Hindawi Publishing Corporation

Obstetrics and Gynecology International

Volume 2009, Article ID 275621, 9 pages
doi:10.1155/2009/275621

Review Article
Vaginal Vault Prolapse
Azubuike Uzoma and K. A. Farag
Barnsley Hospital, NHS Foundation Trust, Gawber Road, Barnsley S75 2EP, UK
Correspondence should be addressed to Azubuike Uzoma, [email protected]
Received 9 December 2008; Revised 30 March 2009; Accepted 17 June 2009
Recommended by Anthony O. Odibo
Introduction. Vaginal vault prolapse is a common complication following vaginal hysterectomy with negative impact on womens
quality of life due to associated urinary, anorectal and sexual dysfunction. A clear understanding of the supporting mechanism
for the uterus and vagina is important in making the right choice of corrective procedure. Management should be individualised,
taking into consideration the surgeons experience, patients age, comorbidities, previous surgery and sex life. Result. Preexisting
pelvic floor defect prior to hysterectomy is the single most important risk factor for vault prolapse. Various surgical techniques have
been advanced at hysterectomy to prevent vault prolapse. Studies have shown the McCalls culdoplasty under direct visualisation
to be superior. Vault prolapse repair rely on either the use of patients tissue or synthetic materials and can be carried out
abdominally or vaginally. Sacrospinous fixation and abdominal sacrocolpopexy are the commonly performed procedures, with
literature in favour of abdominal sacrocolpopexy over sacrospinous fixation due to its reported higher success rate of about 90%.
Other less commonly performed procedures include uterosacral ligament suspension and illiococcygeal fixation, both of which
are equally eective, with the former having a high risk of ureteric injury. Colpoclesis will play a greater role in the future as the
aging population increases. Mesh procedures are gaining in popularity, and preliminary data from vaginal mesh procedures is
encouraging. Laparoscopic techniques require a high level of skill and experience. There are many controversies on the mechanism
of prolapse and management techniques, which we have tried to address in this article. Conclusion. As the aging population
increases, the incidence of prolapse will also rise, older techniques using native tissue will continue, while new techniques using
the mesh needs to be studied further. The later may well be the way forward in future.
Copyright 2009 A. Uzoma and K. A. Farag. This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution
License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly
cited.

1. Introduction
Vaginal vault prolapse has been defined by the International
Continence Society as descent of the vaginal cu below a
point that is 2 cm less than the total vaginal length above
the plane of the hymen [1]. It occurs when the upper vagina
bulges into or outside the vagina.
Coexistent pelvic floor defects which may be a cystocoele,
rectocoele or enterocoele are present in 72% of patients with
vault prolapse [2]. Prolapse does have a negative impact on
these womens quality of life due to associated urinary, anorectal, as well as coital dysfunction. It is therefore important
to counsel these women and carefully assess the defects of the
various vaginal compartments before planning management.
A clear understanding of the supporting mechanisms for
the uterus and the vagina is important in order to make
the right choice of the corrective procedure and also to

minimise the risk of posthysterectomy occurrence of vault

prolapse.
The surgical options for the correction of vault prolapse
lie between the vaginal and the abdominal approach. The
choice of procedure should be based on the patients age,
co-morbidity, previous surgery and the level of physical
and sexual activity [3]. Also the experience of the surgeon
influences the choice of operation. Importantly, greater
awareness of the pelvic anatomy and the technique at the
time of the original hysterectomy will significantly reduce the
incidence of subsequent vault prolapse.
The satisfactory correction of vaginal vault prolapse is
a formidable surgical challenge and many techniques have
been described for the correction of this distressing problem.
The aims of prolapse surgery are to restore normal vaginal
supports whilst maintaining vaginal capacity and coital
function.

Obstetrics and Gynecology International

Table 1: RCT involving 100 patients comparing procedures used at

the time of hysterectomy to prevent enterocoele [4].
Type of procedure
Moschcowit type
closure
Modified McCall
culdoplasty
Simple closure of
peritoneum

No. of patients Prolapse rate over 3-years

33

30.3%

33

6.1%

34

39.4%

This article is to review the problem of vault prolapse

and the various techniques for its correction, with critical
evaluation of their success and possible complications.

2. Anatomic Background
The upper vagina, cervix, and uterus are attached to the
pelvic sidewalls by broad sheets of endopelvic fascia. These
sheets of tissue are usually referred to as the cardinal and
utero-sacral ligaments. They originate over the region of
the greater sciatic foramen and lateral sacrum, and insert
into the side of the cervix as well as the upper one-third
of the vagina. Although the cardinal and the utero-sacral
ligaments have separate names, they are actually a single
unit. The endo-opelvic fascia in this region consists mainly
of perivascular collagen and elastin but also contains a
considerable amount of nonvascular smooth muscle and the
autonomic nerves to the uterus and bladder. Below the level
of the uterus, the endo-opelvic fascia attaches the upper onethird of vagina to the pelvic sidewalls in the same way that
the cardinal and utero-sacral ligaments provide attachment
for the uterine cervix [5]. The middle one-third of the vagina
is attached more directly to the lateral pelvic sidewalls by
the pubocervical and rectovaginal fasciae, which are nothing
more than downward continuations of the cardinal and
uterosacral ligaments. These structures attach the lateral
margins of the vagina to the pelvic sidewalls on each side,
stretching the vagina from one side of the pelvis to the other
so that its anterior wall forms a horizontal sheet on which
the bladder rests. The posterior attachment of the vagina
to the pelvic sidewalls creates a similar sheet that prevents
the rectum from prolapsing forward. This is the rectovaginal
fascia.
On the other hand the muscular levator plate provides
indirect support for the upper genital tract by acting as
a platform against which the upper vagina and other
pelvic viscera are compressed during rises in intraabdominal
pressure. The levator plate is formed by the fusion of the right
and left bellies of the levator ani muscle behind the rectum
and anterior to the coccyx. Sublaxation of the levator plate
will cause it to act like a slide, down which the rectum and
upper genital tract may descend with rises in intraabdominal
pressure.
The cardinal and uterosacral ligaments form a complex
of visceral supporting tissues to the upper vagina and cervix
and, after hysterectomy, to the vaginal cu. They pull the
upper vagina horizontally back toward the sacrum and thus

suspended it over the muscular levator plate. Anatomically,

the insertion of the cardinal and uterosacral ligaments to
the pericervical ring occurs at the level of the ischial spines.
Clinically, detachment of the cardinaluterosacral ligament
complexes from pericervical ring occurs at the level of
the ischial spines and provides the anatomic rationale for
development of uterine descent posthysterectomy, vaginal
vault prolapse, and enterocele (apical prolapse).

