Cesarean delivery: Technique

Author
Vincenzo Berghella, MD
Section Editor
Charles J Lockwood, MD, MHCM
Deputy Editor
Vanessa A Barss, MD
Disclosures: Vincenzo Berghella, MD Nothing to disclose. Charles J Lockwood, MD, MHCM Nothing to
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Abbvie.
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Literature review current through: Jul 2014. | This topic last updated: Aug 11, 2014.
INTRODUCTION As with most surgical procedures, there is no standard technique for
cesarean delivery. The following discussion will review each step in the procedure and provide
evidence-based recommendations for surgical technique, when these data are available.
OPENING THE ABDOMEN The advantages and disadvantages of various incisions and the
procedure for opening the abdomen from skin to peritoneum are generally the same as for
gynecologic procedures. (See "Incisions for open abdominal surgery".)
Skin incision
Transverse or vertical For most patients, we prefer a transverse incision since it is
associated with less postoperative pain, greater wound strength, and better cosmetic results than
the vertical midline incision (see "Incisions for open abdominal surgery"). Two common
transverse incisions for cesarean delivery are the Pfannenstiel type and the Joel-Cohen type
incisions. The Pfannenstiel skin incision is slightly curved, 2 to 3 cm above the symphysis pubis,
with the midportion of the incision within the shaved area of the pubic hair; the Joel-Cohen
incision is straight, 3 cm below the line that joins the anterior superior iliac spines, and slightly
more cephalad than Pfannenstiel [1].
In meta-analyses of randomized trials of surgical incisions for cesarean delivery, the Joel-
Cohen type incision had significant short-term advantages compared with the Pfannenstiel
incision, including lower rates of fever, pain, and use of analgesia; less blood loss; and
shorter operating time (overall and incision-to-delivery) and hospital stay [2,3]. In two trials
(411 women) that compared the Joel-Cohen incision with the Pfannenstiel incision, the Joel-
Cohen incision resulted in a 65 percent reduction in reported postoperative febrile morbidity
(RR 0.35, 95% CI 0.14-0.87); one trial reported reduced postoperative analgesic
requirements (RR 0.55, 95% CI 0.40-0.76), operating time (mean difference [MD] -11.40,
95% CI -16.55 to -6.25 minutes), delivery time (MD -1.90, 95% CI -2.53 to -1.27 minutes),
total dose of analgesia in the first 24 hours (MD -0.89, 95% CI -1.19 to -0.59), estimated
blood loss (MD -58.00, 95% CI -108.51 to -7.49 mL), postoperative hospital stay for the
mother (MD -1.50, 95% CI -2.16 to -0.84 days), and increased time to the first dose of
analgesia (MD 0.80, 95% CI 0.12 to 1.48 hours) [2]. No other significant differences were
found in either trial.
We rarely perform a vertical incision. We use a vertical incision when we believe it will be faster
and the incision-to-delivery time is critical, as well as when we believe a transverse incision may
not provide adequate exposure or may be too prone to hematoma formation. Vertical incisions
generally allow faster abdominal entry [4], cause less bleeding and nerve injury, and can be
easily extended cephalad if more space is required for access.
Randomized trials have not evaluated outcomes related to the choice of skin incision
separately from other aspects of cesarean delivery. A prospective cohort study including
over 3500 emergency cesarean deliveries confirmed that median incision to delivery
intervals were faster for vertical than transverse skin incisions (three versus four minutes for
primary cesareans and three and five minutes for repeat cesareans) [4]. However, neonatal
outcomes were not improved and some maternal and neonatal outcomes were worse in the
vertical incision group (eg, need for postpartum maternal transfusion [8.5 versus 5.3
percent], neonatal intubation in the delivery room [17 versus 13 percent]); this was attributed
to unidentified confounders.
Scalpel or electrocautery At all stages of the cesarean procedure, we prefer using the
scalpel for sharp dissection, rather than an electrocautery device. There are no randomized trials
comparing scalpel to electrocautery during cesarean delivery. The bulk of evidence from
observational studies shows that neither scalpel nor electrosurgery holds a significant benefit
over the other; either approach is acceptable. Of note, it probably isn't necessary to change to a
fresh scalpel blade after opening the abdomen [5]. (See"Incisions for open abdominal surgery",
section on 'Skin incision'.)
Size The size of the abdominal skin incision needs to be adequate for easy delivery of the
fetus. While there are no trials on this technical aspect of cesarean delivery, a 15 cm long incision
(the size of a standard Allis clamp) is probably the minimal length that allows atraumatic and
expeditious delivery of the term fetus [1].
Subcutaneous tissue layer There are no randomized trials comparing techniques for incision
and dissection of the subcutaneous tissues at cesarean delivery. We prefer blunt dissection (with
fingers) to sharp dissection (with the knife), as blunt dissection has been associated with shorter
operative times and less chance of injury to vessels [6,7].
