Computer Programming Notes

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SYLLABUS
GE6151 COMPUTER PROGRAMMING
UNIT I INTRODUCTION 8
Generation and ClassiIication oI Computers- Basic Organization oI a Computer Number System
Binary Decimal Conversion Problems. Need Ior logical analysis and thinking Algorithm
Pseudo code Elow Chart.
UNIT II C PROGRAMMING BASICS 10
Problem Iormulation Problem Solving - Introduction to C` programming Iundamentals structureoI
a C` program compilation and linking processes Constants, Variables Data Types Expressions
using operators in C` Managing Input and Output operations Decision Making andBranching
Looping statements solving simple scientiIic and statistical problems.
UNIT III ARRAYS AND STRINGS 9
Arrays Initialization Declaration One dimensional and Two dimensional arrays. String-
Stringoperations String Arrays. Simple programs- sorting- searching matrix operations.
UNIT IV FUNCTIONS AND POINTERS 9
Eunction deIinition oI Iunction Declaration oI Iunction Pass by value Pass by reIerence
Recursion Pointers - DeIinition Initialization Pointers arithmetic Pointers and arrays- Example-
Problems.
UNIT V STRUCTURES AND UNIONS 9
Introduction need Ior structure data type structure deIinition Structure declaration Structure-
within a structure - Union - Programs using structures and Unions Storage classes, Pre-processor
directives.
TOTAL: 45 PERIODS
TEXTBOOKS: 1. Anita Goel and Ajay Mittal, 'Computer Eundamentals and Programming in C,
Dorling Kindersley(India) Pvt. Ltd., Pearson Education in South Asia, 2011.
2. Pradip Dey, Manas Ghosh, 'Eundamentals oI Computing and Programming in C, Eirst
Edition,OxIord University Press, 2009
3. Yashavant P. Kanetkar. ' Let Us C, BPB Publications, 2011.
REFERENCES:
1. Byron S GottIried, 'Programming with C, Schaum`s Outlines, Second Edition, Tata McGraw-
Hill,2006.
2. Dromey R.G., 'How to Solve it by Computer, Pearson Education, Eourth Reprint, 2007.
3. Kernighan,B.W and Ritchie,D.M, 'The C Programming language, Second Edition,
PearsonEducation, 2006.
UNITI INTRODUCTION
Generation and ClassiIication oI Computers- Basic Organization oI a Computer Number System
Binary Decimal Conversion Problems. Need Ior logical analysis and thinking Algorithm
Pseudo code Elow Chart.
GENERATIONS OF COMPUTERS
The Zeroth Generation
The term Zeroth generation is used to reIer to the period oI development oI computing, which
predated the commercial production and sale oI computer equipment. The period might be dated
as extending Irom the mid-1800s. In particular, this period witnessed the emergence oI the Iirst
electronics digital computers on the ABC, since it was the Iirst to Iully implement the idea oI the
stored program and serial execution oI instructions. The development oI EDVAC set the stage
Ior the evolution oI commercial computing and operating system soItware. The hardware
component technology oI this period was electronic vacuum tubes. The actual operation oI these
early computers took place without be beneIit oI an operating system. Early programs were
written in machine language and each contained code Ior initiating operation oI the computer
itselI. This system was clearly ineIIicient and depended on the varying competencies oI the
individual programmer as operators.
The First Generation, 1951-1956
The Iirst generation marked the beginning oI commercial computing. The Iirst generation was
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characterized by high-speed vacuum tube as the active component technology. Operation
continued without the beneIit oI an operating system Ior a time. The mode was called "closed
shop" and was characterized by the appearance oI hired operators who would select the job to be
run, initial program load the system, run the user`s program, and then select another job, and so
Iorth. Programs began to be written in higher level, procedure-oriented languages, and thus the
operator`s routine expanded. The operator now selected a job, ran the translation program to
assemble or compile the source program, and combined the translated object program along with
any existing library programs that the program might need Ior input to the linking program,
loaded and ran the composite linked program, and then handled the next job in a similar Iashion.
Application programs were run one at a time, and were translated with absolute computer
addresses. There was no provision Ior moving a program to diIIerent location in storage Ior any
reason. Similarly, a program bound to speciIic devices could not be run at all iI any oI these
devices were busy or broken.
At the same time, the development oI programming languages was moving away Irom the basic
machine languages; Iirst to assembly language, and later to procedure oriented languages, the
most signiIicant being the development oI EORTRAN
The Second Generation, 1956-1964
The second generation oI computer hardware was most notably characterized by transistors
replacing vacuum tubes as the hardware component technology. In addition, some very
important changes in hardware and soItware architectures occurred during this period. Eor the
most part, computer systems remained card and tape-oriented systems. SigniIicant use oI random
access devices, that is, disks, did not appear until towards the end oI the second generation.
Program processing was, Ior the most part, provided by large centralized computers operated
under mono-programmed batch processing operating systems.
The most signiIicant innovations addressed the problem oI excessive central processor delay due
to waiting Ior input/output operations. Recall that programs were executed by processing the
machine instructions in a strictly sequential order. As a result, the CPU, with its high speed
electronic component, was oIten Iorced to wait Ior completion oI I/O operations which involved
mechanical devices (card readers and tape drives) that were order oI magnitude slower.
These hardware developments led to enhancements oI the operating system. I/O and data channel
communication and control became Iunctions oI the operating system, both to relieve the
application programmer Irom the diIIicult details oI I/O programming and to protect the integrity
oI the system to provide improved service to users by segmenting jobs and running shorter jobs
Iirst (during "prime time") and relegating longer jobs to lower priority or night time runs. System
libraries became more widely available and more comprehensive as new utilities and application
soItware components were available to programmers.
The second generation was a period oI intense operating system development. Also it was the
period Ior sequential batch processing. Researchers began to experiment with multiprogramming
and multiprocessing.
The Third Generation, 1964-1979
The third generation oIIicially began in April 1964 with IBM`s announcement oI its System/360
Iamily oI computers. Hardware technology began to use integrated circuits (ICs) which yielded
signiIicant advantages in both speed and economy. Operating System development continued
with the introduction and widespread adoption oI multiprogramming. This marked Iirst by the
appearance oI more sophisticated I/O buIIering in the Iorm oI spooling operating systems. These
systems worked by introducing two new systems programs, a system reader to move input jobs
Irom cards to disk, and a system writer to move job output Irom disk to printer, tape, or cards.
The spooling operating system in Iact had multiprogramming since more than one program was
resident in main storage at the same time. Later this basic idea oI multiprogramming was
extended to include more than one active user program in memory at time. To accommodate this
extension, both the scheduler and the dispatcher were enhanced. In addition, memory
management became more sophisticated in order to assure that the program code Ior each job or
at least that part oI the code being executed was resident in main storage. Users shared not only
the system` hardware but also its soItware resources and Iile system disk space.
The third generation was an exciting time, indeed, Ior the development oI both computer
hardware and the accompanying operating system. During this period, the topic oI operating
systems became, in reality, a major element oI the discipline oI computing.
The Fourth Generation, 1979 - Present
The Iourth generation is characterized by the appearance oI the personal computer and the
workstation. Miniaturization oI electronic circuits and components continued and Large Scale
Integration (LSI), the component technology oI the third generation, was replaced by Very Large
Scale Integration (VLSI), which characterizes the Iourth generation. However, improvements in
hardware miniaturization and technology have evolved so Iast that we now have inexpensive
workstation-class computer capable oI supporting multiprogramming and time-sharing. Hence
the operating systems that supports today`s personal computers and workstations look much like
those which were available Ior the minicomputers oI the third generation. Examples are
MicrosoIt`s DOS Ior IBM-compatible personal computers and UNIX Ior workstation. However,
many oI these desktop computers are now connected as networked or distributed systems.
Computers in a networked system each have their operating system augmented with
communication capabilities that enable users to remotely log into any system on the network and
transIer inIormation among machines that are connected to the network. The machines that make
up distributed system operate as a virtual single processor system Irom the user`s point oI view; a
central operating system controls and makes transparent the location in the system oI the
particular processor or processors and Iile systems that are handling any given program.
CLASSIFICATION OF COMPUTERS
There are Iour classiIications oI digital computer systems: super-computer, mainIrame
computer, minicomputer, and microcomputer.
Super-computers are very Iast and powerIul machines. Their internal architecture enables them
to run at the speed oI tens oI MIPS (Million Instructions per Second). Super-computers are very
expensive and Ior this reason are generally not used Ior CAD applications. Examples oI super-
computers are: Cray and CDC Cyber 205.
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Mainframe computers are built Ior general computing, directly serving the needs oI business
and engineering. Although these computing systems are a step below super-computers, they are
still very Iast and will process inIormation at about 10 MIPS. MainIrame computing systems are
located in a centralized computing center with 20-100 workstations. This type oI computer is
still very expensive and is not readily Iound in architectural/interior design oIIices.
Minicomputers were developed in the 1960's resulting Irom advances in microchip technology.
Smaller and less expensive than mainIrame computers, minicomputers run at several MIPS and
can support 5-20 users. CAD usage throughout the 1960's used minicomputers due to their low
cost and high perIormance. Examples oI minicomputers are: DEC PDP, VAX 11.
Microcomputers were invented in the 1970's and were generally used Ior home computing and
dedicated data processing workstations. Advances in technology have improved microcomputer
capabilities, resulting in the explosive growth oI personal computers in industry. In the 1980's
many medium and small design Iirms were Iinally introduced to CAD as a direct result oI the
low cost and availability oI microcomputers. Examples are: IBM, Compaq, Dell, Gateway, and
Apple Macintosh.
The average computer user today uses a microcomputer. These types oI computers include PC's,
laptops, notebooks, and hand-held computers such as Palm Pilots.
Larger computers Iall into a mini-or mainIrame category. A mini-computer is 3-25 times Iaster
than a micro. It is physically larger and has a greater storage capacity.
A mainIrame is a larger type oI computer and is typically 10-100 times Iaster than the micro.
These computers require a controlled environment both Ior temperature and humidity. Both the
mini and mainIrame computers will support more workstations than will a micro. They also cost
a great deal more than the micro running into several hundred thousand dollars Ior the
mainIrames.
Processors
The term processor is a sub-system oI a data processing system which processes received
inIormation aIter it has been encoded into data by the input sub-system. These data are then
processed by the processing sub-system beIore being sent to the output sub-system where they
are decoded back into inIormation. However, in common parlance processor is usually reIerred
to the microprocessor, the brains oI the modern day computers.
There are two main types oI processors: CISC and RISC.
CISC: A Complex Instruction Set Computer (CISC) is a microprocessor Instruction Set
Architecture (ISA) in which each instruction can indicate several low-level operations, such as a
load Irom memory, an arithmetic operation, and a memory store, all in a single instruction. The
term was coined in contrast to Reduced Instruction Set Computer (RISC).
Examples oI CISC processors are the VAX, PDP-11, Motorola 68000 Iamily and the Intel
x86/Pentium CPUs.
RISC: Reduced Instruction Set Computing (RISC), is a microprocessor CPU design
philosophy that Iavors a smaller and simpler set oI instructions that all take about the same
amount oI time to execute. Most types oI modern microprocessors are RISCs, Ior instance ARM,
DEC Alpha, SPARC, MIPS, and PowerPC.
The microprocessor contains the CPU which is made up oI three components--the control unit
supervises all that is going on in the computer, the arithmetic/logic unit which perIorms the math
and comparison operation, and temporary memory. Because oI the progress in developing better
microprocessors, computers are continually evolving into Iaster and better units.
Notebooks
A laptop computer (also known as notebook computer) is a small mobile personal computer,
usually weighing around Irom 1 to 3 kilograms (2 to 7 pounds). Notebooks smaller than an A4
sheet oI paper and weighing around 1 kg are sometimes called sub-notebooks and those
weighing around 5 kg a desk note (desktop/notebook). Computers larger than PDAs but smaller
than notebooks are also sometimes called "palmtops". Laptops usually run on batteries.
Notebook Processor:
A notebook processor is a CPU optimized Ior notebook computers. All computing devices
require a CPU. One oI the main characteristics diIIerentiating notebook processors Irom other
CPUs is low-power consumption.
The notebook processor is becoming an increasing important market segment in the
semiconductor industry. Notebook computers are an increasingly popular Iormat oI the broader
category oI mobile computers. The objective oI a notebook computer is to provide the
perIormance and Iunctionality oI a desktop computer in a portable size and weight. Wireless
networking and low power consumption are primary consideration in the choice oI a notebook
processor.
Integrated Components
Unlike a desktop computer, a notebook has most oI the components built-in or integrated into the
computer. Eor desktop systems, determining which computer to buy is generally not based on
what type oI keyboard or mouse that is available. II you don't like the keyboard or mouse, you
can always purchase something else. However, in the case oI a notebook computer, the size oI
the keyboard or type oI pointing device may be something that you need to consider unless you
intend to use a regular mouse or Iull-sized keyboard. There are some notebooks that have a
keyboard that expands when the notebook is opened which is a nice Ieature iI you Iind the
normal keyboard to be too small. Pointing devices vary Irom a touch pad to a stick within the
keyboard to a roller or track-ball. Most notebooks have the video, sound, and speakers integrated
into the computer and some notebooks even have a digital camera built-in which is very handy
Ior video conIerencing.
BOOTING:
In computing, booting is a bootstrapping process that starts operating systems when the user
turns on a computer system. A boot sequence is the set oI operations the computer perIorms
when it is switched on which load an operating system.
Everything that happens between the times the computer switched on and it is ready to accept
commands/input Irom the user is known as booting.
The process oI reading disk blocks Irom the starting oI the system disk (which contains the
Operating System) and executing the code within the bootstrap. This will read Iurther
inIormation oII the disk to bring the whole operating system online.
Device drivers are contained within the bootstrap code that support all the locally attached
peripheral devices and iI the computer is connected to a network, the operating system will
transIer to the Network Operating system Ior the "client" to log onto a server
The Process oI loading a computer memory with instructions needed Ior the computer to operate.
The process and Iunctions that a computer goes through when it Iirst starts up, ending in the
proper and complete loading oI the Operating System. The sequence oI computer operations
Irom power-up until the system is ready Ior use
COLD BOOTING:
The cold booting is the situation, when all the computer peripherals are OEE and we start the
computer by switching ON the power.
WARM BOOTING:
The warm booting is the situation, when we restart the computer by pressing the RESET button
and pressing CTRL ALT DEL keys together.
Graphic User Interface (GUI)
A program interIace that takes advantage oI the computer's graphics capabilities to make the
program easier to use. Well-designed graphical user interIaces can Iree the user Irom learning
complex command languages. On the other hand, many users Iind that they work more
eIIectively with a command-driven interIace, especially iI they already know the command
language.
BASIC COMPUTER ORGANIZATION:
Introduction to CPU