3. Risk Factors
The risk of genital prolapse increases with increasing parity
and advancing age. Previous surgery to correct pelvic organ
support defects has been consistently identified as risk
factors for the development of pelvic organ prolapse. Several
other factors have also been implicated, including vaginal
versus abdominal delivery for term infant, hysterectomy,
congenital defects, races, lifestyle, and chronic disease that
increase intrabdominal pressure (e.g., chronic constipation,
pulmonary disease, and obesity). However the role of some
of these factors is not fully understood.

4. Childbirth
Women who had 4 or more vaginal deliveries have 12 times
more risk of genital prolapse [6]. From the literature, it
appears that vaginal delivery causes damage to the pudendal nerve and promotes the development of pelvic organ
prolapse. There are suggestions that instrumental vaginal
delivery, especially forceps delivery increase the risk [7].
Also it was demonstrated that Caesarean section can avoid
the pudendal nerve damage caused by vaginal delivery [8].
Inspite of the absence damage to the pudendal nerve at
caesarean section Maclennan et al. [9] showed that there was
no significant dierence in pelvic floor dysfunction between
caesarean section and vaginal delivery. However pelvic floor
dysfunction was significantly commoner following Instrumental delivery.

5. Age
Many literatures show increasing prevalence of pelvic organ
prolapse in an aged population [10]. It has been shown that
there is a 12% increase in the incidence of severe pelvic
organ prolapse with each year of advancing ae, or roughly
a doubling of the incidence for every decade of life [11].

6. Previous Surgery to Correct

Pelvic Organ Support Defects
Recurrence rates for surgical correction pf pelvic organ
prolapse are in rate 10% to 30% range [10, 12]. By analysing
the dierent risk factors for developing severe pelvic organ
prolapse, the previous surgery to correct prolapse was the
single greatest risk factor [11]. It appears that pathophysiology of the prolapse is not fully understood and the
current practice for surgical correction of prolapse may be
inadequate.

Obstetrics and Gynecology International

7. Hysterectomy
There is no consensus on the role of hysterectomy as a cause
of subsequent development of pelvic organ prolapse.
The incidence of prolapse, which required surgical
correction following hysterectomy, is 3.6 per 1000 personyears of risk. The cumulative risk rises from 1% three years
after a hysterectomy to 5% 15 years after hysterectomy. Also
the risk of prolapse following hysterectomy is 5.5 times in
women whose initial hysterectomy was for genital prolapse
as opposed to other reasons. Some studies have reported an
incidence of up to 43% [3, 13].
Dallenbach et al. conducted a case control study involving 114 women who required pelvic organ prolapse surgery
after initial hysterectomy and found that risk factor included
preopertional prolapse grade 2 or more, 95% CI 1.348.2 and
history of vaginal delivery, 95% CI 1.319 [14]. Marchionni
et al. after following up 2670 women over 913-years (mean
11 years) also concluded that incidence of vaginal vault
prolapse was low when hysterectomy is performed in the
absence of defect in the pelvic support [15]. These support
the view that vault prolapse following hysterectomy is more
likely if there was pre-existing pelvic floor defect or prolapse.

8. Evaluation and Description of

Vault Proalpse
Most vaginal cu prolapses include apical enterocele where
the pubocervical and rectovaginal fascia have separated. The
peritoneum becomes stretched and comes in direct contact
with the vaginal epithelium creating a true hernia. The
vaginal epithelium is stretched and becomes very smooth
without rugae. There is always some degree of high cystocele
formation and high rectocele formation associated with the
vaginal vault prolapse.
Pelvic Organ Prolapse Quantification (POP-Q) is an
objective and standardised system of prolapse classification
introduced in 1996, by the International Continence Society.
It is a useful tool in assessing the extent of prolapse. It has
the added advantage of its use in evaluating surgical and
nonsurgical treatment outcomes and for clinical research
purposes.
The clinical application of 3D-MRI is unclear. A study
by Cortes et al. involving 51 women aged 4095 (mean 64
years) showed poor correlation between MRI and clinical
assessment especially in vaginal apical prolapse.
However MRI allows identification of other prolapsing
compartment and may be complimentary in complex apical
prolapsed [16].
Vaginal prolapse is distressing and disabling condition to
women. The symptom of feeling something coming down,
feeling pressure in the vagina is always a common complaint. Urinary symptoms, such as poor stream, hesitancy,
straining to void, incomplete emptying, recurrent urinary
tract infections, and the need to reduce the bulge digitally to
void or defecate may also present especially when associated
with anterior and posterior compartment prolapse.
Asking women about their prolapse symptoms may
cause embarrassment and a symptomatic assessment by the

3
physician may be dicult or inaccurate. There are validated,
reliable, and easily comprehensible questionnaires designed
to assess the severity of symptoms of prolapse and their
impact on quality of life. One very useful questionnaire is the
prolapse Quality-of-life Questionnaire [17].

