Winter Flying

CONTENTS Winter Flying

Preparation ............................3
Winter in New Zealand brings an altered
Ice Protection Systems ............6 operating environment.
Preflight .................................7 New Zealand does not get the extremes of
Starting..................................8 weather that other parts of the world do,
but the temperature does regularly drop
Taxiing ...................................9
below zero. Whether you operate from
Takeoff...................................9 these areas or are just planning to visit,
the following advice is equally relevant
In Flight ............................... 10
to both fixed-wing and rotary-wing VFR
Landing ................................ 13 operations.
Parking ................................ 15

Conclusion ........................... 15 Cover photo: Mount Cook Skiplanes

Photo: Air Safaris

2
 very cold feet failed to land safely because
Preparation they were suffering from the early stages
of hypothermia.
Before the onset of winter, review the
Remove wet clothing if possible and try
aircraft Flight Manual, particularly the
to keep your feet dry, especially if your
sections relating to winterisation of the
heater does not work. Consider keeping
aircraft and its systems. Check to see if you
some dry clothing inside the aircraft.
need a different grade of oil for winter
operations. Most importantly, keep a cloth handy for
demisting the cabin windows in case the
Any outside activity in extremely cold
defrosting system does not work properly.
conditions will be uncomfortable, and
Fogged-up windscreens have caused a
tasks will be difficult. Your pre-flight check
number of incidents in the past.
is likely to be less thorough. Slips, falls and
minor injuries while working around
Water Accumulation
aircraft are also more common in winter.
The expansion that takes place when water
freezes may cause considerable damage to
Heating and Defrosting Systems
internal structures of wings, control
Have the heating and defrosting systems surfaces, or fuselage bulkheads. Even small
checked. This is particularly important if quantities of water accumulation may
you have a combustion heater. It is good create a static imbalance that could
practice to check the carbon monoxide seriously impair control of the aircraft.
(CO) emissions regularly. Standard tests
will not reveal the condition of all parts Check the drain holes in the wings,
in a heating system. They need to be stabiliser, flight control surfaces, fuselage,
inspected. tailplanes, and air scoops to make sure they
are unobstructed and capable of working.
One of the cheapest insurance policies is a Aircraft that are left outside for any length
CO detector. They are a small sensitive spot of time in rain and frost conditions will
that will darken when CO is present. They tend to accumulate water in all of these
should be attached somewhere in view and places. It is easy for drain holes to freeze
away from direct sunlight. Replace at the over, keeping the water and ice in.
interval recommended by the manufacturer.
Aircraft systems should be checked for
If you are wet, your body, especially your water. A small amount of ice can prevent
feet, can become very cold when you the proper operation of fuel pumps,
climb to altitude. Not only can this cause selector valves and carburettors.
hypothermia, but also it will have a Pitot-static systems should also be
detrimental effect on your ability to fly checked, as water freezing in these could
the aircraft and make a safe landing. render the altimeter, airspeed indicator
There have been cases where people with and vertical speed indicator unserviceable.

3
 Water in the Fuel Mud and Slush
In winter there is a greater risk of water Wheel spats and fairings pick up mud
condensing in fuel tanks; completely full and slush, which adversely affects the
tanks will help minimise this. Fuel tanks operation of the aircraft. If mud is allowed
should be checked for contamination by to accumulate in the spats, it can add
draining some fuel into a tester. Check that considerable weight and create a braking
all fuel vents are unblocked. A blockage effect on the wheels. The accumulation of
could cause an engine to stop or a tank to compressed mud may eventually break the
collapse. spats if they are not cleaned out regularly.
Fuel checks should be carried out after Ice build-up inside wheel spats tends to
fuel has had sufficient time to settle after break up into blocks, which have the
refueling. potential to jam between the wheel and
the spat. Check spats, fairings and
undercarriage bays for ice
accumulation and mud. Clear out
regularly. If you regularly operate
from a muddy aerodrome, consider
having the spats removed
seasonally.

Cleaning
Operating from muddy
Photo: Air Safaris

aerodromes in winter requires

aircraft to be washed frequently.
Mud adds to the weight of
an aircraft, as well as degrading
the efficiency of the flying
Batteries surfaces.