Fascial layer There are no randomized trials comparing different techniques of opening the
fascia at cesarean delivery. A small transverse incision is usually made medially with the scalpel,
and then extended laterally with scissors. Alternatively, the fascial incision can be extended
bluntly by inserting the fingers of each hand under the fascia and then pulling in a cephalad-
caudad direction, sometimes referred to as part of the Joel-Cohen or Misgav-Ladach techniques
(see 'Alternative techniques' below) [1,6].
Rectus muscle layer Rectus muscles can be separated bluntly in most cases, avoiding
transection of muscles preserves muscle strength [8-10].
Dissection of the rectus fascia from the rectus sheath and muscles seems to be unnecessary
[6,7,11]. In one small randomized trial, nondissection resulted in higher postoperative hemoglobin
levels and less pain [12].
Opening the peritoneum We, and others [6,7,11], favor using the fingers to bluntly open the
peritoneum to minimize the risk of inadvertent injury to bowel, bladder, or other organs that may
be adherent to the underlying surface. However, a sharp technique is also acceptable. In a large
randomized trial (CORONIS) that examined five elements of the cesarean delivery technique in
intervention pairs, there was no significant difference between blunt and sharp technique for the
primary outcome composite of death, maternal infectious morbidity, further operative procedures,
or blood transfusion (>1 unit) [13].
An extraperitoneal approach is another option. Most obstetricians are not familiar with this
technique since it was used primarily in the pre-antibiotic era to decrease the risk of
intraperitoneal infection. It requires a detailed knowledge of the relationship between the fascial
planes and the bladder and lower uterine segment. Theoretically, avoiding exposure of the
peritoneal cavity to blood, amniotic fluid, vernix, and mechanical irritation can potentially reduce
nausea and vomiting, postoperative pain, voiding disturbances, and other side effects and
complications of cesarean. A small randomized trial comparing the transperitoneal and
extraperitoneal techniques found that the latter resulted in less intraoperative nausea and
vomiting and less postoperative pain [14].
Dense intraperitoneal adhesions If there are dense adhesions between the anterior
abdominal wall and the anterior surface of the uterus, we enter the peritoneum bluntly and as
close as possible to the upper abdomen to avoid areas of dense scar tissue in the lower
abdomen (pelvis). Sharp dissection also may be needed, and should be done cautiously using
shallow incisions under direct vision. If pelvic adhesions require extensive dissection with risk of
injury to the bowel, urinary tract, or major blood vessels in order to expose the lower uterine
segment, and the patient desires tubal ligation, we avoid or minimize adhesiolysis and perform
the hysterotomy in the most appropriate accessible location. A case report in which the entire
length of the ventral aspect of the uterus and bladder was densely adherent to the rectus sheath
described extending the vertical incision above the level of the adhesions and then entering the
uterine cavity through an incision across the fundus [15].
Another option is a paravesical or supravesical extraperitoneal approach [16]. In experienced
hands, it may provide a means of avoiding dense midline adhesions.
A surgeon experienced in complex abdominal surgery should be present if meticulous dissection
of dense adhesions involving important structures is needed. Insertion of ureteral stents can be
useful to facilitate intraoperative identification (and avoidance) of the ureters.
Assuring adequate exposure The full thickness abdominal incision should be adequate to
allow delivery of the fetus. The surgeon and an assistant together can manually stretch apart the
opening at the angles of the incisions, but additional sharp dissection may be necessary.
Issues in obese women Cesarean delivery of the morbidly obese woman is reviewed
separately. (See "Cesarean delivery of the obese woman" and "The impact of obesity on female
fertility and pregnancy".)
INTRAABDOMINAL PROCEDURES
Bladder flap We do not routinely create a bladder flap. In two trials that randomly assigned
women to undergo or not undergo development of a bladder flap, omitting this procedure reduced
the incision-to-delivery interval by an average of one to two minutes and was not associated with
an increase in adverse short-term outcomes [17,18]. However, available data are inadequate to
definitively assess morbidity such as bladder injury and adhesion formation or the long-term
consequences of not creating a bladder flap.
Some obstetricians choose to selectively perform a bladder flap if a difficult delivery is anticipated,
such as when the fetal head is deep in the pelvis or when the bladder is attached well above the
lower uterine segment after a previous cesarean delivery. In these cases, creation of the bladder
flap may help to keep the bladder dome out of the surgical field if the uterine incision extends.
The location of the bladder is best delineated by palpating the catheter, if present. The
demarcation between the lower and upper uterine segments is difficult to make clinically,
sonographically, or histologically. The location or level of the demarcation also changes based on
the clinical situation. In some patients, such as those who are not in labor, it may not be possible
to make an incision in the lower uterine segment without first creating a bladder flap.
