The International Journal of Prosthodontics

414
E
xtension of peoples life span and enhancement of
their quality of life (QOL) are the main goals in
medicine.
1,2
Since dental care for the elderly is be-
coming prevalent, it is important to know whether
tooth loss, general health, and dental treatment have
an impact on the individuals QOL. Little is known
about the relationships between general health, oral
health, and health-related QOL. Recently, it has be-
come clear that oral health in older people is an inte-
gral part of general health that contributes to, and is
influenced by, health-related QOL at the biologic, psy-
chologic, and social levels.
36
Increasingly, QOL as-
sessment is regarded as an essential component for
assessing health care outcomes, including outcomes
for public health programs.
7
Since general health is re-
lated to oral health and general health is related to
QOL, tooth loss could have an impact on quality of life.
Purpose: It is important to know whether tooth loss has an impact on an individuals
quality of life, since tooth loss is common. The aim of this study was to determine
whether oral status is associated with general health and related to quality of life.
Materials and Methods: Data of 1,406 subjects aged 60 to 79 years were taken from
the Study of Health in Pomerania (SHIP). Sociodemographic (age, sex, and education
level) and medical information (including the most common diseases in Germany)
were gathered through an interview, and income data were obtained from a self-ad-
ministered questionnaire. The prosthetic status in the maxilla and mandible was classi-
fied into complete denture or removable partial denture or with 10 natural teeth in-
cluding teeth replaced with fixed prosthodontics ( 10T) or with 9 natural teeth
including fixed prosthodontics ( 9T). The health-related quality of life was measured
using the Short Form (SF-12) questionnaire. Multiple linear logistic regression analyses
were used to identify the nonstandardized beta coefficient using physical and psycho-
logic indices from the SF-12 as dependent variables and sociodemographic informa-
tion, prosthetic status, and disease state as independent variables.
Results: Prosthetic status is related to the physical scale of the SF-12. Additionally, we
found that 9T had a significant effect on the physical index of general healthrelated
quality of life. Conclusion: Reduced dentition without replacement of missing teeth by
removable or fixed prosthodontics reduces the physical index of quality of life to the
same extent as cancer or renal diseases. Int J Prosthodont 2005;18:414419.
a
Assistant Professor, Center of Oral Health, University of Greifswald,
Policlinics of Prosthetic Dentistry, Gerodontology and Biomaterials,
Greifswald, Germany.
b
Assistant Professor, Center of Oral Health, University of Greifswald,
Greifswald, Germany.
c
Professor, Faculty of Dentistry, McGill University, Montreal, Canada.
d
Assistant Professor, Center of Oral Health, Department of
Restorative Dentistry, Pediatric Dentistry and Periodontology,
University of Greifswald, Greifswald, Germany.
e
Professor and Head, Institute of Epidemiology and Social Medicine,
University of Greifswald, Greifswald, Germany.
f
Professor, Center of Oral Health, Department of Periodontology,
University of Greifswald, Greifswald, Germany.
g
Professor and Head, Center of Oral Health, University of Greifswald,
Policlinics of Prosthetic Dentistry, Gerodontology and Biomaterials,
Greifswald, Germany.
Correspondence to: Dr Florian Mack, Center of Oral Health,
University of Greifswald, Policlinics of Prosthetic Dentistry,
Gerodontology and Biomaterials, Rotgerberstr. 8, D-17487 Greifswald,
Germany. Fax:+49-3834-867148. E-mail: [email protected]
The Impact of Tooth Loss on General Health
Related to Quality of Life Among Elderly Pomeranians:
Results from the Study of Health in Pomerania (SHIP-0)
Florian Mack, Dr Med Dent
a
/Christian Schwahn, Dr Rer Nat
b
/Jocelyne S. Feine, DDS, HDR
c
/
Torsten Mundt, Dr Med Dent
a
/Olaf Bernhardt, PD, Dr Med Dent
d
/Ulrich John, Prof Dr Phil
e
/
Thomas Kocher, Prof Dr Med Dent
f
/Reiner Biffar, Prof Dr Med Dent
g
Mack 8/25/05 1:55 PM Page 414
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Mack et al
Volume 18, Number 5, 2005
415
QOL is difficult to define because it is a subjective,
dynamic concept based on an individuals internal
frame of reference, understanding, or perceived life ex-
perience.
8
The current existence and utilization of a
range of instruments that employ different dimensions
and scales to measure QOL for the elderly demon-
strates that there is a lack of consensus about its def-
inition and measurement methodology.