9. Non Surgical Management

Conservative management will include pelvic floor exercise
and pessaries, commonly ring and shelf pessaries. Their role
in vault prolapse management is unclear and there is no
evidence to suggest that pelvic floor exercise is helpful [18].
However pessaries may have a limited role in the very frail
and elderly in whom surgery is not an option.
9.1. The Surgical Management (Vaginal Approach). The
overall aim of surgery is to improve the quality of life taking
into account the individual peculiarity of each patient. All
aspects of the prolapse pathology, patients lifestyle, age,
presence of co-morbidities and sexual function must be
taken into consideration. It is also important for the surgeon
to understand patients expectation, discuss available options
including their drawbacks so that the appropriate procedure
with potential to fulfil her expectations can be achieved.
For the patient with good pelvic floor muscle strength as
assessed by clinical examination and reasonably substantive
endopelvic fascia, a vaginal approach using native tissues may
be appropriate. The vagina is anchored to existing stable
structures like the sacospinous ligament, illiococcygeous
muscle and endopelvic fascia. Women with attenuated fascia,
poor pelvic floor muscle strength, repeat repair or severe
ongoing physical stress are better served by a technique of
vault suspension that provides compensatory repair either
through vaginal or abdominal approach using the mesh.
9.2. Prevention of Vault Prolapse (McCall Culdoplasty). It
was described by McCall in 1957 as a technique to correct
enterocoele [19] and involves the suspension of the vault into
the origins of the uterosacral ligaments and obliteration of
the cul-de-sac. The original description involved extensive
excision of vaginal epithelium, which often resulted in
dyspareunia. More recently Elkins et al. described a high
McCall culdoplasty [20]. The technique was described to
repair the prolapsed vagina at hysterectomy. After the
uterine fundus was delivered through an anterior colpotomy
incision, the uterosacral ligaments are systematically plicated
from the posterior cervix back into the pelvic cavity, until two
fingerbreadths remain between the rectum and the plicated
ligaments. The main problem with this technique is the risk
of ureteric injury. However this can be eliminated by the
use of routine cystoscopy with or without methylene blue to
identify ureteric eux following the procedure. Cruikshank
and Kovac [4] in a RCT involving 100 patients compared
Moschcowit type closure, simple peritoneum closure with
McCall culdoplasty. The result (Tables 1 and 2) showed that
McCall culdoplasty was more eective than either simple
closure of the peritoneum or Moschcowitz over a 3 year
follow up in preventing enterocoele.

Obstetrics and Gynecology International

Table 2: Incidence and stages of enterocoele at follow-up [4].

Type
McCall culdoplasty (n = 33)
Moschcowitz (n = 33)
Simple closure of peritoneum (n = 34)

1 year
Stage 1 = 0
Stage 2 = 0

2 years
Stage 1 = 2
Stage 2 = 0

Stage 1 = 3
Stage 2 = 0
Stage 1 = 4
Stage 2 = 4

Stage 1 = 3
Stage 2 = 2
Stage 1 = 5
Stage 2 = 4

Prophylactic McCall Culdoplasty at the time of vaginal

hysterectomy for vaginal prolapse is our routine practice,
followed by routine cystoscopy to confirm the safety of the
ureters.
9.3. Sacrospinous Fixation. The procedure was first described
by Miyazaki [21] in 1987 and later popularised by Sharp
and Richer [6, 22] and by Erata et al. and Lang et al.
[23, 24]. It was originally described as a bilateral procedure
but subsequently being done as a unilateral procedure.
The later results in less tension, though the bilateral technique is more anatomical and maintain a wide vaginal
vault.
The technique comprises dissection into the paravaginal space and the ischial spine is identified. Using a
Deschamps ligature carrier, two nonabsorbable sutures are
placed through the sacrospinous ligament, one and a half
to two fingerbreadths medial to the ischial spine. One end
of each suture is attached to the under surface of the
posterior vaginal wall at the apical area. When the posterior
colporrhaphy reaches the mid-portion of the vagina, the
sacrospinous sutures are tied, firmly attaching the vaginal
apex to the surface of the coccygeal-sacrospinous ligament
complex with no intervening bridge of suture material.
Several modifications of this technique were described and
mainly involved dierent methods of placing the sutures into
the ligament. The Miyazaki technique uses the Miya hook
ligature carrier [25], and the Sharp technique uses the Shutt
suture punch system [26].
There are no randomised studies to compare ecacy of
either unilateral or bilateral vaginal vault suspension, so there
is no evidence to recommend either bilateral or unilateral
sacrospinous fixation [27].
In an extensive review of the literature Virtanen and
Makinen [28], quoted 18% recurrent prolapse between vault
eversion, cystoceles, and rectoceles. More specifically Holley
(1995) showed the development of asymptomatic cystocele
in 92% [29]. Retrospective study by Colombo et al. involving
124 women who had either sacrospinous fixation or McCalls
culdoplasty found no significant dierence in the incidence
of vaginal vault prolapse after 4 years, but sacrospinous
fixation took longer to perform and was associated with
more blood loss. Also more women who had sacrospinous
fixation, later developed grade 2 or 3 anterior vaginal
wall prolapse [30]. It is not an ideal operation for the
sexually active woman, as it leads to a less physiological axis

3-years
Stage 1 = 2
Stage 2 = 0
(P = .004)
Stage 1 = 4
Stage 2 = 6
Stage 1 = 8
Stage 2 = 5

than sacrocolpopexy. It is also associated with exaggerated

retroversion of the vagina [31].
Although infrequent, haemorrhage is the most common
complication but it is rarely of a life threatening nature. It
could be a result of injuring the pudendal artery or vein, or
the hypogastric venous plexus.
Other complications include injury to the bladder
or rectum. Transient and self-limiting gluteal pain could
result from injuring the small nerve that runs through
the coccygeal-sacrospinous ligament complex. Immediate
and severe postoperative gluteal pain radiating to the
posterior surface of the leg, and often associated with
perineal parathesia, indicates posterior cutaneous, pudendal,
or sciatic nerve trauma. The recommended treatment for the
later is immediate reoperation and releasing the oending
suture and repositioning it to a more medial position
[32]. In a study by Pollak et al. complication rates were
compared for three techniques, namely standard needle
driver with direct visualisation, Deschamps ligature carrier
by palpation and Miya hook ligature carrier by palpation and
the conclusion was that postoperative complications related
to suture passage were lower under direct visualisation 2%
versus 18%, P = .002 [33].
Anterior compartment displacement following this procedure has commonly been reported though debate persists
with some surgeons believing that these are actually preexisting defect missed at initial evaluation. Routine anterior
repair at sacrospinous fixation has been suggested by some
as a way to address this [34]. This though is not the universal
practice.
De novo urinary symptoms like overactive bladder or
stress incontinence can occur just like in prolapse operations
involving the anterior vaginal wall, but in spite of some of
these drawbacks, this procedure may be more suitable for
the elderly where sexual function is not important. More
importantly in these elderly patients with coexisting chronic
medical conditions where general anaesthesia is unsuitable
or outright dangerous, sacrospinous fixation which can be
performed under regional anaesthesia will be the procedure
of choice. Success rate of between 75% and 97% has been
reported [35].
9.4. Iliococcygeal Fixation. The technique was first described
by Sze and Karram in 1997 [36] and comprises the fixation
of the everted vaginal apex to the ilioccygeal fascia just
below the ischial spine. It has subsequently been popularised

