Information Digest Volume 1: (Reprint Edition March 2001)

Information Digest Volume 1
(Reprint Edition March 2001)

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Project ZAAN - Information Digest Vol. 1
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Introduction
This is the consolidated volume of the Information Digest issued by the Trust. It includes,
besides additional items, the information contained in the three earlier issues with suitable
revisions and additions. The consolidated volume shall not only be of interest to those who
missed the earlier issues, but also help youngsters who are desirous of participating in the
forthcoming ZAAN Quiz.
The purpose of the Digest is to familiarize our young and not so young members of the
community who are not already exposed to various facets of the place of our origin - Kashmir,
its history, geography, culture etc. In short, all that a Kashmiri stands for. It is hoped that it will
be a pointer to the whole arena of Kashmir and thus create an urge among the readers to study the
topics in greater detail, for which a plethora of literature is available. If it initiates people into
further study, the purpose of the Digest is served.
The Trust envisages issue of more volumes of the Digest in future, in order to enlarge the span of
topics covered and also enhance the content under the topics already included. The compilers do
not claim infallibility and would therefore invite comments for any change and improvement.
This is a community project, therefore, assistance and suggestions from every member of the
community are welcome.
The Digest tries to focus on matters which make us, as a community, unique. The understanding
of the uniqueness fosters sense of identity. And reinforcing the identity is our need.
-----------------------------------------------Compilers:
J. N. Kachroo, J. L. Manwati
P. N. Wali, M.K.Raina &
Neelam Trakru
------------------------------------------------

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The Land & the People

Birth of Kasmira (Kashmir) - Legend
According to the Nilamata Purana, the land of Kasmira was occupied for 6
Manvantaras since the beginning of the Kalpa, by a vast lake, six yojanas long and three
yojanas wide, called Satisara. In the 7th Manvantara, the water of the lake was drained
off through an outlet made with plough by Ananta at the order of Vishnu, who along with
other gods and goddesses had come there to kill the demon Jalodbhava - invincible in
waters. The geological observations made in recent times corroborate the assertion made
in the Nilamata. M.B.Pithawala in his Kashmir, Its Geology & Geography and
G.E.L.Carter in his Stone Age in Kashmir have supported this theory of the prehistoric
great lake in Kasmira.
The name Kasmira (Kashmir)
The Nilamata Purana gives Kasmira as the name of the valley, which is still known as
Kashmir throughout the world and is called by the Kashmiris in their own language, as
Kashir.
Location
Jammu & Kashmir, the Northern-most State of India is situated between 730 -26 E & 800 30 E Longitudes and 320 - 17 N & 360 -58 N Latitudes.
Area
Total area of Jammu & Kashmir State is 2,22,236 Sq. Kms . out of which 78114 Sq. Kms.
are under illegal occupation of Pakistan, 5180 Sq. Kms. are illegally handed over by
Pakistan to China and 37555 Sq. Kms. are under illegal occupation of China.
Other information
Divisions (Post 1947) 1. Jammu. 2. Kashmir. 3. Ladakh.

Capitals
Summer - Srinagar. Winter - Jammu
Districts
Anantnaag, Badgam, Baramulla, Doda,

Jammu, Kargil, Kathua, Kupwara, Leh,
Pulwama, Poonch, Rajauri, Srinagar,
Udhampur.
Prominent Mountains
Main Rivers
Himalayan Range - Peer Panjal,

Karakoram, Hindu Kush.
Sindh (Indus) - Ladakh.
Jhelum (Vitasta) - Kashmir valley.

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Kishenganga - Kashmir valley.

Chenab - Jammu.
Borders of undivided
640 Kms. with Sinkiang, 720 Kms. with
Kashmir (with foreign
Tibet, 1120 Kms. with Pakistan and
countries)
256 Kms. with Afganistan.
Principal languages:
Kashmiri, Dogri, Pahari, Balti, Ladakhi,
Punjabi, Gujari, Dardi and Urdu as official
language.
Population (1989):
77,18,700 (This excludes the population of
areas under unlawful occupation of Pakistan and
China.
Religion-wise breakup
Muslims ~ 64.19 %, Hindus ~ 32.24 %
of population
Sikhs ~ 2.23 %, Buddhists ~ 1.16 %
(1981 Census)
Christians ~ 0.14 %.
General description of the Valley
The Valley of Kashmir is surrounded by mountains varied in form, height and colour.
To the East of Valley stands Harmukh at 5150 Mtr. height. To further South is
Mahadev and lofty ranges of Gwasha Brari (Ht. 5425 M). The peak of Amarnath (Ht.
5280 M) lies in this area. On South-West is Pir Panjal range with peaks 4500 M high.
To the North are Korakoram and the Himalayas. Nanga Parbat (Ht.7980 M) lies here.
It is the 5th highest peak in the world. K2, the second highest peak in the world, lies in
the Pakistan occupied Kashmir. The valley of Kashmir is approximately 134 Kms. in
length and 32 to 40 Kms. in width. Most of its length is traversed by a navigable river
called Jhelum (Vitasta). Srinagar city is approximately 1585 Mtrs . above mean sea
level.
The entire valley mountain slopes, smaller valleys at varying heights, meadows, glaciers,
lakes, brooks and springs make it a paradise, unique in the world. Some world famous
spots of tourist interest are: Pahalgam, Gulmarg, Sonamarg, Kokar Naag, Veri Naag,
Dal Lake, Wular Lake, Anchar Lake, Gangabal, Mughal Gardens, Pari Mahal,
Dachhi Gaam Rakh etc.
Brief description of some prominent spots
Pahalgam: This world famous tourist spot is situated at the confluence of river Liddar
and Sheshnag stream, 96 kms. away from Srinagar. Its altitude is 2130 Mtrs above sea
level. There are cool, shaded meadows all around. A Shiva temple (Mamleshwar),
believed to be the oldest (8th century) is situated at village Mamal, 8 kms. from here.
Gulmarg: A famous tourist spot and the venue of winter sports (skiing), Gulmarg is one
of the highest green golf cours es in the world. It is 56 kms. away from Srinagar at an
altitude of 2730 mtrs. above sea level. Gulmarg is like a cup shaped meadow of flowers
with lush green turf and surrounded by pine trees with snow capped peaks overlooking it.
Nangaparbat can be viewed from here on a clear day.
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Sonamarg: Situated at an altitude of 3000 mtrs., Sonamarg is 87 kms. from Srinagar. It

is the last halt on the valley side for a drive to Kargil/Leh through Zojila pass. Sonamarg
is a vast meadow and the starting point for going to Vishnasar, Krishnasar, Gadsar,
Satsar lakes and Amar Nath Cave via Baltal. River Sindh which abounds in Trout and
Mahaseer fish, meanders along here.
vvv

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History
Recent excavations at Burzahom near Srinagar show that there was habitation in the
Valley around 2000 BC. The earliest inhabitants lived in pits and buried their dead along
with the pet animals in their compounds. Their identity has not so far been established.
The Nagas were the earliest known inhabitants. The Khasas, Dars, Bhuttas, Damars,
Nishadas, Tantrings etc. appeared later. The Indo-Aryans came after the water flowed
out of the Satisar.
The first known king of Kashmir was Gonanda. His successors were weak and
insignificant. The more known rulers after Gonanda-II were:
273-232 B.C.
Around 100 A.D.
515-550 A.D.
631 A.D.
724-761 A.D.
855-883 A.D.
Upto 939 A.D.
939-949 A.D.
949 A.D.
950-958 A.D.
958-1003 A.D.
1003-1028 A.D.
1028-1063 A.D.
1063-1089 A.D.
1089-1101 A.D.
1101-1111 A.D.
1128-1155 A.D.
1171-1286 A.D.
1286-1320 A.D.
1320-1323 A.D.
1339-1342 A.D.
1354-1373 A.D.
1373-1389 A.D.
1389-1413 A.D.
1420-1470 A.D.
1541-1551 A.D.
1561-1586 A.D.
1586-1753 A.D.
1753-1819 A.D.
1819-1846 A.D.
Ashoka extended control over Kashmir. He encouraged Budhism.

Kushan dynasty (Kanishka, Huska, Juska etc.)
Abhimanyu, Vibhisana I, Indrajit, Ravana, Vibhisana II.
Mihira-Kula, A Hun General.
Karkota Dynasty (Founder Durlabhavandhana)
(Chinese Traveller Hiuen Tsang visited Kashmir around this time)
Lalitaditya (Karkota Dynasty)
Avantivarman (Uptala Dynasty)
Uptala dynasty
Vyasaskaradeva (Brahmin Dynasty)
Parva Gupta (Gupta Dynasty)
Ksema Gupta
Didda (As regent for Abhimanyu II and later as ruler)
Samgramaraja
Ananta
Kalsa
Harsa
Uccale
Jaya Simha
Bopadeva
Damra dynasty
Rinchana (A Buddhist turned Muslim)
Shah Mir
Shihab-ud-Din
Qutub-ud-Din
Sultan Sikander (But-Shikan)
Sultan Zain-ul-Abidin (Badshah)
Mirza Haider Dughlat ( A Mughal general)
Chak dynasty (Ghazi Chak, Yousuf Shah etc.)
Mughal rule through governors
Afghan rule through governors
Sikh rule through governors


1846-1857 A.D.
1857-1885 A.D.
1885-1925 A.D.
1925-1947 A.D.
1947 A.D.
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Maharaja Gulab Singh (Dogra rule)