9
In 1995, Wilson and Cleary demonstrated that any or-
ganic dysfunction initiates a chain of negative factors
on general health.
10
General health is guided by func-
tional status and by social and emotional factors.
Therefore, QOL is a product of reported medical fac-
tors as well as nonmedical factors. Validated and
known instruments to describe (general) health-re-
lated QOL are the Sickness Impact Profile
11
and the
Short Form 36 (SF-36).
12
The SF-36 measures the impact of general health
conditions on QOL. It is considered a reliable instru-
ment recommended for use with disease-specific
scales to measure the effects of disease on QOL.
13
Evaluation of the SF-36 provides results that are not re-
lated to oral health.
14
Hence, use of the SF-36 to quan-
tify oral healthrelated QOL is controversial. For in-
stance, Allen et al found no differences between
patients having troubles with complete dentures ver-
sus an implant supported denture when using the SF-
36.
6
However, other studies found differences when
using the Oral Health Impact Profile (OHIP-49), a val-
idated oral healthrelated QOL questionnaire.
1517
To our knowledge there is one published study about
QOL and the ranking of dental or prosthetic status in
relation to general health in an elderly population; it fo-
cused on the QOL of patients treated with implant-sup-
ported dentures.
15
The aim of this study is to determine
whether oral state is associated with general health re-
lated to QOL. The specific hypotheses are: First, pros-
thetic status is not related to QOL (hypothesis 1); sec-
ond, prosthetic status has no greater impact on QOL
than do all other diseases (hypothesis 2).
Materials and Methods
Data Collection
A total of 6,248 subjects aged 20 to 79 years were in-
vited to participate in the Study of Health in Pomerania
(SHIP). The sample had been randomly drawn after
stratification by age and gender from official inhabitant
lists that are representative of the population.
18,19
The
study was undertaken from 1997 to 2001. Overall, 69%
(4,310) gave their consent and were examined. For the
purpose of this study, the data of 1,406 subjects aged
60 to 79 years who agreed to participate were
reviewed. The medical and dental examinations took
place in 2 similarly equipped medical/dental facilities
in the cities of Greifswald and Stralsund, Germany. On
average, each subject required 4 hours to complete all
parts of the SHIP, including the medical and dental ex-
aminations, questionnaires, and interviews.
18,19
The dental component of SHIP contained 1,217 vari-
ables, including a structured interview. The examina-
tions were performed by 5 clinicians (alternating daily)
from the dental school of the University of Greifswald.
In SHIP, all field staff followed a quality control program
mandated for the entire data collection period. The
examiners used a standard examination environment,
standard equipment, and detailed written instructions.
All examiners received formal training in assessing re-
quired measures and indices, both before data collec-
tion and twice a year during data collection. Dental ex-
perts in oral measures and indices served as standards
for training the field examination teams. The protocol
was designed to reduce systematic and random mea-
surement errors.
19
Classification of Subjects
Sociodemographic information (age, sex, and educa-
tional level) and general health of the subjects were
gathered from the medical portion of the SHIP health
questionnaire. The educational level of participants
was classified into 3 categories: low, middle, and high.
Completion of elementary school or a lack of formal
professional education was considered low; com-
pletion of secondary school or technical college was
considered middle; and holding a bachelor degree or
any university degree was considered high. The data
regarding monthly household income were classified
into 22 groups, from less than 400 German marks
(about 200 euros) to 15,000 and greater German marks
(about 7,500 euros).
The following diseases were found to be the most
frequent in Germany
20
: allergies, cancer, chronic bron-
chitis, diabetes, gastrointestinal diseases, cardiovas-
cular disease (ie, heart attack experienced by patient),
hypertension, osteoporosis, renal diseases, rheuma-
tism, and cardiovascular disease (ie, stroke experi-
enced by patient).
The marker used to identify diabetes was hemoglo-
bin A
1C
(HbA
1C
), which was measured by blood analy-
ses.
21
Subjects with a HbA
1C
of 7% were considered
to be diabetic.
The prosthetic status of each subject was classified
into 1 of 4 groups in the mandible and maxilla, based
on masticatory function.
22
Group CD comprised sub-
jects who had a complete denture. Group RPD com-
prised subjects that had a removable partial denture.
Mack 8/25/05 1:55 PM Page 415
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The International Journal of Prosthodontics
416
Impact of Tooth Loss on General Health Among Elderly
Group 10T consisted of subjects with no removable
denture and 10 or more natural teeth, with or without
fixed prosthodontics. Group 9T consisted of subjects
with no removable denture and less than 10 natural
teeth, with or without fixed prosthodontics. Subjects in
group 10T or 9T had, on average, less than 1 pon-
tic in each jaw, so this was considered as a natural
tooth.