CPU (Central Processing Unit)

The Arithmetic / Logic Unit (ALU)

The Control Unit

Memory

Main

External

Input / Output Devices

The System Bus

CPU Operation
The Iundamental operation oI most CPUs
- To execute a sequence oI stored instructions called a program.
The program is represented by a series oI numbers that are kept in some kind oI computer
memory.
There are Iour steps that nearly all CPUs use in their operation: Ietch, decode, execute,
and write back.
Fetch:
Retrieving an instruction Irom program memory.
The location in program memory is determined by a program counter (PC)
AIter an instruction is Ietched, the PC is incremented by the length oI the
instruction word in terms oI memory units.
Decode :
The instruction is broken up into parts that have signiIicance to other portions oI
the CPU.
The way in which the numerical instruction value is interpreted is deIined by the
CPU's instruction set architecture (ISA).
Opcode, indicates which operation to perIorm.
The remaining parts oI the number usually provide inIormation required Ior that
instruction, such as operands Ior an addition operation.
Such operands may be given as a constant value or as a place to locate a value: a
register or a memory address, as determined by some addressing mode.

Execute :

During this step, various portions oI the CPU are connected so they can perIorm
the desired operation.
II, Ior instance, an addition operation was requested, an arithmetic logic unit
(ALU) will be connected to a set oI inputs and a set oI outputs.
The inputs provide the numbers to be added, and the outputs will contain the Iinal
sum.
II the addition operation produces a result too large Ior the CPU to handle, an
arithmetic overIlow Ilag in a Ilags register may also be set.

Write back :

Simply "writes back" the results oI the execute step to some Iorm oI memory.
Very oIten the results are written to some internal CPU register Ior quick access
by subsequent instructions.
In other cases results may be written to slower, but cheaper and larger, main
memory.
Some types oI instructions manipulate the program counter rather than directly
produce result data.
Input Devices
Anything that Ieeds the data into the computer. This data can be in alpha-numeric Iorm which
needs to be keyed-in or in its very basic natural Iorm i.e. hear, smell, touch, see; taste & the sixth
sense .Ieel?
Typical input devices are:
1. Keyboard 2. Mouse
3. Joystick 4. Digitizing Tablet
5. Touch Sensitive Screen 6. Light Pen
Digital Stills
7. Space Mouse 8. Camera
Optical Mark
9. Magnetic Ink Character 10. Reader
Recognition (MICR) (OMR)
11. Image Scanner 12. Bar Codes
13. Magnetic Reader 14. Smart Cards
15. Voice Data Entry 16. Sound Capture
17. Video Capture
The Keyboard is the standard data input and operator control device Ior a computer. It consists
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oI the standard QWERTY layout with a numeric keypad and additional Iunction keys Ior control
purposes.
The Mouse is a popular input device. You move it across the desk and its movement is shown
on the screen by a marker known as a 'cursor'. You will need to click the buttons at the top oI the
mouse to select an option.
Track ball looks like a mouse, as the roller is on the top with selection buttons on the side. It is
also a pointing device used to move the cursor and works like a mouse. Eor moving the cursor in
a particular direction, the user spins the ball in that direction. It is sometimes considered better
than a mouse, because it requires little arm movement and less desktop space. It is generally
used with Portable computers.
Magnetic Ink Character Recognition (MICR) is used to recognize the magnetically charged
characters, mainly Iound on bank cheques. The magnetically charged characters are written by
special ink called magnetic ink. MICR device reads the patterns oI these characters and
compares them with special patterns stored in memory. Using MICR device, a large volume oI
cheques can be processed in a day. MICR is widely used by the banking industry Ior the
processing oI cheques.
The joystick is a rotary lever. Similar to an aircraIt's control stick, it enables you to move within
the screen's environment, and is widely used in the computer games industry.
A Digitising Tablet is a pointing device that Iacilitates the accurate input oI drawings and
designs. A drawing can be placed directly on the tablet, and the user traces outlines or inputs
coordinate positions with a hand-held stylus.
A Touch Sensitive Screen is a pointing device that enables the user to interact with the
computer by touching the screen. There are three types oI Touch Screens: pressure-sensitive,
capacitive surface and light beam.
A Light Pen is a pointing device shaped like a pen and is connected to a VDU. The tip oI the
light pen contains a light-sensitive element which, when placed against the screen, detects the
light Irom the screen enabling the computer to identiIy the location oI the pen on the screen.
Light pens have the advantage oI 'drawing' directly onto the screen, but this can become
uncomIortable, and they are not as accurate as digitising tablets.
The Space mouse is diIIerent Irom a normal mouse as it has an X axis, a Y axis and a Z axis. It
can be used Ior developing and moving around 3-D environments.
Digital Stills Cameras capture an image which is stored in memory within the camera. When
the memory is Iull it can be erased and Iurther images captured. The digital images can then be
downloaded Irom the camera to a computer where they can be displayed, manipulated or printed.
The Optical Mark Reader (OMR) can read inIormation in the Iorm oI numbers or letters and
put it into the computer. The marks have to be precisely located as in multiple choice test
papers.
Scanners allow inIormation such as a photo or text to be input into a computer. Scanners are
usually either A4 size (Ilatbed), or hand-held to scan a much smaller area. II text is to be
scanned, you would use an Optical Character Recognition (OCR) program to recognise the
printed text and then convert it to a digital text Iile that can be accessed using a computer.
A Bar Code is a pattern printed in lines oI diIIering thickness. The system gives Iast and error-
Iree entry oI inIormation into the computer. You might have seen bar codes on goods in
supermarkets, in libraries and on magazines. Bar codes provide a quick method oI recording the
sale oI items.
Card Reader This input device reads a magnetic strip on a card. Handy Ior security reasons, it
provides quick identiIication oI the card's owner. This method is used to run bank cash points or
to provide quick identiIication oI people entering buildings.
Smart Card This input device stores data in a microprocessor embedded in the card.
This allows inIormation, which can be updated, to be stored on the card. This method is
used in store cards which accumulate points Ior the purchaser, and to store phone numbers
Ior cellular phones.
Output Devices
Output devices display inIormation in a way that you can you can understand. The most
common output device is a monitor. It looks a lot a like a TV and houses the computer screen.
The monitor allows you to 'see' what you and the computer are doing together.
Brief of Output Device
Output devices are pieces oI equipment that are used to get inIormation or any other response out
Irom computer. These devices display inIormation that has been held or generated within a
computer. Output devices display inIormation in a way that you can understand. The most
common output device is a monitor.
Types of Output Device
Printing: Plotter, Printer
Sound : Speakers
Visual : Monitor
A Printer is another common part oI a computer system. It takes what you see on the computer
screen and prints it on paper. There are two types oI printers; Impact Printers and Non-Impact
Printers.
Speakers are output devices that allow you to hear sound Irom your computer. Computer
speakers are just like stereo speakers. There are usually two oI them and they come in various
sizes.
Memory or Primary Storage
Purpose of Storage
The Iundamental components oI a general-purpose computer are arithmetic and logic unit,
control circuitry, storage space, and input/output devices. II storage was removed, the device we
had would be a simple calculator instead oI a computer. The ability to store instructions that
Iorm a computer program, and the inIormation that the instructions manipulate is what makes
stored program architecture computers versatile.
Primary storage, or internal memory, is computer memory that is accessible to the central

processing unit oI a computer without the use oI computer's input/output channels

Primary storage, also known as main storage or memory, is the main area in a computer in
which data is stored Ior quick access by the computer's processor.

Primary Storage
Primary storage is directly connected to the central processing unit oI the computer. It must be
present Ior the CPU to Iunction correctly, just as in a biological analogy the lungs must be
present (Ior oxygen storage) Ior the heart to Iunction (to pump and oxygenate the blood). As
shown in the diagram, primary storage typically consists oI three kinds oI storage:
Processors Register
It is the internal to the central processing unit. Registers contain inIormation that the arithmetic
and logic unit needs to carry out the current instruction. They are technically the Iastest oI all
Iorms oI computer storage.
Main memory
It contains the programs that are currently being run and the data the programs are operating on. The
arithmetic and logic unit can very quickly transIer inIormation between a processor register and locations
in main storage, also known as a "memory addresses". In modern computers, electronic solid-state
random access memory is used Ior main storage, and is directly connected to the CPU via a "memory
bus" and a "data bus".
Cache memory
It is a special type oI internal memory used by many central processing units to increase their
perIormance or "throughput". Some oI the inIormation in the main memory is duplicated in the cache
memory, which is slightly slower but oI much greater capacity than the processor registers, and Iaster but
much smaller than main memory.
Memory
Memory is oIten used as a shorter synonym Ior Random Access Memory (RAM). This kind oI memory
is located on one or more microchips that are physically close to the microprocessor in your computer.
Most desktop and notebook computers sold today include at least 512 megabytes oI RAM (which is really
the minimum to be able to install an operating system). They are upgradeable, so you can add more when
your computer runs really slowly.
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The more RAM you have, the less Irequently the computer has to access instructions and data Irom the
more slowly accessed hard disk Iorm oI storage. Memory should be distinguished Irom storage, or the
physical medium that holds the much larger amounts oI data that won't Iit into RAM and may not be
immediately needed there.
Storage devices include hard disks, Iloppy disks, CDROMs, and tape backup systems. The terms
auxiliary storage, auxiliary memory, and secondary memory have also been used Ior this kind oI data
repository.
RAM is temporary memory and is erased when you turn oII your computer, so remember to save your
work to a permanent Iorm oI storage space like those mentioned above beIore exiting programs or turning
oII your computer.
TYPES OF RAM:
There are two types oI RAM used in PCs - Dynamic and Static RAM.
Dynamic RAM (DRAM): The inIormation stored in Dynamic RAM has to be reIreshed aIter every Iew
milliseconds otherwise it will get erased. DRAM has higher storage capacity and is cheaper than Static
RAM.
Static RAM (SRAM): The inIormation stored in Static RAM need not be reIreshed, but it remains stable
as long as power supply is provided. SRAM is costlier but has higher speed than DRAM.
Additional kinds oI integrated and quickly accessible memory are Read Only Memory (ROM),
Programmable ROM (PROM), and Erasable Programmable ROM (EPROM). These are used to keep
special programs and data, such as the BIOS, that need to be in your computer all the time. ROM is
"built-in" computer memory containing data that normally can only be read, not written to (hence the
name read only).
ROM contains the programming that allows your computer to be "booted up" or regenerated each time
you turn it on. Unlike a computer's random access memory (RAM), the data in ROM is not lost when the
computer power is turned oII. The ROM is sustained by a small long liIe battery in your computer called
the CMOS battery. II you ever do the hardware setup procedure with your computer, you eIIectively will
be writing to ROM. It is non volatile, but not suited to storage oI large quantities oI data because it is
expensive to produce. Typically, ROM must also be completely erased beIore it can be rewritten,
PROM (Programmable Read Only Memory)
A variation oI the ROM chip is programmable read only memory. PROM can be programmed to record
inIormation using a Iacility known as PROM-programmer. However once the chip has been programmed
the recorded inIormation cannot be changed, i.e. the PROM becomes a ROM and the inIormation can
only be read.
EPROM (Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory)
As the name suggests the Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory, inIormation can be erased and the
chip programmed a new to record diIIerent inIormation using a special PROM-Programmer. When
EPROM is in use inIormation can only be read and the inIormation remains on the chip until it is erased.
Storage Devices
The purpose oI storage in a computer is to hold data or inIormation and get that data to the CPU as
quickly as possible when it is needed. Computers use disks Ior storage: hard disks that are located inside
the computer, and Iloppy or compact disks that are used externally.
Computers Method oI storing data & inIormation Ior long term basis i.e. even aIter PC is switched
oII.
It is non volatile
Can be easily removed and moved & attached to some other device
Memory capacity can be extended to a greater extent
Cheaper than primary memory
Storage Involves Two Processes
a) Writing data b) Reading data
Floppy Disks
The Iloppy disk drive (FDD) was invented at IBM by Alan Shugart in 1967. The Iirst Iloppy drives used
an 8-inch disk (later called a "diskette" as it got smaller), which evolved into the 5.25-inch disk that was
used on the Iirst IBM Personal Computer in August 1981. The 5.25-inch disk held 360 kilobytes
compared to the 1.44 megabyte capacity oI today's 3.5-inch diskette.
The 5.25-inch disks were dubbed "floppy" because the diskette packaging was a very flexible plastic
envelope, unlike the rigid case used to hold today's 3.5-inch diskettes.
By the mid-1980s, the improved designs oI the read/write heads, along with improvements in the
magnetic recording media, led to the less-Ilexible, 3.5-inch, 1.44-megabyte (MB) capacity EDD in use
today. Eor a Iew years, computers had both EDD sizes (3.5-inch and 5.25-inch). But by the mid-1990s,
the 5.25-inch version had Iallen out oI popularity, partly because the diskette's recording surIace could
easily become contaminated by Iingerprints through the open access area.
When you look at a Iloppy disk, you'll see a plastic case that measures 3 1/2 by 5 inches. Inside that case
is a very thin piece oI plastic that is coated with microscopic iron particles. This disk is much like the tape
inside a video or audio cassette. Basically, a Iloppy disk drive reads and writes data to a small, circular
piece oI metal-coated plastic similar to audio cassette tape.
At one end oI it is a small metal cover with a rectangular hole in it. That cover can be moved aside to
show the Ilexible disk inside. But never touch the inner disk - you could damage the data that is stored
on it. On one side oI the Iloppy disk is a place Ior a label. On the other side is a silver circle with two
holes in it. When the disk is inserted into the disk drive, the drive hooks into those holes to spin the
circle. This causes the disk inside to spin at about 300 rpm! At the same time, the silver metal cover on
the end is pushed aside so that the head in the disk drive can read and write to the disk.
Eloppy disks are the smallest type oI storage, holding only 1.44MB.
3.5-inch Diskettes (Floppy Disks) features:
Spin rate: app. 300 revolutions per minute (rpm)
High density (HD) disks more common today than older, double density (DD) disks
Storage Capacity oI HD disks is 1.44 MB
Floppy Disk Drive 1erminology