A fully charged battery is essential for Beware of washing the protective agents
winter operations and is less susceptible to and lubricants out of hinges in the flying
freezing. Low temperatures mean harder controls and trim mechanisms. This could
starting, and this imposes high loads on the allow water to enter and freeze at altitude.
battery and electrical system. In extremely Replace the protection by either re-
cold weather, the battery can be removed greasing or spraying on a suitable water
from the aircraft when not in use and displacing lubricant.
stored at room temperature. The application High-pressure hoses should not be directed
of a high charge to a frozen battery may at the aircraft from behind the wing and
cause it to explode sulphuric acid. tail section, or around the undercarriage –

4
 as water could become trapped in control For more information on tiedown
mechanisms and then freeze. This may procedures, refer to the Secure Your
cause problems with brakes and wheel Aircraft GAP booklet.
bearings.
Ensure that water drains away before Personal Preparation
you expose the aircraft to freezing Warm clothing should be worn on winter
temperatures. flights, and good footwear is a must.
In the event of a forced landing it may be
If your aircraft has a retractable under-
the one thing that ensures your survival.
carriage, check the system, including wheel
wells, for contamination by mud and slush.
Survival Kit
Cover A compact survival kit has all-year-round
Hangarage is the best winter protection value. A kit comprising a hunting knife,
for an aircraft but, if this is not available, freeze-dried food, lighter or matches,
consider having wing and engine covers flares, fishing line, and a survival blanket,
made if the aircraft is to be picketed can be packed into a lightweight container
outside. These covers can save a lot of time that takes up little space.
and hard work when preparing for flight Ensure the survival kit is adequate for the
after frost or heavy snowfalls. number of people on board. Consider
carrying emergency clothing made of wool,
which is reasonably light weight and fire
resistant. The survival kit should also include
an information book on survival techniques
and use of the equipment in the kit.
Photo: Air Safaris

Tiedowns
Good tiedowns and pickets should always
be carried when overnighting away from
base. This is particularly important in
winter, when frontal weather systems
are more frequent and harsh. Don’t forget
to remove all tiedowns and pickets
before flying.

5
 Ice Protection Systems
A knowledge of ice protection systems
could be useful to the VFR pilot should
they inadvertently find themselves in icing
conditions in an aircraft so equipped.
A brief description of the most common
ice protection systems follows.
For more information refer to the CAA
Aircraft Icing Handbook available on the
CAA web site, www.caa.govt.nz.

Pneumatic Boots
Pneumatic boots are rubber tubes attached
to the leading edge of wings, tailplane and
vertical fin. They work by inflating and
cracking off the ice. They must be operated
by the pilot and are time-critical in that
they may not work if too much ice has
been allowed to build up. If too little ice rubber aprons direct it along the blade.
has collected before they are operated, Many propellers have electric de-icing
then ice may form around the boot while systems that heat the blade, causing the
it is extended. ice to shed.
Nevertheless, pneumatic boots are still the
most popular device used to remove Windscreen De-icing
inflight icing. Windscreen de-icers heat either the
windscreen or a portion of the windscreen.
Inflight De-icing Fluids They can be embedded in the windscreen
De-icing fluids are oozed through perforations or attached as an additional plate.
or porous portions on the leading edges.
This system, although very effective, is still Rotor-blade Anti-icing Equipment
rare because of the costs involved. Rotor-blade anti-icing equipment is usually
an electrical matrix that covers part of the
Propeller De-icing leading edge along the entire length of the
Alcohol de-icing systems for propellers are blade. Heat is phased into this matrix in
simple and require minimal care. Tubes different sectors to avoid large chunks of
emit liquid from the propeller hub and ice shedding from the blades.

6
 becomes even shorter when bad weather
Preflight sets in. For VFR operations, plan to arrive at
your destination at least 30 minutes before
Before any flight, a thorough weather Evening Civil Twilight. This will give a safety
briefing is essential, especially in winter. margin for unexpected delays en route.
Carefully consider the following.
Possible diversions around weather can
Departure weather – would you be happy considerably add to flight time and
to return if you had to? What about an increase your fuel needs. The use of
alternative aerodrome that has better carburettor heat will probably be more
forecast weather? You may be better frequent, and this also will increase your
advised to go there than to return to base. fuel consumption.
Enroute weather – consider the effects Anywhere snow is falling should be avoided.
on your flight of visibility, cloud base, Snow will transform reasonable visibility
freezing level, potential induction icing, in rain to virtually zero in heavy snow.
and various forms of precipitation.
Don’t overlook current pilot reports of Coverings of Snow, Ice, or Frost
weather hazards.
Coverings of snow, ice, or frost must be
Destination weather – check ceiling, entirely removed before flight. It is
visibility and precipitation, not only for especially important to remove snow
your destination, but also for suitable before it turns into ice. A tactile inspection
alternatives. Fog is much more common for ice should be conducted by moving a
in winter and can be very widespread, barehand or a thinly gloved hand over
potentially covering the whole of either critical surfaces. Any covering of frost is
coast of the South Island. Because fog unpredictable in its effect and could
occurs under an anticyclone, it is tempting adversely affect the lifting capabilities of
to assume that the weather will be clear an aeroplane wing.
and fine. It is important to obtain regular
weather updates and augment
these reports with information
Photo: Air Safaris

from local operators.