Maharaja Ranbir Singh
Maharaja Partap Singh
Maharaja Hari Singh
Accession with India
Kashmir was from the earliest period, a seat of learning as we find from the writings of
famous Chinese travellers Hieun-Tsang & Ou-Kong. No scholar could be considered
well accomplished unless and untill he had associated himself with the illustrious learned
men in Kashmir for several years and taken lessons from them. Kashmir was a grand
arena of science and arts. Innumerable names of illustrious persons who have attained
the loftiest pitch of glory in the literary world, can be cited. Kashmir produced scientists
like Charaka, whose books on medicine are a marvel to the modern medical and surgical
world. Men of culture and letters from distant countries came here and sat reverentially at
the feet of the great masters of learning and drank deep at the fountains of abstruse
knowledge and arts. From here, went forth teachers to distant countries with the torch of
learning and dispelled the darkness of ignorance from there. Throughout India, Kashi and
Kashmir were, from ancient times famous as the seats of learning but Kashmir (which
was also known as Sharda Peeth) excelled even Kashi. The learned men of Kashi had to
come to Kashmir to complete their education. Even to this day, the people of Kashi make
their boys walk seven paces towards Kashmir during the performance of the ceremony of
their investiture with the sacred thread as a token of their having gone to and returned
from Kashmir after completing their education.
Sharda was a famous seat of ancient learning and pilgrimage. This was considered a
university where scholars would come from far and near. The famous Kashmiri script
SHARDA was developed here. It is presently in Pakistan-held part of Kashmir.
Sources of Kashmir history
Kashmir has the uniqueness of having almost unbroken historical record from the hoary
past to the present day. It is chiefly because of:
1. Nilamata Purana , the earliest known extant history of Kashmir giving legends
about the origin of the valley. It also gives details of rites, worship of Nagas, details of
Tirthas etc.
2. Kalhanas Rajatarangini is the most important extant history of Kashmir written in
Sanskrit verse in 1148-50. Based on extensive research, referring to Puranas (Kashmir is
not mentioned in the Vedic literature); Nilamata Purana, ancient account of 51 Tirthas,
foreign travellers accounts, legends and anecdotes, Kalhana has built dynastic lists of 54
reigns, covering an aggregate period of 3050 years . He has given a connected account
with dates from AD 813 onwards. His work gives a picture of the social, political,
economical and religious condition of the period. The book has been translated into many
languages. M.A.Steins translation and commentary is a valuable source. It
(Rajatarangini) comprises eight cantos of Sanskrit verse, the history of various
daynasties which ruled Kashmir from the earliest period down to the time of the author,
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who began to write this book in AD 1148, in the reign of Jai Simha. The Rajatarangini
has become the most direct source of information on the history of ancient Kashmir.
Allowing for the legendry character of much that is related in the first three cantos, it can
be accepted as a reliable record from the seventh century.
[WRL pp 180]
Kalhana has indicated, atleast generally, the material which he had used for his
narration. The more prominent of them are:
a) Nilamata Purana.
b) Suvratas Hand Book containing condensed contents of previous historians, whose
works were not available to Kalhana.
c) Eleven works of scholars containing chronicles of kings.
d) Kshemendras list of kings.
e) Padmamihira, giving eight royal names starting from Lava.
f) Pillar inscriptions and copper plates connected with consecration, grant etc. of
temples giving dates enabling him to build connected record and coins.
g) Information from popular traditions, legends and anecdotes.
h) First hand information furnished by his father for the period before Kalhanas birth.
i) Kalhanas personal observation and recorded facts. [MAS Vol:1. pp 6-25]
3. Rajatarangini has been updated from time to time, even under Muslim rule.
Jonaraja (in Sanskrit) brought it ending 1459, Shrivara - ending 1487, Prajya Bhatta
(under Akbars orders) ending 1513-14. Shuka updated it upto 1586. Various historians
under Mughals brought the narration ending 1746. Abul Fazals Ain-a- Akbari is
notable amongst them.
4. Accounts of foreign travellers are a reliable source. They include Chinese Heiun
Tsang (613 AD), Ou Kong (750 AD), Alberuni (996-1031 AD) and some Europeon
notably Forester (1783 AD), Bernier (Aurangzebs time), Lawrence & Cunningham
(during Dogras time)
5. Cultural and Political History by P.N.K. Bamzai. P.N.Bazaz and host of others
have also recorded stories of their times.
6.Tareekh-e-Aqwam-e- Kashmir by Munshi Mohd. Din Foq, Khwarik Al-Salikeen
by Mulla Ahmad ( Persian during Zain-Ul-Abidins period), Kashmir by Dr.
G.M.Sofi (Urdu) etc. are also available.
7. Baharistan-e-Shahi (Writer not known)
Some interesting facts
1. First king mentioned by Kalhana is Gonanda (2448 BC - date disputed). He was a

relative of Jarasanda of Mahabharta fame. He fought against Sri Krishna and was killed.
Lord Krishna had Yasovati, the kings pregnant widow installed on the throne. This
unusual procedure, Krishna is made to explain by a reference to the spiritual importance
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of Kashmir land as an incarnation of Parvati. In due course, a son was born to her. He
was named Gonanda II and crowned as a king. Affairs of the state were run in his name.
The Mahabharata war broke out when he was an infant. So there was no participation of
Kashmir king in the war.
2. Ashoka made his capital at Pandrethan and built 96000 dwellings stretching from
Harwan / Nishat upto Pandrethan (near Badami Bagh). Parvarsena II (580 AD) founded
the present Srinagar.
3. Lalitaditya Muktapida (724-761 AD), the grandson of Durlabavardhana (625-661
AD) and the founder of Karkota dynasty was the most illustrious of Hindu rulers. He
conquered large parts of the mainland namely Punjab, Kannauj (even upto present
Bengal), Tibet, Badakhshan and nearby territories. Alberuni says Second Chaitra was
celebrated every year as a victory day over Turks.
Features of his rule:
a) Hinduism and Budhism received equal patronage.
b) Patronised scholars of Sanskrit.
c) Built Martand Temple and Parihaspura (near Shaadipur) as his capital. Founder of
Hindu school of architecture.
d) Got silt and boulders removed from the Jhelum at Baramulla to quicken the flow of
water of Jhelum - an anti-flood measure.
4. Awantivarman (855-883 AD) founder of Utpala dynasty, known for: a) Patronising
great scholars and philosophers; b) Got silt and boulders removed from Jhelum by his
engineer Suya, because of whom Sopore (Suyapur) got its name. He also changed the
course of Jhelum through Wular, the biggest fresh water lake of Asia. He founded the
city of Awantipora near Srinagar - ruins still existing.
5. Didda, daughter of the chief of Lohara and wife of Kshemagupta (950-958 AD) was
the first known woman ruler of Kashmir. First as regent of her son (958-972 AD) and
later as a ruler (981-1003 AD). She was an able and courageous administrator.
6. Islam entered Kashmir through the preachings of some Muslim saints. By 1301 AD, a
few had embraced Islam. 700 Sayyids under the leadership of Shah Hamdan fled from
the persecution of Taimur Lung and came to Kashmir.
7. The End of Hindu Rule:
A stirring drama of intrigue, rebellion and war for 20 years (1318-1338 AD) was enacted
and finally Muslim rule was established in Kashmir. The dominating personality during
all these years was Queen Kota - a women with an unbounded lust for power.
Sahadeva (Damra) ascended the throne in 1301 (By then, some people had embraced
Islam). He had an able and kind hearted prime minister and commander-in-chief by the
name of Rama Chandra. His intelligent and beautiful daughter Kota, who had married
Suhadeva, helped her father in managing the affairs of the state.
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Two foreigners who were destined to play momentous roles in the history of Kashmir,
were taken by the king in service to strengthen his hands against unruly war-lords. First, a
fugitive prince supposedly from Tibet, Rinchana, a Budhist came to Kashmir. [PNK pp
173 & WRL pp 189] There was a civil war in Tibet and the Kalmanya Bhuteas had killed
the ruler of the Western Tibet (Ladakh ?).
Rinchana, who was a prince of royal line, entered the valley through Zojila pass with
several hundred armed men. Ramchandra took him in his service. Second, a Muslim
adventurer from Swat, Shah Mir also joined Rama Chandra. In 1319, Kashmir was
attacked by Dulacha, a Tartar chief from Central Asia. Suhadeva fled to Kishtwar, his
brother Udyanadeva also fled Kashmir. Rama Chandra, with the help of his daughter
Kota Rani, Rinchana and Shah Mir managed the affairs of the state for the period
Dulacha stayed in valley, impoverishing and ravaging it. After eight months, Dulacha, on
his way back home, perished in a snow storm alongwith thousands accompanying him.
That very time, Gaddis of Kishtwar raided Kashmir but they were beaten back by the
forces sent by Rama Chandra, who declared himself the king. Rinchana, who had gained
considerable popularity, rose in revolt, driving Rama Chandra and his daughter Kota Rani
to the fort of Lahra (Lar), where the former was killed by the men of Richana, who
entered the fort in disguise. Kota Rani married Rinchana, who was declared the king. He
tried in vain to be a Hindu, as none of the castes would admit him to their brotherhood.
He embraced Islam with the help of Bulbul Shah and took the name of Sadrudin. Thus he
became the first Muslim king of the valley, though for a short time of three years. With
the help of his wife, Rinchana ruled wisely and justly. He was faithfully served by his
minister Shah Mir.
In 1323, Rinchana succumbed to a head injury which he had received during a strong
rebellion organised by Udyanandeva under the guidance of a powerful baron Tukka.
Rinchana entrusted his son and queen to the care of Shah Mir. Udyanandeva suddenly
appeared and advanced towards Kashmir with a strong face. The shrewd Kota Rani
offered the throne as well as her person to him. Udyanandeva ascended the throne and
married Kota Rani with much pomp. Soon Kota Rani took a firm hold of the
administration. She ruled wisely, justly but firmly. Shah Mir continued to be faithful to
the throne.
A Turki, Achala (Lawrence -Urwan) invaded Kashmir. The King fled Kashmir like his
brother. His wife Kota Rani sent a well organised army under Shah Mir against the foe.
Achala was defeated and Udyanandeva returned. He was received by his victorious queen
and resumed his rule. He ruled for 15 years till his death in 1338. Kota Rani assumed
power but within 5 months, Shah Mir revolted, seized power and proposed marriage to
Kota Rani, who ultimately stabbed herself to death. Thus ended the Hindu royalty in
1339.
Shah Mir assumed the name of Shamas-Ud-Din (1339-1342) and laid the foundation of
Sultan dynasty which ruled for 222 years ushering in about 500 years of Muslim rule.

