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History and Geological Setting of Intermontane basin in the Zagros Fold-thrust belt,
Kurdistan Region, NE-Iraq

History and Geological Setting of Intermontane basin in the Zagros Fold-
thrust belt, Kurdistan Region, NE-Iraq

KAMAL H. KARIM* , SHERZAD Tofiq Al-BARZINJY* * AND BAKHTIAR,
M. Ameen*

Received: 20/3/2007, Accepted: 13/ 9/ 2007
Published in: Iraqi Bulletin of Geology and ining, Vo.4,No.1, 2008 ,p21-33
Abstract
It is mentioned previously that the intermontane basins, in northeastern Iraq, are developed in
the Early Paleocene. In present study, the timing, geographic location and geological setting
of these intermontane basins are studied from Iraqi Zagros Fold-Thrust Belt during Tertiary.
The study achieved in view of literature and recent sedimentological studies. The terrigenous
clastic cutoff and facies comparison with their distribution is used as evidence for spatial and
temporal development of intermontane basin. The study concluded that the first intermontane
basin is developed during the Middle Eocene.
It is observed that the present position of Thrust and Imbricated Zones of Iraq was area of
subsidence and generation of the intermontane basin during Middle Eocene. Concurrently
with this subsidence and directly to the southwest of the latter zone a narrow paleohigh is
developed which separated subsidence from the main basin. The present position of the
paleohigh coincides with of the boundary High and Imbricated Zones. In these intermountain
basin the flysch facies (sandstone and shale of Walash Nauperdan Group) are deposited at the
beginning while later molasses facies (conglomerate of upper part of the Red Bed Series)
are dominated. Concurrently, in the area of present Low Folded and Mesopotamian Zones
(main water body of the main foreland basin) thick succession of pure carbonate (Pila Spi
Formation) was deposited signalize the total cutoff of clastic sediments from the latter
zones In contrary, during the Early Paleocene till Middle Eocene clastic (conglomerate and
sandstone) influx was continued from source area into Early Zagros foreland basin and mixed
(occasionally) with carbonate of Sinjar Formation in many places. During these latter ages,
intermontane basin is not generated as cited in previous studies to trap transferred sediments
from source area except some basin irregularities on which reefal limestones of Sinjar
Formation are deposited. The separation of Early Zagros Foreland basin into two smaller
basins (Main foreland basin and intermontane basin) decreased the current circulation and
wave activity therefore lagoonal dolomitic limestone of Pila Spi Formation was deposited.
Key words: Walash Naoperdan Series, Pila Spi Formation, Zagros forland basin, Eocene
tectonic, Kurdistan geology