Floppy disk - Also called diskette. The common size is 3.5 inches.

Floppy disk drive - The electromechanical device that reads and writes Iloppy disks.
Track - Concentric ring oI data on a side oI a disk.
Sector - A subset oI a track, similar to wedge or a slice oI pie.

It consists oI a read/write head and a motor rotating the disk at a high speed oI about 300 rotations per
minute. It can be Iitted inside the cabinet oI the computer and Irom outside, the slit where the disk is to be
inserted, is visible. When the disk drive is closed aIter inserting the Iloppy inside, the monitor catches the
disk through the Central oI Disk hub, and then it starts rotating.
There are two read/write heads depending upon the Iloppy being one sided or two sided. The head
consists oI a read/write coil wound on a ring oI magnetic material. During write operation, when the
current passes in one direction, through the coil, the disk surIace touching the head is magnetized in one
direction. Eor reading the data, the procedure is reverse. I.e. the magnetized spots on the disk touching the
read/write head induce the electronic pulses, which are sent to CPU.
The major parts oI a EDD include:
Read/Write Heads: Located on both sides oI a diskette, they move together on the same
assembly. The heads are not directly opposite each other in an eIIort to prevent interaction
between write operations on each oI the two media surIaces. The same head is used Ior reading
and writing, while a second, wider head is used Ior erasing a track just prior to it being written.
This allows the data to be written on a wider "clean slate," without interIering with the analog
data on an adjacent track.
Drive Motor: A very small spindle motor engages the metal hub at the center oI the diskette,
spinning it at either 300 or 360 rotations per minute (RPM).
Stepper Motor: This motor makes a precise number oI stepped revolutions to move the
read/write head assembly to the proper track position. The read/write head assembly is Iastened to
the stepper motor shaIt.

Mechanical Frame: A system oI levers that opens the little protective window on the diskette to
allow the read/write heads to touch the dual-sided diskette media. An external button allows the

diskette to be ejected, at which point the spring-loaded protective window on the diskette closes.

Circuit Board: Contains all oI the electronics to handle the data read Irom or written to the
diskette. It also controls the stepper-motor control circuits used to move the read/write heads to
each track, as well as the movement oI the read/write heads toward the diskette surIace.

Electronic optics check Ior the presence oI an opening in the lower corner oI a 3.5-inch diskette (or a notch
in the side oI a 5.25-inch diskette) to see iI the user wants to prevent data Irom being written on it.
Hard Disks
Your computer uses two types oI memory: primary memory which is stored on chips located on the
motherboard, and secondary memory that is stored in the hard drive. Primary memory holds all oI the
essential memory that tells your computer how to be a computer. Secondary memory holds the
inIormation that you store in the computer.
Inside the hard disk drive case you will Iind circular disks that are made Irom polished steel. On the disks,
there are many tracks or cylinders. Within the hard drive, an electronic reading/writing device called the
head passes back and Iorth over the cylinders, reading inIormation Irom the disk or writing inIormation to
it. Hard drives spin at 3600 or more rpm (Revolutions Per Minute) - that means that in one minute, the
hard drive spins around over 7200 times!
Optical Storage
Compact Disk Read-Only Memory (CD-ROM)
CD-Recordable (CD-R)/CD-Rewritable (CD-RW)
Digital Video Disk Read-Only Memory (DVD-ROM)
DVD Recordable (DVD-R/DVD Rewritable (DVD-RW)
Photo CD
Optical Storage Devices Data is stored on a reIlective surIace so it can be read by a beam oI laser
light. Two Kinds oI Optical Storage Devices
CD-ROM (compact disk read-only memory)
DVD-ROM (digital video disk read-only memory)

Compact Disks
Instead oI electromagnetism, CDs use pits (microscopic indentations) and lands (Ilat surIaces) to store
inIormation much the same way Iloppies and hard disks use magnetic and non-magnetic storage. Inside
the CD-Rom is a laser that reIlects light oII oI the surIace oI the disk to an electric eye. The pattern oI
reIlected light (pit) and no reIlected light (land) creates a code that represents data.
CDs usually store about 650MB. This is quite a bit more than the 1.44MB that a Iloppy disk stores. A
DVD or Digital Video Disk holds even more inIormation than a CD, because the DVD can store
inIormation on two levels, in smaller pits or sometimes on both sides.
Recordable Optical Technologies
CD-Recordable (CD-R)
CD-Rewritable (CD-RW)
PhotoCD
DVD-Recordable (DVD-R)
DVD-RAM
CD ROM - Compact Disc Read Only Memory.
Unlike magnetic storage device which store data on multiple concentric tracks, all CD Iormats store data on one
physical track, which spirals continuously Irom the center to the outer edge oI the recording area. Data resides on
the thin aluminum substrate immediately beneath the label.
The data on the CD is recorded as a series oI microscopic pits and lands physically embossed on an aluminum
substrate. Optical drives use a low power laser to read data Irom those discs without physical contact between the
head and the disc which contributes to the high reliability and permanence oI storage device.
To write the data on a CD a higher power laser are used to record the data on a CD. It creates the pits and land on
aluminum substrate. The data is stored permanently on the disc. These types oI discs are called as WORM (Write
Once Read Many). Data written to CD cannot subsequently be deleted or overwritten which can be classiIied as
advantage or disadvantage depending upon the requirement oI the user. However iI the CD is partially Iilled then
the more data can be added to it later on till it is Iull. CDs are usually cheap and cost eIIective in terms oI storage
capacity and transIerring the data.
The CD`s were Iurther developed where the data could be deleted and re written. These types oI CDs are called as
CD Rewritable. These types oI discs can be used by deleting the data and making the space Ior new data. These
CD`s can be written and rewritten at least 1000 times.
CD ROM Drive
CD ROM drives are so well standardized and have become so ubiquitous that many treat them as commodity
items. Although CD ROM drives diIIer in reliability, which standards they support and numerous other respects,
there are two important perIormance measures.

Data transIer rate

Average access

Data transIer rate: Data transIer rate means how Iast the drive delivers sequential data to the interIace. This rate is
determined by drive rotation speed, and is rated by a number Iollowed by X`. All the other things equal, a 32X
drive delivers data twice the speed oI a 16X drive. East data transIer rate is most important when the drive is used
to transIer the large Iile or many sequential smaller Iiles. Eor example: Gaming video.
CD ROM drive transIers the data at some integer multiple oI this basic 150 KB/s 1X rate. Rather than designating
drives by actual KB/s output drive manuIacturers use a multiple oI the standard 1X rate. Eor example: a 12X drive
transIer data at (12*150KB/s) 1800 KB/s and so on.
The data on a CD is saved on tracks, which spirals Irom the center oI the CD to outer edge. The portions oI the
tracks towards center are shorter than those towards the edge. Moving the data under the head at a constant rate
requires spinning the disc Iaster as the head moves Irom the center where there is less data per revolution to the
edge where there is more data. Hence the rotation rate oI the disc changes as it progresses Irom inner to outer
portions oI the disc.
CD Writers
CD recordable and CD rewritable drives are collectively called as CD writers or CD burners. They are
essentially CD ROM drives with one diIIerence. They have a more powerIul laser that, in addition to
reading discs, can record data to special CD media.
Pen Drives / Flash Drives
Pen Drives / Elash Drives are Ilash memory storage devices.

They are Iaster, portable and have a capability oI storing large data.

It consists oI a small printed circuit board with a LED encased in a robust plastic

The male type connector is used to connect to the host PC

They are also used a MP3 players

Printers
Printers are hardware devices that allow you to create a hard copy oI a Iile. Today a printer is a necessary
requirement Ior any home user and business. Allowing individuals to save their work in the Iormat oI
paper instead oI electronically.
Types of Printers
Impact printers
In case oI Impact printer an inked ribbon exists between the print head and paper
,the head striking the ribbon prints the character.

Non Impact Printers

Non Impact printers use techniques other than the mechanical method oI head striking
the ribbon
Impact printers
Impact printers are basically divided into 2 types
Serial/Character printers

Dot matrix printers

Daisy wheel printers
Line Printers
Non-Impact Printers
Non Impact Printers are divided into 3 categories
Thermal printers

Ink jet printers

Laser printers

Classification

Printers are classiIied by the Iollowing characteristics:

Quality of type: The output produced by printers is said to be either letter qualitv (as good as a
typewriter), near letter qualitv, or draft qualitv. Only daisy-wheel, ink-jet, and laser printers produce
letter-quality type. Some dot-matrix printers claim letter-quality print, but iI you look closely, you can see
the diIIerence.
Speed: Measured in characters per second (cps) or pages per minute (ppm), the speed oI printers varies
widely. Daisy-wheel printers tend to be the slowest, printing about 30 cps. Line printers are Iastest (up to
3,000 lines per minute). Dot-matrix printers can print up to 500 cps, and laser printers range Irom about 4
to 20 text pages per minute.
Impact or non-impact: Impact printers include all printers that work by striking an ink ribbon. Daisy-
wheel, dot-matrix, and line printers are impact printers. Non-impact printers include laser printers and
ink-jet printers. The important diIIerence between impact and non-impact printers is that impact printers
are much noisier.
Graphics: Some printers (daisy-wheel and line printers) can print only text. Other printers can print both
text and graphics.
Fonts: Some printers, notably dot-matrix printers, are limited to one or a Iew Ionts. In contrast, laser and
ink-jet printers are capable oI printing an almost unlimited variety oI Ionts. Daisy-wheel printers can also
print diIIerent Ionts, but you need to change the daisy wheel, making it diIIicult to mix Ionts in the same
document.
Dot Matrix Printers
A dot matrix printer or impact matrix printer reIers to a type oI computer printer with a print head that
runs back and Iorth on the page and prints by impact, striking an ink-soaked cloth ribbon against the
paper, much like a typewriter. Unlike a typewriter or daisy wheel printer, letters are drawn out oI a dot
matrix, and thus, varied Ionts and arbitrary graphics can be produced. Because the printing involves
mechanical pressure, these printers can create carbon copies and carbonless copies. The standard oI
print obtained is poor. These printers are cheap to run and relatively Iast.
The moving portion oI the printer is called the print head, and prints one line oI text at a time. Most dot
matrix printers have a single vertical line oI dot-making equipment on their print heads; others have a Iew
interleaved rows in order to improve dot density. The print head consists oI 9 or 24 pins each can move
Ireely within the tube; more the number oI pins better are the quality oI output. Dot Matrix Printer
Characters are Iormed Irom a matrix oI dots.
The speed is usually 30 - 550 characters per second (cps). These types oI printers can print graphs also.
They can only print text and graphics, with limited color perIormance. Impact printers have one oI the
lowest printing costs per page. These machines can be highly durable, but eventually wear out. Ink
invades the guide plate oI the print head, causing grit to adhere to it; this grit slowly causes the channels
in the guide plate to wear Irom circles into ovals or slots, providing less and less accurate guidance to the
printing wires. AIter about a million characters, even with tungsten blocks and titanium pawls, the
printing becomes too unclear to read.
Daisy Wheel Printer
A daisy wheel printer is a type oI computer printer that produces high-quality type, and is oIten reIerred
to as a letter-quality printer (this in contrast to high-quality dot-matrix printers, capable oI near-letter-
quality, or NLQ, output). There were also, and still are daisy wheel typewriters, based on the same
principle. The DWP is slower the speed range is in 30 to 80 CPS.
The system used a small wheel with each letter printed on it in raised metal or plastic. The printer turns
the wheel to line up the proper letter under a single pawl which then strikes the back oI the letter and
drives it into the paper. In many respects the daisy wheel is similar to a standard typewriter in the way it
Iorms its letters on the page, diIIering only in the details oI the mechanism (daisy wheel vs typebars or the
type ball used on IBMs electric typewriters).
Daisy wheel printers were Iairly common in the 1980s, but were always less popular than dot matrix
printers (ballistic wire printers) due to the latter's ability to print graphics and diIIerent Ionts. With the
introduction oI high quality laser printers and inkjet printers in the later 1980s daisy wheel systems
quickly disappeared but Ior the small remaining typewriter market.
Line Printer
The line printer is a Iorm oI high speed impact printer in which a line oI type is printed at a time.
The wheels spin at high speed and paper and an inked ribbon are stepped (moved) past the print position.
As the desired character Ior each column passes the print position, a hammer strikes the paper and ribbon
causing the desired character to be recorded on the continuous paper. The speed is 300 to 2500 lines per
minute (LPM). This technology is still in use in a number oI applications. It is usually both Iaster and less
expensive (in total ownership) than laser printers. In printing box labels, medium volume accounting and
other large business applications, line printers remain in use
Line printers, as the name implies, print an entire line oI text at a time. Two principle designs existed. In
drum printers, a drum carries the entire character set oI the printer repeated in each column that is to be
printed. In chain printers (also known as train printers), the character set is arranged multiple times
around a chain that travels horizontally pas the print line. In either case, to print a line, precisely timed
hammers strike against the back oI the paper at the exact moment that the correct character to be printed
is passing in Iront oI the paper. The paper presses Iorward against a ribbon which then presses against the
character Iorm and the impression oI the character Iorm is printed onto the paper.
These printers were the Iastest oI all impact printers and were used Ior bulk printing in large computer
centers. They were virtually never used with personal computers and have now been partly replaced by
high-speed laser printers.
Thermal Printers
Direct thermal printers create an image by selectively heating coated paper when the paper passes over
the thermal print head. The coating turns black in the areas where it is heated, creating the image. More
recently, two-color direct thermal printers have been produced, which allow printing oI both red (or
another color) and black by heating to diIIerent temperatures.
Thermal Printer Characters are Iormed by heated elements being placed in contact with special heat
sensitive paper Iorming darkened dots when the elements reach a critical temperature. A Iax machine uses
a thermal printer. Thermal printer paper tends to darken over time due to exposure to sunlight and heat.
The standard oI print produced is poor. Thermal printers are widely used in battery powered equipment
such as portable calculators.
Direct thermal printers are increasingly replacing the dot matrix printer Ior printing cash register receipts,
both because oI the higher print speed and substantially quieter operation. In addition, direct thermal
printing oIIers the advantage oI having only one consumable - the paper itselI. Thus, the technology is
well-suited to unattended applications like gas pumps, inIormation kiosks, and the like.
Until about 2000, most Iax machines used direct thermal printing, though, now, only the cheapest models
use it, the rest having switched to either thermal wax transIer, laser, or ink jet printing to allow plain-
paper printouts. Historically, direct thermal paper has suIIered Irom such limitations as sensitivity to heat,
abrasion (the coating can be Iragile), Iriction (which can cause heat, thus darkening the paper), light
(causing it to Iade), and water. However, more modern thermal coating Iormulations have resulted in
exceptional image stability, with text remaining legible Ior an estimated 50 years.
Ink-1et Printers
Inkjet printers spray very small, precise amounts (usually a Iew picolitres) oI ink onto the media. They are
the most common type oI computer printer Ior the general consumer due to their low cost, high quality oI
output, capability oI printing in vivid color, and ease oI use. It is the most common printer used with
home computers and it can print in either black and white or color.
Compared to earlier consumer-oriented printers, ink jets have a number oI advantages. They are
quieter in operation than impact dot matrix or daisywheel printers. They can print Iiner, smoother details
through higher print head resolution, and many ink jets with photorealistic-quality color printing are
widely available. Eor color applications including photo printing, ink jet methods are dominant.
Laser Printers
A laser printer is a common type oI computer printer that produces high quality printing, and is able to
produce both text and graphics. The process is very similar to the type oI dry process photocopier Iirst
produced by Xerox.
Laser Printers use a laser beam and dry powdered ink to produce a Iine dot matrix pattern. This method oI
printing can generate about 4 pages oI A4 paper per minute. The standard oI print is very good and laser
printers can also produce very good quality printed graphic images too.
SCANNERS:
Technology today is rising to it`s heights. Eor time saving and to have paperless oIIices we have a need oI
electronic version oI invoice, Material ordering Iorms, Contract ordering data etc.Ior Iiling and database
management. Even to automate the process oI logging sales data into Excel, a scanner can help one with
all oI these tasks and more.
A scanner is an optical device that captures images, objects, and documents into a digital Iormat. The
image is read as thousands oI individual dots, or pixels. It can convert a picture into digital bits oI
inIormation which are then reassembled by the computer with the help oI scanning soItware. The Iile oI
the image can then be enlarged or reduced, stored in a database, or transIerred into a word processing or
spreadsheet program.
Some oI the key considerations Ior choosing the right scanner Ior your needs are given below.
a) How you intend to use the scanner?
b) Which type oI scanner Iits the exact usage?
c) Does one require a Black & White or a Colour quality output?
d) What is the Price and the SoItware bundles?
Depending upon the usage and the importance oI the business iI one would like to have quality
photographs or other images, than colour quality will be an important characteristic. With both a black
and white and a color quality output the bit depth, resolution and dynamic range are essential to selecting
the right scanner Ior ones need.
Scanner Types:
Scanners create a digital reproduction oI an image or document and come in a variety oI shapes and sizes
designed to perIorm diIIerent types oI tasks. There are three types oI oIIice scanners usually seen in the
market and the Iunctions they serve are as Iollows:
a) Flatbed
The Ilatbed scanner consists oI its own base with a Ilat piece oI glass and cover just as is Iound on
most copiers. The scanning component oI Ilatbeds runs over the length oI the image in order to
gather data. Elatbeds are useIul when a user needs to scan more than single page documents.
Pages Irom a book, Ior example, can easily be scanned without having to copy each page
individually Iirst.
Scanning objects is also done by Ilatbeds. By placing a white sheet oI paper over a bouquet oI
Ilowers a scanner can reproduce what appears to be a stock photo onscreen.
Elatbeds have large Iootprint and hence take up a lot oI desk thus iI space is a concern one may
go Ior an alternative.
b) Sheetfed
SheetIed scanners are only used iI one wants to scan Ior anything other than sheets oI paper. The
scanning component oI a sheetIed is stationary while the document being scanned passes over it's
'eyes' similar to a Iax machine. It is so thin just a couple oI inches deep, such that it can easily Iit
between keyboards and monitor.
SheetIeds usually work best in conjunction with an automatic document Ieeder Ior large projects.
Pictures and other documents which are smaller than a Iull page can also be scanned using a
sheetIed scanner. They have been known to bend pictures and reproduce less than quality images.
c) Slide
There is a need Ior accurate reproduce oI very small images. Eor such application the resolution
required is very sharp and slide types oI scanner create a totally diIIerent scanner market. Slides
are usually inserted into a tray, much like a CD tray on ones computer, and scanned internally.
Most slide scanners can only scan slides, though some newer models can also handle negative
strips.
Scanner Uses:
A scanner can do Iar more than simply scan a photograph, and many oI its uses could go a long way to
helping a small business. Below are indicated some oI the applications Ior the scanner in a business
environment.
1) Graphics
Graphic images are an important part oI many businesses specially in marketing and sales Iunctions.
Scanners, like digital cameras, enable users to convert photographs, slides, and three-dimensional objects
into Iiles that can be pasted into a brochure, inserted into a presentation or posted on the Internet. Using
accompanying soItware, these images can be edited, cropped, or manipulated to Iit space and size
requirements.
2) Data-Entry
Scanners automatically convert the data into digital Iiles using OCR (Optical Character Recognition)
soItware; this would save time and money which one would pay to someone to manually enter the reams
oI data into the computer. In conjunction with the soItware, a scanner reads each page and transIers the
text to any number oI programs. A Iorm letter can be saved to a word processing program, sales Iigures to
a spreadsheet, even a brochure to web-editing soItware.
3) Digital-Files
One observes that there are numerous papers Iiled in three-ring binders or diIIerent kinds oI manual Iiling
in the oIIices Ior records. The process oI the manual paper Ilow can be avoided by using scanners oI
Digital type. Such scanners can help to create electronic Iiling cabinets Ior everything Irom invoices to
expense reports. Eorms can be reproduced online, and searchable databases can provide relevant
inIormation in seconds.
Pointer:
A symbol that appears on the display screen and that you move to select objects and commands. Usually,
the pointer appears as a small angled arrow. Text -processing applications, however, use an I-beam
pointer that is shaped like a capital I.
Pointing device:
A device, such as a mouse or trackball that enables you to select objects on the display screen.
Icons:
Small pictures that represent commands, Iiles, or windows. By moving the pointer to the icon and
pressing a mouse button, you can execute a command or convert the icon into a window. You can also
move the icons around the display screen as iI they were real objects on your desk.
Desktop:
The area on the display screen where icons are grouped is oIten reIerred to as the desktop because the
icons are intended to represent real objects on a real desktop.
Windows:
You can divide the screen into diIIerent areas. In each window, you can run a diIIerent program or display
a diIIerent Iile. You can move windows around the display screen, and change their shape and size at will.
Menus:
Most graphical user interIaces let you execute commands by selecting a choice Irom a menu.
In addition to their visual components, graphical user interIaces also make it easier to move data Irom one
application to another. A true GUI includes standard Iormats Ior representing text and graphics. Because
the Iormats are well-deIined, diIIerent programs that run under a common GUI can share data. This
makes it possible, Ior example, to copy a graph created by a spreadsheet program into a document created
by a word processor.
Character User Interface/Text User Interface (CUI/TUI)
Short Ior Character User InterIace or Command-line User InterIace, CUI is another name Ior a command
line. Early user interIaces were CUI. That is they could only display the characters deIined in the ASCII
set. Examples oI this type oI interIace are the command line interIaces provided with DOS 3.3 and early
implementations oI UNIX and VMS.
This was limiting, but it was the only choice primarily because oI 2 hardware constraints. Early CPUs did
not have the processing power to manage a GUI. Also, the video controllers and monitors were unable to
display the high resolution necessary to implement a GUI.
FUNCTIONS OF CPU:
Process Management
The CPU executes a large number oI programs. While its main concern is the execution oI user programs,
the CPU is also needed Ior other system activities. These activities are called processes. A process is a
program in execution. Typically, a batch job is a process. A time-shared user program is a process. A
system task, such as spooling, is also a process. Eor now, a process may be considered as a job or a time-
shared program, but the concept is actually more general.
In general, a process will need certain resources such as CPU time, memory, Iiles, I/O devices, etc., to
accomplish its task. These resources are given to the process when it is created. In addition to the various
physical and logical resources that a process obtains when it is created, some initialization data (input)
may be passed along.
We emphasize that a program by itselI is not a process; a program is a passive entity. It is known that two
processes may be associated with the same program; they are nevertheless considered two separate
execution sequences.
The operating system is responsible Ior the Iollowing activities in connection with processes managed.

The creation and deletion oI both user and system processes

The suspension and resumption oI processes.

The provision oI mechanisms Ior process synchronization
The provision oI mechanisms Ior deadlock handling.

Memory Management
Memory is central to the operation oI a modern computer system. Memory is a large array oI words or
bytes, each with its own address. Interaction is achieved through a sequence oI reads or writes oI speciIic
memory address. The CPU Ietches Irom and stores in memory. In order Ior a program to be executed it
must be mapped to absolute addresses and loaded in to memory.
In order to improve both the utilization oI CPU and the speed oI the computer's response to its users,
several processes must be kept in memory.
The operating system is responsible Ior the Iollowing activities in connection with memory management.

Keep track oI which parts oI memory are currently being used and by whom.

Decide which processes are to be loaded into memory when memory space becomes available.

Allocate and de-allocate memory space as needed.

Secondary Storage Management
The main purpose oI a computer system is to execute programs. These programs, together with the data
they access, must be in main memory during execution. Since the main memory is too small to
permanently accommodate all data and program, the computer system must provide secondary storage to
backup main memory. Most modem computer systems use disks as the primary on-line storage oI
inIormation, oI both programs and data.
Most programs, like compilers, assemblers, sort routines, editors, Iormatters, and so on, are stored on the
disk until loaded into memory, and then use the disk as both the source and destination oI their
processing. Hence the proper management oI disk storage is oI central importance to a computer system.
There are Iew alternatives. Magnetic tape systems are generally too slow. In addition, they are limited to
sequential access. Thus tapes are more suited Ior storing inIrequently used Iiles, where speed is not a
primary concern.
The operating system is responsible Ior the Iollowing activities in connection with disk management

Eree space management

Storage allocation

Disk scheduling.

Input Output System
One oI the purposes oI an operating system is to hide the peculiarities oI speciIic hardware devices Irom
the user. Eor example, in UNIX, the peculiarities oI Input/Output devices are hidden Irom the bulk oI the
operating system itselI by the INPUT/OUTPUT system. The Input/Output system consists oI:
A buIIer caching system

A general device driver code

Drivers Ior speciIic hardware devices.