Health-related QOL was measured using the vali-
dated German version of the SF-12, a short form of the
SF-36.
23
The SF-12 measures 2 indices with data from
a German norm population: the Physical Index and the
Psychologic Index.
23
Statistical Analyses
For the purpose of our analyses, the estimated house-
hold income was computed to be the midpoint between
the interval limits of the income class to which the
subject belonged. The estimated income followed a
normal distribution according to a P-P plot and was
presented in quartiles. Educational levels and the
prevalence of disease were computed as percentages.
To determine the significance level of the physical
and psychologic scales related to any disease, the non-
parametric Kruskal-Wallis test was used. Hypothesis 1
was tested by the Mann-Whitney test to determine
whether the physical and/or psychologic state were re-
lated to prosthetic status. Hypothesis 2 was tested
using a linear logistic regression analysis.
As dependent variables, the physical and psycho-
logic indices of the SF-12 were measured separately.
The independent continuous variables were age, in-
come, and educational level. The independent di-
chotomous variables were classified as prosthetic sta-
tus, disease state, and gender. All results were checked
for colinearity. Linear logistic regression analyses were
used to identify the nonstandardized coefficient using
the stepwise backward method with a cut-off point of
0.15 for removal and 0.10 for re-entering the variable.
24
The level of significance was set at P < .05.
Results
Among the 1,406 subjects (aged 60 to 79 years) who
participated in the study, 54% (n = 760) were men and
46% (n = 646) were women. Seventy-seven percent
had a low educational level, 15% were middle, and
9% had a high educational level. A total of 1,285
(91%) subjects answered the question related to in-
come, out of which a median of 25% reported an in-
come lower than 1,875 euros, 50% lower than 2,675
euros, 75% lower than 3,250 euros, and 5% more than
4,250 euros.
Allergy (men 55% and women 63%), osteoporosis
(men 49% and women 63%), and hypertension (men
54% and women 58%) were the diseases from which
the largest numbers of subjects suffered (Table 1).
A total of 30% of subjects had CDs in both jaws, fol-
lowed by 17% with 10T in both jaws (17%) and 15%
with RPDs in both jaws or a RPD in the mandible and
a CD in the maxilla (Table 2).
Nonparametric significance tests between diseases
and, contrary to other selected diseases, the SF-12
Physical Index showed that cancer was not signifi-
cantly related to lower scores (P > .05). There was no
significant association between the Psychologic Index
and stroke, cancer, heart attack, and renal diseases.
For hypothesis 1, a significant association between
prosthetic status and the physical scale of the SF-12 (P
< .05) was found, but no significant association was
found between prosthetic status and the Psychologic
Index (P > .05).
Table 1 Frequencies (%) of Disease and Prosthetic
Status Among Subjects 60 to 79 Years of Age, by Gender
Men Women P
Allergy 55.1 63.3 NS
Cancer 4.4 1.4 .001
Chronic bronchitis 10.5 8.3 NS
Diabetes 9.7 11.1 NS
Gastrointestinal diseases 9.4 11.5 NS
Heart attack 12.5 3.4 < .001
Hypertension 54.2 58.0 NS
Osteoporosis 48.6 63.1 < .001
Renal diseases 28.5 14.3 < .001
Rheumatism 37.2 53.1 < .001
Stroke 7.9 3.4 < .001
Vertebral degeneration 47.6 51.4 .001
Dental factors
Maxilla 10 teeth 19.8 19.4 NS
Maxilla RPD 27.2 26.1 NS
Maxilla CD 49.0 50.8 NS
Maxilla 9 teeth 4.0 3.8 NS
Mandible 10 teeth 29.4 25.2 < .05
Mandible RPD 31.6 34.7 NS
Mandible CD 31.2 32.8 NS
Mandible 9 teeth 7.8 7.3 NS
NS = not significant (P > .05). RPD = removable partial denture; CD =
compelte denture.
Table 2 Relationship of Prosthetic Status (%) in
Maxilla and Mandible
Maxilla
Mandible 9T CD RPD 10T
9T 1 2 3 1
CD < 1 30 2 < 1
RPD < 1 15 15 2
10T 2 2 7 17
9T = having 9 teeth or less; CD = having a complete denture; RPD
= having a removable partial denture; 10T = having 10 or more
teeth.