Introduction
The studied area is located in the Kurdistan Region, Northeast Iraq near the with Irani
Iranian border (Fig.1). This area forms the three main (present days) tectonic zones of Iraq
(High, Imbricated and Thrust Zones) of Buday and Jassim (1987) ( Fig.2).The area is part of
the Western Zagros Fold-thrust Belt, which is developed from colliding of Arabian and
Iranian Plates and sedimentary fills of Neotethys basin (Alavi, 2004). The aim of this study is
to record a new historical development and geological setting of intermontane basin in the
Iraqi part of the Zagros Fold-thrust Belt. The study achieved in the through re-interpretation
of the sedimentologic (sedimentary facies) and stratigraphic works of Bellen, et al (1959),
Buday, (1980) and Al-Barzinjy, (2005) about the area during Tertiary.
Intermontane basins are commonly elongate, narrow and evolved during late orogenesis and
are associated within volcanism (Einsele, 2000). Small superficial, extensional intermontane
basin exists in the present Andes Mountain is due to warping during subduction (Mail, 1990).
Clevis et al (2004) has mentioned basins on the thrust- sheets under the name of top thrust-
sheet basin , which are formed due to detachment faults. They assumed them as common
features in foreland basin. Allen and Allen (1990) referred to generation of intermontane
basins on the megasuture blow thrust sheets. These basins resemble the intermontane basin
of Iraq where the oldest intermontane basins are those mentioned by Buday and Jassim
(1987) in which molasses are deposited during Paleogene and located in the Tanjero-
Balambo Zone. However, , maps are published maps by Buday (1980); Jassim and Goff
(2006) (Fig.3) showed that these basins have started from Paleocene and continued till
Middle Miocene and located in the present position of Thrust and Imbricates Zones.
Al-Hashmi and Amer (1985) separated Red Bed Series from Khurmal Formation (time
equivalent of Sinjar Formation) by positive land (Fig. 4A, B, C). Surdashy (1989) has also
separated the Red Bed Series as intermontane basin from the basin of Kolosh Formation
during Paleocene and Eocene (Fig.4D). In the Tectonic Scenario of Iraq, Numan (1997)
separated the Red Bed Series from the main basin of Iraq during Paleocene. He indicated the
Red Bed Series in a basin between Kata Rash and Walash volcanic arcs, which resembles
more or less the intermontane basin, since it is separated by positive land (Fig.5A). Lawa
(2004) mentioned and showed (by sketch) that piggyback (intermontane basin) started in the
early Paleocene which was filled with molasse deposit (Fig.5 B, C). According to the above
studies, at the Early Paleocene, the narrow strip of Halabja, Said Sadiq, Sulaimanyia City,
Ranyia and Rawandoz waslocation of a paleohigh (positive land), which separated the area
that are located to the north and south of these towns. The southern and northern areas are
called (previously) Mio and Eu-geosynclines, respectively, while in the present study they are
called Main and Sub-Foreland Basins. The Main Foreland Basin occupies (as assumed in this
study) the Low and High Folded Zones while the Sub-Foreland Basin occupies a southern
part of the Thrust Zone and whole Imbricated Zones. But, during Campanian till Middle
Eocene one large basin existed, which is called Early (proto) Zagros Foreland Basin (Fig. 6C
and 7C).
Fig.1:
Simplified geological map of the studied area (modified from Sissakian, 2000) showing
location of intermontane basin during Middle Eocene.
Fig.
(2) A: Location map of the studied area.
Fig.(3)
A and B: Early Eocene and Oligocene paleogeography of the Iraq, showing intermontane
basin in the northeastern Iraq ( after Jassim and Goff, 2006).

Geological setting
The recent sedimentological and stratigraphical studies amended the geology of the
studied area through simplifications of the tectonics. Due to this geographic position and
history of the development of the intermontane basins can be realized with the type of
separation from main water body. Among the studies that are indirectly related to this idea
are the study of Karim and Surdashy (2005a and 2005b) which changed the tectonic setting
of Tanjero Formation from subduction trench to early Zagros Foreland basin during
Maastrichtian. They combined both Mio and Eogeosyncline in one single basin. Another
study is that of Al-Barzinjy (2005), which concerned mainly with relation between Red Bed
Series and Kolosh Formation. He concluded that both them (Red Bed Series and Kolosh
Formation) are deposited in a single basin and there was no any paleohigh between the two
units during Paleocene and Early Eocene. According to the Al-Barzinjy (2005), the Red Bed
Series was deposited in the present position of the Imbricated Zone as coastal facies, while at
the same time; Kolosh Formation is deposited in the basin plain, in the location of the present
day High Folded Zone.
Fig.4:
Different ideas about timing, tectonic setting and geographic location of the intermontane
basin by different authors. A, B and C: By Al-Hashmi and Amer (1985). D: By Surdashy
(1989).

Fig.5: A): Tectonic position of Red Bed Series between Kata Rash and Walash Volcanics,
by Numam (1997). (B, C) Model and cross section of Early and Middle Paleocene
paleogeography and tectonic setting of piggy back (intermontane) basin (Lawa, 2004).
Fig.6:
The conclusions of present study as shown by conceptual models of paleogeography and
tectonic evolution of the intermontane basin in Iraq.A: Middle Eocene, B: Lower Eocene, C:
Upper Cretaceous and Paleocene.
Fig.7:
Cross sections of the same ages and models that are shown in the fig. (6) showing generation
of intermontine basin during Middle Eocene as inferred from present work.

