God as the Beloved, absorption inGod.
Ghazalf
which
overcome; love (mafiabba) shines from the center like the all-engendering
sun. With this we have a source of sublime religious experience, as mys
At the same time activists and socially-oriented
tical poetry manifests.
theirmodel and teacher. Finally he rendered

elements can find inghazall
ritual duties more bearable by making them instruments of a higher mora
truly represented a turning point in Islam. This is why
lity.32 Ghazall
he has been honored with
Religion".
His
the titles of "Witness
teaching has become
of Islam",
the norm of orthodoxy.
"Reviver of
NOTES:
1. One finds the grossest absurdities in prejudices advanced against Islamic ethics.
For instance,Islam is condemned as hedonistic, thoroughlyimmoral, totallyde
voted
to sensual
pleasure
whereas,
in reality,
it often exaggerates
ascetcism
and world
escapism. Islam is criticizedfor lackinga humanistemphasison the individualper

sonality (it accepted theGreek ideal of theuniversalman), or forunderplaying in
dependentmoral development (Islamic monastic lifepresentsa vivid example of a
combinationof themost diverse systems;here thepersonalityof theShaykh isdeter
minative). It is dismissed as lackingan autonomy or innate legality(belief in the
Muhammad rendersforeign law an integralpart
divinityof the revelation through
mani
of Islam), depth of feelingor personal experienceofGod (thiswas strongly
festedeven byMuljammad).
One must not search for the essence of Islam in banal ravingsof imagination
have no place in the rationalworld of intellectuals;
or in folksyBeduin truths,which
nor should one be led by a strongemphasis on externalities(i.e. cults) to overlook

MAX HORTEN
20
the innerlifeof Islam, with itsdeep concern forconscience. Islam has littleesteem
for modern piety which rejects asceticism. Some primitive elements obviously
still remain in Islam. However, thosewho deny any ethical substance in Islam,
(even inmonastic life)thosewho do not recognize themost heroicmorality of Islamic
monasticism, or thedeeplymoral conscience of itswritings,prove by these incre
dible views, thatour competent,scholarlyknowledgehas utterlyfailed inunlocking
theOrient for us.
The material fund of Beduin morality is taken from the abundance of Qasid
poems and also formBeduin stories ('Antar, Banii Hilal; Qissa'i-Hatim Ta'i, and
many from the 1001Nights), which are available in good editions. Translations of
this typeof literatureweremade in thehistoryand philology**orientedperiod of
research studies; thuswe findeach Arabic word conscientiouslyreplaced by a Ger
man word, although the result is often inaccurate,Arabic words having totally
different
emotional
only work
with
and
representational
texts
originals
as
associations.
its foundation,
Scholarly
the approach
and
research
can
of cultural
an
method and treatment. Only the language of the

thropologycalls for a different
original
texts can
sustain
us
in our attempt
at psychological
and
sympathetic
under
standing,since thisoriginal languageprovides an entirelydifferent

psychicalcontent.
The German words of the translation,although superficiallycorrect,can lead to
serious
errors
because
of
the difference
in "soul".
The
data
in Georg-Jacob's
Beduin Life inArabia (Berlin, 1897), fullof passage references,(compareWellhausen's

Reste arabischenHeidentums may be compared to aspects of Bedouin lifetoday,
Jausseu,Coutumesdes Arabes (Paris, 1908) especiallycompleteconcerningethicsand
society;Musil, Arabia Petraea, Part III.) Only by dint of exact knowledge in
genera!
and differential
can
psychology
this frontier of research
be
opened
up.
We
will appreciate the wealth of trends, themes,and forces in the folk ethicsof the
stories have been thoroughly studied.
only when the innumerable moralizing
are grouped
of a particular
under the exterior framework
story or are held
in the wellknown
leitmotif; many appear
together, by a moral
great collections.
Orient,
These
(H.Ethe's
Islamic
"Neupersische
ethics
is not
Literature",
Grundriss
simply a sum of norms
der
iranischen
or external
Philologie,
prescriptions;
II).
it has
its
basis in a definiteview of theworld; that is, Islamic ethics is a part of philosophy

and has high cultural value. This can be proved, not only a priori fromOriental
ideals of personality and education, but also empiricallyfrom appropriate texts.
Max Horten, "Die Entwicklungsfahigkeit
des Islam auf ethischemGebiete", Fest
E.G.
Browne
schriftfur
(Cambridge, 1922); Horten, Die religioseGedankenwelt
des Volkes im heutigenIslam (Halle, 1917-18),pp. 128-380;? Horten, "Die sit
tlich-religiosenIdeale der Bektaschi-Monche nach Ahmed 'AHHilmi", Der Neue
Orient, I, 293-299; Horten, Aus der Welt und Lebensauffassungder turkischen
fah
rendenStinger, ibd. 2, 143-148; Sharani, BKO XII; Horten "Die mystischeWel
tanschauung nach Askeri, eine Studie uber das liberaleMcnchtum im Islam",
ibd.XV: H. Bauer, Islamische-Ethik(Halle, 1916,1917, 1922, 1912).
About Mawerdi: R. Enger, J>e vita et scriptis
Mawerdi (Bonn, 1851); Consti
tutiones,
politicae {Bonn, 1853); Leon Ostorog. (Algiers, 1915);H. Ethe, "Neuper
sische Literatur",
Grundriss
der
iranischen Philologie,
II.

