Module 1 Lec 2 - THERMODYNAMICS 2nd QTR SY1112 PDF
Module 1 Lec 2 - THERMODYNAMICS 2nd QTR SY1112 PDF
Module 1 Lec 2 - THERMODYNAMICS 2nd QTR SY1112 PDF
1
THERMODYNAMICS
Prepared By:
Prof. Rene D. Estember
THERMODYNAMICS
branch of physical science that treats various phenomena of energy and
the related properties of matter, especially of the law of transformation
of heat into other forms of energy and vice-versa.
Examples of everyday transformation:
Process of converting heat into electrical work (electrical power
generation)
Process of converting electrical work into cooling (air conditioning)
Process of converting work into kinetic energy (automotive
transportation)
THERMODYNAMIC S YSTEM (or simply a SYSTEM)
refers to the quantity of matter or certain volume in space chosen for
study.
Surroundings - the mass or region outside the system.
Boundary the real or imaginary surface that separates the system
from the surroundings. The boundary of the system can either be
fixed or movable.
Kinds of Thermodynamic System
1. Closed system (also known as control mass)
a system in which there is no transfer of matter across the boundary. It
consists a fixed amount of mass, and no mass can cross its boundary.
That is, no mass can enter or leave a closed system.
2. Open system (also known as control volume)
a system in which there is a flow of matter through the boundary. It
usually encloses the device that involves mass flow such as
compressor, turbine, or nozzle.
Kinds of Thermodynamic System
3. Isolated System
A system in which neither mass nor energy crosses the boundaries and it
is not influenced by the surroundings. (m = 0, W=0, Q=0)
PROPERTIES OF A SYSTEM
Any characteristic of a system is called a property.
Types of Thermodynamic Properties
A. Static Properties
refer to the physical condition of the working substance such as
temperature, pressure, density, specific volume, specific gravity, or
relative density.
B. Transport Properties
refer to the measurement of diffusion within the working medium
resulting from molecular activity, like viscosities, thermal
conductivities, etc.
Classification of Thermodynamic Properties
A. Intensive Properties
independent of the mass such as temperature, pressure, density, and
voltage.
B. Extensive Properties
dependent upon the mass of the system and are total values such as total
volume and total internal energy.
The State Properties
1. Temperature
An indication or degree of hotness and coldness and therefore a
measure of intensity of heat.
Absolute temperature the temperature measured from absolute
zero.
Absolute zero the temperature at which the molecules stop
moving. The absolute zero equivalent to 0
o
K (-273.15
o
C) or 0
o
R (-
460
o
F).
Conversion Formulas
The Temperature Interval (Change)
The difference between two temperature readings from the same scale,
and the change in temperature through which the body is heated.
Note: The degree must be written after the temperature scale for it to
indicate that it is a change in temperature
ZEROTH LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS
When any two bodies are in thermal equilibrium with the third body, they
are in thermal equilibrium with each other. (Note: the third body is
usually a thermometer)
32
5
9
+ = C F
o
( ) 32
9
5
= F C
o
460 + = F R
o
273 + = C K
o
o o
C K
T T A = A
o o
C F
T T A = A
5
9
O O
F R
T T A = A o o
C F
T T A = A
5
9
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2
2. Density (Specific Weight)
Mass density the mass per unit volume.
where: m = mass (kg
m
, g, slug, lb
m
)
V = volume (m
3
, cm
3
, ft
3
)
= density (kg
m
/m
3
, g/cm
3
, lb
m
/ft
3
)
Weight density (Specific Weight) the weight per unit volume.
where: Fg = force due to gravity /weight (kg
f
,N, g, lb
f
)
V = volume (m
3
, cm
3
, ft
3
)
= specific weight (kg
f
/m
3
, N/m
3
, g/cm
3
, lb
f
/ft
3
)
3. Specific Volume
The volume per unit mass
where: m = mass (kg
m
, g, lb
m
)
V = volume (m
3
, cm
3
, ft
3
)
= specific volume (m
3
/kg
m
, cm
3
/g, ft
3
/lb
m
)
V
F
g
=
1
= =
m
V
v
V
m
=
4. Pressure
The force exerted per unit area.