First appearance of intermontane basin
The first appearance time of the intermontane basin could be known only through a
sedimentological study of a studied area. This includes the study of the types, calibers and
distribution of the terrigenous sediments in both Imbricated and High Folded Zones. During
the study of these sediments the hydrodynamic and lithology (mineralogy) are taken into
consideration. The first and the prominent terrigenous sediments cutoff occurred during
Middle Eocene. This cutoff is demonstrated by extensive deposition of nearly pure lagoonal
carbonates of Pila Spi Formation. This deposition was relatively sudden and covered most
part of the northern Iraq especially the High and Low Folded Zones (Main Foreland Basin).
These carbonates lack clastic interbeds, which indicate the separation of the Sub-Foreland
(Intermontane) Basin from the main foreland basin by a narrow paleohigh (Fig.6A and 7A).
The present position of the paleohigh nearly coincides with of the boundary High and
Imbricated Zones. The cutoff of the clastic sediments and deposition of carbonates is well
documented by Dunnington (1958) by isopach facies map (Fig.8). On the map, he assumed
the Imbricated and Thrust Zones as source area and showed that the carbonate deposition is
located to the south of boundary between High Fold and Imbricated Zones.
Fig.8:Isopach facies map of MiddleUpper Eocene showing extensive carbonate deposition
(After Dunnington, 1958).

Interpretation of clastic sediments cutoff
The clastic cutoff and deposition of carbonates are clear evidences for separation of the
source area (present days Iraqi Thrust Zone and Sanandij-Serjan Zone of Iran) from the main
body of the water that was covering the rest of Iraqi territory. The deposition carbonates (Pila
Spi Formation) started during Middle Eocene (Bellen, et al. 1958; Buday, 1980) therefore,
at this time a paleohigh was developed that was led to the total cutoff the clastics and an
intermontane basin was formed to the north of the paleohigh and concurrently the area that
now covered by Imbricated and Thrust Zones are subsided (Fig.6A and 7A). But the
paleoghigh was too narrow to supply sufficient clastics to main foreland basin to be detected.
Instead of transportation of sediments to the south and southwest, the clastics were trapped in
the post Middle Eocene intermontane basins (areas of the subsidence) and deposited as
Walash Naoperdan Group.
The generation of these basin associated with retreat of the source area, northeastwards
to a position which may coincide with the present position of Sanandij-Sirjan Zone, inside
Iran. The paleohigh was too small and tight to perform as new source areas. Other
consequences of the separation of the Early Zagros Foreland Basin into Main Foreland Basin
and intermontane basin was restriction of current circulation and wave activities in addition
to cease of fresh water influx. Due to this, semi-restricted lagoonal sediments (dolomite and
limestone) are deposited which were isolated from sediments and fresh water influx from
northeastern source areas. The most important characteristics of the generated intermontane
basin is the fineness of the clastic sediments as compared to the that deposited in the coastal
area of the early (proto) Foreland Basin before separation. Karim and Surdashy (2005a and
b), Al-Barzinjy (2005) concluded that during Upper Cretaceous and till Middle Miocene the
area of the sub-Foreland basin (previous Eugeosyncline) was deposition locus of the thick
pile of conglomerates and sandstone (Tanjero Formation and unit one and two of the Red Bed
Series ). This position was coastal area for the Early Foreland basin during Late Cretaceous
and till the Middle Eocene.
In contrary to the Main Foreland Basin, in the intermontane (Sub-Foreland) Basin, the
conglomerates are missing and fine clastics are deposited. These fine clastics coincide with
the principle of sedimentation and with the deposition of carbonates (Pila Spi Formation) in
the main water body. The fineness of clastic are attributed to three reasons, the first is
retreating of source area into Iranian land, due to subsidence of the previous coastal area. The
second is generation of a barrier (the paleohigh) in front of the paleocurrent direction, which
led to a decrease of dynamic energy of the transportation and sedimentation. The third is
that the intermontane basin is formed in the frontal part of the foreland fold-thrust belt, which
decreased the accommodated space for submarine turbidity currents. The fine clastics are
represented by Walash Naoperdan Group (flysch facies), which consist mainly of shale,
sandstone limestone and igneous rocks (Fig. 6A and 7A) that deposited at early stage and
later, changed to molasse facies (upper part of the Red Bed Series) when the basin filled
with sediment. During the deposition of flysch facies, it is possible that the biogenenic
carbonates (Naoperdan Limestone) were deposited in the shallow areas where there are no
turbidite.