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Shamas-Ud-Din was a just and an enlightened king. He established peace and endeared
himself to his subjects. His grandson Shahib-Ud-Din (1354-1373), an accomplished
general, has been called Lalitaditya of medieval India. He sent his army on expedition
to Tibet and Afghanistan. He was succeeded by his brother Qutub-Ud-Din (1373-1389) .
He too was a just and tolerant king.
8. Qutub-Ud-Dins younger son Sultan Sikandar, called Sikandar But-Shikan (idol
breaker), the iconoclast ruled from 1389 to 1430. He was a cruel, fanatic zealot. He
persecuted Kashmiri Hindus, killed them by thousands and converted them. Most
of the Kashmiri Hindus migrated to the plains. This was the first mass migration. He
destroyed hundreds of temples and built mosques in their place and with their material.
During his time, the great Martand temple was destroyed. Curiously his minister, SaifUd-Din was a recent convert (Brahmin, named Suha Bhatt). Sultan Sikandar, however
was the first Indian ruler to abolish the practice of Sati.
9. Sikandars son Zain-Ul-Abdin succeeded to the throne in 1420 AD. He is popularly
called Budshah (great king). Shribhat, a physician, who cured the king of an otherwise
fatal disease, is stated to have influenced the king in turning a kinder face to the Hindus.
He remitted Jazia imposed on Hindus by earlier kings. He repaired some temples. He
threw open government services to Hindus. He taught them Persian. He gave them land
grants. He established his reputation as a kind, just, benevolent and progressive king. He
succeeded in getting back the Hindus who had migrated earlier. Zain-Ul-Abidin was
virtuous in his private life, self controlled and frugal, paying all the expenses of his
establishment from the income from the copper mines which he had discovered. He built
a 12 storeys high magnificient building, each storey having 50 rooms and in each room,
500 men could sit. This was called Zaena Dab. He helped agriculturists and promoted
horticulture. He invited art manufacturers from foreign lands and taught the locals, useful
arts and crafts. He was truely a progressive king wedded to the welfare and happiness of
his subjects.
10. a) After Zain-ul-Abdin, Kashmir, under Sultans witnessed unrest, disorder, misrule,
intrigues and Shia-Sunni conflicts, fuelled and ignited by Shia-Chaks, a Dard warrior
tribe, till Kazi Chak captured the throne in 1561. He ruled for 3 years. His successors
resisted the attempts of Babar and Humayun to annexe Kashmir. The last of the Chaks,
Yusuf Shah Chak, who had married poetess Habba Khatoon, and who succumbed to
the strategy more than the superior forces of Akbars generals, was lured to visit the
Mughal darbar only to die in a Bihar prison in 1586. After meeting a meek resitance from
Yusuf Shahs son, the victorious Mughals entered the Valley on 14th October, 1586 AD.
b) Mughals, except Aurangzeb gave a peaceful time. They were builders known for:
Akbar - Hari Parbat Fort.
Jehangir - Shalimar, Nishat (1619 AD), Verinaag (1620)

Page 13
Noor Jehan - Achhabal

Shahjehan - Cheshma Shahi
Dara Shikoh - Pari Mahal
They initiated useful administrative reforms and implemented many welfare schemes to
ameliorate the economic condition of the people, though in feudal set up.
11. Afghan rule (1752-1819 AD) was the darkest period. They persecuted Kashmiri
Hindus, who again migrated, but were mostly killed or forcibly converted. Only
eleven families of them are stated to have survived death, conversion and migration.
Shias were also persecuted.
12. Tired of persecution by Afghans, Mirza Pandit Dhar and his son Birbal Dhar
secretly persuaded Maharaja Ranjit Singh to annexe Kashmir. In 1819, Maharaja Ranjit
Singhs forces under Misser Diwan Chand, Raja Gulab Singh of Jammu and Hari Singh
Nalwa, defeated the last Afghan governor Jabar Khan at Shopian [WRL Pp 198 & PNK].
Misser Diwan Chand was the first Sikh Governor. He remained for a short time. Moti
Ram was the second. (Lawrence says he was the first). He held the office twice. He was
gentle and sympathetic. He is known for having banned killing of cows. The third
Governor Kirpa Ram was very popular He carried out many improvement works. He
loved dance, music and nature and was in harmony with the Kashmiri ethos. He spent
much time in a pleasure-boat in Dal Lake and earned the nickname of Kirpa Shronya.
13. Under the Treaty of Amritsar (16 March 1846) the British made over the hilly
mountainous country (East of Indus to West of Ravi) to Gulab Singh against a payment
of 75 lakhs of rupees, the amount which Sikhs owed to British as war indemnity. Gulab
Singh annexed Chilas, Ladakh & Skardu and Ranbir Singh annexed Gilgit.
14. Hari Singh ascended the throne in 1926. He declared very progressive welfare
measures. Important events of his rule are:
i) On 13 July 1931, muslims demonstrated under Sheikh Abdullahs leadership outside
the Srinagar Central Jail. A riot resulted. Some Kashmiri pandits were killed and some
homes and shops looted. Muslim Conference was founded. Sheikh Abdullah became
its leader. In 1935, Gilgit was leased out to British government as a colony for 60 years.
ii) In 1938, Muslim Conference was changed to National Conference. While some
pandits, P.N.Bazaz, Kashyap Bhandu and others joined it, some muslims Moulvi Yusuf
Shah, Chowdhary Abbas (Mirpur), Mian Ahmed Yar (Muzafarabad) and others
continued with Muslim Conference.
iii) National Conference launched Quit Kashmir Movement in 1946. Sheikh Mohd.
Abdullah and many others were arrested.
Page 14
iv) Jawahar Lal Nehru was arrested at Kohala (now in Pak occupied Kashmir) while
on his way to Srinagar to meet Sheikh Mohd. Abdullah in jail. R.C.Kak was the Prime
Minister.
v) Mahatma Gandhi visited Kashmir in July 1947. R.C.Kak was removed and made to
hand over his charge temporarily to Thakur Janak Singh. After two months, Mehar
Chand Mahajan was appointed as prime minister.
vi) Kashmir was raided by tribesmen backed by Pak army. Kashmir acceded to India.
Sequence of events leading to Kashmirs accession to India
a) 3rd. June 1947. Indias partition announced.

b) 17 June 1947.
Govt. of India Act passed by British Parliament. India would be
free on 15th August 1947.
c) Indian states could accede to either India or Pakistan, keeping contiguity in view,
upto 15th August 1947.
d) Indian states could enter into stand still agreement with either or both after 15th
August 1947 when British suzerainty would lapse and the rulers would be sovereign.
e) Maharaja Hari Singh entered into stand still agreement with India and Pakistan. But
Pakistan broke it, slammed economic strangulation, stopping supplies and suspending
transport via Kohala.
f) Pakistan organised a massive tribal raid with active participation of its armed forces
and entered the State on 22nd. Oct. 1947.
g) Maharaja Hari Singh signed Instrument of Accession on 26th October, 1947. Sheikh
Mohd. Abdullah signed it on behalf of the people of Jammu & Kashmir and Mehr
Chand Mahajan signed it on behalf of Maharaja Hari Singh. It was accepted by Lord
Mountbatten, the Governor General of India, who also wished that the question of
States accession should be settled by a reference to the people, as soon as the law and
order is restored.
h) Indian forces landed in Kashmir on 27th October 1947.
i) The UN Commission on India & Pakistans resolution of August 13, 1948, has
three parts. Part I relates to cease fire. Part II made it incumbent upon Pakistan to
withdraw all its forces regular and irregular. The Part III says, The Government of
India and the Government of Pakistan reaffirm their wish that the future status of
Jammu & Kashmir shall be determined in accordance with the will of the people and to
that end, upon acceptance of the Truce Agreement, both Governments agree to enter

Page 15
into consultation with the Commission to determine fair and equitable conditions
whereby such free expression of the will be assured.
j) The subsequent stand of the Government of India was that the question of taking up of
Part III would arise after provisions of Part I and Part II were carried out.
k) India agreed to cease fire with effect from 1st Jan: 1949 after some assurances were
given to it during the course of discussions and correspondence with the UN
Commission for India and Pakistan. One of the assurance given was that the
plebiscite proposal shall not be binding upon India if Pakistan does not implement
Part I and Part II of the resolution of August 13, 1948.
l) On July 27, 1949, the Karachi Agreement was drawn up on the basis of which the
cease-fire line was delineated and ancillary points settled.
m) Jammu & Kashmir elected a Constituent Assembly in 1951, which abolished the
institution of the hereditary monarchy by a resolution passed on August 21, 1952 and
ratified the accession on February 6, 1954. The new Constitution drawn up by the
Constituent Assembly came into force on January 28, 1957.
n) Consequent upon the Government of India and Pakistan entering into an agreement at
Shimla in 1972, the Cease fire Line with some modifications emerged as the Line of
Control.
vvv

Page 16
Eminent Personalities
Kashmir has thrown personalities of eminence in all fields. They have been
acknowledged in whole of the country. Some names are given below:
Patanjali:
Grammarian, author of Yogadarshan. Authority on Ayurveda.

From Gogard (Guddar) Kulgam.
Mamtacharya:
Poet and Reviewer.
Kait:
Sanskrit Grammar. From Kachhajkot, near Awantipora.
Uvat:
Vedic scholar.
Rudrat:
Poet.
Vaman:
Grammarian.
Vagbhat:
Poet and Physician.
Charak:
Famous Ayurveda authority.
Baman:
Poet.
Acharya Vasugupta: Founder of Shivmat. Around last part of eighth century.
Narayan Bhat:
Shaiva philosopher.
Kallat:
Disciple of Vasugupta. Ninth century.
Somananda:
Shaiva philosopher. Ninth century.
Acharya Abhinavgupta: Son of Lakshmangupta. One of the best authorities on
Shaiva philosophy and various branches of Sanskrit
literature e.g. rhetoric and poetics.
Kshemraj:
Disciple of Abhinavgupta. Scholar of late eleventh century.
Jagddhar Bhat:
Poet, Grammarian and author of Kusumanjli.
Ratnakar:
Poet.
Anand Vardhan:
Poet and critic. Author of Dhanyalok.
Kshemendra:
Poet and Satirist. Historian.
Kalhana:
Historian. Author of Rajatarangini.
Jonraja:
Historian. Fifteenth century.
Shrivara:
Historian.
Prajya Bhatta:
Historian.
Jairath:
Shaiva philosopher. 12th century.
Shivopadhyaya:
Shaiva philosopher. From Habba Kadal.
Mankh:
Dictionary compiler.
Somdeva:
Writer. Author of Katha Sarit Sagar. Ninth century scholar.
Abhinand:
A great poet.
Narhari:
Reviewer.
Dayaram Ganjoo:
Persian poet.
Munshi Bhawanidas Kachroo: Persian poet, husband of Arnimal.
Parmanand:
Great Kashmiri poet & Shaiva philosopher.
Prakashram Kurigam: Author of Ramavtarcharit, poet.
Krishen Joo Razdan: Great Saint poet. From Vanpoh.
Birbal Kachroo:
Historian.
Janki Nath Madan: Translated Bhagvadgeeta into Urdu.
Dina Nath Madan: Translated Bhagvadgeeta into Urdu verse.