Only the device driver knows the peculiarities oI a speciIic device.
File Management
Eile management is one oI the most visible services oI an operating system. Computers can store
inIormation in several diIIerent physical Iorms; magnetic tape, disk, and drum are the most common
Iorms. Each oI these devices has it own characteristics and physical organization. Eor convenient use oI
the computer system, the operating system provides a uniIorm logical view oI inIormation storage. The
operating system abstracts Irom the physical properties oI its storage devices to deIine a logical storage
unit, the Iile. Eiles are mapped, by the operating system, onto physical devices.
A Iile is a collection oI related inIormation deIined by its creator. Commonly, Iiles represent programs
(both source and object Iorms) and data. Data Iiles may be numeric, alphabetic or alphanumeric. Eiles
may be Iree-Iorm, such as text Iiles, or may be rigidly Iormatted. In general Iiles are a sequence oI bits,
bytes, lines or records whose meaning is deIined by its creator and user. It is a very general concept.
The operating system implements the abstract concept oI the Iile by managing mass storage device, such
as tapes and disks. Also Iiles are normally organized into directories to ease their use. Einally, when
multiple users have access to Iiles, it may be desirable to control by whom and in what ways Iiles may be
accessed.
The operating system is responsible Ior the Iollowing activities in connection with Iile management:

The creation and deletion oI Iiles

The creation and deletion oI directory

The support oI primitives Ior manipulating Iiles and directories

The mapping oI Iiles onto disk storage.

Backup oI Iiles on stable (non volatile) storage.

Protection System
The various processes in an operating system must be protected Irom each other`s activities. Eor that
purpose, various mechanisms which can be used to ensure that the Iiles, memory segment, CPU and other
resources can be operated on only by those processes that have gained proper authorization Irom the
operating system.
Protection reIers to a mechanism Ior controlling the access oI programs, processes, or users to the
resources deIined by a computer controls to be imposed, together with some means oI enIorcement. An
unprotected resource cannot deIend against use (or misuse) by an unauthorized or incompetent user.
Networking
A distributed system is a collection oI processors that do not share memory or a clock. Instead, each
processor has its own local memory, and the processors communicate with each other through various
communication lines, such as high speed buses or telephone lines. Distributed systems vary in size and
Iunction. They may involve microprocessors, workstations, minicomputers, and large general purpose
computer systems.
The processors in the system are connected through a communication network, which can be conIigured
in the number oI diIIerent ways. The network may be Iully or partially connected. The communication
network design must consider routing and connection strategies, and the problems oI connection and
security. A distributed system provides the user with access to the various resources the system maintains.
Access to a shared resource allows computation speed-up, data availability, and reliability.
Command Interpreter System
One oI the most important components oI an operating system is its command interpreter. The command
interpreter is the primary interIace between the user and the rest oI the system. Many commands are given
to the operating system by control statements. When a new job is started in a batch system or when a user
logs-in to a time-shared system, a program which reads and interprets control statements is automatically
executed.
NUMBER SYSTEMS
Binary Decimal Octal Hexadecimal
0000 00 0 0
0001 01 1 1
0010 02 2 2
0011 03 3 3
0100 04 4 4
0101 05 5 5
0110 06 6 6
0111 07 7 7
1000 08 10 8
1001 09 11 9
1010 10 12 A
1011 11 13 B
1100 12 14 C
1101 13 15 D
1110 14 16 E
1111 15 17 F
DECIMAL NUMBERS
In the decimal number systems each oI the ten digits, 0 through 9, represents a certain quantity. The
position oI each digit in a decimal number indicates the magnitude oI the quantity represented and can
be assigned a weight. The weights Ior whole numbers are positive powers oI ten that increases Irom
right to leIt, beginning with 10 1 that is 10 10 10' 10
Eor Iractional numbers, the weights are negative powers oI ten that decrease Irom leIt to right beginning
with 10' that is 10 10' 10. 10' 10 10
The value oI a decimal number is the sum oI digits aIter each digit has been multiplied by its weights as
in Iollowing examples
Express the decimal number 87 as a sum of the values of each digit.
The digit 8 has a weight oI 10 which is 10 as indicated by its position. The digit 7 has a weight oI 1
which is 10 as indicated by its position.
10 10
2 2
87 (8 x
1)
+ (7 x
0
)
Express the decimal number 725.45 as a sum of the values of each digit.
725. 45 (7 x 10) + (2 x 10') + (5 x 10) + (4 x 10') + (5 x 10) 700 + 20 + 5 + 0.4 + 0.05
BINARY NUMBERS
The binary system is less complicated than the decimal system because it has only two digits, it is a
base-two system. The two binary digits (bits) are 1 and 0. The position oI a 1 or 0 in a binary number
indicates its weight, or value within the number, just as the position oI a decimal digit determines the
value oI that digit. The weights in a binary number are based on power oI two as:
...
4
2
2
2
1
2
0
. 2
-1
2
-2
..
With 4 digits position we can count Irom zero to 15.In general, with n bits we can count up to a number
equal to - 1. Largest decimal number - 1.A binary number is a weighted number. The right-most bit is
the least signiIicant bit (LSB) in a binary whole number and has a weight oI 2 1. The weights increase
Irom right to leIt by a power oI two Ior each bit. The leIt-most bit is the most signiIicant bit (MSB); its
weight depends on the size oI the binary number.
BINARY-TO-DECIMAL CONVERSION
The decimal value oI any binary number can be Iound by adding the weights oI all bits that are 1 and
discarding the weights oI all bits that are 0
Example
Let`s convert the binary whole number 101101 to decimal
Weight:
2
5
2
4
2
3
2
2
2
1
2
0
X
Binary no: 1 0 1 1 0 1
Value 32 0 8 4 0 1
Sum 45
HEXADECIMAL NUMBERS
The hexadecimal number system has sixteen digits and is used primarily as a compact way oI displaying
or writing binary numbers because it is very easy to convert between binary and hexadecimal. Long
binary numbers are diIIicult to read and write because it is easy to drop or transpose a bit. Hexadecimal is
widely used in computer and microprocessor applications. The hexadecimal system has a base oI sixteen;
it is composed oI 16 digits and alphabetic characters. The maximum 3-digits hexadecimal number is EEE
or decimal 4095 and maximum 4-digit hexadecimal number is EEEE or decimal 65.535.
BINARY-TO-HEXADECIMAL CONVERSION
Simply break the binary number into 4-bit groups, starting at the right-most bit and replace each 4-bit
group with the equivalent hexadecimal symbol as in the Iollowing example
Convert the binary number to hexadecimal: 1100101001010111
Solution:
1100 1010 0101 0111
C A 5 7 CA57
HEXADECIMAL-TO-DECIMAL CONVERSION
One way to Iind the decimal equivalent oI a hexadecimal number is to Iirst convert the hexadecimal
number to binary and then convert Irom binary to decimal.
Convert the hexadecimal number 1C to decimal:
1 C
0001
1100 2
4
+ 2 + 2 16 +8+4 28
DECIMAL-TO-HEXADECIMAL CONVERSION
Repeated division oI a decimal number by 16 will produce the equivalent hexadecimal number,
Iormed by the remainders oI the divisions. The Iirst remainder produced is the least signiIicant digit
(LSD).
Each successive division by 16 yields a remainder that becomes a digit in the equivalent
hexadecimal number. When a quotient has a Iractional part, the Iractional part is multiplied by the
divisor to get the remainder.
Convert the decimal number 650 to hexadecimal by repeated division by 16
650 /16 40.625 0.625 x 16 10 A (LSD)
40 /16 2.5 0.5 x 16 8 8
2/16 0.125 0.125 x 16 2 2 (MSD)
The hexadecimal number is 28A
8
OCTAL NUMBERS
Like the hexadecimal system, the octal system provides a convenient way to express binary
numbers and codes. However, it is used less Irequently than hexadecimal in conjunction with
computers and microprocessors to express binary quantities Ior input and output purposes.
The octal system is composed oI eight digits, which are: 0,
1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7
To count above 7, begin another column and start over: 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 20, 21 and so
on. Counting in octal is similar to counting in decimal, except that the digits 8 and 9 are not used.
OCTAL-TO-DECIMAL CONVERSION
Since the octal number system has a base oI eight, each successive digit position is an increasing
power oI eight, beginning in the right-most column with 8. The evaluation oI an octal number in
terms oI its decimal equivalent is accomplished by multiplying each digit by its weight and
summing the products.
Let`s convert octal number 2374 in decimal number.
Weight 8 8 8
1
8
0
Octal number 2 3 7 4
2374 (2 x 8) + (3 x 8) + (7 x
1
) + (4 x 8) 1276
DECIMAL-TO-OCTAL CONVERSION
A method oI converting a decimal number to an octal number is the repeated division-by-8 method,
which is similar to the method used in the conversion oI decimal numbers to binary or to
hexadecimal.
Let`s convert the decimal number 359 to octal. Each successive division by 8 yields a remainder
that becomes a digit in the equivalent octal number. The Iirst remainder generated is the least
signiIicant digit (LSD).
359/8 44.875 0.875 x 8 7 (LSD)
44 /8 5.5 0.5 x 8 4
5/8 0.625 0.625 x 8 5 (MSD)
The number is 547.
OCTAL-TO-BINARY CONVERSION
Because each octal digit can be represented by a 3-bit binary number, it is very easy to convert Irom
octal to binary.
NSCET , Bept of cse Page Su
Octal/Binary Conversion
Octal Digit 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Binary 000 001 010 011 100 101 110 111
Let`s convert the octal numbers 25 and 140.
Octal Digit 2 5 1 4 0
Binary 010 101 001 100 000
BINARY-TO-OCTAL CONVERSION
Conversion oI a binary number to an octal number is the reverse oI the octal-to-binary
conversion.
Let`s convert the following binary numbers to octal:
1 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 1
6 5 65 5 7 1 571
PLANNING THE COMPUTER PROGRAM
The Programming Process - Purpose
Understand the problem

Read the problem statement

Question users

Inputs required

Outputs required

Special Iormulas

Talk to users

Plan the logic
Visual Design Tools Input
record chart Printer
spacing chart
Hierarchy
chart
Elowchart
Verbal Design Tools
Narrative Description
NSCET , Bept of cse Page S1
Pseudocode
Code the program

Select an appropriate programming language

Convert Ilowchart and/or Pseudocode instructions into programming language
statements

Test the program

Syntax errors

Runtime errors

Logic errors
Test Data Set

Implement the program

Buy hardware

Publish soItware

Train users

Implementation Styles
Crash
Pilot
Phased
Dual
Maintain the program

Maintenance programmers

Legacy systems

Up to 85 oI IT department budget

ALGORITHM
Algorithm

Set oI step-by-step instructions that perIorm a speciIic task or operation

'Natural language NOT programming language

Pseudocode
Set oI instructions that mimic programming language instructions
Flowchart