Mack 8/25/05 1:55 PM Page 416
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Volume 18, Number 5, 2005
417
Data analyses for hypothesis 2 revealed that pros-
thetic status had no significant effect, independent of
any disease, on the psychologic index QOL. However,
age, income, high educational level, gender, disease
state, and always having 9T in the maxilla were sig-
nificantly associated with the Physical Index. The re-
gression analysis with stroke as an independent vari-
able for a disease is presented in Table 3 to serve as
an example of regression analyses for all diseases.
The intercept of the nonstandardized coefficient
shows the mean value of QOL over the total sample.
Positive values for other independent variables indicate
an increase in QOL, whereas variables with negative
values indicate a decrease in QOL. All linear regression
analyses for each given disease are shown in Fig 1. Due
to the presence of 9T in the maxilla in all final mod-
els, the nonstandardized coefficient was reported as
a mean. Osteoporosis was associated with the worst
increase in the physical index in QOL. The impact of
having 9T fell between the impact of renal disease
and cancer.
Discussion
The survey sample used in this study was representa-
tive of the population within the study region of
Pomerania.
18,19
The population of Pomerania is largely
Caucasian, lives in rural areas, and has a historical
background that predates the reunification of East
and West Germany. Because older populations are
known to have a decreased QOL
4
and frequently suf-
fer from multimorbidity, with changes in their dental
status,
22
they were selected for this study. The use of
well-defined clinical criteria and the repeated calibra-
tion of the examiners proved effective, with minimal
variability, as illustrated by the Kappa values and in-
terexaminer correlation.
21
The prosthetic status of the maxilla and mandible
was shown to be significantly associated.
22
Attributable
to the German health insurance system, there are few
people who remain untreated or have 9 or fewer teeth
in 1 jaw, because dental checkups are required at
least once a year.
Edentulism or tooth loss is known to reduce QOL, as
has been reported in many studies.
4,2528
In addition,
several studies have compared characteristics of eden-
tulous subjects treated with CDs or implant-supported
dentures.
6,16,26,2931
However, none of the previous
studies demonstrated a correlation between oral sta-
tus and general health and/or specific disease state.
To our knowledge, this is the first study in which a rank-
ing of dental/prosthetic status is compared with the im-
pact of different diseases on QOL. There is no doubt
that osteoporosis, rheumatism, and vertebral degen-
eration have a negative effect on the Physical Index in
QOL. However, the presence of few remaining teeth (9
or fewer) was also found to negatively affect this out-
come.
Because the use of bivariate analysis to screen risk
factors for use in multivariable analysis is controver-
sial,
24
we included cancer in our regression analyses,
because cancer is validated in the German version of
the SF-36.
23
We did not expect that the QOL of people
with cancer would be better than subjects with 9 or
fewer teeth. It is possible that at the time of examina-
tion in SHIP our patients suffering from cancer were not
currently undergoing chemotherapy or radiotherapy,
had no restrictions in their physical movements, and
were undertaking surgery that could improve their QOL.
Patients suffering from allergy and hypertension are
easily treated with medication, or they might change
their lifestyles to prevent allergic reactions or to keep
their blood pressure low, so they are able to maintain
a good QOL. The same could be said for patients with
a reduced dentition without dentures. They may have
adapted well to chew and speak. This could explain
why the Psychological Index of the SF-12 was not in-
fluenced by a low number of remaining teeth. Tooth
loss appears to be more of a physical handicap than a
psychologic one. Tooth loss in the maxilla is more
strongly associated with reduced QOL than the
mandible.
36
Preserving teeth in the maxilla allows
people to communicate, which means that they can
take part in social life.
36
Participation in social life
may be limited due to the reduced masticatory func-
tion, but these older people were able to take part.
Tooth loss in the mandible has no effect on speaking
and has no negative esthetic effects.
36
In Germany, the presence of 9 or fewer teeth in the
maxilla is ranked on the physical index of QOL between
renal diseases and cancer. This study shows that os-
Table 3 Example of a Final Linear Regression Analysis
Using Physical Index as the Dependent Variable and
Stroke for Disease as an Independent Variable
Colinearity
* P factor
Intercept 52.69 < .000
Age 0.17 0.31 < .000 1.33
Income 0.28 0.05 .001 1.16
Educational level high 1.45 0.11 < .000 1.48
Gender 1.21 0.07 < .000 1.02
9 teeth in maxilla 2.25 0.45 .002 1.02
Stroke 3.98 0.07 < .000 1.03
Nagel-Kerke R
2
= 0.17.
* = nonstandardized regression coefficient; = standardized regres-
sion coefficient.