Night flights are even more
limited by available alternatives.
Other things to consider in
winter are the surface condition
of the destination airfield and
the amount of daylight
remaining when you arrive.
Remember that the daylight

7
For small aircraft, hand brushing will clear
what is not stuck to the surface. Starting
Patches of solid ice can then be removed
by ‘sawing’ with a length of material or Some aircraft Flight Manuals recommend
hemp rope backwards and forwards over pulling the propeller through several times
the surface. Hard-edged tools must not be with the magneto and master switches off
used. Hot-air blowers are sometimes before starting. This is intended to relieve
helpful, but take care that the run-off is any possible component stress caused by
not allowed to pool and freeze unseen over cold-thickened lubricants during start.
drainage holes or around hinges. Warm This should not be done if the manual does
water mixed with de-icing fluid can also be not recommend it. The additional wear on
used. Plastic cards are particularly good engine components rubbing without
for windscreens. lubrication could be harmful.

Snow, ice and frost should be completely Heating pads that attach to the bottom
removed from helicopters. Even a small of the oil sump work by warming the oil
amount of ice remaining on a portion of before start, and they are a reasonably
the rotor blades could set up a vibration cheap way of raising the oil temperature.
that leads to loss of control. In extreme conditions it may be necessary
to remove the oil and warm it. In this case,
ensure that the oil does not become
contaminated before it is returned to the
engine.
In winter, starting requires more priming
in both fuel-injected and carburetted
engines. Carburetted engines can be
particularly hard to start. There is an
increased chance of additional fuel igniting
during the start. Be ready to take appro-
priate action. Consult the aircraft Flight
Manual for fire-during-start procedures.
Pitot-Static systems In winter the importance of cylinder-
Before flight, ensure that the pitot and head and oil temperatures as well as
static sources are clear of contaminants, carburettor air heat cannot be over-
the pitot cover is removed, and the pitot emphasised. Warming the engine before
head is securely attached and free of takeoff and allowing the engine to cool
damage. down prior to shut down pays dividends,
especially at overhaul time.

8
 and taxiing in freezing fog can lead to
Taxiing large buildups of ice on propellers. Better
to shut down and try again later when
Associated with winter are the problems the fog has lifted than to attempt a
created by ice, snow and heavy rain on departure in this situation.
runways and taxiways. Taxi on snow and
ice as though you have neither brakes nor Windscreen Misting
ability to steer. Stay out of ruts, puddles
Sudden misting on the inside of the
and mud patches, and watch out for heavy
windscreen is a hazard that can easily
frost or ice on sealed areas.
catch people out. Misting can be
It may be necessary to plan to taxi and accentuated when warm bodies in damp
take off very early in the morning before clothing are on board. If your demister
the ice or frost melts and turns the doesn’t work well, make sure you have a
aerodrome into a bog. cloth when you do your preflight check.
Freezing fog is not uncommon in inland
areas on winter mornings. Running up
Takeoff
Photo: Air Safaris

Snow, slush, mud, and wet grass will

lengthen the takeoff roll and may
contaminate undercarriage doors and
wheel wells. This could cause damage to
the undercarriage on retraction and
could increase the likelihood of jamming
gear and damaging structures.
It is recommended not to take off on
runways contaminated with snow and ice
unless you are properly trained to do so.
It may be impossible to maintain directional
control - especially in gusty or crosswind
conditions.
Snow or ice on the upper wing surface
substantially reduces lift and increases
weight. The shape of the aerofoil is altered,
and it becomes much less efficient.
Frost is more subtle than snow or ice
Tekapo runway newly cleared after an overnight
buildups. The added roughness on the wing
snowfall. upper surface increases skin friction and