Hysterotomy Prior to making a hysterotomy incision, the surgeon should be aware of the
general location of the placenta and the fetal lie. Leopold maneuvers or ultrasound can be used
to obtain this information, which helps avoid lacerating the placenta and in delivery of the fetus. If
labor has been prolonged and the head is deep in the pelvis, the lower uterine segment may be
very thin and retracted superiorly. In these cases, it is important to avoid making the incision too
inferiorly as it may transect the cervix or vagina.
The uterine incision may be transverse or vertical; no randomized trials have compared the two
techniques. The type of incision depends upon several factors, including the position and size of
the fetus, location of the placenta, presence of leiomyomas, and development of the lower uterine
segment. The principal consideration is that the incision must be large enough to allow atraumatic
delivery of the fetus.
Transverse incision For most cesarean deliveries, we recommend using a transverse
incision along the lower uterine segment (ie, Monroe-Kerr or Kerr incision). Compared with
vertical incisions, advantages of the transverse incision include less blood loss, less need for
bladder dissection, easier reapproximation, and a lower risk of rupture in subsequent pregnancies
[1].
The major disadvantage of the transverse incision is that significant lateral extension is not
possible without risking laceration of major blood vessels. A "J" or inverted "T" extension is often
required if a larger incision is needed. This can be problematic because the "J" extension goes
into the lateral fundus and the angles of the inverted "T" incision are poorly vascularized, both of
which potentially result in a weaker uterine scar.
Low vertical and classical incisions There are two types of vertical incisions, the low vertical
(Kronig, De Lee, or Cornell) and the classical vertical. The low vertical is performed in the lower
uterine segment and appears to be as strong as the low transverse incision [19]. The major
disadvantage of the low vertical incision is the possibility of extension cephalad into the uterine
fundus or caudally into the bladder, cervix, or vagina. It is also difficult to determine that the low
vertical incision is truly low, as the separation between lower and upper uterine segments is not
easily identifiable clinically.
A vertical incision that extends into the upper uterine segment/fundus is termed a "classical"
incision. This incision is rarely performed at or near term because in subsequent pregnancies it is
associated with a higher frequency of uterine dehiscence/rupture (4 to 9 percent) compared with
low vertical (1 to 7 percent) and low transverse (0.2 to 1.5 percent) incisions; it is also associated
with more maternal morbidity [20,21]. Whether a vertical incision is confined to the lower,
noncontractile portion of the myometrium (low vertical) or extends into the upper contractile
portion of the myometrium (classical) is a subjective assessment; an objective method for
differentiating between the two types of uterine incisions has not been determined. (See "Uterine
dehiscence and rupture after previous cesarean delivery".)
The generally accepted indications for considering a vertical uterine incision are:
Poorly developed lower uterine segment in a setting in which more than normal
intrauterine manipulation is anticipated (eg, extremely preterm breech presentation, back
down transverse lie)
Lower uterine segment pathology that precludes a transverse incision (eg, large
leiomyoma, anterior placenta previa or accreta)
Densely adherent bladder
Postmortem delivery
Bandl's ring A constriction ring of the uterus, called Bandl's ring, is a rare complication of
labor. The constriction forms between the upper contractile portion of the uterus and the lower
uterine segment, and often leads to cesarean delivery because of dystocia. It may occur between
delivery of the first and second twin. At laparotomy, a transverse thickened muscular band can be
observed separating the upper and lower segments of the uterus. There is sparse information on
the best management of Bandl's ring noted at cesarean delivery. Its presence is not an absolute
indication for a vertical uterine incision, as transecting the ring may or may not allow easy delivery
of the fetus. Intravascular injection of nitroglycerin (50 to 200 mcg) can be administered to relax
the uterus if the fetus is difficult to extract [22-24].
Procedure A scalpel is used to perform the initial part of the hysterotomy. Various techniques
are employed to minimize the risk of fetal injury during the myometrial incision. All involve
elevating and carefully thinning the inner myometrial and decidual layers to minimize bleeding,
maximize exposure, and promote separation of the uterine tissue from the fetal membranes or
skin.
One technique is to apply Allis clamps to the superior and inferior edges of the myometrial
incision and elevate them. Another is to remove the suction tip and directly apply the end of the
suction tubing to the center of the myometrial incision to balloon-out and thin-out this layer while
providing easily identifiable, relatively blood-free exposure. If possible, membranes are left intact
until complete extension of the incision [25]. A third option is to use a surgical device specifically
designed to reduce the risk of lacerating the fetus at hysterotomy (eg, C-safe).
When entry into the uterine cavity is achieved, the hysterotomy incision can be extended using
bandage scissors or blunt expansion with the surgeon's fingers. In a systematic review/meta-
analysis of four small randomized trials of blunt versus sharp hysterotomy, blunt expansion
tended to result in a lower drop in mean postpartum hematocrit and a lower incidence of
unintended extension, but the differences were not statistically significant; more and larger trials
are needed to determine whether there is a true difference in outcome [26]. We suggest blunt
expansion because it is fast and has less risk of inadvertent trauma to the fetus, and it may
reduce blood loss and extension of the incision. Extending the uterine incision transversely by
pulling vertically (cephalocaudal) with the index fingers reduces the risk of unintended extension
and excessive blood loss [11,27].