MORAL PHILOSOPHERSIN ISLAM 21

2. Chantepie, Lehrbuchder Religiongeschichte,2, p. 214.
3.
ed., De
Bardenhewer,
castigutione
anlmae,
(Bonn,
1873), pp.
113, 8.
4. M. Horten, "Avicennas Buch der Genesung der Seele", Die Metaphysik Avicennas
(Halle, 1907)
5. I. Goldziher, Wesen der Seele, pp. 20, 18.
6. Kitab al-RQh (Hyderabad, 1218)pp. 338, 14.
7.
I. Goldziher, Mohammedanische Studien, II.

(1889 and 1890)pp. 397-400; tafsilal-nash'atayn(Beirut, 1319) pp. 88f.
8. Tahdhibtt.
9. The oldest edition of MuqafFa's translation (762) was published by L. Cheiko
(Beirut, 1905). Written in easier and more flowing language, it is used in the
schools of the Orient. The counsels of Luqman theWise and the"wisdom sayings"
of patriarchsand prophets (hikam) are almost as famous. A comprehensivebody
of literatureof this type is supplied by "Gifts" (tuhaf) forkings and visiers,"Ex
planations for theKings" (Fortushi-1126), "The Art of Government" (siydsa),
"The Life of Kings" (siyar). Even rulers took to thepen, for instance,Kaykwus
of Tabarstan, who transmittedhismemoirs to his son Gilanshat in the Qabus
name (stalled 1082), and also viziers such as Tahir (under Ma'mun), Abu 1-Fadl
(Akbur'svizier),Nizamal-mulk,Rashid al-din (d. 1318). It is religiousfeelingwhich
is theessence of all the ideas expressed in theseworks.
10. In ethics,as well as inOriental philosophy,we are beginninga new lineof research.
Scholarly penetrationof this subject has only just begun. No censure of theold
school is intendedhere; the entire earlier development lacked the groundwork
necessary fora comprehensionof theethical realities,even foran understandingof
foreignculture. Even theobservationsmade here in thiswork, therefore,cannot
claim final authority; firstvital preliminarystudiesmust be undertaken. At this
point a summaryof thesystemshould precede a discussionof individualand specific
ethical
forms.
Unfortunately,
space
does
not
permit
this.
If one
considers
that
any of theOriental writers, from the creators of theQaslds and Maqams to the
juristsand moralists such as Qazwini, could be studied froman ethical perspective,
one has an idea of the staggeringabundance of material which could contribute
worthwhile
themes
for research.
11. AbO YOsuf *qub,transl. E. Fagnan, Le livrede Vimpotfonder (Paris, 1922) p. 400;
E. Fagnan,
transl. Les
statuts governementaux
de Mawardi
(Algiers,
1915).
12. M. Horten, Die Religi'ose Gedankenweltder gebildetenMuslime imheutigenIslam

(Halle, 1917-18),VIII, 2, etc. Philosophy appears throughoutas thedeeper stratum.
13. (Cairo, 1911), translatedbyO. Rescher (Berlin, 1917).
14. R. A. Nicholson,"The Kitab al-Luma", GibbMemorial Series, Vol. XXII (1914), pp
158,11.
15. Id. pp 156,9.

16. Id., pp 175,14.
17. Id., pp 12,14; 15,3.

22
MAX HORTEN
18. Id., pp 176,1.

19. Id., pp 175,17.
20.
Id., pp 177,7.
21. Concerning Ibn al-Muqaffa': al-adab al-saghir-MinorEthics; (Alexandria, Ahmed

Zaki Pasha, 1330-1912)?
the lastwas translatedby E. Rescher (Berlin,MSOS,
1917). The StrangePearl ( al-durraal-yatima ) was published by the famousDruze
prince, theAmir Shakib Arslan inBeirut, 1897, in thematba'at al- adabiya of the
"Press of Finer Education", in a second edition, the name not as Brockelman, I
152,nr. 2, tobe read Sukail. Qifti 220 ,Fihrist118 lists20 works of his.
22.
Mus.
Arab.
cod.
Berlin,
121.
Landberg
23. Tahdhib (Cairo, 1317), pp. 144,5, etc.