Page 17
From the above list, we are presently taking below two for detailed description:
Kalhana
There is no record to tell us of the life of the poet, scholar Kalhana, the author of
Rajatarangini, says Stein. Facts about his person and contemporary life have been
gleaned from his narration by patient research.
Kalhana was born in the beginning of 12th Century. His father Champaka was a
Kashmiri nobleman, who held the office of the lord of the gate - Dwarpal or
commander of the frontier defences during the reign of the ill-fated King Harsha (10891101 AD). Kalhana speaks admiringly of his father. Kalhanas ancestors were devout
Shaivites. His father was a worshipper of Nandikeshwar, sacred to Shiva. Kalhana was
an admirer of expositors of Kashmiri Shaivism [MAS pp 8], for instance Bhatta
Kalatta. Though greatly attached to Shaivism, he equally held Budhism in high regard.
He has recorded the names of those royal personages who made equal endowments to
Budhist viharas, stupas and Shiva or Vishnu temples.
Kalhana was an accomplished poet, though there is no information about his formal
education. However he had carefully studied the historical poem of his fellow
countrymen Bilhan, as also Banas Harsha Charita - describing the exploits of King
Harshavardhana of Kanauj and Thanesar. He had also deep knowledge of Mahabharata
and Ramayana. It has almost universally been admitted that Kalhana possesed the
competence of an impartial historian. He does not seem to have wished for royal
patronage at the cost of truth. He does not share his fathers affection for his royal master,
Harsha.
Kshemendra
Nothing is definitely known about the date of birth of Kshemendra, the well known Poet,
Historian, Rhetorician and Humourist. Almost every important branch of Sanskrit
literature has been enriched by this versatile genius. It is presumed that he was born
during the period when King Ananta Raja (1028-1063 AD) ruled Kashmir.
Sanskrit was the language of the elite during Kshemendras times. Kshemendra received
his education from the famous scholars and teachers like Gangaka, Abhinavgupta &
Somapada. Abhinavgupta was the famous Acharya and scholar of Shaiva Doctrine.
Kshemendra himself was a Vaishnava though his father Prakashendra was a Shiva
devotee. Some of the famous works of Kshemendra are Dash Avtar Charit Kaveya, Desh
Updesha, Narmala, Loka Prakasha, Samay Matrika etc. He shortened the famous work
Maha Bhaarat of one lakh shalokas under the title of Maha Bharat Manjri in 10655
shalokas only. He reduced Gunadeyas seven lakh shalokas Brihat Katha to 7500
shalokas titled Brihat Katha Manjri and 24000 shalokas of Ramayana to 6391 shalokas.
His two works Rajavali and Nripavali are not traceable. According to Dr. Keeth, nonavailability of Rajavali is a great loss to Sanskrit literature. Kshemendras work on
Budhas philosophy Budhavandana Kalpalata written in 1052 AD is well known.
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vvv

Page 18
Page 19
Religion
Background
Kashmir has been the cradle of religious thought and belief from times immemorial. The
Nagas had their religious practices as documented in Nilamata Purana. Whether they
were snake worshippers or not is debatable, but worship and pilgrimage to Nags
(Springs) is well established and in some cases continues till this date.The Indo-Aryans,
who settled in the Valley and amalgamated with Nagas, brought the religious practices
and thought from the Indian plains. Worship of Vaishno, Shankara (Rudra), Shakti are
well documented. Rivers representing Shakti, are worshipped. Vaishnav (Dwaita) as well
as Shaivism (Adwaita, non-dualism) have been in vogue, although it was the later in its
Kashmir version, that had larger sway.
Although Buddha is stated to have visited Kashmir to carry his doctrine there, it was
Ashoka who brought Buddhism to Kashmir. It had its sway for few centuries - of course
with an undercurrent of Shaivism, but it again gave way to Hinduism. Kashmir refined
Buddhism, gave birth to Mahayana sect of Buddhists and carried Buddhism to Tibet and
China.
Kashmir Shaivism (Trika)
To understand Shaivism, it is necessary to refer to two (of the many) thought streams of
Indian philosophy: 1. Dwaita - me and the God, 2. Adwaita - the God in me. Shaivism
(Monoism) is the name given to the later. There is one Supreme Reality (call it Siva,
Brahman or what you may). It is a speck of this Reality which resides in all beings. The
universe is an allusion (Maya). Kashmir Shaivism slightly differs from that of the rest of
the country. Kashmir Shaivism is also called Trika Shastra because it is the philosophy
of the triad: 1) Siva 2) Shakti and 3) Nara (the bounden soul) or 1) Para - the highest,
2) Parapara - identity with difference, and 3) Apara - the difference.
While Siva or Paramsiva is the Ultimate Reality, the Shakti is its power of
manifestation. The universe is real (not an allusion) and a projection of the Shakti aspect
of Siva. Maya, here is the creative force as also a vailing element.
Kashmir Shaivism does not concern itself only in finding the nature of Siva, Shakti and
the Nara but devotes itself extensively on the means to be employed by the man to realise
its real self and thus merge with Siva.
Shaivism does not preclude worship of individual Gods or any way reduce the
importance of Bhakti (devotion) as long as they lead one to the realisation of the Self.
Worshipping Shakti in various forms is quite common.

Page 20
Practices
Shiva worship, often as Shivlinga is prevalent in both ancient and modern temples.
Goddess is worshipped in various forms as Raginya (at Tullamulla), Sharika (at
Hariparbat), Jwala (at Khrew), Kali (at Khankah and Hariparbat), Badrakali, Sharada,
Harmukat Ganga, Vetasta etc.
People have their own Ishta Devis, whom they feel attached. They are Raginya,
Sharika, Jwala and Tripura.
Besides visiting places of worship, the Kashmiri has his own personal regimen of
worship. Each house has a special place known as Thokur Kuth, earmarked for the
purpose. Reciting Sanskrit verse in praise of Shiva and Maa Shakti is usual.
Hawans to propitiate the Gods would be held when possible. At such Hawans, Hums
(offerings) are offered to the fire, reciting a thousand names of a God/Goddess, say,
Ganesha, Vishnu, Shiva, Mahamaya etc. Community Hawans are popular.
Observing fasts on auspicious days, particularly those connected with Lord Shiva like
Shivratri, Shravan / Magh Purnima, Somari Amavsi, Shiv Choturdashi etc. are common.
Women observe Chandan Shashti for the welfare of their husbands (similar to Kadva
Choth observed in Northern India).
It is customary to observe birthdays with religious prayer and prasad of yellow rice.
Yellow rice (Tahar) offering is done on many occassions like Hara Chodah, Navreh,
Ram Navmi etc.
Krishan Janam Ashtami (rather Saptami in case of Kashmiris) is celebrated similar to the
way elsewhere, with fasts, fruit and worship.
Kashmiri Muslims
Muslims in Kashmir, being essentially from the Hindu stock, are both from Sunni and
Shia sects. Some of their practices are influenced by their Hindu ancestary. They
continue distributing yellow rice. They pay obeisance at the graves of saints.
Among Muslims, Sufi influence from Central Asia is an induction. But a different cult
of local origin - the Reshi cult has been more popular. Reshis have been closer to the
Hindu philosophical thought. The more known amongst them are Nunda Reshi (Tsrar),
Baba Reshi (Tangmarg), Misha Saab (Rainawari), Batamol Saab (Anantnaag &
Srinagar) and Mukdam Saab (Hariparbat). They observe the annual day (Urs). Also
observed are the Urs of Sufi cult saints as Dastgir Saab (Khanyar) and Shah Hamdan
(Zaina Kadal). Some Reshi saints are visited by Hindus also.

Page 21
Muslims believe that a sacred hair relic of their Prophet exists at Dargah near Naseem
Bagh. Its public appearance is made on the Prophets birthday and some other important
occassions. Muslims celebrate the two Ids and Prophets birthday with great joy. Shias
hold the annual mourning processions around Moharram.
Christians
Two missionaries Mr. Rhodes and Mr. Tyndale Biscoe left England together. One
landed in Africa and the other in Kashmir. One converted a whole country to Christianity
which was named after him as Rhodesia (now Zimbabwe). The other could not convert
any body in Kashmir to his faith. Christians otherwise, set up schools, colleges and
hospitals and did quite a lot of good work in Kashmir. There are two churches in Srinagar
which serve outsiders. Some people claim that Christ came to Kashmir after crucifixion
and died here and is buried at a place in Srinagar. Christians however do not subscribe to
this theory.
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Page 22
Places of Worship / Shrines