In four trials, the use of absorbable staples for extension of the hysterotomy and later closure was
associated with a slightly longer time to deliver the baby and no benefits in maternal or perinatal
outcomes compared with the traditional method [28]. This technique should be reserved for rare
indications (eg, ex utero intrapartum treatment [EXIT] procedure).
Fetal extraction Most studies, but not all [29,30], have reported a direct association between
a prolonged uterine incision-to-delivery time and lower fetal blood gas pH values and Apgar
scores, regardless of type of anesthesia [31]. The mechanism is thought to be hysterotomy
induced increased uterine tone, which can interfere with uteroplacental blood flow. Thus, careful
attention to the duration of this interval by the surgeon is important, especially in a fetus with a
nonreassuring fetal heart rate assessment prior to the onset of surgery.
Extraction of the fetus at cesarean is usually uncomplicated. For fetuses in cephalic presentation,
the obstetrician usually inserts his/her dominant hand through the hysterotomy incision and
around the top of the fetal head. Standing on a stool may be helpful. Using the fingers and palm,
the head is gently elevated and flexed to bring the occiput into the open hysterotomy, and then it
is guided through the incision, aided by modest transabdominal fundal pressure from the other
hand or an assistant, as needed (figure 1). The shoulders are then delivered using gentle traction
to guide one, and then the other, through the hysterotomy, using fundal pressure as needed; the
rest of the body should follow easily. The key to this procedure is getting the fingers around the
curvature of the head for leverage and lifting without overly flexing the wrist and using the lower
uterine segment as a fulcrum, which, if done improperly, can lead to extensions of the
hysterotomy incision.
Difficult fetal extraction Extreme prematurity, a deeply impacted or floating fetal head, or an
abnormal lie can make fetal extraction difficult. The approach to difficult fetal extraction is
reviewed separately.
(See "Fetal extraction at cesarean delivery".)
Cord clamping and infant assessment Delayed, rather than immediate, cord clamping
results in greater neonatal hemoglobin levels and appears to be beneficial for preterm, and some
term, infants. The health benefits of delayed cord clamping (eg, slight increase in hemoglobin) of
term infants in developed countries may not be as clinically meaningful as in developing
countries, and need to be balanced with the increased need for phototherapy for jaundice with
delayed clamping. (See "Management of normal labor and delivery", section on 'Cord
clamping' and "Management of normal labor and delivery", section on 'Cord blood'.)
An appropriately trained clinician should be present to care for the infant [32]. The degree of
training depends upon the presence and type of risk factors for neonatal complications.
(See "Overview of the routine management of the healthy newborn infant".)
Antibiotic prophylaxis Antibiotic prophylaxis used to be administered after cord clamping to
prevent interference with neonatal cultures, but antibiotics are now administered to the mother
preoperatively. (See "Cesarean delivery: Preoperative issues", section on 'Antibiotic prophylaxis'.)
Placental extraction Spontaneous extraction (gentle traction on the cord and use
of oxytocin to enhance uterine contractile expulsive efforts) should be performed, instead of
manual extraction, because several randomized trials have shown that manual extraction results
in more postoperative endometritis (RR 1.64, 95% CI 1.42-1.90), greater blood loss (weighted
mean difference 94 mL, 95% CI 17- 172 mL), more women with blood loss over 1000 mL (RR
1.81, 95% CI 1.11-2.28), and lower postpartum hematocrit [33]. There is no need to change
gloves before removal of the placenta [34].
To ensure that all of the placenta has been removed, the uterus is usually explored with one hand
holding a sponge to remove any remaining membranes or placental tissue, while the other hand
is placed on the fundus to stabilize the uterus. These manipulations further stimulate uterine
contraction.
Draining the placenta passively or actively prior to extraction appears to result in less
fetomaternal transfusion, but data are limited to a small trial [35]. We do not drain the placenta.
Prevention of postpartum hemorrhage As soon as the placenta is delivered, the uterus is
massaged to promote contraction, which is the main mechanism for reduction of uterine
bleeding. Oxytocin is administered intravenously to promote uterine contraction and involution.
(See "Anesthesia for cesarean delivery", section on 'Prophylaxis against postpartum
hemorrhage'.)
PROCEDURES DURING CLOSURE When possible, a blunt needle should be used to
decrease the risk of needle stick injuries, and associated morbidity [36].