Absolute pressure - the true pressure measured above a perfect
vacuum.
Gage Pressure
pressure measured from the level of atmospheric pressure by most pressure
recording measurement like pressure gage and ope-ended manometer.
Atmospheric pressure
pressure obtained from barometric reading.
where: p
abs
= absolute pressure
p
gage
= gage pressure
p
atm
= atmospheric pressure
atm psi p
atm
1 7 . 14 = =
mmHg kPa p
atm
760 325 . 101 = =
inHg
cm
kg
p
atm
92 . 29 032 . 1 = =
2
6
10 013 . 1 013 . 1
cm
dyne
x bar p
atm
= =
atm gage abs
p p p =
atm abs
p p > = +) (
atm abs
p p < = ) (
h
A
Ah
A
V
A
F
p
g
gage
= = = =
v
gh
gh h p
g
g g gage
= = =
Critical Pressure
Minimum pressure needed to liquefy gas at its critical temperature.
5. Specific Gravity (Relative Density)
Also known as relative density. It is the ratio of the density of a certain
gas/substance to the density of air/water at the same temperature.
CONSERVATION OF MASS
The law of conservation of mass states that the mass is indestructible. Mass
(m
1
) entering the system is equal to the sum of the stored mass (m) and
the mass (m
2
) that leaves the system.
Where: A = cross sectional area of the
stream
= average speed
= density
gas
air
water air
subs gas
water air
subs gas
water air
subs gas
R
R
MW
MW
G S = = = =
/
/
/
/
/
/
. .
2 2 2 1 1 1
2 1
u u A A
m m
=
=
CONSERVATION OF ENERGY
The law of conservation of energy states that energy is neither created nor
destroyed.
The fist law of Thermodynamics states that one form of energy may be
converted into another.
Gravitational Potential Energy is its energy due to its position or elevation.
Where: z = height
F
g
= weight
m = mass
g = acceleration due to gravity
P = Potential energy, P = change in potential energy
Kinetic Energy the energy or stored capacity for performing work possessed
by a moving body, by virtue of its momentum.
Where: m = mass
= velocity
K = kinetic energy
K = change in kinetic energy
) (
1 2 1 2
z z mg P P P
mgz z F P
g
= = A
= =
( )
2
1
2
2 1 2
2
2
2
u u
u
= = A
=
m
K K K
m
K
CONSERVATION OF ENERGY
Internal Energy is energy stored within the body or substance by virtue of the
activity and configuration of its molecules and of the vibration of the atoms
within the molecules.
u = specific internal energy (unit mass): u = u
2
u
1
U = mu = total internal energy (m mass): U = U
2
- U
1
Work (W) is the product of the displacement of the body and the component
of the force in the direction of the displacement. Work is energy in
transition; that is, it exists only when a force is moving through a
distance.
Work of a Nonflow System
Work doneby the system is positive (outflow of energy).
Work doneonthe system is negative (inflow of energy).
}
=
2
1
pdV W
CONSERVATION OF ENERGY
Flow Work (W
f
) of work flow energy is work done in pushing a fluid across a
boundary, usually into or out of a system.
Where: W
f
= change in flow
work
Heat (Q) is energy in transit (on the move) from one body or system to
another solely because of temperature difference between the bodies or systems.
Q is positivewhen heat is added to the body or system.
Q is negativewhen heat is rejected by the body or system.
1 1 2 2 1 2
V p V p W W W
pV W
pAL FL W
f f f
f
f
= = A
=
= =
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3
CONSERVATION OF ENERGY
Steady Flow Energy Equation
Characteristics of steady flow system
1. There is neither accumulation nor dimunition of mass within the system.
2. There is neither accumulation nor dimunition of energy within the system.
3. The state of the working substance at any point in the system remains
constant.