Tullamul
Known widely as Kheer Bhawani and Ragnya Asthapana, Tullamul is situated 22 Kms.
north of Srinagar, in Gandherbal Tehsil. It is said that Mata Ragnya came to Kashmir
during the times of Ramayana. The holy spring of Tullamul is situated on the bank of a
branch of river Sindh, called, according to Nilamat Purana, Tsandara Baga. It is
approachable both by road and by river. The main temple is in the midst of a spring, the
water of which is observed to be changing its colour. The present temple was
constructed by Maharaja Partap Singh in 1912 A.D. on the foundation of an ancient
temple, said to have been destroyed in 14th or 15th century. The stone image of Devi in
the temple is believed to be more than 600 years old. The annual fair is held on 8th day
of the lunar fortnight of Jestha. It is said that the present diety was installed on this day.
The devotees usually visit the Shrine on every lunar asthami. The Shrine is managed by
Jammu and Kashmir Dharmarth Trust. Devotees visit the shrine only when on vegetarian
food.
Hari Parbat
Legend has it that Sharikadevi in the form of Mynaka got a small pebble in her beak from
Sumeru mountain and dropped it on the demon Munda who was playing havoc with the
lives of the residents. This small pebble, it is said, grew big and bigger and finally
assumed the shape of a mount. Haer in Kashmiri being Myna, the mount came to be
known as Hari Parbat. Rishis and Munis were afraid that the demon may appear again
and disturb their Tapasya, so they entreated Goddess to reside therefor ensuring their
uninterrupted Tapasya. The Goddess, Sharika Devi agreed and settled herself on the
Mount and manifested in the form of Shrichakra - and the place came to be known as
Chakreshwar. Shri is the name of all immanent Goddess and Chakra, having 6 triangles
and 18 angles, representing Shat-Dal and Ashtadash Bujas of Devi respectively. This
Soymbhu manifestation of Devi is highly venerated by all Pandits. Many gods &
goddesses came to witness the event. They stayed on the hill. Hence Hari Parbat is
considered the abode of a number of gods and goddesses to whom worship is offered.It is
a practice to take a Parikrama (circumambulation) of the whole hill, about 5 Kms. to
appease all of them in one go.
Zeethiyar
This shrine is situated towards North-West of Srinagar, between Zabarwan and

Shankracharya hill. It attracts pilgrims on every Thursday in the month of Jyeshta.
According to legend, Shiva ssumed the form of Rudra and rescued Jyeshta (Parvati)
from the clutches of a demon at this place. There are ruins of ancient temples, scattered
all around.

Page 23
Amar Nath Cave
The cave is 13500 ft. above sea level. Here, an ice lingam is formed in full size on every
Purnima. Annual pilgrimage takes place on Raksha Bandhan. Holy silver mace (Charri
Mubarak) is taken from Srinagar every year, followed by sadhus and pilgrims via
Pahalgam. Main stops enroute from Srinagar are Anantnaag, Matan, Pahalgam,
Chandanwari, Wavjan, Panchtarni and then the holy cave. Highest altitude to cross is
14000 ft. high Mahagunas. Swami Vivekananda and Swami Ramtirtha have visited it.
Shankarachrya Temple
The Shankaracharya temple is situated atop a hill 1902 mtrs. above mean sea level, on
the bank of Dal Lake in Srinagar. According to Kalhanas Rajatarangini, it was first built
by Jalauka, the son of emperor Ashoka in 200 BC. The temple was later rebuilt by
Gopaditya who reigned from 253 AD to 328 AD. Even today, the hill is known as
Gopadri and the village at its foot as Gopkar. The temple shows the early Kashmiri style
of architecture trying to introduce a Shikhar. It rests on a solid rock and comprises an
octagonal basement of 13 layers of stone, 20 feet high, on which is supported a square
building. There are two projections on each of the four sides which terminate in pediment
and a glable. The general appearance of the temple is that of a cone with four sides
formed by the rectangular adjustment of eight gable shaped slabs of masonry. The 25 feet
high cone rests upon an octagonal raised platform about 100 feet in circumference. The
temple commands a grand panoramic view of the Dal Lake and the Srinagar city.
From the base of the temple, there are 41 Devri stone steps leading to the sanctum
sanctorum which is 14 feet in diameter. A huge Shiva Lingum is at the centre and at the
back of the Lingam, is an image of Adi Shankaracharya, installed in the year 1961 by
Shankaracharya of Dwarika Peeth.
Jawalaji
Jawalaji, the Goddess of Fire is another popular Ishtadevi of Pandits. Situated in the
small village of Khrew, about 20 Kms. away from Srinagar, Jawalaji is venerated as one
more aspect of the Shakti. The Shrine, constructed by Dr. Bal Krishen in the eighteenth
century, is perched on the top of a 200 feet high hillock approachable by flight of 360
Devri stone steps with more than a dozen landings. The octagonal shaped temple rests on
an 18 feet high base. The sanctum sanctorum is an 8 feet x 8 feet square shaped structure.
A six feet high, black stone image is placed here. It is said that the image turned black
due to the occasional flames which sparked here from time to time. The flame is said to
have been 2 feet high and was alight for about half an hour, when last seen in the year
1962. A fair is held on the 14th bright fortnight of Ashada (June-July) every year. An
offering of Tahar (yellow rice) and Sheeshanor (lambs lung) are offered to the Devi and
later served as Prasad.

Page 24
Ishber
It is situated on Nishat-Shalimar road, about 12 kms. from Srinagar. Renowned as the

seat of Maa Durga, it has attracted men of spiritual quest from times immemorial. Great
many saints and sages have spent their lives here in quest of truth. Till recent times, it
was the ashram of great saint-philosopher Swami Lakshman Ji, an authority on
Shaivism. Pilgrims assemble at Gupt Ganga on the Baisakhi day as well as on other
religious days. A shrine dedicated to Maa Durga is situated 3000 feet ahead on the hill
slopes.
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Page 25
Festivals, Rites & Rituals

Festivals
Shivratri
Generally most of the people in Kashmir take Herath as the marriage day of Lord Shiva
with Uma, and outside Kashmir, it is taken as the day when Lord Shiva manifested in His
human form on the earth to bless His devotees. This is celebrated in Phalguna.
Interestingly, during the Pathan rule in Kashmir, people were forced to observe the
festival in the summer month of Ashada. This alteration brought a lot of misery upon the
Valley. It got a snowfall in the summer month that resulted in crop failure and
consequent famine. The Pathans called it hairat - i.e. utter surprise. This festival starts
on the first day of Phalgun- Hor-Okdoh and ends on Tela Ashtami. From the first day,
the entire house is cleaned and washed. On Hor Ashtami, kirtans and jagrans are
organised. On Dyara Daham, the day of the Lakshmi, all ladies visit their parents home
and come back with Atta Gat and Kangri, symbolic of good luck and prosperity. On the
Herath day, new earthenware specially prepared for the occasion is installed in the puja
room. This is called Watukh.
Watukh consists of a big earthen pitcher representing Vatak Nath Bhairov, two
medium sized pitchers representing Vatak Vallabha (Parvati) and Vagur (Kalash), an
open mouthed pitcher representing Reshi-Dullije, two small pitchers (Sani Vari), a
Sanipotul (Shivling), a Dhupzoor and some bowls representing Bhairvas. The whole
Watukh is decorated with flowers and sindoor. Walnuts are placed in the pitchers and
bowls. These are then filled with water, milk and some mishri. Puja is performed by all
members of the household, which carries on till late in the night. Shivratri comes to a
close in the evening of Amavasya when the walnuts are taken out and washed. Puja is
performed once again. The samgri and flowers are immersed in the river. Walnuts are
distributed as Prashad amongst friends, relatives and neighbours.
Navreh or New Year Day on first of Novratra. The day begins with the invocation of
Laxmi. A young lady of the household takes a thaliful of rice with sugar, curds, fruit, a
pen, walnuts, a mirror, and a Jantri round the family for the first darshan. In Kashmir,
people congregated at Hari Parbat.
Zang Trai. On 3rd. Navratra, ladies go to their parents home and come back with a
pouch of salt and Attagat.
Reshi Peers anniversary. On the fifth day of dark fortnight of Baisakhi
(Baisakh Gata-pachh), a Havan is performed at the memorial of Reshi Peer at Ali Kadal.
His relics are housed there. (Now anniversaries of many saints are celebrated on various
days)
Zeth Ashtami and Haar Ashtami, the birthday and incarnation day respectively
of Mata Raginya are observed. People offer prayers at Tullamul (Kshir Bhawani).
Page 26
Shrawan Purnima. People worship Shiva, visit Shankaracharya Temple, Amarnath
Cave, Chhota Amarnath at Bandipora, Thajevora (3 kms.from Bijbihara), Harishwar etc.
Vetha Truvah. On 13th day of bright fortnight of Bhadon (Bhadrapeth Zoona-
pachh), Veth (Vitasta) is worshipped. Lighted deeps and candles are floated on water as a
mark of gratitude and to celebrate the birthday of Vitasta.
Khetsri Amavasya falls in Poh (Posha). Kashmir is believed to have been the
abode of Yakshas in ancient times. The yaksha spirit is invoked to relish khetsri. The day
is also celebrated in worshipping Lord Kuber.
Gori Trai. On the 3rd. day of bright fortnight in Magha, Saraswati puja is offered.
The family guru brings a picture of Sarswati for every child with a suitable prayer for
his/her attainment in learning. The newly wed bahus also receive one from the guruji of
her parents. Tradition has it that it was the convocation day at the ancient Sharada
University.
Saptami tithi in the month of Magha Krishnapaksha (dark

fortnight) and also in the Pitrapaksha are widely observed by Dhars and the off-shoots of
their daughters, in honour of the Maha Nirvana day of the Saint Poetess Rupa Bhawani
(1521-1621), believed to be the incarnation of Mother Sharika.
Sahib
Saptami.
Bhagwan Gopinath Jis birthday as well as Mahanirvana day are widely observed
by his devotees in India and abroad.