Exteriorizing the uterus We, and many others, exteriorize the uterus to improve exposure
and facilitate closure of the hysterotomy. A 2009 meta-analysis of randomized trials of
extraabdominal (exteriorized) versus intraabdominal (in situ) repair found no differences in
complications between extraabdominal and intraabdominal uterine repair at cesarean delivery
and concluded both techniques were valid surgical options [37]. Although complication rates are
similar, exteriorization has been associated with shorter operating time [38] and more
intraoperative postdelivery nausea and vomiting (38 versus 18 percent) [39].
Therefore, the surgeon should choose the technique based on individual clinical circumstances
and personal preference.
Uterine closure Routine manual/instrumental cervical dilatation before closing the uterus in
cesarean delivery is unnecessary in both laboring and nonlaboring women. Controlled studies
have reported that this practice does not improve postoperative hemoglobin levels or reduce the
incidence of fever or wound infection [40].
Suture For closure of the uterine incision, a large randomized trial (CORONIS) did not find
statistically significant differences in maternal outcome based on choice of suture material (eg,
chromic catgut versus delayed absorbable synthetic [eg, polyglactin 910, poliglecaprone 25]) [13].
There are no high quality data to guide choice of technique (eg, continuous [locked or nonlocked]
versus interrupted) [41]. A 0-delayed absorbable synthetic monofilament (eg, Monocryl) or
braided (eg, Vicryl) suture is commonly used in the United States. A new type of suture, barbed
suture, has been used successfully for knotless closure of myomectomy incisions [42,43] and
skin closure of the Pfannenstiel incision during cesarean delivery [44].
Myometrial closure When performing uterine closure, we usually perform a two-layer,
continuous closure with delayed absorbable synthetic suture incorporating all of the muscle in
order to avoid bleeding from the incision edges. We do not use locking sutures unless arterial
bleeding is evident.
The endometrial layer should probably be included in the full thickness myometrial closure. This
opinion is based on a randomized trial that assigned 78 term pregnant patients delivered by
cesarean to one layer myometrial closure either including or excluding the endometrial layer [45].
The frequency of a wedge-type healing defect by ultrasound six weeks postpartum was
significantly lower in the group treated by full thickness suturing (45 versus 69 percent).
Outcomes in subsequent pregnancies were not evaluated, so the clinical significance of this
finding is unknown.
Use of blunt tip needles during closure is associated with similar maternal outcomes as use of
sharp needles, but is safer for the surgeon (glove perforation rate 7.2 versus 17.5 percent with
sharp needles [46]) [46,47]. However, in some studies physicians were less satisfied with the
performance of blunt needles [46].
Single versus double layer closure A low transverse uterine incision can be closed in a
single layer to decrease operating time; however, there is conflicting evidence regarding the long-
term safety of this approach. We generally perform a two-layer rather than a single-layer uterine
closure, even though data favoring this opinion are inconclusive. We perform a single-layer
closure when we perform a tubal ligation at the time of cesarean. Given the available data (see
below), either a one layer or two layer closure technique is within acceptable standards of
medical practice. If a single layer closure is performed, we suggest an unlocked technique. A
double (or even triple) layer closure may be necessary when the myometrium is thick, such as
with a classical and some low vertical incisions.
In the short-term, a large randomized trial (CAESAR) of women undergoing their first cesarean
delivery found no difference between those who underwent single versus double layer uterine
closure in the rate of infectious morbidity, severity of postpartum pain, or need for blood
transfusion [48]. Another large randomized trial (CORONIS) of cesarean delivery techniques also
found no difference in short-term outcomes between the two techniques [13].
In the long-term, however, concerns have been raised that patients who undergo a single layer
closure may be at increased risk of uterine rupture during the next pregnancy compared with
those who undergo a two-layer closure [49-51]. This concern was addressed by a systematic
review of studies (6 cohort, 2 case-control, 1 randomized trial; 5810 women) that compared the
risk of uterine rupture during a trial of labor (TOL) after single versus double layer closure of a first
cesarean delivery [52]. Uterine rupture was defined as complete scar separation necessitating an
emergency intervention. The risk of uterine rupture during TOL after a single layer closure was
not statistically different from that after a double-layer closure (OR 1.71, 95% CI 0.66-4.44).
However, the technique used for the single layer closure appeared to be an important factor. A
locked single layer closure was associated with a significantly greater risk of rupture than a
double layer closure (OR 4.96, 95% CI 2.58-9.52), while an unlocked single layer closure did not
increase the risk of rupture (OR 0.49, 95% CI 0.21-1.16).
The risk of uterine rupture after single versus double layer uterine closure warrants further study
in a well-designed randomized trial, given the limitations of the studies in this meta-analysis. Most
of the studies were retrospective, no study directly compared outcomes of locked versus
unlocked single layer closure, ascertainment of the technique for single layer closure was based
on usual practice at the study site rather than documentation in patient records, and the type of
suture material was not considered.