9
reduces the kinetic energy of the boundary

Photo: Mount Cook Skiplanes

layer. Flow separation occurs at an angle
of attack lower than that of a smooth wing.
Whether snow, ice or frost, the stall speed
is increased, and taking off without
removing all the snow or ice should not
be attempted. The belief that propeller
slipstream or airflow over the wings will
blow the surfaces clean is incorrect.
Take off on the driest part of the runway.
If you find the takeoff performance poor, The engine instruments should be
preferably abort early enough to enable monitored in flight for loss of rpm (fixed-
you to stop in the distance remaining. pitch propellers) or loss of manifold
Calculate a ‘decision point’ which will pressure (constant-speed units). Any such
allow sufficient runway to stop or facilitate loss, or rough running in general, could
a safe takeoff. Even if that is not possible, indicate the formation of ice in the
it is still better to go through the fence at induction system.
the end of the strip than to continue with For aircraft with carburetted engines,
a takeoff that can not be completed. apply full carburettor heat periodically
during the cruise to avoid ice accumulating,
ensuring that the selection is long enough
In Flight to take effect (ie, 20 seconds or more).
If induction icing is present, the engine
may continue to run roughly for a short
Induction Icing time as the ice melts and is ingested.
Induction icing can occur at any time of the Full carburettor heat should be applied
year. Carburettor heat or alternate air are prior to, and during, reduced-power
the best defence against it. These systems descents to prevent venturi icing caused
should have been checked before takeoff by the reduced throttle butterfly settings
to ensure that they were functioning involved. The engine should also be
correctly. In the case of carburettor heat, warmed periodically with gradual
it should be confirmed that its application applications of power if the descent is to
gave an rpm or manifold pressure drop. be a prolonged one.
(Most fuel-injected engines have an For aircraft with fuel-injected engines,
alternate air system fitted, which, when select alternate air ON if impact icing is
selected by the pilot, ducts warm air from suspected (such as may be encountered
within the engine cowling, thus by-passing during descent through an area of
the normal filtered air source.) precipitation above the freezing level).

10
Simplified views of a venturi Float-type carburettors have a The risk of serious carburettor icing
showing changes in air velocity fuel discharge nozzle located in is greatest at lower or idle power
and temperature. These vary in the venturi. Venturi action plus settings. When carrying out prolonged
relation to changes in throttle cooling effect of fuel vaporisation glides, the engine must be warmed
opening and engine rpm. can reduce mixture temperatures regularly to provide sufficient exhaust
markedly. heat to the hot-air heat exchanger.

Carburettor Icing Chart

Serious icing - any power

Moderate icing - cruise power

or serious icing - descent power
+20
Serious icing - descent power
d
ou
Light icing - cruise Cl +10
g/
DEWPOINT °C

or descent power F o

o
IT Y
ID -10
M
HU
0%
10
-20 -10 0 +10 +20 +30 +40
AIR TEMP °C

11
Alternate air should be selected until the complete loss of control. Remain ahead of
aircraft descends into warmer air and the your aircraft, and avoid areas where the
accumulated impact ice melts away from visibility is obscured.
the engine air intake(s). Unlike the aeroplane, the helicopter allows
Induction icing is also a major problem you greater opportunity to land and use
in piston-engine helicopters. Unlike alternative transport in bad weather. Use
aeroplanes, which have a propeller that your good judgement and willpower to
keeps the engine running if it hesitates or make the decision early.
coughs, helicopters have a freewheeling unit
or one-way drive. There is no

Photo: Air Safaris

inertia to keep the engine running.
Detecting the onset of icing is
made more difficult by the nature
of helicopter flying, where the
numerous small changes in power
and rotor rpm mask the usual signs
of carburettor icing. Carburettor
heat is usually effective and should
be used when icing conditions are
likely to be encountered. Check
the aircraft Flight Manual for
specific instructions on
carburettor heat application.

Helicopter Loss of Visibility Freezing Rain

Flying a helicopter with obscured visibility If you encounter any form of icing (the
because of fog, snow, a low ceiling or on a most likely being freezing rain) when flying
dark night can be fatal. Helicopters have below cloud, vacate the area by changing
no inherent stability, and they roll and either altitude or heading.
pitch at much faster rates than aeroplanes. Freezing rain occurs when rain from a
Loss of outside visual references, even for a warm layer of cloud falls into an air mass
moment, can result in disorientation and that has a temperature below zero. If you
incorrect control inputs. This type of happen to be flying through this area it is
accident tends to be fatal because of the likely that your aircraft will be quickly
high impact velocities involved. enveloped in ice (usually clear ice) from
It is easy to realise too late that visibility the freezing rain.
has been lost. Any attempt to turn without Freezing rain is normally associated with
visual reference is likely to lead to a the cold sector directly under the slope of