Possible Paleocene intermontane basin
During Late Paleocene Sinjar and Khurmala Formations, were deposited at the boundary
between High and Low Folded Zones, inside main foreland basin (inside previously so called
miogeosyncline).These formations consist of reefal facies. They have limited distribution as
compared to Pila Spi Formation which, occurs as, northwest-southeast strip about 15km wide
along the above mentioned boundary. The Sinjar Formation is supposed to be deposited in
submerged high as reefal facies by (Al-Hasmi and Amer, 1985 and Surdashy, 1989) (Fig.4B
and D). About this paleohigh and possibility of Paleocene intermontane basin, it deserves to
clarify two points in this study. The first is that the Sinjar Formation was deposited at the top
of Kolosh Formation which consists of flysch facies (basinal sandstone and calcareous shale).
The top of this unit represents the shallowing episode due to filling and tectonic uplift, during
which Sinjar Formation was deposited. While in Sub-Foreland (Intermontane) Basin the
clastics (sandstone) of the Red Bed Series (part one and two) were deposited, in Chuarta,
Mawat, and Qandil areas (Al-Barzinjy, 2005).
The second is that unlike to Pila Spi Formation, Sinjar and Khurmala Formations, in most
places, contains coarse clastic interbeds. At Sartak Bamo valley, Baranan Mountain (Fig.8 A
and B), Barda Asin (east of Zarain town) and Sagram anticlines and Darbandikhan dam site
(Fig.10), Sinjar Formation contains terrigenous conglomerates. According to Al-Banna, et al
(2007), at Dohuk area the equivalent of Sinjar Formation (Khurmala Formation) contains
conglomerates, sandstones, shales and marls (Fig.11). These authors showed that the
limestones beds are sandy also. This means that the Sinjar and Khurmala Formation were not
separated by positive paleohigh from the source area and the intermontane basin was not
formed yet. The Sinjar Formation is possibly separated partially and intermittently, in some
places, by irregularities (submerged high) that prevented high influx of clastics and turbidity
current to the basin of Sinjar Formation (Main Foreland Basin). In these places, Sinjar
Formation is composed of pure limestone and without conglomerate interbeds. These areas
such as Glazarda and Bazian, where there are more or less occurrences of pure reefal
limestone of the formation (Fig.6B). Therefore, the map and tectonic setting of the Middle
Eocene is shown in the figure (12), which indicates position of the paleohigh and location of
the deposition of Pila Spi Formation and Walash -Naopewrdan Group.
Fig.
9: A) Sections of western side of Sartaq Bamo valley ( east of Darbandikhan dam) showing
main exposed units, the pure carbonate of Pila Spi Formation( 200m thick) can seen at
top of a section is 450m thick. In many places Sinjar Formation contain conglomerate and
terrigenous clasts. B) The photo shows pebbly limestone of Sinjar Formation at Baranan
(Glazarda Homocline) mountain south of Sulaimanyia city.
Fig.
10: A) Outcrop section of Pila Spi, Gercus and Sinjar formations in the main Foreland Basin
(previous Miogeosyncline). Sinjar Formation contains interbed of conglomerate and
sandstone,, while Pila Spi Formation is exclusively limestone. B) Polished slab (4cm wide) of
the latter formation contains algae.
Fig.11:
Eastern part of Dohuk dam valley showing thick outcrop of Pila Spi Formation and clastics
of pre Middle Eocene. The Khurmala Formation is less than 10m thick. The clastic influx
cutoff is very clear with deposition onset of Pila Spi Formation.
Fig.12:
Lithofacies map during Middle Eocene and geologic block diagram of the same age
showing intermontane basin as inferred from the present work.
Conclusion
The previous Early Paleocene as starting point fore evolving of the intermontane
basins is changed to Middle Eocene.
The Pila Spi Formation and Walash Naoperdan group are connected with this
development as sediments of the main basin and intermontane basin respectively.
The reason for this new age is total terrigenous clastic cutoff influx from source
areas to the previous clastic dominated basin.
The study solved the problem of great uncertainty that associated with history and
tectonic of Walash-Naoperdan Group.