Energy Entering the System = Energy Leaving the System
W U W K P Q U W K P
f f
+ + + + = + + + +
2 2 2 2 1 1 1 1
CONSERVATION OF ENERGY
Enthalpy (H, h) - is a composite property applicable to all fluids . It is the
heat energy transferred to a substance at a constant pressure process. It is
defined by:
Thus, the steady flow energy equation becomes:
pV U H
mh H
pv u h
+ =
=
+ =
W H K P Q H K P + + + = + + +
2 2 2 1 1 1
THE IDEAL GAS
An ideal gas is ideal only in the sense that it conforms to the simple perfect
gas laws.
Boyles Law
If the temperature of a given quantity of gas is held constant, the volume of
a gas varies inversely with the absolute pressure during a change of state.
2 2 1 1
1
V p V p
C pV
p
C
orV
p
V
=
=
= =
THE IDEAL GAS
Charles Law
(1) If the pressure on a particular quantity of gas is held constant, then, with
any change of state, the volume will vary directly as the absolute
temperature.
or
or
(2) If the volume of a particular quantity of gas is held constant, then, with any
change of state, the pressure will vary directly as the absolute temperature.
or
or
C
T
p
T p
=
=
2
2
1
1
T
p
T
p
CT p
=
=
C
T
V
T V
=
=
2
2
1
1
T
V
T
V
CT V
=
=
THE IDEAL GAS
Equation of State or Characteristic Equation of a Perfect Gas
Combining Boyles and Charles Laws,
, a constant
where: p = absolute pressure
V = volume
v = specific volume
m = mass
T = absolute temperature
R = specific gas constant or gas constant
(unit mass) = universal gas constant
n = no. of moles
M = molecular weight
mR
T
pV
=
mRT pV =
RT pv =
T
R
n pV
=
R
M
R
R
=
M
m
n =
THE IDEAL GAS
Equation of State or Characteristic Equation of a Perfect Gas
The values of Universal Gas constant:
= 8.314 kJ/mol
o
K
= 1545 ft. lb./mol
o
R
= 1.986 BTU/mol
o
R
= 0.0821 L. atm/mol
o
K
Gas constant of diatomic oxygen:
= 0.2598 kJ/kg.K
= 48.28 ft.lb
f
/lb
m
.
o
R
Gas constant for air:
R
w
= 0.287 kJ/kg.K = 53.34 ft.lb
f
/lb
m
.
o
R
R
) (
) (
2
2
O M
R
O R
=
mol kg
K mol kJ
O R
/ 32
. / 314 . 8
) (
2
=
11/15/2011
4
THE IDEAL GAS
Specific Heat
The specific heat of a substance is defined as the quantity of heat required
to change the temperature of unit mass through one degree.
c
or dQ = mcdT
And for a particular mass m,
If the mean or instantaneous value of specific heat is used,
) _ _ )( (
) _ (
e temperatur of change mass
units energy Heat
mdT
dQ
c =
}
=
2
1
cdT m Q
( )
1 2
2
1
T T mc dT mc Q = =
}
THE IDEAL GAS
Constant Volume Specific Heat (c
v
)
Constant Pressure Specific Heat (c
p
)
( )
1 2
T T mc Q
U Q
v v
v
=
A =
( )
1 2
T T mc Q
p p
=
}
+ A = + A =
2
1
pdV U W U Q
p
( )
1 2
1 1 2 2 1 2
1 2
H H Q
V p V p U U Q
V V p U Q
p
p
p
=
+ =
+ A =
THE IDEAL GAS
Ratio of Specific Heats
Internal Energy of an Ideal Gas
Joules law states that the change of internal energy of an ideal gas is a
function of only the temperature change.
Therefore, U is given by the formula,
whether the volume remains constant or not.
1 > =
v
p
c
c
k
( )
1 2
T T mc U
v
= A
THE IDEAL GAS
Enthalpy of an Ideal Gas
The change of enthalpy of an ideal gas is given by the formula,
whether the pressure remains constant or not.