12
 Freezing rain associated with a frontal system inversion layer
10,000 -15˚

9,000 -10˚

8,000 -5˚

7,000 0˚
Altitude (feet)

6,000 5˚

Temp (˚C)
5,000 0˚

4,000 Freezing -5˚

Rain
3,000 0˚
This shows how a
2,000 8˚ temperature inversion
at altitude can produce
1,000 17˚
conditions conducive to
0 22˚ freezing rain.

a warm front, or in the cold sector just Maintain good visual contact with well-
behind a cold front. Sometimes it can defined objects. Proceed on the basis of
occur where there is a strong temperature what you can see, not what you can not.
inversion and rain falls from warmer air If you do become unable to distinguish
at altitude into cooler air just above the terrain from sky, transfer to instruments
freezing level. and turn at rate one through 180 degrees
without delay.
Snowfall
Snow masks familiar landmarks, making
navigation difficult. Rain can turn to snow
Landing
very quickly, causing a sudden loss of
visibility. Remain alert to the overall Fog
weather development around you so that Fog can be very deceptive from the air.
you can react to the potential hazard, As you fly over it you may well be able to
rather than getting caught out. see down through it, because it is generally
only a few hundred feet thick. But once
Whiteout you start an approach towards the ground
Whiteout can occur when snow-covered you will no longer be able to see
featureless terrain blends into an overcast horizontally through it any further than a
(especially high overcast) sky. The horizon few hundred metres.
disappears and disorientation can quickly Some fog patches may be impossible to
set in. see against an overcast day.

13
Wet Surfaces never land downhill, and during the
landing run keep straight with rudder – try
Any wet landing surface will increase the
to stay off the brakes.
distance of the landing run. It is, therefore,
important to land at the minimum speed Heavy wet snow of even a shallow
suitable for the conditions, to minimise the depth can increase the drag considerably.
landing distance. Maximum braking effect This can increase the chance of
will be achieved if the wheels are not overturning a tailwheel aircraft.
locked, so intermittent brake application is Extreme caution should be exercised when
more effective than applying full pressure landing helicopters on snow, particularly
and holding it (this does not apply to anti- at an unfamiliar site. There may be doubt
skid braking systems). about the depth of snow and the condition
of the underlying ground. The weight of
Landings on Snow the aircraft should be transmitted to the
Landing on snow or ice is extremely landing gear carefully and gradually,
hazardous and should be avoided unless testing the site’s ability to take all the
you are properly trained to do so. It weight. Be ready to lift off immediately
increases the distance required markedly, there is any doubt.
and the heavier the aircraft the greater the Soft powder snow will whip up in the rotor
increase. In these conditions plan the wash and destroy visibility. Approach
landing as if you will be unable to brake. snow very carefully, especially in powder
Touch down at the slowest practical speed, conditions.

14
Snow Ingestion When parking overnight in areas where
Snow ingestion into helicopter turbine there is snow falling, be prepared to sweep
engines can cause a flameout. A particle the wing and tail surfaces at regular
separator can prevent this but is also intervals. This is to avoid excessive weight
subject to icing and becoming blocked. on the wing and tailplane (some snow can
be very wet and heavy). Take care in where
The amount of snow ingestion can be you place your pickets – a heavy snowfall
controlled to some extent by careful flying. could cause the aeroplane to sit on its tail
Hovering over loose snow should be and potentially its picket!
avoided wherever possible. In these
conditions a positive rate of climb and
forward speed should be attained
immediately after liftoff. A normal
approach for landing on snow should be
one continuous operation to the ground,
without hovering.

Apart from the possibility of a flameout,

unnecessary hovering can also cause
spatial disorientation. During the
approach, if the landing area or reference
point starts to become obscure, an
immediate go-around should be made
rather than any attempt to hover and
reorient yourself.

Parking
Top up the fuel tanks after flight to
minimise the risk of condensation forming.
If the aircraft is to be parked outside, use
control locks, and tie it down securely to Conclusion
good pickets. If covers are used for
engines, air-conditioning system intakes, Winter flying can be a spectacular
pitot and static system openings, or ram- experience, especially in the snow-covered
air inlets, make sure they are highly visible Southern Alps. In order to keep it safe
so that you don’t forget to remove them think ahead, and be fully prepared before
before the next flight. venturing out into the winter weather.

15
 P O Box 31-441
Lower Hutt
Tel: 0–4–560 9400
Fax: 0–4–569 2024
Email: [email protected]

Winter Flying was revised in June 2005.

See our web site, www.caa.govt.nz, for details of more CAA safety publications.