Rituals
Every society, modern or ancient has its rituals. They represent continuity in social
conduct. Kashmiri being a very old civilisation has large number of them. Some of course
got obscured with time. Some got refined or even redefined. Some of them are given
below:
Birth Rituals
Pre-natal: Few months before arrival of the baby, a function called Dodh (lheUrks fu;ue)
is held. It is a formal announcement of the event to come. The mother to be is given
presents and there is feasting. Similar function Godh bharna is known in other parts of
the country.
Post-natal:
Shran Sondar. On or about sixth day of the birth, the mother and the child are given a
ritual bath with water impragnated with herbs. Then a ritual burning of birch bark and

Page 27
giving a name to the child is done. Earlier to this, a prasad of fried Til, Candy and walnut
is distributed on the third day (Trui).
Kahanethar (t+ k rg&dje). It is a purificatory ceremony usually performed on the eleventh
day. Kaha means eleven and nethar (not marriage) Nakhshetras - Planetary formations.
Anna Pravesh. First feeding of the baby.
Zara Kasay (P+ k w M k&dje). First tonsure of the baby.
Yagnopavit or Mekhla miku;u
Yegnopavit is by far the most important Samaskar, a Kashmiri Pandit male must
undergo. The function derives its name from the sacred thread Yagnopavit (a strand of
three threads with a common knot Brahmagand which turn into six strands on marriage).
Mekhal comes from the name for the thread worn round the girdle on this occassion. For
a Brahmin, it is treated as second birth. Hence Brahmins are called twice born. Though
this is for males only, Arya Samaj sect does it for girls also.
Traditionally, it was an occassion when the boy would be initiated by his teacher-Guru as
a householder in performance of his duties towards the society, the Gods and the Manes
(dead). All the Samaskars from birth are again repeated on this occassion.The Guru does
not only bestow the sacred thread to the subject but also conveys the Guru Mantra - in
this case the Gaytri Mantra, into the boys ears. A Yagya (Havan) accompanies the
ceremony where Hums (offerings) are made through the Agni (fire) by which all Gods
and Goddesses are invoked to bless the boy. The boy is made to shed his hair, wear ochre
robes and hold a staff and a begging bowl like a mendicant. Abhid (alms) collection is
passed on to the Guru as Dakshina.
The social aspect of the ceremony appears to have overtaken the sacred value of the
function. Like a marriage ceremony, it starts with livun, Mehandiraat and Devgon. The
function proper takes nearly twenty four hours. Close relations observe fast for the day.
Those observing fast are entertained with milk, fruit and other permitted items like
Shakarpara made of waternut flour, by other relations. These are then shared with
whoever comes to offer Abhid. The ceremony concludes with the boy returning to the
dress of commoners including a turban, visit to a nearby temple and a meal as Prasad.
Following day, a small thanks giving puja with a meal is held (Koshal hom).
The focal point of the Yagnopavit is the Gayatri Mantra. A mantra achieves special
significance when it is transmitted by the Teacher-Guru to the student. Although Gayatri
Mantra is prayer in itself, it is not the meaning but the sound and the meter that matters
the most.Gayatri is rather a meter, to which Savitur Mantra with its estonic sound, is set
to.


O m
T a t
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Page 28
b h u r
b h u v a h
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S a v i t u r
V a r e n y a m
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Marriage Rituals
Match making. An extract of the boys horoscope (Tekni) is made public. The girls
side, who find it matching and meets their specifications, approach boys side for the
alliance.
Kath Baath (okXnku). To formalise the alliance, a party of males from the boys side
meets a party from the girls side at a place fixed by the latter. After tea and snacks,
bouquet are exchanged to signify the acceptance of marriage proposal on both sides. The
date of marriage is fixed.
Marriage ceremony - Livun. House cleaning is done few days before the marriage,
formally with some feasting and distribution of Ver, a concoction of rice, condimends
and sheep entrials or walnut. Colour mottifs are put on entrance gate (Krool). Now-adays this function is done more formally a day before the ceremony proper starts, while a
pseudo livun is done earlier.
Mainzrath. It is the night when Mehandi is applied on the hands / feet of the groom /
bride by her fathers sister. It is also offered to guests. Singing takes place all night, often
supported by professional singing & dancing parties (Bacha-nagma).
Devgon. A long pooja (longer in case of girls) is a religious preparatory ceremony. Father
gifts all jewellery and utensils etc to his daughter ceremonially at this function. Kheer as
prasad is distributed on the occasion.
Marriage proper. Grooms wear a kesari colour turban (Dastaar) which is tied by the
uncles. The elder lady of the house bids them bye on a Vyueg ( a rangoli like round,
coloured pattern on ground) with feeding of candy. No musicals accompany the party
except a conche shell. On arrival at the brides place, he is again welcome by the elder
lady of the house on a Vyueg (of course this time together with the bride) with an aarti
with lamps made of rice flour and feeding of candy. Although some have introduced
Jaimala (Vijaymala) exchange recently, majority of people would instead have
Mananmaal (Mala of agreement) tied as the bride was not by vijay (conquest) but by
agreement. The guests (Baraatis) are entertained to a meal , usually a lunch as morning
marriages are more common than night ones. The food served is vegetarian since early
1930 when Pt. Hargopal, a reformer made it a norm. The marriage proper is performed
by the priests and can take anything upto five hours. It starts with the groom worshipping
the doorway to the brides home (Dwara pooza). In the ceremony, the most important
part is when the couple takes seven steps together and also when they are worshipped
Page 29
with flowers by the relatives of the bride as if they are embodiments of God and Godess
(Posha pooza). The bride and groom feed each other ceremonially (Dai-batta). The food
for that is paid for by the grooms side, so are all the requirements at the ceremony, the
responsibility of the grooms side. Even the cosmetics and the outer robe for the bride is
provided by the grooms side. Farewell again is at the Vyueg, in the same manner as the
welcome. The groom alongwith his bride is welcome back at his place again on the
Vyueg. The grooms sister ritually bars their entry to the house which is allowed after she
is promised a gift by the groom (Zaam Braand). They are then led to the kitchen when
the mother-in-law after formally seeing her daughter-in-law (Maetemur) entertains them
to some food while they sit on the hearth. All the women at this stage sing in the joy of
the arrival of the new bride.
Sat-raat. The same night, the couple again visits the brides house (except on a Saturday)
and have the ceremonial dinner before leaving back.
Death Ritual
The cremation takes place after the body is given a wash at home. Some pooja including
worship of the dead person takes place before leaving for cremation ground. The pyre is
lit by the son(s). For ten days, mourning is held at home. Early morning a kriya is done at
the river front (usually not done these days). Sympathisers come, but they are not
expected to be entertained with anything except a glass of water. The food from the
bereaved family carries hontsh (lw r d) which is not good for others. Tenth day, a kriya is
held at the river front. Male sympathisers come there. Tonsuring of the Karta is done.
From there they proceed to home. Rites are held on 11th day and some on 12th day.
Ashes are immersed in auspicious rivers like Ganga. Every month a Shraadha would be
held and a big ones after six months (Shadmos) and one year (Vahar vaer). A shraadha is
held every year on the death anniversary and corresponding tithi in Pitra-paksha of the
year.
Pann iUu
Around September (on or about Vinayak Chaturthi of the Bhadra Shukla-paksh), each
family one day, with all solemnity, purity and sanctity, prepare Roth (sweet pancake)
from wheat floor, raw brown sugar and ghee. Big elaichi seeds & khaskhas is added for
effect. Five of these (one with saw-teeth like edge Kanki-vor) together with some fruit is
put on a clean container (Gadwah) containing clean water. The container is emblished
with Sindoor & Silver foil. All these are covered with cloth. Tradition has it that some
one in the distant past got pancakes of gold from underneath the cloth after a puja of utter
devotion.
The eldest lady of the house presides over the ceremony. She puts tilak on the forehead of
every member of the family and ties the Bandin (Nariwan) around their wrists. She then
narrates with full solemnity, the folk tale of a poor lady and her daughter, who once held
this puja in utter poverty. They were bestowed with luck by alliance with the king. King
disregarded the solemnity of the function and suffered. These ladies picked up the thread
Page 30
and started again. King became repentant and everything was nice again. So prayers to
the Goddess Beebgaraz Maej that she may make everything nice for the family like she
did for the ladies in the tale.
The lady of the house puts a home-spun cotton thread, spun by a young girl, first in the
ear and narrates the story. Then she puts it in the container. This gives the ritual its name.
The prasad of Roth is sent to all neighbours and relations. It gives a social content to the
function. It serves as one of the links in the social chain. The function coincides with the
fortnight starting with Vinayak Chaturthi and concluding with Anant Chaturdashi.
Gadda Batta xkMq W g crq W g
Around December, in the dark fortnight of Posha (Poh Gata-pachh), each year, a
Kashmiri Pandit family observes a day as Gadda Batta - literary Rice and Fish Festival.
On this day, the house deity (Ghar Devta) is offered a meal of rice and fish. The food is
prepared in thoroughly clean kitchen and utensils during the day and the puja and
offering is done in the night. An offering of rice in a thali (plate), with cooked fish and
one raw fish, is made to the Devta in the puja. This thali is then kept somewhere in the
upper reaches of the house with all solemnity for the Ghar Devta. After that, rice and fish
is served to the family members and the extended family. This being a very cold part of
the winter, the prasad of nicely cooked fish is very much relished.
ccfj yaxl eqd

q uks ejs] gwU;~ cfLr dksQjw usfj uqW t+k*a gA
eu ;ks*n xkjqWgu Qsfj; t+sjs] urqW kyqWVqaxs usfj; D;k*gAA
---yy |n
vvv