Uterine rupture-dehiscence is the major long-term outcome of single versus double layer closure
that has been studied. There is a paucity of data on other long-term outcomes. A secondary
analysis of data from a prospective study of women undergoing repeat cesarean delivery
observed an increased risk of bladder adhesions in women who had undergone single layer
closure [53]. Further study of possible adverse consequences of single layer closure is warranted.
Closure of a classical incision There are no trials comparing techniques for closure of the
thick myometrium of the fundus. We use continuous sutures to close the inner myometrial layer;
others prefer interrupted sutures, including interrupted vertical figure of eight sutures. It is useful
to have an assistant manually reapproximate the incision by pushing the myometrium on each
side toward the midline as each suture is placed and tied. This reduces tension on the incision
and helps prevent the suture from tearing through the myometrium, especially when closing the
first layer. A second layer is used to close the mid-portion of the thick myometrial layer, leaving
about 1 cm of outer myometrium still open. We then close the serosa and outer layer using a
baseball stitch, which is hemostatic and minimizes exposed raw surfaces, and thus may reduce
adhesions.
Abdominal irrigation Intraabdominal irrigation after closure of the uterus does not reduce
maternal infectious morbidity beyond the reduction achieved with prophylactic intravenous
antibiotics alone [54,55]. In one trial, irrigation significantly increased intraoperative nausea, and
did not result in any benefits (no reduction in estimated blood loss, operating time, intrapartum
complications, hospital stay, return of gastrointestinal function, or infectious complications) [55].
Adhesion barriers Formation of adhesions is common after cesarean delivery; rates from 11
to 70 percent have been reported [56]. The rate of bowel obstruction after cesarean delivery is
much lower, ranging from 0.5 to 9 per 1000 cesarean deliveries, with the highest risk in women
who have undergone multiple cesarean deliveries [56-58].
There are no randomized trials evaluating the effectiveness of adhesion barriers in this
procedure. One group estimated that women increase their risk of small bowel obstruction by 0.1
percent by undergoing cesarean delivery and that adhesion barriers may mitigate this risk by 50
percent [59]. Based on these assumptions, 2000 women would need to have an adhesion barrier
placed at cesarean delivery to avoid one bowel obstruction and the cost per small bowel
obstruction averted would be several hundred thousand dollars. Available evidence does not
support the routine use of adhesion barriers in women undergoing cesarean delivery [60].
Peritoneum We do not close the visceral or parietal peritoneum. In most randomized trials,
peritoneal nonclosure decreased operative time [61-64], and had a similar rate of maternal
infectious morbidity as closure [13,48].
The effect of nonclosure on adhesion formation is less clear because of the small number of
patients who have undergone follow-up at a second cesarean delivery. Nonclosure might allow
the enlarged uterus to adhere to the anterior abdominal wall or impede spontaneous closure of
the peritoneum, while closure might cause a foreign body reaction to sutures and tissue damage.
Several studies have attempted to evaluate this issue and have reported conflicting results
[62,65-72]. A systematic review of peritoneal nonclosure and adhesion formation after cesarean
delivery found some evidence that nonclosure was associated with greater adhesion formation
than closure of the parietal layer or both visceral and parietal layers (OR 2.6, 95% CI 1.48-4.56;
three studies, n = 249) [73]. The studies were included if the primary objective was to examine
adhesion formation in a repeat cesarean delivery, had a clear study design, had an adhesion
scoring system, and excluded patients who had adhesions at the primary cesarean or who had
interim surgeries after the primary cesarean. Many studies were excluded from this review
because of poor methodologic design or clinical heterogeneity. Another systematic review that
included many of these studies also found that nonclosure was associated with greater adhesion
formation [74].
Subsequent to these analyses, a large well-designed trial that randomly assigned 533 women at
primary cesarean to peritoneal nonclosure or closure found no significant difference between
groups in the proportion of patients with adhesions at any site or time from incision to delivery at
repeat cesarean (n = 97 repeat cesareans) [71]. Strengths of this trial included that its primary
objective was to examine adhesion formation in a repeat cesarean delivery, use of an adhesion
scoring system, exclusion of patients who had had prior pelvic or abdominal surgery, use of a
standard technique for performing the cesareans, and blinding the surgeon performing the repeat
cesarean to patient allocation.
At this time, we believe there is good evidence for the benefit of nonclosure (decreased operating
time) and inadequate evidence of harm (increased adhesion formation).
Rectus muscles Most clinicians believe that the rectus muscles reapproximate naturally and
suturing them together may cause unnecessary pain when the woman starts to move after
surgery [1]. No randomized trial has evaluated rectus muscle closure versus nonclosure. A
prospective observational study reported a reduction in dense adhesion formation when the
rectus muscles were reapproximated; however, this study did not assess pain or hematoma
formation potentially related to this intervention and could not fully adjust for other intraoperative
interventions, such as peritoneal closure [72].