Foreland intermontane basins : (broken forelands): Basins formed among basement-
cored uplifts in foreland settings. Modern example: Sierras Pampeanas basins
(Argentina).



http://www.asergeev.com/pictures/archives/compress/2010/843/11.htm

Intermontane basin between the ridges of the Zagros, within which a large alluvial fan
has accumulated, in south-western Iran. View from a window of a plane from Doha,
Qatar to Houston, TX, March 16, 2010.
generic term for a wide structural depression between mountain ranges that is partly filled with
alluvium. Commonly called a valley










Foreland basin
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The Persian Gulf - the foreland basin produced by the Zagros orogenic belt
A foreland basin is a structural basin that develops adjacent and parallel to a mountain belt.
Foreland basins form because the immense mass created by crustal thickening associated
with the evolution of a mountain belt causes the lithosphere to bend, by a process known as
lithospheric flexure. The width and depth of the foreland basin is determined by the flexural
rigidity of the underlying lithosphere, and the characteristics of the mountain belt. The
foreland basin receives sediment that is eroded off the adjacent mountain belt, filling with
thick sedimentary successions that thin away from the mountain belt. Foreland basins
represent an endmember basin type, the other being rift basins. Space for sediments,
accommodation space, is provided by loading and downflexure to form foreland basins, in
contrast to rift basins, where accommodation space is generated by lithospheric extension.
Contents
[hide]
1 Types of foreland basin
2 Foreland basin system
o 2.1 Foreland basin systems: depozones
3 Plate motion and seismicity
4 Formation of basins
5 Lithospheric behavior
o 5.1 Lithospheric strength envelopes
6 Thermal history
7 Fluid migration
o 7.1 Fluid source
o 7.2 Major driving force for fluid migration
o 7.3 Hydrocarbon migration
8 Modern (Cenozoic) foreland basin systems
o 8.1 Europe
o 8.2 Asia
o 8.3 Middle East
o 8.4 North America
o 8.5 South America
9 Ancient foreland basin systems
o 9.1 Europe
o 9.2 Asia
o 9.3 North America
10 See also
11 References
Types of foreland basin[edit]


Foreland Basin Classes: Peripheral vs. Retroarc
Foreland basins can be divided into two categories:
Peripheral (Pro) foreland basins, which occur on the plate that is subducted or underthrust
during plate collision (i.e. the outer arc of the orogen)
o Examples include the North Alpine Foreland Basin of Europe, or the Ganges Basin of
Asia
Retroarc (Retro) foreland basins, which occur on the plate that overrides during plate
convergence or collision (i.e. situated behind the magmatic arc that is linked with the
subduction of oceanic lithosphere)
o Examples include the Andean basins, or Late Mesozoic to Cenozoic Rocky Mountain
Basins of North America
Foreland basin system[edit]