Visual program design tool

'Semantic symbols describe operations to be perIormed

FLOWCHARTS
0efInItIons:
A flowchart is a schematic representation of an algorithm or a stepwise process, showing
the steps as boxes of various kinds, and their order by connecting these with arrows.
Flowcharts are used in designing or documenting a process or program.
[
A flow chart, or flow diagram, is a graphical representation of a process or system
that details the sequencing of steps required to create output.
A flowchart is a picture of the separate steps of a process in sequential order.
Types:
HighLevel Flowchart
A highlevel (also called firstlevel or topdown) flowchart shows the major steps in a
process. t illustrates a birdseye view of a process, such as the example in the figure
entitled HighLevel Flowchart of Prenatal Care. t can also include the intermediate
outputs of each step (the product or service produced), and the substeps involved. Such
a flowchart offers a basic picture of the process and identifies the changes taking place
within the process. t is significantly useful for identifying appropriate team members
(those who are involved in the process) and for developing indicators for monitoring the
process because of its focus on intermediate outputs.
Vost processes can be adequately portrayed in four or five boxes that represent the major
steps or activities of the process. n fact, it is a good idea to use only a few boxes,
because doing so forces one to consider the most important steps. 0ther steps are usually
substeps of the more important ones.
0etailed Flowchart
The detailed flowchart provides a detailed picture of a process by mapping all of the steps
and activities that occur in the process. This type of flowchart indicates the steps or
activities of a process and includes such things as decision points, waiting periods, tasks
that frequently must be redone (rework), and feedback loops. This type of flowchart is
useful for examining areas of the process in detail and for looking for problems or areas of
inefficiency. For example, the 0etailed Flowchart of Patient Pegistration reveals the
delays that result when the record clerk and clinical officer are not available to assist
clients.
0eployment or Vatrix Flowchart
A deployment flowchart maps out the process in terms of who is doing the steps. t is in
NSCET , Bept of cse Page SS
the form of a matrix, showing the various participants and the flow of steps among these
participants. t is chiefly useful in identifying who is providing inputs or services to whom,
as well as areas where different people may be needlessly doing the same task. See the
0eployment of Vatrix Flowchart.
A0VANTACES DF USINC FLDWCHAPTS
The benefits of flowcharts are as follows:
1. Communication: Flowcharts are better way of communicating the logic of a system
to all concerned.
2. Effective analysis: With the help of flowchart, problem can be analysed in more
effective way.
J. Proper documentation: Program flowcharts serve as a good program
documentation, which is needed for various purposes.
4. Efficient Coding: The flowcharts act as a guide or blueprint during the systems
analysis and program development phase.
5. Proper 0ebugging: The flowchart helps in debugging process.
6. Efficient Program Vaintenance: The maintenance of operating program becomes
easy with the help of flowchart. t helps the programmer to put efforts more
efficiently on that part
Advantages
Logic Flowcharts are easy to understand. They provide a graphical
representation of actions to be taken.
Logic Flowcharts are well suited for representing logic where there is
intermingling among many actions.
0Isadvantages
Logic Flowcharts may encourage the use of CoTo statements
leading to software design that is unstructured with logic that is
difficult to decipher.
Without an automated tool, it is timeconsuming to maintain Logic
Flowcharts.
Logic Flowcharts may be used during detailed logic design to specify a
module. However, the presence of decision boxes may encourage the
use of CoTo statements, resulting in software that is not structured.
For this reason, Logic Flowcharts may be better used during Structural
0esign
LIhITATIDNS DF USINC FLDWCHAPTS
1. Complex logic: Sometimes, the program logic is quite complicated. n that case,
flowchart becomes complex and clumsy.
2. Alterations and Vodifications: f alterations are required the flowchart may
require redrawing completely.
J. Peproduction: As the flowchart symbols cannot be typed, reproduction of
flowchart becomes a problem.
4. The essentials of what is done can easily be lost in the technical details of how it is
done.
CUI0ELINES FDP 0PAWINC A FLDWCHAPT
Flowcharts are usually drawn using some standard symbols; however, some special
symbols can also be developed when required. Some standard symbols, which are
frequently required for flowcharting many computer programs.
Start or end of the program
Computational steps or processing function of a program
nput or output operation
0ecision making and branching
Connector or joining of two parts of program
Vagnetic Tape
FIowchart SymboIs
Vagnetic 0isk
0ffpage connector
Flow line
Annotation
0isplay
The following are some guidelines in flowcharting:
a. n drawing a proper flowchart, all necessary requirements should be listed out in
logical order.
b. The flowchart should be clear, neat and easy to follow. There should not be any
room for ambiguity in understanding the flowchart.
c. The usual direction of the flow of a procedure or system is from left to right or top
to bottom.
d. 0nly one flow line should come out from a process symbol.
or
e. 0nly one flow line should enter a decision symbol, but two or three flow lines, one
for each possible answer, should leave the decision symbol.
f. 0nly one flow line is used in conjunction with terminal symbol.
g. Write within standard symbols briefly. As necessary, you can use the annotation
symbol to describe data or computational steps more clearly.
h. f the flowchart becomes complex, it is better to use connector symbols to reduce
the number of flow lines. Avoid the intersection of flow lines if you want to make
it more effective and better way of communication.
i. Ensure that the flowchart has a logical stcrt and ]nsh.
j. t is useful to test the validity of the flowchart by passing through it with a simple
test data.
Examples
Sample flowchart
A Ilowchart Ior computing Iactorial N (N!) Where N! 1 * 2 * 3 *...* N. This Ilowchart represents a
"loop and a halI" a situation discussed in introductory programming textbooks that requires either
a duplication oI a component (to be both inside and outside the loop) or the component to be put
inside a branch in the loop
Sample Pseudocode
ALGORITHM Sample
GET Data
WHILE There Is Data
DO Math Operation
GET Data
END WHILE
END ALGORITHM
UNIT II C PROGRAMMING BASICS 10
Problem Iormulation Problem Solving - Introduction to C` programming Iundamentals structureoI a
C` program compilation and linking processes Constants, Variables Data Types Expressions using
operators in C` Managing Input and Output operations Decision Making andBranching Looping
statements solving simple scientiIic and statistical problems
OVERVIEW OF C
As a programming language, C is rather like Pascal or Eortran.. Values are stored in variables. Programs are
structured by deIining and calling Iunctions. Program Ilow is controlled using loops, iI statements and Iunction
calls. Input and output can be directed to the terminal or to Iiles. Related data can be stored together in arrays
or structures.
OI the three languages, C allows the most precise control oI input and output. C is also rather more terse than
Eortran or Pascal. This can result in short eIIicient programs, where the programmer has made wise use oI C's
range oI powerIul operators. It also allows the programmer to produce programs which are impossible to
understand. Programmers who are Iamiliar with the use oI pointers (or indirect addressing, to use the correct
term) will welcome the ease oI use compared with some other languages. Undisciplined use oI pointers can lead
to errors which are very hard to trace. This course only deals with the simplest applications oI pointers.
A Simple Program
The Iollowing program is written in the C programming language.
=include stdio.h~
main()
{
}
printf("Programming in C is easv.n"),
A NOTE ABOUT C PROGRAMS
In C, lowercase and uppercase characters are very important! All commands in C must be lowercase. The
C programs starting point is identiIied by the word
main()
This inIorms the computer as to where the program actually starts. The brackets that Iollow the keyword
main indicate that there are no arguments supplied to this program (this will be examined later on).
The two braces, and }, signiIy the begin and end segments oI the program. The purpose oI the statment
include stdio.h~
is to allow the use oI the printf statement to provide program output. Text to be displayed by printf() must
be enclosed in double quotes. The program has only one statement
printf() is actually a Iunction (procedure) in C that is used Ior printing variables and text. Where text appears in
double quotes "", it is printed without modiIication. There are some exceptions however. This has to do with the \
and characters. These characters are modiIier's, and Ior the present the \ Iollowed by the n character
represents a newline character. Thus the program prints
Programming in C is easy.
and the cursor is set to the beginning oI the next line. As we shall see later on, what Iollows the \ character will
determine what is printed, ie, a tab, clear screen, clear line etc. Another important thing to remember is that all C
statements are terminated by a semi-colon ;
Summary of major points:

program execution begins at main()

keywords are written in lower-case

statements are terminated with a semi-colon

text strings are enclosed in double quotes

C is case sensitive, use lower-case and try not to capitalise variable names

\n means position the cursor on the beginning oI the next line

printf() can be used to display text to the screen

The curly braces } deIine the beginning and end oI a program block.

BASIC STRUCTURE OF C PROGRAMS
C programs are essentially constructed in the Iollowing manner, as a number oI well deIined sections.
/* HEADER SECTION */
/* Contains name, author, revision number*/
/* INCLUDE SECTION */
/* contains #include statements */
/* CONSTANTS AND TYPES SECTION */
/* contains types and #deIines */
/* GLOBAL VARIABLES SECTION */
/* any global variables declared here */
/* EUNCTIONS SECTION */
/* user deIined Iunctions */
/* main() SECTION */
int main()
}
VARIABLE
User deIined variables must be declared beIore they can be used in a program. Variables must begin with a character
or underscore, and may be Iollowed by any combination oI characters, underscores, or the digits 0 - 9.
LOCAL AND GLOBAL VARIABLES
Local
These variables only exist inside the speciIic Iunction that creates them. They are unknown to other Iunctions
and to the main program. As such, they are normally implemented using a stack. Local variables cease to exist
once the Iunction that created them is completed. They are recreated each time a Iunction is executed or called.
Global
These variables can be accessed (ie known) by any Iunction comprising the program. They are implemented
by associating memory locations with variable names. They do not get recreated iI the Iunction is recalled.
DEFINING GLOBAL VARIABLES
/* Demonstrating Global variables */
Example:
=include stdio.h~
int addnumbers( void ), /* ANSI function prototvpe */
/* These are global variables and can be accessed bv functions from this point on */
int value1, value2, value3,
int addnumbers( void )
{
}
main()
{
}
auto int result,
result value1 value2
value3, return result,
auto int result,
result addnumbers(),
printf("The sum of d d d is dn",
value1, value2, value3, finalresult),
The scope oI global variables can be restricted by careIully placing the declaration. They are visible Irom
the declaration until the end oI the current source Iile.
Example:
=include stdio.h~
void noaccess( void ), /* ANSI function prototvpe */ void
allaccess( void ),
static int n2, /* n2 is known from this point onwards */
void noaccess( void )
{
n1 10, /* illegal, n1 not vet known */
n2 5, /* valid */
}
static int n1, /* n1 is known from this point onwards */
void allaccess( void )
{
n1 10, /* valid */
n2 3, /* valid */
}
AUTOMATIC AND STATIC VARIABLES
C programs have a number oI segments (or areas) where data is located. These segments are typically,
DATA Static data
BSS Uninitialized static data, zeroed out beIore call to main()
STACK Automatic data, resides on stack Irame, thus local to Iunctions
CONST Constant data, using the ANSI C keyword const
The use oI the appropriate keyword allows correct placement oI the variable onto the desired data segment.
Example:
/* example program illustrates difference between static and automatic variables */
=include stdio.h~
void demo( void ), /* ANSI function prototvpes */
void demo( void )
{
auto int avar 0, static
int svar 0,
printf("auto d, static dn", avar, svar),
avar,
svar,
}
main()
{
int i
while( i 3 ) {
demo(),
i,
}
}
AUTOMATIC AND STATIC VARIABLES
Example:
/* example program illustrates difference between static and automatic variables */
=include stdio.h~
void demo( void ), /* ANSI function prototvpes */
void demo( void )
{
auto int avar 0,
static int svar 0,
}
main()
{
printf("auto d, static dn", avar, svar),
avar,
svar,
int i,
while( i 3 ) {
demo(),
i,
}
}
Program output
auto 0, static 0
auto 0, static 1
auto 0, static 2
The basic Iormat Ior declaring variables is
datatvpe var, var, ... ,
where datatvpe is one oI the Iour basic types, an integer, character, float, or double type.
Static variables are created and initialized once, on the Iirst call to the Iunction. Subsequent calls to the Iunction
do not recreate or re-initialize the static variable. When the Iunction terminates, the variable still exists on the
DATA segment, but cannot be accessed by outside Iunctions.
Automatic variables are the opposite. They are created and re-initialized on each entry to the Iunction. They
disappear (are de-allocated) when the Iunction terminates. They are created on the STACK segment.
DATA TYPES AND CONSTANTS
The Iour basic data types are

INTEGER

These are whole numbers, both positive and negative. Unsigned integers (positive values only)
are supported. In addition, there are short and long integers.

The keyword used to deIine integers is,

int
An example oI an integer value is 32. An example oI declaring an integer variable called sum is,
int sum,
sum 20;

FLOATING POINT

These are numbers which contain Iractional parts, both positive and negative. The keyword used to
deIine Iloat variables is,

float

An example oI a Iloat value is 34.12. An example oI declaring a Iloat variable called money is,
float
monev, monev
0.12,

DOUBLE

These are exponetional numbers, both positive and negative. The keyword used to deIine double
variables is,

double

An example oI a double value is 3.0E2. An example oI declaring a double variable called big is,
double
big, big
312E7,