Positive values indicate an increase in QOL, whereas negative values
indicate a decrease in QOL.
Mack 8/25/05 1:55 PM Page 417
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The International Journal of Prosthodontics
418
Impact of Tooth Loss on General Health Among Elderly
teoporosis, rheumatism, and vertebral degeneration
have twice the negative effect on the Physical Index of
QOL when compared to a dentition of 9 or fewer teeth
(Fig 1). In our opinion, this is a meaningful result for the
fields of dentistry and medicine, since it highlights the
importance of dental status in general health among
the elderly.
Replacing teeth with removable partial or fixed pros-
theses does not appear to have a significant effect on
the psychologic and physical indices of the SF-12. The
2 prosthetic classifications of removable partial (RPD)
and fixed prostheses were not included in the final
model for regression analyses. What is important is
whether or not subjects have missing teeth replaced.
Tooth loss without replacement was associated with a
decrease in QOL. On the other hand, we hypothesize
that the replacement of missing teeth could increase
QOL. However, the SF-12 is a generic questionnaire
and is not powerful enough, since it does not reflect
oral healthrelated QOL, as do the Oral Health Impact
Profile (OHIP) and the General Oral Health Assessment
Index (GOHAI). The 5-year follow-up of SHIP will in-
clude analyses of OHIP 14.
6,8,15,17,26
In summary, QOL in both general and oral health is
related to prosthetic status, especially the prosthetic
status of the maxilla. In comparison with different dis-
ease states, the presence of nine or fewer remaining
teeth has a greater impact on reducing QOL than suf-
fering from cancer, hypertension, or allergy. Osteo-
porosis, rheumatism, and vertebral degeneration had
the greatest negative impact on QOL.
Acknowledgment
This study is part of the Community Medicine Research net of the
University of Greifswald, Germany, which is funded by the Federal
Ministry of Education and Research (grant no. BMBF 01ZZ96030),
the Ministry of Cultural Affairs, and the Social Ministry of the Federal
State of Mecklenburg-West Pomerania. The CMR gathers several re-
search projects that are sharing data on the population-based Study
of Health in Pomerania (SHIP; http://www.medizin.uni-greif-
swald.de/cm). This study was also funded by the German Research
Association (grant no. DFG Ko 799/5-1).
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Literature Abstract
Chlorhexidine spray versus mouthwash in the control of dental plaque after
implant surgery
The aim of this study was to test the difference in efficacy between chlorhexidine mouthrinse and
spray. Twenty patients (35 to 68 years of age) in need of implants to restore partially dentate maxilla
or mandible were enrolled in the study. Exclusion criteria included: (1) severe systemic disease; (2)
chronic diseases requiring antibiotic therapy; (3) smokers consuming more that 10 cigarettes a day;
(4) parafunctional habits; (5) need for bone augmentation at proposed implant site; (6) known
allergy to chlorhexidine. Patients were randomly assigned to either the spray or mouthwash groups
using a computer generated 1:1 randomization list. A baseline prophylaxis was performed on all
patients prior to implant placement. One to 5 implants were placed in each patient to total 45
implants (21 implants in the mouthwash group and 24 in the spray group). For 2 weeks following
implant placement, patients in the mouthwash group were instructed to rinse with 15 mL of 0.12%
chlorehexidine mouthwash twice daily for at least 1 minute. The patients in the spray group were
instructed to administer 4 consecutive sprays of 0.2% chlorhexidine to the surgical site twice daily.
Antibiotics were given for 2 days as part of postsurgical therapy. The following were evaluated at 7
days and 14 days postsurgery: (1) plaque index of Silness and Loe; (2) stain index; (3) modified
gingival index; (4) taste alteration. The difference between groups was analyzed using the non-
parametric Mann-Whitney test, and the Wilcoxon test was used to evaluate the differences between
the 7- and 14-day observations. Results show that the plaque index increased for both groups,
although no significant difference was noted. The mouthrinse group showed a significant increase in
the stain index among all teeth as opposed to the spray group. This study shows that the efficacy of
the spray chlorhexidine is comparable to the mouthrinse with the added advantage of minimizing
generalized tooth staining.
Francetti L, Del Fabbro M, Basso M, Testori T, Taschieri S, Weinstein R. J Clin Periodontol 2004;31:857862.
References: 35. Reprints: Dr Luca Francetti, Department of Odontology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Milano
Istituto Ortopedico, R Galeazzi, Via Riccardo, Galeazzi, 4, 20161 Milano, Italy. E-mail: [email protected]
Esquivel-Upshaw, San Antonio, TX
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