The Foreland Basin System
DeCelles & Giles (1996) provide a thorough definition of the foreland basin system. Foreland
basin systems comprise three characteristic properties:
1. An elongate region of potential sediment accommodation that forms on continental crust
between a contractional orogenic belt and the adjacent craton, mainly in response to
geodynamic processes related to subduction and the resulting peripheral or retroarc fold-
thrust belt;
2. It consists of four discrete depozones, referred to as the wedge-top, foredeep, forebulge
and back-bulge depozones (depositional zones) which of these depozones a sediment
particle occupies depends on its location at the time of deposition, rather than its ultimate
geometric relationship with the thrust belt;
3. The longitudinal dimension of the foreland basin system is roughly equal to the length of the
fold-thrust belt, and does not include sediment that spills into remnant ocean basins or
continental rifts (impactogens).
Foreland basin systems: depozones[edit]
The wedge-top sits on top of the moving thrust sheets and contains all the sediments charging
from the active tectonic thrust wedge. This is where piggyback basins form.
The foredeep is the thickest sedimentary zone and thickens toward the orogen. Sediments are
deposited via distal fluvial, lacustrine, deltaic, and marine depositional systems.
The forebulge and backbulge are the thinnest and most distal zones and are not always
present. When present, they are defined by regional unconformities as well as aeolian and
shallow-marine deposits.
Sedimentation is most rapid near the moving thrust sheet. Sediment transport within the
foredeep is generally parallel to the strike of the thrust fault and basin axis.
Plate motion and seismicity[edit]
The motion of the adjacent plates of the foreland basin can be determined by studying the
active deformation zone with which it is connected. Today GPS measurements provide the
rate at which one plate is moving relative to another. It is also important to consider that
present day kinematics are unlikely to be the same as when deformation began. Thus, it is
crucial to consider non-GPS models to determine the long-term evolution of continental
collisions and in how it helped develop the adjacent foreland basins.
Comparing both modern GPS (Sella et al. 2002) and non-GPS models allows deformation
rates to be calculated. Comparing these numbers to the geologic regime helps constrain the
number of probable models as well as which model is more geologically accurate within a
specific region.
Seismicity determines where active zones of seismic activity occur as well as measure the
total fault displacements and the timing of the onset of deformation (Allen et al. 2004).
Formation of basins[edit]


Generalized Foreland Basin System Evolution
Foreland basins form because as the mountain belt grows, it exerts a significant mass on the
Earths crust, which causes it to bend, or flex, downwards. This occurs so that the weight of
the mountain belt can be compensated by isostasy at the upflex of the forebulge.
The plate tectonic evolution of a peripheral foreland basin involves three general stages. First,
the passive margin stage with orogenic loading of previously stretched continental margin
during the early stages of convergence. Second, the "early convergnece stage defined by deep
water conditions", and lastly a "later convergent stage during which a subaerial wedge is
flanked with terrestrial or shallow marine foreland basins" (Allen & Allen 2005).
The temperature underneath the orogen is much higher and weakens the lithosphere. Thus,
the thrust belt is mobile and the foreland basin system becomes deformed over time.
Syntectonic unconformities demonstrate simultaneous subsidence and tectonic activity.
Foreland basins are filled with sediments which erode from the adjacent mountain belt. In the
early stages, the foreland basin is said to be underfilled. During this stage, deep water and
commonly marine sediments, known as flysch, are deposited. Eventually, the basin becomes
completely filled. At this point, the basin enters the overfilled stage and deposition of
terrestrial clastic sediments occurs. These are known as molasse. Sediment fill within the
foredeep acts as an additional load on the continental lithosphere.
[citation needed]

Lithospheric behavior[edit]