Obstetrics and Gynecology International

by Holley et al. [37]. It is usually done as a bilateral
procedure as it imposes less tension on the vaginal wall
than sacrospinous fixation. The iliococcygeal muscle can be
approached through either an anterior or posterior vaginal
wall incision. It is relatively easier than sacrospinous fixation
and can be done in conjunction with vaginal hysterectomy
or as a separate procedure for correction of vault prolapse.
A lower rate of postoperative cystocoele, bleeding and
pain has been suggested but in a study [38] comparing
illiococcygeal fixation to sacrospinous fixation, there was
no dierence in outcome for postoperative cystocoele,
bleeding and pain in both procedures. Success rate were also
similar.
In a small series Carey reported 11% recurrence following sacrospinous fixation and 14% following iliococcygeal
fixation with cystocele being the commonest recurrent
prolapse in both groups [39].
There has been suggestion of reduced risk of injury to
the pudendal nerves and vessels, and less chance of vaginal
shortening, but certainly illiococcygeal fixation oers no
additional benefit over sacrospinous fixation. The Royal
College of Obstetricians and Gynaecologists (RCOG) in its
green-top guideline, no. 46 states Illiococcygeus fixation
does not reduce the incidence of anterior vaginal wall
prolapse associated with vaginal sacrospinous fixation and
should not be routinely recommended [40].
9.5. Utreosacral Suspension. This has been described as a
bilateral procedure carried out vaginally. It can also be
carried out via an abdominal or laparoscopic approach.
The aim is to place sutures through the uterosacrals at
the level of the ischial spine, with one arm brought out
through the lateral aspect of the rectovaginal fascia and the
other through the pubocervical fascia on each side. These
are tied anchoring the vaginal cu to the uterosacrals. The
biggest risk is injury to the ureters (up to 10.9%) due to
its proximity to the anterior border of the uterosacrals,
especially at the level of the cervix. Other complications
include bowel injury, bladder injury, urinary tract infection
and blood transfusion. Barber et al. followed up of 46
women, after vaginal uterosacral suspension over a mean
period of 15 months and showed 90% had resolution
of prolapse symptoms and improvement in the stage of
prolapse [41]. Most gynaecologist believe the uterosacral
ligaments are compromised in the first place, for prolapse to
occur, and for this reason will prefer sacrospinous fixation,
while some suggest that the uterosacral ligaments are not
weakened, but instead break at specific points resulting in
enterocoele and vault prolapse. The later school of thought
believe that the uterosacral can be used, even in severe
prolapse by identifying the distal portion of breakage and
anchoring the vagina high above this point to the uterosacral
ligament using an intraperitoneal approach [34].
9.6. Infracoccygeal Sling Sacropexy. Petros [42] described this
new technique and reports on his experience of the first 75
cases. The principle of this technique is to create artificial
uterosacral ligaments by inserting woven nylon tapes along
their anatomical path [42].

5
The technique comprises a transverse incision on the
posterior vaginal wall 1.52 cm below the hysterectomy scar
line and opened anteroposteriorly. The enterocele sac is
placed backwards and allowed access to the laterally displaced
uterosacral ligaments. At this point the enterocele sac is
reduced with a purse string suture. The next step is making
bilateral incisions 0.5 cm long in the perianal skin at 4 and
8 oclock, halfway between the coccyx and external anal
sphincter. Having slid the conical head of the tunneller
subdermally to the level of 3 and 9 oclock, the handle
is lifted upward 90 degrees so that the head is parallel to
the floor. The shaft of the tunneller is then thrust forward
into the ischiorectal fossa. This action penetrates the levator
plate and brings the conical head into a position behind
the uterosacral ligament. Under direct vision, with finger
placed in the rectum to locate the position of the rectal wall,
the conical tip of the tunneller is gently inclined medially
towards the vaginal vault. The tip is then penetrating the
fascia adjoining the vagina and rectum. A 6 mm woven
nylon tape was threaded into the eye of the plastic insert
and brought into the transverse incision. The procedure is
repeated on the contralateral side, leaving the tape as a U
entirely unfixed at the sacral end. The tape is then sutured
to the vault at each corner at the estimated insertion site of
the uterosacral ligament. The tape is then gently stretched
by pulling on each perineal end, and left entirely free and
unfixed.
In his series of 75 patients Petros reported 5% recurrence
of vault prolapse at a follow up between 14 years, 16%
de novo anterior wall prolapse, and 4% partial rectocele
[42]. Rectal perforation during insertion of the tape was
reported in 2 patients, identified during the procedure and
had no long-term sequel. Current evidence on the ecacy
and safety of this procedure is inadequate. Few clinical data
are available on the success rate of this procedure, though a
recent report quoted a 75% improvement in vault prolapse
[43].
The National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence
recommends that this procedure should only be used with
special arrangement in a clinical governance or research
setting [44].

10. Abdominal Approach

10.1. Abdominal Sacrocolpopexy. Abdominal sacrocolpopexy,
employing retroperitoneal interposition of a suspensory
synthetic, autologous or allograft prosthesis between the
vaginal vault and the sacral promontory was first described
by Lane in 1962 [45]. This method has proven to be superior
to other surgical techniques in terms of restoration of the
normal vaginal axis and maintenance of vaginal capacity
[46, 47]. Although the short-term success rates reported for
this procedure are in excess of 90%, the long-term outcome remains unclear and significant complications include
postoperative stress urinary incontinence, dyspareunia and
erosion of synthetic graft material.
The abdominal sacral colpopexy employs the interposition of a synthetic mesh or tissue graft between the vagina
and sacrum. This technique allows for more global support