Fascia The method of fascial closure is a critical aspect of incisional closure, as this provides
the majority of wound strength during healing. Care should be taken to avoid too much tension
when closing the fascia since reapproximation, not strangulation, is the goal. Difficulty with
hemostasis is usually not a major issue. Meta-analyses of randomized trials of closure
of midline abdominal fascial incisions show that the optimal technique for closure of these
incisions is [75,76]:
Use of a simple running technique
Use of #1 or #2 delayed absorbable monofilament suture (eg, polydioxanone [PDS])
Use of mass closure to incorporate all layers of the abdominal wall (except skin)
Taking wide tissue bites (1 cm)
Use of a short stitch interval (1 cm)
Use of a suture length to wound length ratio of 4 to 1
Use of non-strangulating tension on the suture
However, the majority of fascial closures after cesarean delivery involve a transverse fascial
incision and no randomized trials have evaluated the optimum closure technique in this setting.
For transverse fascial incisions, a continuous closure with slowly absorbable #1 braided suture is
a common approach among general surgeons [77]. Obstetricians also commonly use this
technique with #0 or #1 braided suture (eg, polygalactin 910). Polydioxanone has also been used
successfully for closure of transverse fascial incisions [78]. A randomized trial of closure
techniques for repair of transversely incised abdominal fascia in rabbits found that interrupted
closure had a greater maximum tensile strength than continuous closure during the first two
postoperative weeks, but both repair methods had similar maximum tensile strength at four
postoperative weeks [79].
(See "Principles of abdominal wall closure", section on 'Fascia' and "Complications of abdominal
surgical incisions", section on 'Prevention'.)
Subcutaneous tissue The value of irrigation before closure of the subcutaneous tissues has
not been studied in a randomized trial, and is probably unnecessary in the setting of routine
intravenous antibiotic prophylaxis.
We close the subcutaneous adipose layer with interrupted delayed-absorbable sutures if the layer
is 2 cm [80,81]. The value of this approach was illustrated in a meta-analysis of randomized
trials that showed suture closure of the subcutaneous adipose layer at cesarean delivery
decreased the risk of subsequent wound disruption by one-third in women with subcutaneous
tissue depth 2 cm, but not in those <2 cm [81]. Closure of the dead space seems to inhibit
accumulation of serum and blood, which can lead to a wound seroma and subsequent wound
breakdown [81,82]. This occurrence is a major cause of morbidity, can be costly, and lengthens
the recovery time.
Use of drains Randomized trials and meta-analyses have shown that routine use of wound
drains is not beneficial [83,84], even in obese women [85]. Compared to no drain, routine use of
drains does not reduce the odds of seroma, hematoma, infection, or wound disruption.
Additionally, restricted use of subrectus sheath drains offers no benefit in maternal infectious
morbidity compared with liberal use [48].
Skin Reapproximation of the skin may be performed with staples or subcuticular suture;
available data from randomized trials do not allow a strong recommendation for one method over
the other [86]. Meta-analyses have found that staples take less time to place than subcuticular
sutures and shorten operating time by about five minutes, but are associated with a doubling of
wound complications (infection and/or separation: 13 versus 6 percent) [87,88]. The increased
risk of wound separation may have been due to removing staples too early (day 3), rather than an
effect of the staples themselves [86]; however, similar findings (wound complication rate 10.6
versus 4.9 percent with suture) were noted in a subsequent multicenter randomized trial in which
staples were removed on day 4 to 10 [89]. (See "Cesarean delivery: Postoperative issues",
section on 'Postoperative care'.)
The effect on postoperative pain is unclear: one randomized trial reported that the subcuticular
closure resulted in less postoperative discomfort six weeks postoperatively than the stapled
closure [90], while another found that staples resulted in less postoperative discomfort [91]. Other
randomized trials found that use of staples or subcuticular sutures (absorbable or nonabsorbable
monofilament, absorbable multifilament) for skin closure resulted in a similar cosmetic
appearance when the scar was assessed six weeks or months postpartum [92,93] and similar
patient satisfaction in the absence of wound complications [94].
ALTERNATIVE TECHNIQUES Several techniques to simplify the surgical approach, decrease
operating time, and reduce postoperative morbidity have been proposed. It is impossible to
assess which technical aspects of a particular method of cesarean delivery are clearly
advantageous because several aspects of the method are studied at the same time [95].
Furthermore, long-term outcomes have not been adequately evaluated.
The Pelosi [11] and Misgav Ladach (also known as modified Joel-Cohen or Joel-Cohen-Stark)
(table 1) [6,7] approaches have incorporated many modifications of standard and Joel-Cohen
techniques. As discussed above, the Joel-Cohen type incision is associated with less fever, pain,
use of analgesia, blood loss, operating time, and hospital days compared with the standard
Pfannenstiel incision (see 'Skin incision' above) and, in one randomized trial, the
Joel Cohen/Misgav Ladach method resulted in fewer patients with intraperitoneal adhesions at
repeat cesarean delivery (11 percent versus 36 percent after standard Pfannenstiel-Kerr
approach) [96].