Moving Load System - Lithospheric flexure over time
Although the degree to which the lithosphere relaxes over time is still controversial, most
workers (Allen & Allen 2005, Flemings & Jordan 1989) accept an elastic or visco-elastic
rheology to describe the lithospheric deformation of the foreland basin. Allen & Allen (2005)
describe a moving load system, one in which the deflection moves as a wave through the
foreland plate before the load system. The deflection shape is commonly described as an
asymmetrical low close to the load along the foreland and a broader uplifted deflection along
the forebulge. The transport rate or flux of erosion, as well as sedimentation, is a function of
topographic relief.
For the loading model, the lithosphere is initially stiff, with the basin broad and shallow.
Relaxation of the lithosphere allows subsidence near the thrust, narrowing of basin, forebulge
toward thrust. During times of thrusting, the lithosphere is stiff and the forebulge broadens.
The timing of the thrust deformation is opposite that of the relaxing of the lithosphere. The
bending of the lithosphere under the orogenic load controls the drainage pattern of the
foreland basin. The flexural tilting of the basin and the sediment supply from the orogen.
Lithospheric strength envelopes[edit]
Strength envelopes indicate that the rheological structure of the lithosphere underneath the
foreland and the orogen are very different. The foreland basin typically shows a thermal and
rheological structure similar to a rifted continental margin with three brittle layers above
three ductile layers. The temperature underneath the orogen is much higher and thus greatly
weakens the lithosphere. According to Zhou et al. (2003), under compressional stress the
lithosphere beneath the mountain range becomes ductile almost entirely, except a thin (about
6 km in the center) brittle layer near the surface and perhaps a thin brittle layer in the
uppermost mantle. This lithospheric weakening underneath the orogenic belt may in part
cause the regional lithospheric flexure behavior.
Thermal history[edit]
Foreland basins are considered to be hypothermal basins (cooler than normal), with low
geothermal gradient and heat flow. Heat flow values average between 1 and 2 HFU (40-90
mWm
2
(Allen & Allen 2005). Rapid subsidence may be responsible for these low values.
Over time sedimentary layers become buried and lose porosity. This can be due to sediment
compaction or the physical or chemical changes, such as pressure or cementation. Thermal
maturation of sediments is a factor of temperature and time and occurs at shallower depths
due to past heat redistribution of migrating brines.
Vitrinite reflectance, which typically demonstrates an exponential evolution of organic matter
as a function of time, is the best organic indicator for thermal maturation. Studies have shown
that present day thermal measurements of heat flow and geothermal gradients closely
correspond to a regimes tectonic origin and development as well as the lithospheric
mechanics (Allen & Allen 2005).
Fluid migration[edit]
Migrating fluids originate from the sediments of the foreland basin and migrate in response to
deformation. As a result, brine can migrate over great distances. Evidence of long-range
migration includes: 1) Correlation of petroleum to distant source rocks 2) Ore bodies
deposited from metal-bearing brines, 3) Anomalous thermal histories for shallow sediments,
4) Regional potassium metasomatism, 5) Epigenetic dolomite cements in ore bodies and deep
aquifers (Bethke & Marshak 1990).
Fluid source[edit]
Fluids carrying heat, minerals, and petroleum, have a vast impact on the tectonic regime
within the foreland basin. Before deformation, sediment layers are porous and full of fluids,
such as water and hydrated minerals. Once these sediments are buried and compacted, the
pores become smaller and some of the fluids, about 1/3, leave the pores. This fluid has to go
somewhere. Within the foreland basin, these fluids potentially can heat and mineralize
materials, as well as mix with the local hydrostatic head.
Major driving force for fluid migration[edit]
Orogen topography is the major driving force of fluid migration. The heat from the lower
crust moves via conduction and groundwater advection. Local hydrothermal areas occur
when deep fluid flow moves very quickly. This can also explain very high temperatures at
shallow depths.
Other minor constraints include tectonic compression, thrusting, and sediment compaction.
These are considered minor because they are limited by the slow rates of tectonic
deformation, lithology and depositional rates, on the order of 010 cm yr
1
, but more likely
closer to 1 or less than 1 cm yr
1
. Overpressured zones might allow for faster migration, when
1 kilometer or more of shaly sediments accumulate per 1 million years (Bethke & Marshak
1990).
Bethke & Marshak (1990) state that groundwater that recharges at high elevation migrates
through the subsurface in response to its high potential energy toward areas where the water
table is lower.
Hydrocarbon migration[edit]
Bethke & Marshak (1990) explain that petroleum migrates not only in response to the
hydrodynamic forces that drive groundwater flow, but to the buoyancy and capillary effects
of the petroleum moving through microscopic pores. Migration patterns flow away from the
orogenic belt and into the cratonic interior. Frequently, natural gas is found closer to the
orogen and oil is found further away (Oliver 1986).