6
of the vagina and distribution of tension over a larger
surface area. Previous authors have reported severe and
occasionally life-threatening haemorrhage from the preexistingsacral vessels, when sutures were placed in the hollow
of the sacrum [48, 49]. To reduce this risk the operative
technique was therefore modified and sutures placed more
proximally over the sacral promontory. Contrary to previous
reports, the point of sacral attachment does not aect the
vaginal axis and attachment to the sacral promontory allows
eective restoration of vaginal support, while maintaining
both vaginal capacity and coital function. [50, 51]. Most
surgeons will bury the mesh under the peritoneum to avoid
bowel erosion, while some do not and others will tunnel
the mesh from the vaginal vault to the sacral promontory
without dissecting the peritoneum. Which method is best
is still controversial. Dierent methods of mesh attachment
to the vagina have been described and to date these remain
very controversial. These include attaching a full length
of mesh to the whole length of the rectovaginal septum.
Another method involves a double attachment of the mesh
to the anterior and posterior vaginal surfaces with reported
good results. There are usually other associated defects like
anterior or posterior vaginal wall defect in varying degrees
with divided opinion and debate amongst surgeons on
completing it either vaginally or abdominally [34]. There
is no simple answer, but every patient has to be considered
individually and the associated defects assessed properly, so
that a clear plan of surgical repair can be agreed with the
patient bearing in mind other factors like coital function.
Consistent cure rate of more than 90% has been reported
[52], with some studies reporting up to 95% [53].
Mesh erosion following the use of polypropylene graft
was reported to complicate 22.7% of cases [54, 55]. This will
necessitate revision or removal of the mesh. In most of the
cases, this occurs at the vaginal vault resulting in dyspareunia
and vaginal discharge within the first six months. Mesh
erosion is usually predisposed to by marked scarring and
thinning of the vagina from previous vaginal repairs or a
combined abdominal hysterectomy and sacral colpopexy.
This problem can be eliminated by the use of donor fascia
lata or a xenograft.
This procedure has added advantage over the traditional
procedures because it maintains the normal axis of the
vagina, with preservation of maximal vaginal length which
is desirable for optimal sexual function. It also provides a
source of strength in patients with weak tissue or recurrent
prolapse [56]. For these reasons it is quite a fairly common
operation with 38% of surgeons in a national survey carrying
it out for vault prolapse [57]. It is further associated
with a lower rate of recurrent prolapse and dyspareunia
[58] which makes it popular choice amongst surgeons
especially in fit patients. Part of its drawback includes
the fact that it is performed via laparotomy with all the
associated risk of internal organ injury, longer operation
time and hospital stay, so these need to be balanced against
the benefits. In the very elderly with coexisting medical
pathology, the risk of laparotomy coupled with the extra risk
of general anaesthesia will make this procedure unsuitable
[56].

Obstetrics and Gynecology International

11. Laparoscopic Approach

11.1. Laparoscopic Sacral Colpopexy. In theory laparoscopic
approach to the repair of the vault prolapse should follow the
same principle as in the open technique, with laparoscopy
only being the mode of surgical access. However a highly
skilled and experienced laparoscopic surgeon is crucial. This
approach has a steep learning curve and takes many years of
practise to acquire the necessary skills.
In a small study by Hsiao et al. in 2004, comparing
laparoscopic sacrocolpopexy (25 patients) and abdominal
sacrocolpopexy (22 patients), it showed that blood loss
and hospital stay was significantly less in the laparoscopic
group (P = .002), though operation time was longer (P <
.001). However there was no dierence in ecacy of both
methods. Success rates of 95% for abdominal and 100% for
laparoscopic techniques has been reported [53].
11.2. Laparoscopic Uterosacral-Ligament Vault Suspension.
The technique begins with the identification of the vaginal
vault apex, and the rectovaginal and pubocervical fascia facilitated by the use of a vaginal probe. Traction is placed on the
vaginal probe forward to stretch the utero-sacral ligaments
so they can be identified and traced backwards. At this stage
both ureters are identified. The peritoneum overlying the
vaginal apex is incised to expose the pubocervical fascia
anteriorly and the rectovaginal fascia posteriorly. The rest
of the procedure will follow along the same steps for the
open technique, and the uterosacral ligament on each side is
attached using nonabsorbable sutures to the ipsilateral side of
the vaginal vault. Intra- or extracorporeal knots can be used
depending on the surgeons preference.
There is a high risk of ureteric injury, so cystoscopy is
advised after suture placement. Success rate of up to 90%
over a 2 year period has been reported [59].
Laparoscopic surgery has a steep learning curve and not
all surgeons will have the necessary skill to excel especially
considering the technical diculty and longer operation
time. The main advantage is good exposure of the operation
field enabling the surgeon to fully evaluate and treat other
components of the prolapse eectively. Most recently new
innovations like robotics, though in its infancy is helping to
address some of the limitations of laparoscopy by providing
better technical features such as 3D vision and more precise
robotic instrument manoeuvrability. One of the latest and
increasingly popular systems with varied application in
dierent specialities, the Da Vinci system is at the fore of this
new frontier [60].
11.3. Colpocleisis. This is a procedure that may gain in
popularity in the coming years and as life expectancy rises
in an aging population.
Colpocleisis involves surgical obliteration of the lumen of
the vagina. Dierent methods are described including pursestring closure, vaginectomy and in association with other
continence procedures [40]. Basically the vaginal epithelium
is mobilised anteriorly and posteriorly leaving about 2 cm
from the vault above and also from the urethral meatus
below. The prolapse is reduced by placing progressive sutures

Obstetrics and Gynecology International

7
Table 3

Hb change g/dl
Number transfused
Dyspareunia
Febrile morbidity
Incontinence
Catheter duration >5 days
Time of recurrence in months

Vaginal (n = 42)
2.6 1
0
15%
(Sexually active n = 26)
4%
44%
75%
11.2 11.5

anteroposteriorly, till the prolapsed tissues are above the level

of the levator plate. It can also be carried out as a partial or
total procedure. The partial procedure is usually reserved for
women with an intact prolapsed uterus with the aim of giving
access to any discharge or bleeding from the uterus via a small
opening.
It is suitable for the frail elderly woman who is not
sexually active and for whom conservative methods like
the pessary is not ideal. It has the advantage that it can
also be carried out under local anaesthesia and involves a
shorter operation time. Essentially it is about improving the
quality of life. In one of the largest case series involving
41 women carried out at Temple University Philadelphia
between November 1994 and June 2001, there was only one
case of bladder injury, 2 cases of self limiting rectal bleed and
average hospital stay of 2 days [61].
De novo urinary stress incontinence of up to 27% in
previously continent women has been reported [62], though
no intraoperative complication has been reported in the
literature [63].
Success rate of 97% and above have also been reported
[64].