Page 31
Historical Places
Srinagar
Srinagar is the summer capital and the largest city of Jammu & Kashmir State. It is 1585
mts. above mean sea level. Its area is 218 sq. kms. and it extends from Harwan to Panta
Chhok and Chhanapora to Gulab Bagh. There are two famous lakes namely Dal Lake and
Anchar Lake and two hills namely Shankracharya Hill and Hari Parbat Hill in the city.
Srinagar city has also been known as Himavat, Shri Nagri, Parwarpor and Parwarsenpor.
It is said that the original city named as Shri Nagri was established between Zabarwan
Hills and Pandrethan during the reign of King Ashoka in the 3rd century B.C. According
to Heun Tsang, a Chinese traveller, the city streched from Harwan to Zewan.
There is a fort on Hari Parbat Hill. During the reign of Akbar, a 20 ft. high stone wall was
constructed around the fort for a length of 5.6 Kms. During Mughal period, Nishat Bagh,
Shalimar Bagh and Cheshma Shahi were also laid.
Srinagar was known as the City of Seven Bridges till 1957. All these bridges connected
two parts of the city bifurcated by river Jhelum, also known as Vitasta. Ali Kadal bridge
was the oldest, constructed by Sultan Ali Shah in the year 1415 A.D.
Srinagar has many places of historical and tourist interest. Mughal Gardens rank first
amongst them. Mughals were great builders. Their art of garden planning reflected their
varied aesthetic taste. Mughals, in fact, embellished the Valley with resplendent glory of
their garden-designing by laying famous gardens like Nishat Chashma-Shahi, Shalimar,
Naseem, Achhabal and Verinaag etc. Some important places are described below:
1. Nishat Garden. It is situated on the bank of Dal Lake, on the foothills of Zabarwan.
This was conceived and laid by Asif Khan in the year 1636 during the reign of Shah
Jahan. The garden is 1755 feet long and 1108 feet wide. Its front wall is 13 feet high. It
has 10 terraces. Three of them are 16 to 18 feet higher than the lower ones. A water
channel, 13 feet wide and 8 inches deep runs all through its length. There are fountains in
various beds. Water falls in cascades, some of which are 12 to 18 feet high. Tall and
mighty chinars provide shade to the visitors. Lush green turf is all around. Multi-coloured
flower beds along sides of the water channel add to the attraction. Usually the garden is
thrown open to the public on Ist of Baisakh. Sundays attract large crowds
2. Shalimar Garden. Shalimar, the Abode of Love, was built in 1690 AD by Emperor
Jehangir for his beloved Noor-Jehan. The Garden is at the base of Mount Mahadev. It
has been laid on a plan parallel to Nishat. It is quadrilateral in shape with four terraces of
equal size. The Garden is divided in three parts. The first part has a pavillion which was
used by the emperor for his public audience. The second one was being used exclusively
by the Emperor for his private audience and the third one was reserved for the Empress
and the ladies of the Court. The central water canal starts from the top terrace and falls in
Page 32
cascades, into basins or tanks which are studded with 150 fountains. Pergolas and
teralised walks border the fountains and the flower beds, which enhance the grandeur of
this abode of love.
3. Cheshma Shahi. Cheshma Shahi or the Royal Spring, nearly 10 Kms. from Srinagar
is the smallest garden laid by the Mughals. The Garden was laid in the reign of emperor
Shah Jehan by his governor Ali Mardan Khan in 1632-33 AD. The Garden has pure
crystalline spring rising from the base of Zabarwan mountains. The mineral water of the
Spring is reputed for its curative properties. The Garden has three terraces. In the middle
of the Garden, run cascades and fountains play in the water beds. The Garden has varied
and multi-hued flowers. It can safely be called the Nursery of Floriculture. From the
second terrace, one can have panoramic view of the Dal Lake. Below Cheshma Shahi, is
the famous Jawahar Lal Nehru Botanical Garden.
4. Pari Mahal. Pari Mahal is situated in the lap of Zabarwan Hill on the South East of
Dal Lake between Oberoi Palace Hotel and Chashma Shahi garden. It was constructed by
Dara Shikoh during the reign of Shah Jahan (1627-58) to serve as an institution for
astrology. He would himself observe the movement of stars from here. The architecture
of Pari Mahal very much resembles to that of Greek temples. The Garden has five
terraces in all which would have had fountains in the olden times. During 1969-74, when
the garden was given a face-lift under the supervision of Dr. Kailash Nath Kaul, earthen
pipes were discovered during excavation of the ground, which subscribed to the view that
water was fed into the fountains through underground pipes. According to Huen Tsang,
there existed a grand Bodh Vihar and a Stupa at or around the same place in olden times,
where a tooth of Lord Buddha had been preserved. There are no traces of any such place
now.
Martand Temple
The ruins of Martand, built by Lalitaditya, speak of Hindu architecture. It is situated on

the Mattan Udar (plateau), 8 kms. away from Anantnag at 750 - 17 longitude and 330 45 latitude. It is 1 km. to North-West of the sacred springs of Martanda, mentioned in
Nilamata Purana as a celebrated place of pilgrimage, sacred to Surya. Jonaraja says the
temple was destroyed by Sikander, a zealot egged by his minister Saif-Ud-Din (Saha
Bhatt).
Features: The Martand Temple is called Architectural Lion of Kashmir. It has a
majestic plinth off set by an impressing gateway. The temple is 18 Mtrs. long and 11
Mtrs. wide. Its height as at present (ruins) is 12 Mtrs. which may actually have been 23
Mtrs. in pyramidal form. Its courtyard is 66 Mtrs. x 42 Mtrs . The central edifice
standing on a quadrangle, is surrounded by 84 columns (7x12 i.e. No. of days in a week
x No. of Zodiac signs). The temple consists of three chambers, the outer two highly
decorated and inner one plain. Two Surya and two Laxmi figures are engraved on four
walls of the middle chamber. Walls of the gateway are decorated, both internally and
externally.
vvv
Page 33
Literature & Language

Kashmir, a seat of learning from ancient times, has produced thinkers, philosophers,
scholars and poets in all ages. Some of the celebrated names who contributed in different
languages are:
It was the ancient language of religion, philosophy etc. It continued to
be the language of the courts and the administration even during the first 100 years
(approx:) of Muslim rule (till the times of Zain-Ul-Abidin).
1. Sanskrit.
i) Abhinavagupta (933-1015 AD) ~ A poet, critic, saint, philosopher. Wrote more than
40 books, notably some on Shaivism.
ii) Kalhana ~ Historian, poet, author of Rajatarangini in 8000 verses of high poetic
merit.
iii) Kshemendra ~ His contribution to Sanskrit literature is unique. He authored
Samayamatrika.
iv) Jonaraja, Srivara, Sukha ~ carried the work of Kalhana in Sanskrit.
v) Hieun Tsang and Ou-Kong travelled from China to learn Sanskrit in order to read
Buddhist thought already written in Sanskrit.
2. Persian
With the advent of Muslim rule and introduction of Persian as court language, Kashmiri
Pandits adopted Persian as the language for literary work. Pandit Narayan Koul, Pandit
Chandra Bhan, Pandit Bhawanidas Kachroo, Gani Kashmiri, Pandit Raj Koul
Arzbegi, Dewan Kripa Ram (in the reign of Gulab Singh) are prominent names.
3. Kashmiri
The Language: Kashmiri is the language spoken by the people living in Kashmir Valley
and with some variance on its border like Kishtwar, Banihal etc. Although no specific
account is available of its origin, its evolution from Sanskrit (rather its older version - the
Vedic Sanskrit) is evident from its texture and vocabulary. The theory of Sir George
Grierson that it is a part of Central Asian Dardic group of languages, has since been
discredited. It appears that the mother tongue of the Indo Aryan, who settled in Kashmir,
must have been Sanskrit (or the Vedic Sanskrit). In course of time, it changed into
Prakrat and then to Kashmiri.
The earliest written material available is Mahanaya Prakash of Siti Kantha. It is about a
hundred years after Kalhana and is in old Kashmiri. But from Kalhanas writing, it
appears that the language had already made inroads before his time (12th century AD).
Page 34
The earliest writings in modern Kashmiri are only from Lalla-Ded (14th century AD).
The language has absorbed words from Persian, Arabic and dialects spoken on the
Valleys fringes.
The language has a large number of vowel sounds. A slight stress on a particular sound
can change a word into another one of entirely different meaning. Kashmiri verb assumes
many shapes according to number, gender, person and tense. All this has given it a rich
vocabulary. It has a rich collection of Proverbs, an own stock of Riddles (Pratsa), and, a
very well developed poetics.
The Script: The earliest available Kashmiri manuscripts are written in the Sharada
script. This script was widely used by scholars, rulers, common people of all religious
denominations alike. Among Hindus, it was used for transcribing Sanskrit texts as well as
compositions in Kashmiri. The Sharada script was much in use not only in Kashmir, but
also in North Western India (Gilgit etc.), Punjab and Himachal Pradesh and even in
Central Asia. This script enjoys a foremost position among all the ancient Indian scripts.
It was evolved from the Western branch of Brahmi nearly 1200 years ago. Almost all the
ancient Sanskrit literature is written in this script. The earliest Sharada inscription
discovered on a stone slab at the village Hund at Attock, Pakistan, date back to 774 AD.
According to Pt. Anand Koul Bamzai, Sharada alphabets were used in stone inscriptions
even up to 18th century. This is corroborated by his discovery of a Sharada inscription
dated Vikram 1846 (1789 AD). This script is said to have reached perfection by the 15th
or 16th century. The epigraphists Kielhorn and Hoernle hold the view that Sharada
alphabet is a very conservative alphabet as it changed very little across the centuries.
Sharada script was replaced by Persian /Urdu scripts when Kashmir came under Mughal
and Afghan rule. The Kashmiri Pandits, nevertheless mastered Persian language and
script and used it widely in official and private communications. This relegated Sharada
to the background, being limited to religious & devotional texts & writing and calculating
astrological and ritual formulations.
The history of the adoption and modification of the Devanagari script for Kashmiri has
not been documented authentically. But the very fact that the script was used freely by
eminent western linguists like Grierson and Temple in their profound works and treatises
on Kashmiri language and literature is ample proof of its having been standardised over
the decades in the 19th century. This universally acceptable writing system came handy
to the intelligent and discerning community of Kashmiri Pandits for whom the Indian
connection has always been primary. Benefitting from the experience of this enlightened
community, the Western research scholars like Grierson, Buhlar, Temple, Stein etc.
associated renowned scholars of their times like Mukund Ram Shastri and Ishwar
Koul with their work and modified the Devanagari of Kashmir as against the Persian
script. The qualities of better phonetic representation inherent in Devanagari seems to
have weighed more with these discerning scholars.