24.
Id., pp 61,11.
25. Silvestrede Sacy,Memoire sur leDjavidan Khirad (Paris, 1831).

26. The many recentworks about Ghazali testifyto the lively interesthe arouses.
Unfortunately, theseworks lack scholarlydepth. For a treatmentofGhazali must
comprehendhis basic convictions and also the variegated currentsof his age; the
psychological-psychoanalyticalaspect should not be overlooked. Heinrich Frick,
"Ghazalis SelbstbiograpkietinVergleichmit AugustinsConfessiones"(Leipzig, 1919)
Theol Lits Ztg. 1920, Sept. 30. .De Boer exhibits to a shockingextenthow badly
our Orientalists need a scholarly translationof the tahafut;everypage of his Die
Widersprucheder Philosophic nach Ghazali (Strassburg, 1894) abounds with atro
cious
mitsakes;
realize
that the words
surmised,
time and
"Any
he cites
supra-worldly
of space
intrinsic
real
has
the original
the reality
time are not
"Space
to things".
tionships
of
sentence
considered
and
writes:
one
not
Ghazali
Whereas
in things;
sucession
from Ghazali
and
been
time as
correctly
they merely
The
disappears".
understood.
self-evident,
constitute
author
there refer to pre-worldly,
de Boer
our
failed
rela
to
i.e. purely
space.
J.Obermann credulouslyaccepts thesemistakes inDer philosophischeund re

ligioseSubjectivismusGhazalis (Vienna, and Leipzig, 1921). He manages to reverse
Ghazalis pronounced optimism (Ghazali admitted the entire positive systemof
Islam) into subjectivism(whichGhazali strovehis life long to subdue). Until the
established,modern catch words will
philosophical foundationshave been firmly
only spread obscurity, especially if theirmeaning in the unfamiliar field of
medieval thoughtisnot determined.
Hans Bauer has accomplished valuable scholarlypreliminarystudies in trans
Ghazalis Revival ofReligiousSciences, and he thusprovidesbroader
latingparts from
circles with comprehensiverawmaterial for discussion; from these discussions a
thoroughunderstandingof themost profound level of the systemshould follow.
H Bauer, IslamisischeEthik (Halle 1916,17, 22,12).
The numerousworks ofD. Miguel Asin Palacios ofMadrid are especially pene
trating.In his excellentLa Escatologia musulmana en la Divina Comedia (1919) 28
works are listedon page 402. Links to Christianitybecome clear in his "La mys
tique deal Ghazali," Des Melanges de la faculte' orientate,
Vol. VII (Beirut, 1914),

MORAL
IN ISLAM 23
PHILOSOPHERS
pp. 67-104.Also Qushairi's dependence?in his doctrineof progressivesteps leading

to God?on
Johannes
and
Klimakos?Sinaites
on
Makarios
of Egypt
can
be
studiedon a much broader basis (as Dr. Froberger tellsme), so that scholarsmust
recognize a definiteChristian influenceon Islam via the orthodoxmystics. This
was a renewed influenceand was preceded by others: 1. the impactof Christianity
on Mubammad in his earliest period,when he felthimself spirituallyakin to the
ChristianAbyssinians, 2. the influence
during theUmayad period: JohannesDamas
cene and theearliestascetics, theMutazalites, IJasan of Basra, 3. the effectof the
liberals in theearliestAbbasid period, among whom a pronouncedChristian school
can be distinguished (Christwill returnon theheavenly clouds to perfrormthe last
- ethical? Christian trend around 1000. Thus
judgement) 4. the mystical
one can consider thisinfluenceconstant,actingupon Islam since its very beginning.
Besides the seven levelsdiscussed here,Qhazali also knew theway of nine steps,
whichMakki (d. 998) details in "Die Nahrung derHerzen" (QtltinA. Palacios I.e.
95f? a supplementtoFr. Heiler's Das Gebet). Qhazali's quotations fromtheNew
ibd.
Testament,
As
decisive
influences
1. Neo-PIatonic
(ibd.
86. 96.1007).
2.
In
dian (ibd. 101) and 3. Jewishmust also be mentioned. Qhazall then in his turn
influencedChristianity, The Spanish and provincial rabbis contributed in a parti
cular way towards the introductionofQhazalPsbooks in to Christian Scholastic
ism. Writers fromToledo, most importantDominicus Gonzalez, translatedhis
'Aims of Philosophers" intoLatin and theCatalan Dominican Raimund Nartini
included in his pugio fidei entirepages of theMunkidh and theTahafut, textsfrom
Mishkat,
Mizan,
and
Ihya.
27. M. Horten, Die Hauptlehrendes Averroesnach seinerSchrift: "Die Wiederlegungen

desQhazair (Bonn, 1913), p. 323, "Zum StandpunktQhazalis."
28. Minhaju'l-abidin (Cairo, 1306?1889) pp. 3, 15-5,20.
29.
1. c. 5, 4.
30.
J,VI,
31.
M.
108 A.
Horten,
1.
Mystische
Texte
aus dem
Islam,
Drei
Gedichte
des
ibnu-l-Arabi
1912),7 nr. afterHorten, Tarjuman (London, 1911.)

32. Minhaj 4 ob.

(Bonn,

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MORAL PHILOSOPHERS IN ISLAM

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