12. Vaginal versus Abdominal Approach

A prospective randomised study [12] compared vaginal
(bilateral sacrospinous vault suspension and paravaginal
repair) versus abdominal (colposacral suspension and paravaginal repair).
These patients were followed up for up to 5 years. Table 3
represents the outcome.
This study did show that the vaginal route had significantly higher postoperative incontinence rate, longer period
of catheter use and recurrence was less likely to occur
following the abdominal route. However there were more
transfusions and febrile morbidity in the abdominal group,
though not significant. This study also noted a higher rate
of reoperation for recurrent prolapse, 33% vaginal versus
abdominal 16% confirming that the abdominal route has a
better success rate.

13. Role of Mesh in Vault Prolapse

Synthetic mesh has been commonly used to manage pelvic
organ and prolapse, even though the more traditional suture

Abdominal (n = 38)
31
2
0%
(Sexually active n = 15)
8%
23% (P < .05)
48% (P < .05)
22.1 16.2 (P < .05)

repair technique is still the primary choice, with the mesh

mainly reserved for repeat procedures and large defects.
A multicentric retrospective study [65] involving 110
patients, of which 59 had total mesh repair, (transvaginal)
using the prolift (Gynaecare) system, showed a recurrence
rate of 4.75% at 3 month follow up. In spite of the short
follow-up in this study, the total mesh may possibly address
the issue of high rate of recurrence commoner with the more
traditional methods. Other types of mesh like the Apogee
(posterior vaginal wall) and Perigee (anterior vaginal wall)
have been used for management of recurrent cystocoele
and rectocoele with or without vault prolapse. Success rate
of 93% has been reported [66]. However there are no
randomised controlled studies to compare this procedure
with abdominal sacrocolpopexy or uterosacral suspension
for now [67].

14. Conclusion
Vault prolapse repair is based on use of native tissues or
synthetic materials. There is no consensus on the mechanism
and management of vault prolapse, but what is accepted
by all is the need to properly assess these patients, involve
them in the management and to agree on the type of surgery
that will be suitable for their own peculiar circumstance.
The mesh is gaining in popularity, but there are no studies
yet on its long term ecacy though initial results are very
encouraging.

References
[1] P. Abrams, L. Cardozo, M. Fall, et al., The standardisation
of terminology of lower urinary tract function: report from
the standardisation sub-committee of the international continence society, Neurourology and Urodynamics, vol. 21, no. 2,
pp. 167178, 2002.
[2] J. Sederl, Zur operation des prolapses der blind endigenden
sheiden, Geburtshilfe Frauenheilkd, vol. 18, pp. 824828, 1958.
[3] B. J. Flynn and G. D. Webster, Surgical management of the
apical vaginal defect, Current Opinion in Urology, vol. 12, no.
4, pp. 353358, 2002.
[4] S. H. Cruikshank and S. R. Kovac, Randomized comparison
of three surgical methods used at the time of vaginal hysterectomy to prevent posterior enterocele, American Journal
of Obstetrics & Gynecology, vol. 180, no. 4, pp. 859865, 1999.

8
[5] K. Richer and W. Albright, Long term results following
fixation of the vagina on the sacrospinous ligament by the
vaginal route, American Journal of Obstetrics & Gynecology,
vol. 141, pp. 811816, 1981.
[6] K. Richter, Massive eversion of the vagina: pathogenesis,
diagnosis, and therapy of the true prolapse of the vaginal
stump, Clinical Obstetrics and Gynecology, vol. 25, no. 4, pp.
897912, 1982.
[7] P. A. Moalli, S. J. Ivy, L. A. Meyn, and H. M. Zyczynski,
Risk factors associated with pelvic floor disorders in women
undergoing surgical repair, Obstetrics and Gynecology, vol.
101, no. 5, pp. 869874, 2003.
[8] S. J. Snooks, M. Swash, M. M. Henry, and M. Setchell,
Risk factors in childbirth causing damage to the pelvic floor
innervation, International Journal of Colorectal Disease, vol. 1,
no. 1, pp. 2024, 1986.
[9] A. H. MacLennan, A. W. Taylor, D. H. Wilson, and D. Wilson,
The prevalence of pelvic floor disorders and their relationship
to gender, age, parity and mode of delivery, British Journal of
Obstetrics and Gynaecology, vol. 107, no. 12, pp. 14601470,
2000.
[10] A. L. Olsen, V. J. Smith, J. O. Bergstrom, J. C. Colling,
and A. L. Clark, Epidemiology of surgically managed pelvic
organ prolapse and urinary incontinence, Obstetrics and
Gynecology, vol. 89, no. 4, pp. 501506, 1997.
[11] S. E. Swift, T. Pound, and J. K. Dias, Case-control study of
etiologic factors in the development of severe pelvic organ
prolapse, International Urogynecology Journal and Pelvic Floor
Dysfunction, vol. 12, no. 3, pp. 187192, 2001.
[12] J. T. Benson, V. Lucente, and E. McClellan, Vaginal versus
abdominal reconstructive surgery for the treatment of pelvic
support defects: a prospective randomized study with longterm outcome evaluation, American Journal of Obstetrics &
Gynecology, vol. 175, no. 6, pp. 14181422, 1996.
[13] J. O. L. DeLancey, Anatomic aspects of vaginal eversion after
hysterectomy, American Journal of Obstetrics & Gynecology,
vol. 166, no. 6, part 1, pp. 17171728, 1992.
[14] P. Dallenbach, I. Kaelin-Gambirasio, J.-B. Dubuisson, and M.
Boulvain, Risk factors for pelvic organ prolapse repair after
hysterectomy, Obstetrics and Gynecology, vol. 110, no. 3, pp.
625632, 2007.
[15] M. Marchionni, G. L. Bracco, V. Checcucci, et al., True
incidence of vaginal vault prolapse: thirteen years of experience, Journal of Reproductive Medicine for the Obstetrician and
Gynecologist, vol. 44, no. 8, pp. 679684, 1999.
[16] E. Cortes, W. M. N. Reid, K. Singh, and L. Berger, Clinical
examination and dynamic magnetic resonance imaging in
vaginal vault prolapse, Obstetrics and Gynecology, vol. 103, no.
1, pp. 4146, 2004.
[17] G. A. Digesu, V. Khullar, L. Cardozo, et al., P-QoL: a validated
quality of life questionnaire for the symptomatic assessment of
women with uterovaginal prolapse, International Urogynecology Journal, vol. 11, p. S25, 2000.
[18] S. Hagen, D. Stark, C. Maher, and E. Adams, Conservative
management of pelvic organ prolapse in women, Cochrane
Database of Systematic Reviews, no. 4, Article ID CD003882,
2006.
[19] M. L. McCall, Posterior culdoplasty: surgical correction of
enterocele during vaginal hysterectomy: a preliminary report,
American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology, vol. 10, pp.
595602, 1957.