CHARACTER

These are single characters. The keyword used to deIine character variables is,

char

An example oI a character value is the letter A. An example oI declaring a character variable called
letter is,
char
letter, letter
A,
Note the assignment oI the character A to the variable letter is done by enclosing the value in
single quotes. Remember the golden rule: Single character - Use single quotes.
Sample program illustrating each data type
Example:
=include stdio.h ~
main()
{
}
int sum,
float
monev,
char letter,
double pi,
sum 10, /* assign integer value */
monev 2.21, /* assign float value */
letter A, /* assign character value */
pi 2.01E6, /* assign a double value */
printf("value of sum dn", sum ),
printf("value of monev fn", monev
), printf("value of letter cn", letter
), printf("value of pi en", pi ),
Sample program output
value of sum 10
value of monev
2.210000 value of letter
A
value of pi 2.010000e06
INITIALISING DATA VARIABLES AT DECLARATION TIME
In C variables may be initialised with a value when they are declared. Consider the Iollowing declaration,
which declares an integer variable count which is initialised to 10.
int count 10,
SIMPLE ASSIGNMENT OF VALUES TO VARIABLES
The operator is used to assign values to data variables. Consider the Iollowing statement, which assigns
the value 32 an integer variable count, and the letter A to the character variable letter
count
32, letter
A
Variable Formatters
d decimal integer
c character
s string or character array
I Iloat
e double
HEADER FILES
Header Iiles contain deIinitions oI Iunctions and variables which can be incorporated into any C program by
using the pre-processor =include statement. Standard header Iiles are provided with each compiler, and cover a
range oI areas, string handling, mathematical, data conversion, printing and reading oI variables.
To use any oI the standard Iunctions, the appropriate header Iile should be included. This is done at the
beginning oI the C source Iile. Eor example, to use the Iunction printf() in a program, the line
=include stdio.h~
should be at the beginning oI the source Iile, because the deIinition Ior printf() is Iound in the Iile stdio.h
All header Iiles have the extension .h and generally reside in the /include subdirectory.
=include stdio.h~
=include
"mvdecls.h"
The use oI angle brackets ~ inIorms the compiler to search the compilers include directory Ior the speciIied
Iile. The use oI the double quotes "" around the Iilename inIorm the compiler to search in the current directory
Ior the speciIied Iile.
OPERATORS AND EXPRESSIONS
An ex pr e s s io n is a sequence oI operators and operands that speciIies computation oI avalue, or that
designates an object or a Iunction, or that generates side eIIects, or that perIorms a combination thereoI.
ARITHMETIC OPERATORS:
The symbols oI the arithmetic operators are:-
Operation Operator Comment Value of Sum before Value of sum after
Multiply * sum sum * 2; 4 8
Divide / sum sum / 2; 4 2
Addition sum sum 2; 4 6
Subtraction - sum sum -2; 4 2
Increment sum; 4 5
Decrement -- --sum; 4 3
Modulus sum sum 3; 4 1
Example:
=include stdio.h~
main()
{
}
int sum 50,
float modulus,
modulus sum 10,
printf("The of d bv 10 is fn", sum, modulus),
PRE/POST INCREMENT/DECREMENT OPERATORS
PRE means do the operation Iirst Iollowed by any assignment operation. POST means do the operation aIter any
assignment operation. Consider the Iollowing statements
count, /* PRE Increment, means add one to count */
count, /* POST Increment, means add one to count */
Example:
=include stdio.h~
main()
{
}
int count 0, loop,
loop count, /* same as count count 1, loop count, */
printf("loop d, count dn", loop, count),
loop count, /* same as loop count, count count 1, */
printf("loop d, count dn", loop, count),
II the operator precedes (is on the leIt hand side) oI the variable, the operation is perIormed Iirst, so the statement
loop count,
really means increment count Iirst, then assign the new value oI count to loop.
THE RELATIONAL OPERATORS
These allow the comparison oI two or more variables.
n equal to
' not equal
less than
less than or equal to
~ greater than
~ greater than or equal to
Example:
=include stdio.h~
main() /* Program introduces the for statement, counts to ten */
{
int count,
for( count 1, count 10, count count 1 )
printf("d ", count ),
printf("n"),
}
RELATIONALS (AND, NOT, OR, EOR)
Combining more than one condition
These allow the testing oI more than one condition as part oI selection statements. The symbols are
LOGICAL AND &&
Logical and requires all conditions to evaluate as TRUE (non-zero).
LOGICAL OR ,,
Logical or will be executed iI any ONE oI the conditions is TRUE (non-zero).
LOGICAL NOT !
logical not negates (changes Irom TRUE to EALSE, vsvs) a condition.
LOGICAL EOR `
Logical eor will be excuted iI either condition is TRUE, but NOT iI they are all true.
Example:
The Iollowing program uses an if statement with logical AND to validate the users input to be in the range 1-10.
=include stdio.h~
main()
{
int number, int
valid 0,
while( valid 0 ) {
printf("Enter a number between 1 and 10 --~"),
scanf("d", &number),
if( (number 1 ) ,, (number ~ 10) ){
printf("Number is outside range 1-10. Please re-entern"),
valid 0,
}
else
}
valid 1,
printf("The number is dn", number ),
}
Example:
NEGATION
=include stdio.h~
main()
{
}
Example:
int flag 0,
if( ' flag ) {
printf("The flag is not set.n"),
flag ' flag,
}
printf("The value of flag is dn", flag),
Consider where a value is to be inputted Irom the user, and checked Ior validity to be within a certain range, lets
say between the integer values 1 and 100.
=include stdio.h~
main()
{
int number, int
valid 0,
while( valid 0 ) {
printf("Enter a number between 1 and 100"),
scanf("d", &number ),
if( (number 1) ,, (number ~ 100) ) printf("Number
is outside legal rangen"),
else
}
valid 1,
printf("Number is dn", number ),
}
THE CONDITIONAL EXPRESSION OPERATOR or TERNARY OPERATOR
This conditional expression operator takes THREE operators. The two symbols used to denote this operator are
NSCET , Bept of cse Page Su
the ? and the :. The Iirst operand is placed beIore the ?, the second operand between the ? and the :, and the third
aIter the :. The general Iormat is,
condition ? expression1 . expression2
II the result oI condition is TRUE ( non-zero ), expression1 is evaluated and the result oI the evaluation becomes
the result oI the operation. II the condition is EALSE (zero), then expression2 is evaluated and its result becomes
the result oI the operation. An example will help,
s ( x 0 ) ? -1 . x * x,
If x is less than :ero then s -1
If x is greater than :ero then s x * x
Example:
=include stdio.h~
main()
{
int input,
printf("I will tell vou if the number is positive, negative or :ero'"n"),
printf("please enter vour number now---~"),
scanf("d", &input ),
(input 0) ? printf("negativen") . ((input ~ 0) ? printf("positiven") . printf(":eron")),
}
BIT OPERATIONS
C has the advantage oI direct bit manipulation and the operations available are,
Operation Operator Comment Value of Sum before Value of sum after
AND & sum sum & 2; 4 0
OR , sum sum , 2; 4 6
Exclusive OR ` sum sum ` 2; 4 6
1's Complement ~ sum ~sum; 4 -5
LeIt ShiIt sum sum 2; 4 16
Right ShiIt ~~ sum sum ~~ 2; 4 0
Example:
/* Example program illustrating and ~~ */
=include stdio.h~
main()
{
}
int n1 10, n2 20, i 0,
i n2 4, /* n2 shifted left four times */
printf("dn", i),
i n1 ~~ 5, /* n1 shifted right five times */
printf("dn", i),
Example:
/* Example program using EOR operator */
=include stdio.h~
main()
{
int value1 2, value2 4,
value1 value2,
value2 value1,
value1 value2,
printf("Jalue1 d, Jalue2 dn", value1, value2),
}
Example:
/* Example program using AND operator */
=include stdio.h~
main()
{
}
int loop,
for( loop A, loop Z, loop )
printf("Loop c, AND 0xdf cn", loop, loop & 0xdf),
MANAGING INPUT AND OUTPUT OPERATORS
Printf ():
printf() is actually a Iunction (procedure) in C that is used Ior printing variables and text. Where text appears in
double quotes "", it is printed without modiIication. There are some exceptions however. This has to do with the \
and characters. These characters are modiIier's, and Ior the present the \ Iollowed by the n character represents
a newline character.
Example:
=include stdio.h~
main()
{
}
printf("And so is Pascal.n"),
Programming in C is easv.
And so is Pascal.
FORMATTERS for printf are,
Cursor Control Formatters
\n newline \t tab
\r carriage return
\I Iorm Ieed
\v vertical tab
Scanf ():
ScanI () is a Iunction in C which allows the programmer to accept input Irom a keyboard.
Example:
=include stdio.h~
main() /* program which introduces kevboard input */
{
int number,
printf("Tvpe in a number n"),
scanf("d", &number),
printf("The number vou tvped was dn", number),
}
FORMATTERS FOR scanf()
The Iollowing characters, aIter the character, in a scanI argument, have the Iollowing eIIect.
d read a decimal integer
o read an octal value
x read a hexadecimal value
h read a short integer
l read a long integer
I read a Iloat value
e read a double value
c read a single character
s read a sequence oI characters
|...| Read a character string. The characters inside the brackets
ACCEPTING SINGLE CHARACTERS FROM THE KEYBOARD
Getchar, Putchar
getchar() gets a single character Irom the keyboard, and putchar() writes a single character Irom the
keyboard.
Example:
The Iollowing program illustrates this,
=include stdio.h~
main()
{
int i, int
ch,
for( i 1, i 5, i ) {
ch getchar(),
putchar(ch),
}
}
The program reads Iive characters (one Ior each iteration oI the Ior loop) Irom the keyboard. Note that getchar()
gets a single character Irom the keyboard, and putchar() writes a single character (in this case, ch) to the console
screen.
DECISION MAKING
IF STATEMENTS
The if statements allows branching (decision making) depending upon the value or state oI variables. This allows
statements to be executed or skipped, depending upon decisions. The basic Iormat is,
if( expression ) program
statement,
Example:
if( students 65 )
studentcount,
In the above example, the variable studentcount is incremented by one only iI the value oI the integer variable
students is less than 65.
The Iollowing program uses an if statement to validate the users input to be in the range 1-10.
Example:
=include stdio.h~
main()
{
while( valid 0 ) {
printf("Enter a number between 1 and 10 --~"), scanf("d",
&number),
/* assume number is valid */ valid 1,
if( number 1 ) {
printf("Number is below 1. Please re-entern"), valid 0,
}
if( number ~ 10 ) {
printf("Number is above 10. Please re-entern"), valid 0,
}
}
}
IF ELSE
The general Iormat Ior these are,
if( condition 1 ) statement1,
else if( condition 2 ) statement2,
else if( condition 3 ) statement3,
else statement4,
The else clause allows action to be taken where the condition evaluates as Ialse (zero).
The Iollowing program uses an if else statement to validate the users input to be in the range 1-10.
Example:
=include stdio.h~
main()
{
int number, int valid 0,
while( valid 0 ) {
printf("Enter a number between 1 and 10 --~"), scanf("d",
&number),
if( number 1 ) {
printf("Number is below 1. Please re-entern"), valid 0,
}
else if( number ~ 10 ) {
printf("Number is above 10. Please re-entern"),
valid 0,
}
else
}
valid 1,
}
This program is slightly diIIerent Irom the previous example in that an else clause is used to set the variable valid
to 1. In this program, the logic should be easier to Iollow.
AES1ED IF ELSE
/* Illustates nested if else and multiple arguments to the scanf function. */
Example:
=include stdio.h~
main()
{
int invalidoperator 0,
char operator,
float number1, number2, result,
printf("Enter two numbers and an operator in the formatn"),
printf(" number1 operator number2n"),
scanf("f c f", &number1, &operator, &number2),
if(operator *)
result number1 * number2,
else if(operator /)
result number1 / number2,
else if(operator )
result number1 number2,
else if(operator -)
result number1 - number2,
else
invalidoperator 1,
if( invalidoperator ' 1 )
printf("f c f is fn", number1, operator, number2, result ),
else
printf("Invalid operator.n"),
BRANCHING AND LOOPING
ITERATION, FOR LOOPS
The basic Iormat oI the Ior statement is,
for( start condition, continue condition, re-evaulation
) program statement,
Example:
/* sample program using a for statement
*/ =include stdio.h~
main() /* Program introduces the for statement, counts to ten */
{
int count,
for( count 1, count 10, count count 1
) printf("d ", count ),
printf("n"),
}
The program declares an integer variable count. The Iirst part oI the for statement
for( count 1,
initialises the value oI count to 1. The for loop continues whilst the condition
count 10,
evaluates as TRUE. As the variable count has just been initialised to 1, this condition is TRUE and so the
program statement
is executed, which prints the value oI count to the screen, Iollowed by a space character.
Next, the remaining statement oI the for is executed
count count 1 ),
which adds one to the current value oI count. Control now passes back to the conditional test,
count 10,
which evaluates as true, so the program statement
is executed. Count is incremented again, the condition re-evaluated etc, until count reaches a value oI 11.
When this occurs, the conditional test
count 10,
evaluates as EALSE, and the for loop terminates, and program control passes to the statement
printf("n"),
which prints a newline, and then the program terminates, as there are no more statements leIt to execute.
THE WHILE STATEMENT
The while provides a mechanism Ior repeating C statements whilst a condition is true. Its Iormat is,
while( condition )
program statement,
Somewhere within the body oI the while loop a statement must alter the value oI the condition to allow the loop
to Iinish.
Example:
/* Sample program including while */
=include stdio.h~
main()
{
int loop 0,
while( loop 10 ) {
printf("dn", loop),
loop,
}
}
The above program uses a while loop to repeat the statements
printf("dn", loop),
loop,
whilst the value oI the variable loop is less than or equal to 10.
Note how the variable upon which the while is dependant is initialised prior to the while statement (in this case
the previous line), and also that the value oI the variable is altered within the loop, so that eventually the
conditional test will succeed and the while loop will terminate.
This program is Iunctionally equivalent to the earlier for program which counted to ten.
THE DO WHILE STATEMENT
The do { } while statement allows a loop to continue whilst a condition evaluates as TRUE (non-zero). The loop is
executed as least once.
Example:
/* Demonstration of DO...WHILE */
=include stdio.h~
main()
{
int value, rdigit,
printf("Enter the number to be reversed.n"),
scanf("d", &value),
do {
rdigit value 10,
printf("d", rdigit),
value value / 10,
} while( value ' 0 ),
printf("n"),
}
The above program reverses a number that is entered by the user. It does this by using the modulus operator to
extract the right most digit into the variable rdigit. The original number is then divided by 10, and the operation
repeated whilst the number is not equal to 0.
SWITCH CASE:
The switch case statement is a better way oI writing a program when a series oI if elses occurs. The general Iormat
Ior this is,
switch ( expression ) {
case value1.
program statement,
program statement,
......
break,
case valuen.
program statement,
.......
break,
default.
}
.......
.......
break,
The keyword break must be included at the end oI each case statement. The deIault clause is optional, and is
executed iI the cases are not met. The right brace at the end signiIies the end oI the case selections.
Example:
=include stdio.h~
main()
{
int menu, numb1, numb2, total,
printf("enter in two numbers --~"),
scanf("d d", &numb1, &numb2 ),
printf("enter in choicen"),
printf("1additionn"),
printf("2subtractionn"), scanf("d",
&menu ),
switch( menu ) {
case 1. total numb1 numb2, break,
case 2. total numb1 - numb2, break,
default. printf("Invalid option selectedn"),
}
if( menu 1 )
printf("d plus d is dn", numb1, numb2, total ),
else if( menu 2 )
printf("d minus d is dn", numb1, numb2, total ),
}
The above program uses a switch statement to validate and select upon the users input choice, simulating a simple
menu oI choices.
UNIT III ARRAYS AND STRINGS 9
Arrays Initialization Declaration One dimensional and Two dimensional arrays. String- String
operations String Arrays. Simple programs- sorting- searching matrix operations.
INTRODUCTION
An array is a group oI related data items that share a common name. Eor instance, we
can deIine array name salary to represent a set oI salary oI a group oI employees. A particular
value is indicated by writing a number called index number or subscript in brackets aIter the
array name.
Eg: salary10]
ONE DIMENSIONAL ARRAY
An array with a single subscript is known as one dimensional array.
Eg: 1) int number5];
The values to array elements can be assigned as Iollows.
Eg: 1) number0] 35;
number1] 40;
number2] 20;
Declaration of Arrays
The general Iorm oI array declaration is
type variable-name|size|;
The type speciIies the type oI element that will be contained in the array, such as int,
float, or char and the size indicates the maximum number oI elements that can be stored inside
the array.
Eg: 1) float height50];
2) int group10];
3)char name10];
Initialization of Arrays
The general Iorm oI initialization oI arrays is:
static type array-name|size| list oI values};
Eg:1) static int number3] 0,0];
II the number oI values in the list is less than the number oI elements, then only that
many elements will be initialized. The remaining elements will be set to zero
automatically. Initialization oI arrays in C suIIers two drawbacks
There is no convenient way to initialize only selected elements.