Relations between c
p
and c
v
From h = u + pv and pv = RT
dh = du + R dT
( )
1 2
T T mc H
p
= A
RdT dT c dT c
v p
+ =
R c c
v p
+ =
1
1
=
=
k
kR
c
k
R
c
p
v
THE IDEAL GAS
Entropy (S, s)
Entropy is that property of a substance which remains constant (if no heat
enters or leaves the substance, while it does work or alters its volume, but
which increase or diminishes should a small amount of heat enter or leave.
The change of entropy of a substance receiving (or delivering) heat is
defined by
Where: dQ = heat transferred at the temperature T
S = total change of entropy
(constant specific heat)
}
= A
=
2
1
T
dQ
S
T
dQ
dS
1
2
2
1
2
1
ln
T
T
mc
T
dT
mc S
T
mcdT
S
= = A
= A
}
}
THE IDEAL GAS
Temperature Entropy Coordinates
dQ = TdS
Other Energy Relations
(Reversible steady flow, P=0)
}
=
2
1
TdS Q
K W Vdp
s
A + =
}
2
1
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5
PROCESSES OF IDEAL GAS
Thermodynamic Processes
Thermodynamic process is any change that a system undergoes from one
equilibrium state to another. It can be reversible or irreversible.
Pathis the series of states through which a system passes during a
process.
a) Reversible Process (Quasi-equilibrium process)
It is the process that can be reversed without leaving any trace on the
surroundings. That is, both the system and the surroundings are returned o
their initial states at the end of the process.
b) Irreversible Process
It is the process that proceed spontaneously in one direction but the other.
Once having taken place, the process cannot reverse itself and always
results in an increase of molecular disorder.
PROCESSES OF IDEAL GAS
Constant Volume Process (Isometric Process)
An isometric process is a reversible constant volume process. A constant
volume process may be reversible or irreversible.
2
1
Vdp
PROCESSES OF IDEAL GAS
Isobaric Process
An isobaric process is an internally reversible process of a substance during
which the pressure remains constant.
2
1
Vdp
1
2
1
2
V
V
T
T
=
1
2
ln
T
T
mc
p
PROCESSES OF IDEAL GAS
Isothermal Process
An isothermal process is an internally reversible constant temperature
process of a substance.
2
1
Vdp
2 2 1 1
V p V p =
1
2
1 1
ln
V
V
V p
1
2
1 1
ln
V
V
V p
2
1
1
2
ln ln
p
p
mR
V
V
mR =
2
1
1
2
1 1
ln ln
p
p
mRT
V
V
V p =
PROCESSES OF IDEAL GAS
Isentropic Process
An isentropic process is a reversible adiabatic process. Adiabatic simply
means no heat. A reversible adiabatic is one of constant entropy.
2
1
Vdp
k k
V p V p
2 2 1 1
=
k
k
k
p
p
V
V
T
T
1
1
2
1
2
1
1
2
=
(
=
( )
k
T T mR
k
V p V p
1 1
1 2 1 1 2 2
( )
k
T T mR k
k
V p V p k
1
) (
1
) (
1 2 1 1 2 2
PROCESSES OF IDEAL GAS
Polytropic Process
A polytropic process is an internally reversible process during which
and
2
1
Vdp
n n
n
V p V p
C pV
2 2 1 1
=
=
n n
V p V p
2 2 1 1
=
n
n
n
p
p
V
V
T
T
1
1
2
1
2
1
1
2
=
(
=
( )
n
T T mR
n
V p V p
1 1
1 2 1 1 2 2
( )
n
T T mR n
n
V p V p n
1
) (
1
) (
1 2 1 1 2 2
(
=
n
n k
c c
v n
1
1
2
T
T
mc
n
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6
General Equation for Thermodynamic Curves
The general equation of any process is:
If
n = 0 ; Isobaric process
n = 1 ; Isothermal process
n = k ; Isentropic process
n = - to + ; Polytropic process
n = ; Isometric process
Note: pV
k
is steeper than pV curve.
C pV
n
=