Obstetrics and Gynecology International

[20] T. E. Elkins, J. B. Hopper, K. Goodfellow, R. Gasser, T. E.
Nolan, and M. C. Schexnayder, Initial report of anatomic
and clinical comparison of the sacrospinous ligament fixation
to the high McCall culdoplasty for vaginal cu fixation at
hysterectomy for uterine prolapse, Journal of Pelvic Surgery,
vol. 1, pp. 1217, 1995.
[21] F. S. Miyazaki, Miya Hook ligature carrier for sacrospinous
ligament suspension, Obstetrics and Gynecology, vol. 70, no.
2, pp. 286288, 1987.
[22] T. R. Sharp, Sacrospinous suspension made easy, Obstetrics
and Gynecology, vol. 82, no. 5, pp. 873875, 1993.
[23] Y. E. Erata, B. Kilic, S. Guclu, U. Saygili, and T. Uslu,
Risk factors for pelvic surgery, Archives of Gynecology and
Obstetrics, vol. 267, no. 1, pp. 1418, 2002.
[24] J. H. Lang, L. Zhu, Z. J. Sun, and J. Chen, Estrogen levels and
estrogen receptors in patients with stress urinary incontinence
and pelvic organ prolapse, International Journal of Gynecology
and Obstetrics, vol. 80, no. 1, pp. 3539, 2003.
[25] W. B. Sang, H. C. Byung, Y. K. Jeong, and H. P. Ki, Pelvic
organ prolapse and connective tissue abnormalities in Korean
women, The Journal of Reproductive Medicine, vol. 47, no. 3,
pp. 231234, 2002.
[26] S. H. Cruikshank, Sacrospinous fixationsould this be
performed at the time of vaginal hysterectomy? American
Journal of Obstetrics & Gynecology, vol. 164, no. 4, pp. 1072
1076, 1991.
[27] C. L. Randall and D. H. Nichols, Surgical treatment of vaginal
inversion, Obstetrics and Gynecology, vol. 38, no. 3, pp. 327
332, 1971.
[28] H. S. Virtanen and J. Makinen, Retrospective analysis of
711 patients operated on for pelvic relaxation in 19831989,
International Journal of Gynecology and Obstetrics, vol. 42, no.
2, pp. 109115, 1993.
[29] W. B. Inmon, Pelvic relaxation and repair including prolapse
of vagina following hysterectomy, Southern Medical Journal,
vol. 56, pp. 577582, 1963.
[30] M. Colombo and R. Milani, Sacrospinous ligament fixation
and modified McCall culdoplasty during vaginal hysterectomy
for advanced uterovaginal prolapse, American Journal of
Obstetrics & Gynecology, vol. 179, no. 1, pp. 1320, 1998.
[31] A. Rane, Y. N. Lim, G. Withey, and R. Muller, Magnetic resonance imaging findings following three dierent vaginal vault
prolapse repair procedures: a randomised study, Australian
and New Zealand Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology, vol.
44, no. 2, pp. 135139, 2004.
[32] B. L. Shull, C. V. Capen, M. W. Riggs, and T. J. Kuehl, Bilateral
attachment of the vaginal cu to iliococcygeus fascia: an
eective method of cu suspension, American Journal of
Obstetrics & Gynecology, vol. 168, no. 6, pp. 16691677, 1993.
[33] J. Pollak, P. Takacs, and C. Medina, Complications of
three sacrospinous ligament fixation techniques, International Journal of Gynecology and Obstetrics, vol. 99, no. 1, pp.
1822, 2007.
[34] R. Arbel and Y. Lavy, Vaginal vault prolapse: choice of
operation, Best Practice & Research Clinical Obstetrics &
Gynaecology, vol. 19, no. 6, pp. 959977, 2005.
[35] D. Lovatsis and H. P. Drutz, Vaginal surgical approach to
vaginal vault prolapse: considerations of anatomic correction
and safety, Current Opinion in Obstetrics and Gynecology, vol.
15, no. 5, pp. 435437, 2003.
[36] E. H. M. Sze and M. M. Karram, Transvaginal repair of vault
prolapse: a review, Obstetrics and Gynecology, vol. 89, no. 3,
pp. 466475, 1997.