Page 35
Writers and Scholars:

There has been considerable contribution to Kashmiri language from the Poets. A number
of them belong to the Mystic genre. Mystic poetry , according to Late Moti Lal Saqi is
reflection of spiritual way of life. It has esoteric content which sows the seeds of
metaphysics and rhythm of life. It is receptacle which overflows with peace and intrinsic
love for the entire humanity without boundaries of caste & creed. Kashmir, which is
often called Resh Waer has been the cradle genre of many a mystic poets. Some of the
more known and popular mystic poets of Kashmir are Lalla-Ded, Nunda Resh,
Swachha Kral, Neyma Saab, Shamas Faqir, Wahab Khar, Parmanand, Rupa
Bhawani, Maqbool Shah Kralwari, Ahad Zargar, Samad Meer and hosts of other
lesser known mystic poets, who have treaded the Vale of Kashmir between 14th & 19th
centuries.
Prominent Poets:
Lalla-Ded (Lalleshwari) was perhaps the first Kashmiri poetess. She is regarded as the
founder of modern Kashmiri language as well as literature. Her Vaakhs preach tolerance
and harmony. She was born in the 14th century (year disputed). All legends, fables or
folklore of those times agree that Lalla-Ded came from a well-to-do family and was
married into a household, where her mother-in-law and even her husband, it is said, were
not kindly disposed towards her. Disappointment in love and domestic life turned the
born mystic into an ascetic, wandering from village to village. She came under the
influence of guru Siddha Sri Kantha or Siddha Mol - a great scholar, who eventually
became her spiritual perceptor. It was this man who initiated her into Shaivite cult. Her
internal spiritual lotus bloomed and she became a devout follower of Trik philosophy
and turned increasingly towards mysticism. There is hardly any Kashmiri house where
her Vaakhs do not reverberate and fill the air with the celestial aroma, even today.
Lalla was mystic to the core and a born saint, who laid stress on the inner quest and
sincere pursuit of spiritual perfection. To uplift people out of the Bog, she draws the
attention of the aspirants to the foot prints she left behind.
dkj ;s*fy yf; vks*uqe

oqg~;~ dks*jqe iuqu iku A
qg~&oks*r =kfoFk lFk~ ekxZ jks*Vqe
rs*fy yy cqW okP+kWql dkLFkku AA
Swachha Kral: Nothing is more reliably known about Swachha Kral who is believed to
have been born in 1774 AD. His date of death inscribed on the Tomb-stone (which is of
recent origin) is as 29th of November 1854. It is said that he was born in a family of
potters in a remote village of Yender near Pulwama. His poetry, most of which has
remained untraced, indicated that he was academically illiterate but spiritually, highly
evolved. He was an ardent believer of One-God concept (monoism). He believed that life
on the earth was a transitory abode for man and his eternal abode was in the Gods land.
Page 36
So, Swachha Kral, in his numerous poems has exhorted that one should not give in to the
temptation of this world, but should crave for the eternal bliss through ones righteous
deeds in this world. Here are some introductory lines from his few poem which peep into
his profound mystic mind:
v[k P+kWq rqW cs*f; cqW xat+j ev ck

gck f; Nq; xqeku; A
;Fk Qkuh ljkf; eat+ n~;qu Nq; ck*g
vFk eat+ eks fne nqdku; AA
Parmanand (real name Nand Ram) was born in 1790 in a village near Mattan. Well
versed in Persian on the one hand and the Vaishnava lore on the other, and knowing some
Sanskrit, Parmanand took recourse to poetry for coveying his philisophy. Fed up with his
work at the revenue department, he resigned his post as Patwari after 15 years of service.
The profound sayings of Lalla-Ded and the study of Bhagvata Gita and the Upanishads
buoyed him up untill the realisation came to him that true spirituality lay in rising above
the illusion - maya and not merely being other-worldly. He effected the synthesis of
Sufism with the Vedanta. He penned Radha Svayamvara, Sudama Charitra,
Shivalagan etc. He died in 1878.
Zinda Kaul - Masterji was one of the most notable poets of his times. He is the first
Kashmiri poet who won the Indian Sahitya Akademi Award in 1956. He showed great
proficiency in learning Persian from a very early age and wrote poetry in that language
under the pen name of Sabit. Masterji started writing in Kashmiri in early forties when
he was fifty eight years of age. He wrote mysticism in simple metaphor. His collection of
thirty five Kashmiri poems Sumran won him the most prestigious award. Kashmiri
Shaivism, Vedanta and Upanishads are portrayed most eloquently in Sumran. Masterji
remains one of the foremost poets of the twentieth century. He left his mortal frame on
4th April 1966.
Arnimal. Born in the 18th century, Arnimal fashioned the Lol lyric into plaintive wails,
poignant and melancholic. Like Lalla-Ded and Habba Khatun, Arnimals family life was
unhappy, which contributed to the poignant pathos and the recurring note of resignation
to fate in her poems. She was married to Bhawanidas Kachroo, a Persian poet (and a
minister) who deserted her and she lived mostly in her fathers home. The romantic
poems of Arnimal constitute a watershed in the development of Kashmiri poetry.
Habba Khatun. Born in village Chandahar, Zooni (Habba Khatuns maiden name) was
a precocious child and learnt the Quran and Persian classics. Her songs, remarkable for
melody and spontaneity, expressed the deep craving of the heart and the soul. She and her
successor, Arnimal, were the precursors of the romantic movement in Kashmiri poetry.
Scared of her fame, her father had her married off to an illiterate peasant, who did not
appreciate her songs. While singing, she caught the eye of prince Yusuf Shah Chak,
who fell in love with her. He arranged for her divorce and married her. She and her royal
consort founded Gulmarg. She has been called the Nur Jahan of Kashmir.
Page 37
Ghulam Ahmad Mahjoor. Born on 3 September, 1885 in Mitragam village, about 37

Kms. from Srinagar, Ghulam Ahmad Mahjoor received poetic inspiration from his father
who was a Persian scholar. Determined to write in his own mother tongue, Mahjoor used
the simple diction of the folk. With his emergence, Kashmiri literature entered a period of
creative poetic revival. His poem Baghe Nishat Ke Gulo became popular throughout the
Valley. When recognised by Rabindranath Tagore, the Kashmiri bards fame spread
beyond the Vale of Kashmir. His poetry increasingly epitomised the struggle of
Kashmiris for self government. Among the poets of the New Kashmir period, Mahjoor
ranked as the greatest in the love of his motherland. Mahjoor showed his keen awareness
of the changing times in poems like Wolo ho baagvano and Gulshan vatan chhu sonuy.
Kashmir lost this greatest poet of the century on 9 April 1952.
vvv

Page 38
Position of Women in Ancient Kashmir

During the Hindu period, important and sometimes decisive role was played by women
in the affairs of state. They must have been accomplished. Women, at least of upper
classes received education in diplomacy and state craft, besides that of general nature.
According to Bilhana, the poet laureate at the Court of Chalukya king Parmadi (11th
century A.D.) women of higher castes and affluent classes received education in
biological sciences, arts, music, botany, painting, needle work, wood work, clay
modelling, cookery, special training in instrumental music, singing and dancing. Women
were as active as men in the discharge of public duties. Women fought alongside men on
foot or on horseback.
Heroism displayed by Didda and Kota Rani was exemplary. Queens were anointed
alongwith their husbands at the time of coronation. Women enjoyed equal rights as men.
There is evidence that wise women made their husbands rule a success. Queen
Suryamati made judicious selection of ministers and other officials to give public
confidence in her otherwise weak husband, King Ananda. He was later made to abdicate
in favour of his son. Didda dominated her weak husband Kshemagupta. She controlled
the destinies of the kingdom as regent and a queen for half a century. Women could hold
property in their own right.
There is no evidence from Rajatarangini regarding the age of marriage. Widows were
expected to live a pure life, devoid of luxury - no ornaments etc. Remarriage of widows
and of other women does not seem to have been absolutely forbidden. Partapditya II
married the wife of a rich merchant. Kota Ranis remarriage after Rinchanas death is
well known. Sati seems to have been wide spread at least in the ruling classes. Damras
did not have this practice. Instances of women burning themselves with their beloved
deceased ones, be they brothers, mothers, sisters etc. are available. Gajja cremated herself
with her son Ananda, Vallabha with her brother-in-law Malla, and the sister of
Dilhabhattaraka with her brother. The custom persisted long after the Hindu rule till
Sultan Sikander banned it.
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
nks*gl xk gqfj xqy rqW xqyt+kj t+yu

t+ehul lqlW j yfx rqW lCt+kj t+yu A
oNl eat+ gqfel yksygWq QaokjqW t+yu]
ixk*g ksfy nqfu;k*g AA
--- nhuk ukFk ukfne
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------vvv

Biblography
VK
PNK
MAS
WRL
SND
JM
Dr. Ved Kumari ~ Nilamata Purana Vol: 1 & 2.

P. N. K. Bamzai ~ Cultural and Political History of Kashmir.
M. A. Stein ~ Kalhanas Rajatarangini Vol: 1 & 2.
Walter R. Lawrence ~ The Valley of Kashmir.
Somnath Dhar (Book Trust of India) ~ Jammu and Kashmir.
Jagmohan ~ My Frozen Turbulence in Kashmir
vvv

Page 39

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Pushp Vihar, Shastri Nagar,

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The Land & the People

Divisions (Post 1947) 1. Jammu. 2. Kashmir. 3. Ladakh.

Summer - Srinagar. Winter - Jammu

Anantnaag, Badgam, Baramulla, Doda,

Himalayan Range - Peer Panjal,

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Kishenganga - Kashmir valley.

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Sonamarg: Situated at an altitude of 3000 mtrs., Sonamarg is 87 kms. from Srinagar. It

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Ashoka extended control over Kashmir. He encouraged Budhism.

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Maharaja Gulab Singh (Dogra rule)

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1. First king mentioned by Kalhana is Gonanda (2448 BC - date disputed). He was a

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Noor Jehan - Achhabal

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a) 3rd. June 1947. Indias partition announced.

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Grammarian, author of Yogadarshan. Authority on Ayurveda.

Copyrights 2000-2010 Kashmir News Network (KNN) ( http://iKashmir.org )

Project ZAAN - Information Digest Vol. 1

Project ZAAN - Information Digest Vol. 1

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Copyrights 2000-2010 Kashmir News Network (KNN) ( http://iKashmir.org )

Project ZAAN - Information Digest Vol. 1

Copyrights 2000-2010 Kashmir News Network (KNN) ( http://iKashmir.org )

Project ZAAN - Information Digest Vol. 1

Copyrights 2000-2010 Kashmir News Network (KNN) ( http://iKashmir.org )

Project ZAAN - Information Digest Vol. 1

Copyrights 2000-2010 Kashmir News Network (KNN) ( http://iKashmir.org )

Project ZAAN - Information Digest Vol. 1

Places of Worship / Shrines

This shrine is situated towards North-West of Srinagar, between Zabarwan and

Copyrights 2000-2010 Kashmir News Network (KNN) ( http://iKashmir.org )

Project ZAAN - Information Digest Vol. 1

Amar Nath Cave

Copyrights 2000-2010 Kashmir News Network (KNN) ( http://iKashmir.org )

Project ZAAN - Information Digest Vol. 1

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