The Pelosi technique is illustrated by the following photographs (picture 1A-C, 1C-D). There are
no randomized trials comparing the Pelosi to other techniques.
INCIDENTAL PROCEDURES The most common incidental procedure at cesarean delivery is
tubal sterilization. (See "Surgical sterilization of women".)
Major uterine surgery should be avoided due to the potential for severe blood loss. Myomectomy
is generally contraindicated for this reason, although a few small case series have described
successful excision in selected women [97,98]. Pedunculated myomas can usually be removed
safely and without excessive blood loss. (See "Pregnancy in women with uterine leiomyomas
(fibroids)".)
The adnexae are examined for solid and cystic masses. An ovarian cyst or mass identified
incidentally at the time of cesarean delivery should be removed [99]. Complete surgical removal
is preferred over aspiration and cytologic evaluation of cystic fluid since malignancy could be
missed with the latter. In most cases, the patient will not have an appropriate incision for surgical
staging. Therefore, gynecologic oncologists suggest a frozen section of the resected neoplasm. If
it is malignant, salpingo-oophorectomy can be performed and, postpartum, the patient is referred
to a gynecologic oncologist for counseling, staging, and possible hysterectomy within the next
one to two weeks.
A randomized trial found that elective appendectomy at the time of cesarean delivery did not
increase inpatient morbidity, and increased operative time by about nine minutes [100]. The
authors suggested consideration of elective appendectomy at the time of cesarean delivery in
women at increased risk of having subsequent surgery to rule out appendicitis (eg, women with a
palpable fecalith, abnormal appearing appendix, or history of pelvic pain or endometriosis). We
do not recommend routine elective appendectomy at the time of cesarean.
INFORMATION FOR PATIENTS UpToDate offers two types of patient education materials,
The Basics and Beyond the Basics. The Basics patient education pieces are written in plain
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grade reading level, and they answer the four or five key questions a
patient might have about a given condition. These articles are best for patients who want a
general overview and who prefer short, easy-to-read materials. Beyond the Basics patient
education pieces are longer, more sophisticated, and more detailed. These articles are written at
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are comfortable with some medical jargon.
Here are the patient education articles that are relevant to this topic. We encourage you to print or
e-mail these topics to your patients. (You can also locate patient education articles on a variety of
subjects by searching on patient info and the keyword(s) of interest.)
Basics topics (see "Patient information: C-section (cesarean delivery) (The Basics)")
Beyond the Basics topics (see "Patient information: C-section (cesarean delivery) (Beyond
the Basics)")
SUMMARY AND RECOMMENDATIONS
For opening the abdomen, we suggest a transverse (eg, Pfannenstiel or Joel-Cohen)
rather than a vertical skin incision (Grade 2C). A transverse incision is associated with less
postoperative pain, greater wound strength, and better cosmetic results than the vertical
midline incision. (See 'Transverse or vertical' above.)
We do not routinely create a bladder flap. This saves time and reduces blood loss.
(See 'Bladder flap' above.)
For the hysterotomy, we suggest a transverse rather than a vertical incision for most
women (Grade 2C). The transverse incision is associated with less blood loss, less need for
bladder dissection, is easier to reapproximate, and has a lower risk of rupture in subsequent
pregnancies. However, a vertical hysterotomy is indicated in some settings (eg, poorly
developed lower uterine segment, lower uterine segment pathology).
(See 'Hysterotomy' above.)
We suggest blunt rather than sharp expansion of the hysterotomy incision (Grade 2B).
Blunt expansion is quick and has less risk of inadvertent trauma to the fetus, and may
reduce blood loss and extension of the incision. (See 'Hysterotomy' above.)
We recommend spontaneous, rather than manual, extraction of the placenta (Grade 1A).
Spontaneous extraction is associated with lower rates of endometritis and bleeding.
(See 'Placental extraction' above.)
Exteriorization or nonexteriorization of the uterus and one layer or two layer closure of the
hysterotomy are all acceptable options. The choice depends on personal preference and
the specific clinical setting. (See 'Exteriorizing the uterus' above.)
For women who would consider a trial of labor after a previous cesarean delivery, we
suggest a two-layer uterine closure (Grade 2C). (See 'Single versus double layer
closure' above.)
We suggest not closing the visceral or parietal peritoneum (Grade 2B). Peritoneal closure
prolongs operative time, but may decrease adhesion formation. (See 'Peritoneum' above.)
For women with subcutaneous tissue depth 2 cm, we recommend closure of the
subcutaneous tissue layer with sutures (Grade 1A). Closure decreases the risk of
subsequent wound disruption. (See 'Subcutaneous tissue' above.)
Use of UpToDate is subject to the Subscription and License Agreement.
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