Obstetrics and Gynecology International

[37] R. L. Holley, R. E. Varner, B. P. Gleason, L. Apel, and S. Scott,
Recurrent pelvic support defects after sacrospinous ligament
fixation for vaginal vault prolapse, Journal of the American
College of Surgeons, vol. 180, no. 4, pp. 444448, 1995.
[38] C. F. Maher, C. J. Murray, M. P. Carey, P. L. Dwyer, and A.
M. Ugoni, Iliococcygeus or sacrospinous fixation for vaginal
vault prolapse, Obstetrics and Gynecology, vol. 98, no. 1, pp.
4044, 2001.
[39] M. P. Carey, Pelvic floor disorders symposium; Pelvic Organ
Prolapse, Australian & New Zealand Continence Journal, vol.
9, no. 2, pp. 3744, 2003.
[40] RCOG Green-top Guideline no 46, October 2007.
[41] M. D. Barber, A. G. Visco, A. C. Weidner, C. L. Amundsen,
and R. C. Bump, Bilateral uterosacral ligament vaginal vault
suspension with site-specific endopelvic fascia defect repair
for treatment of pelvic organ prolapse, American Journal of
Obstetrics & Gynecology, vol. 183, no. 6, pp. 14021411, 2000.
[42] P. E. P. Petros, Vault prolapse II: restoration of dynamic
vaginal supports by infracoccygeal sacropexy, an axial day-case
vaginal procedure, International Urogynecology Journal and
Pelvic Floor Dysfunction, vol. 12, no. 5, pp. 296303, 2001.
[43] D.-J. Jordaan, A. Prollius, H. S. Cronje, and M. Nel, Posterior
intravaginal slingplasty for vaginal prolapse, International
Urogynecology Journal and Pelvic Floor Dysfunction, vol. 17, no.
4, pp. 326329, 2006.
[44] National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence, Interventional procedure guidance 281, January 2009.
[45] F. E. Lane, Repair of posthysterectomy vaginal vault prolapse, Obstetrics & Gynecology, vol. 20, pp. 7277, 1962.
[46] J. T. Benson and E. McClellan, The eect of vaginal dissection
on the pudendal nerve, Obstetrics and Gynecology, vol. 82, no.
3, pp. 387389, 1993.
[47] W. Grunberger, V. Grunberger, and F. Wierrani, Pelvic
promontory fixation of the vaginal vault in sixty-two patients
with prolapse after hysterectomy, Journal of the American
College of Surgeons, vol. 178, no. 1, pp. 6972, 1994.
[48] G. P. Sutton, W. A. Addison, C. H. Livengood III, and C. B.
Hammond, Life-threatening hemorrhage complicating sacral
colpopexy, American Journal of Obstetrics & Gynecology, vol.
140, no. 7, pp. 836837, 1981.
[49] C. B. Iglesia, D. E. Fenner, and L. Brubaker, The use of mesh
in gynecologic surgery, International Urogynecology Journal
and Pelvic Floor Dysfunction, vol. 8, no. 2, pp. 105115, 1997.
[50] T. E. Snyder and K. E. Krantz, Abdominal-retroperitoneal
sacral colpopexy for the correction of vaginal prolapse,
Obstetrics and Gynecology, vol. 77, no. 6, pp. 944949, 1991.
[51] S. D. Fox and S. L. Stanton, Vault prolapse and rectocele:
assessment of repair using sacrocolpopexy with mesh interposition, British Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology, vol. 107,
no. 11, pp. 13711375, 2000.
[52] W. A. Addison, R. C. Bump, and G. W. Cundi, Sacral
colpopexy is the preferred treatment for vaginal vault prolapse
in selected patients, J Gynecol Tech, vol. 2, pp. 6974, 1996.
[53] K. C. Hsiao, K. Latchamsetty, F. E. Govier, P. Kozlowski, and
K. C. Kobashi, Comparison of laparoscopic and abdominal
sacrocolpopexy for the treatment of vaginal vault prolapse,
Journal of Endourology, vol. 21, no. 8, pp. 926930, 2007.
[54] C. B. Iglesia, D. E. Fenner, and L. Brubaker, The use of mesh
in gynecologic surgery, International Urogynecology Journal
and Pelvic Floor Dysfunction, vol. 8, no. 2, pp. 105115, 1997.
[55] M. Fynes, J. Goh, C. Chong, et al., Abdominal Sacral
Colpopexy for Vaginal Vault Prolapse, Peri-operative Morbidity and Outcome.

9
[56] D. S. Elliott, A. E. Krambeck, and G. K. Chow, Long-term
results of robotic assisted laparoscopic sacrocolpopexy for the
treatment of high grade vaginal vault prolapse, Journal of
Urology, vol. 176, no. 2, pp. 655659, 2006.
[57] S. Jha and P. A. Moran, National survey on the management
of prolapse in the UK, Neurourology and Urodynamics, vol.
26, no. 3, pp. 325331, 2007.
[58] C. Maher, K. Baessler, C. M. A. Glazener, E. J. Adams, and
S. Hagen, Surgical management of pelvic organ prolapse in
women, Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, no. 3, pp.
1469493x, 2007.
[59] J. E. Carter, M. Winter, S. Mendehlsohn, W. Saye, and A. C.
Richardson, Vaginal vault suspension and enterocele repair
by Richardson-Saye laparoscopic technique: description of
training technique and results, Journal of the Society of
Laparoendoscopic Surgeons, vol. 5, no. 1, pp. 2936, 2001.
[60] G. Hubens, H. Coveliers, L. Balliu, M. Ruppert, and W.
Vaneerdeweg, A performance study comparing manual and
robotically assisted laparoscopic surgery using the Da Vinci
system, Surgical Endoscopy and Other Interventional Techniques, vol. 17, no. 10, pp. 15951599, 2003.
[61] Nancy Walsh, Colpocleisis seen as eective for prolapse in
elderly, OB/GYN news, April 2002.
[62] M. P. FitzGerald and L. Brubaker, Colpocleisis and urinary
incontinence, American Journal of Obstetrics & Gynecology,
vol. 189, no. 5, pp. 12411244, 2003.
[63] P. M. Latthe, K. Kamakshi, and A. S. Arunkalaivanan,
Colpocleisis revisited, The Obstetrician & Gynaecologist, vol.
10, pp. 133138, 2008.
[64] R. D. Cespedes, J. C. Winters, and K. H. Ferguson, Colpocleisis for the treatment of vaginal vault prolapse, Techniques in
Urology, vol. 7, no. 2, pp. 152160, 2001.
[65] B. Fatton, J. Amblard, P. Debodinance, M. Cosson, and B.
Jacquetin, Transvaginal repair of genital prolapse: preliminary results of a new tension-free vaginal mesh (ProliftTM
technique)a case series multicentric study, International
Urogynecology Journal and Pelvic Floor Dysfunction, vol. 18, no.
7, pp. 743752, 2007.
[66] A. Gauruder-Burmester, P. Koutouzidou, J. Rohne, M.
Gronewold, and R. Tunn, Follow-up after polypropylene
mesh repair of anterior and posterior compartments in
patients with recurrent prolapse, International Urogynecology
Journal and Pelvic Floor Dysfunction, vol. 18, no. 9, pp. 1059
1064, 2007.
[67] M. M. South and L. C. Amundsen, Pelvic surgery, OBG
Management, vol. 19, no. 10, 2007.