There is no shortcut method Ior initializing a large number oI array elements
like the one available in EORTRAN.

We can use the word static` beIore type declaration. This declares the variable as a
static variable.
Eg : 1) static int counter] 1,1,1];
2) ...
...
for(i 0; i < 100; i i+1)
if i < 50
sumi] 0.0;
else
sumi] 1.0;
]
....
....
Program
/*Program showing one-dimensional array*/
main()
int i;
Iloat x|10|,value,total; printI('Enter
10 real numbers:\n); Ior(i 0; i 10;
i)
scanI('I,&value);
x|i| value;
}
total 0.0;
Ior(i 0; i 10; i)
total total x|i| * x|i|;
printI('\n);
Ior(i 0; i 10; i) printI('x|2d|
5.2I \n,i1,x|i|); printI('\nTotal
.2I\n,total);
}
OUTPUT
Enter 10 real numbers:
1.1 2.2 3.3 4.4 5.5 6.6 7.7 8.8 9.9 10.10
x|1| 1.10 x|2|
2.20 x|3|
3.30 x|4| 4.40
x|5| 5.50 x|6|
6.60 x|7|
7.70 x|8| 8.80
x|9| 9.90
x|10| 10.10
Total 446.86
TWO-DIMENSIONAL ARRAYS
Two-dimensional arrays are declared as Iollows
type array- name|rowsize||columnsize|;
Eg: producti]j] row ` column;
Program
/*Program to print multiplication table*/
#deIine ROWS 5
#deIine COLUMNS 5
main()
int row, column, product|ROWS||COLUMNS|;

int i, j;
printI('Multiplication table\n\n:) ;
printI(' ');
Ior(j 1; j COLUMNS; j)
printI('4d,j);
printI('\n);
printI(' \n);
Ior(i 0; i ROWS; i)
row i 1;
printI('2d,, row);
Ior(j 1; j COLUMNS; j)
column j;
product|i||j| row * column;
printI('4d, product|i||j|);
}
printI('\n);
}
}
OUTPUT
Multiplication Table
1 2 3 4 5
Check Your Progress
Ex 1) Give examples Ior one dimensional array.
------------------------------------------------
------------------------------------------------
Ex 2) Give examples Ior two dimensional array.
-----------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------
MULTIDIMENSIONAL ARRAY
C allows arrays oI three or more dimensions. The exact limit is determined by the
compiler. The general Iorm oI a multidimensional array is
type array_name|s1||s2||s3|.s|m|;
Eg: 1. int survey3]5]12];
2. float table5]4]5]3];
HANDLING OF CHARACTER STRINGS
INTRODUCTION
A string is a array oI characters. Any group oI characters(except the double quote sign)
deIined between double quotation marks is a constant string.
Eg: 1) 'Man is obviously made to think
II we want to include a double quote in a string, then we may use it with the back slash.
Eg: printf(~\well done!\);
will output
'well done!
The operations that are perIormed on character strings are

Reading and writing strings.

Combining strings together.

Copying one string to another.

Comparing strings Ior equality.

Extracting a portion oI a string.

DECLARING AND INITIALIZING STRING VARIABLES
A string variable is any valid C variable name and is always declared as an array.
The general Iorm oI declaration oI a string variable is
char stringname|size|;
Eg: char city10];
char name30];
When the compiler assigns a character string to a character array, it automatically
supplies a null character (\0`) at the end oI the string. ThereIore, the size should be equal to
the maximum number oI characters in the string plus one. C permits a character array to be
initialized in either oI the Iollowing two Iorms
static char city9] ~NEW YORK;
Reading Words
The Iamiliar input Iunction scanI can be used with s Iormat speciIication to read in
a string oI characters.
Eg: char address15];
scanf(~s,address);
Program
/*Reading a series oI words using scanI
Iunction*/ main()
char word1|40|,word2|40|,word3|40|,word4|40|;
printI('Enter text:\n);
scanI('s s,word1,
word2); scanI('s, word3);
scanI('s,word4);
printI('\n);
printI('word1 s \n word2 s \n,word1, word2);
printI('word3 s \n word4 s \n,word3, word4);
}
OUTPUT
Enter text:
OxIord Road, London M17ED
Word1 OxIord
Word2 Road
Word3 London
Word4 M17ED
Note: ScanI Iunction terminates its input on the Iirst white space it Iinds.
Reading a Line of Text
It is not possible to use scanI Iunction to read a line containing more than one word.
This is because the scanI terminates reading as soon as a space is encountered in the input. We
can use the getchar Iunction repeatedly to read single character Irom the terminal, using the
Iunction getchar. Thus an entire line oI text can be read and stored in an array.
Program
/*Program to read a line oI text Irom terminal*/
#includestdio.h~
main()
char line|81|,character;
int c;
c 0;
printI('Enter text. PressReturn~at end
\n); do
character getchar();
line|c| character; c;
}
while(character !
\n`); c c-1;
line|c| \0`;
printI('\n s \n,line);
}
OUTPUT
Enter text. PressReturn~at end
Programming in C is interesting
Programming in C is interesting
WRITING STRINGS TO SCREEN
We have used extensively the printI Iunction with s Iormat to print strings to the
screen. The Iormat s can be used to display an array oI characters that is terminated by the
null character.
Eor eg, the statement
printf(~s, name);
can be used to display the entire contents oI the array name.
ARITHMETIC OPERATIONS ON CHARACTERS
C allows us to manipulate characters the same way we do with numbers. Whenever a
character constant or character variable is used in an expression, it is automatically converted
into integer value by the system.
Eor eg, iI the machine uses the ASCII representation, then,
x a`;
printf(~d \n,x);
will display the number 97 on the screen.
The C library supports a Iunction that converts a string oI digits into their
integer values. The Iunction takes the Iorm
x atoi(string)
PUTTING STRINGS TOGETHER
Just as we cannot assign one string to another directly, we cannot join two strings
together by the simple arithmetic addition. That is, the statements such as
string3 string1 + string2;
string2 string1 + ~hello;
are not valid. The characters Irom string1 and string2 should be copied into string3 one aIter
the other. The process oI combining two strings together is called concatenation.
COMPARISON OF TWO STRINGS
C does not permit the comparison oI two strings directly. That is, the statements such as
if(name1 name2)
if(name ~ABC);
are not permitted. It is thereIore necessary to compare the two strings to be tested, character by
character. The comparison is done until there is a mismatch or one oI the strings terminate into
a null character, whichever occurs Iirst.
STRING - HANDLING FUNCTIONS
C library supports a large number oI string- handling Iunctions that can be used to carry
out many oI the string manipulation activities. Eollowing are the most commonly used string-
handling Iunctions.
Function Action
strcat( ) Concatenates two strings
strcmp( ) Compares two strings
strcpy( ) Copies one string over another
strlen( ) Einds the length oI the string
strcat( ) Function
The strcat Iunction joins two strings together. It takes the Iollowing Iorm
strcat( string1,string2);
Eg: strcat(part1, ~GOOD);
strcat(strcat(string1,string2),string3);
Here three strings are concatenated and the result is stored in string1.
strcmp( ) Function
It is used to compare two strings identiIied by the arguments and has a value 0 iI
they are equal.It takes the Iorm:
strcmp(string1,string2);
Eg: 1) strcmp(name1,name2);
2) strcmp(name1,john;
3) strcmp(~ram, ~rom);
strcpy( ) Function
This Iunction works almost like a string assignment operator. It takes the Iorm
strcpy(string1,string2);
This assigns the content oI string2 to string1.
Eg: 1) strcpy(city, ~DELHI);
2) strcpy(city1,city2);
strlen( ) Function
This Iunction counts and returns the number oI characters in a string.
n strlen(string);
Program
/*Illustration oI string- handling Iunctions*/
#includestring.h~
main()
char s1|20|,s2|20|,s3|20|;
int x, l1, l2, l3;
printI('Enter two string constants \n);
printI('?);
scanI('s s, s1, s2);
x strcmp(s1, s2);
iI(x ! 0)
printI('Strings are not equal \n);
strcat(s1, s2);
else
printI('Strings are equal \n);
strcpy(s3,s1);
l1 strlen(s1);
l2 strlen(s2);
l3 strlen(s3);
printI('\ns1 s \t length d characters \n,s1, l1);
}
OUTPUT
Enter two string constants
? New York
Strings are not equal
s1 New York length 7 characters
s2 York length 4 characters
s3 New York length 7 characters
Enter two string constants
? London London
Strings are equal
s1 London length 6 characters
UNIT IV FUNCTIONS AND POINTERS 9
Eunction deIinition oI Iunction Declaration oI Iunction Pass by value Pass by reIerence
Recursion Pointers - DeIinition Initialization Pointers arithmetic Pointers and arrays-
Example Problems.
FUNCTIONS
A Iunction in C can perIorm a particular task, and supports the concept oI modular programming design
techniques.
We have already been exposed to Iunctions. The main body oI a C program, identiIied by the keyword main, and
enclosed by the leIt and right braces is a Iunction. It is called by the operating system when the program is loaded,
and when terminated, returns to the operating system.
Eunctions have a basic structure. Their Iormat is
returndatatvpe functionname ( arguments, arguments )
datatvpedeclarationsofarguments,
{
functionbodv
}
It is worth noting that a returndatatype is assumed to be type int unless otherwise speciIied, thus the programs
we have seen so Iar imply that main() returns an integer to the operating system.
returndatatvpe functionname (datatvpe variablename, datatvpe variablename, .. )
{
functionbodv
}
simple function is,
void printmessage( void )
{
printf("This is a module called printmessage.n"),
}
Example:
Now lets incorporate this Iunction into a program.
/* Program illustrating a simple function call */
=include stdio.h~
void printmessage( void ), /* ANSI C function prototvpe */
void printmessage( void ) /* the function code */
{
}
main()
{
}
printf("This is a module called printmessage.n"),
printmessage(),
To call a Iunction, it is only necessary to write its name. The code associated with the Iunction name is executed at
that point in the program. When the Iunction terminates, execution begins with the statement which Iollows the
Iunction name.
In the above program, execution begins at main(). The only statement inside the main body oI the programis a call
to the code oI Iunction printmessage(). This code is executed, and when Iinished returns back to main().
As there is no Iurther statements inside the main body, the program terminates by returning to the operating
system.
RETURNING FUNCTION RESULTS
This is done by the use oI the keyword return, Iollowed by a data variable or constant value, the data type oI
which must match that oI the declared returndatatype Ior the Iunction.
float addnumbers( float n1, float n2 )
{
return n1 n2, /* legal */
return 6, /* illegal, not the same data tvpe */
return 6.0, /* legal */
}
It is possible Ior a Iunction to have multiple return statements.
int validateinput( char command )
switch( command ) { case .
case - . return 1,
case * .
case / . return 2,
default . return 0,
}
}
Example:
/* Simple multiplv program using argument passing */
=include stdio.h~
int calcresult( int, int ), /* ANSI function prototvpe */
int calcresult( int numb1, int numb2 )
{
}
main()
{
}
RECURSION
auto int result,
result numb1 * numb2,
return result,
int digit1 10, digit2 30, answer 0,
answer calcresult( digit1, digit2 ),
printf("d multiplied bv d is dn", digit1, digit2, answer ),
This is where a Iunction repeatedly calls itselI to perIorm calculations. Typical applications are games and Sorting
trees and lists.
Consider the calculation oI 6! ( 6 Iactorial )
ie 6! 6 * 5 * 4 * 3 * 2 * 1
6! 6 * 5!
6! 6 * ( 6 - 1 )!
n! n * ( n - 1 )!
Example:
/* example Ior demonstrating recursion */
#include stdio.h~
long int Iactorial( long int ); /* Iunction prototype */
long int Iactorial( long int n )
long int result;

iI( n 0L )
result 1L;
}
main()
else
( result );
int j;
result n * Iactorial( n - 1L ); return
Ior( j 0; j 11; j )
printI("2d! ld\n", Iactorial( (long) j) );
}
CALL BY VALUE:
When the value is passed directly to the Iunction it is called call by value. In call by value only a copy oI the
variable is only passed so any changes made to the variable does not reIlects in the calling Iunction.
Example:
#includestdio.h~
#includeconio.h~
swap(int,int); void
main()
int x,y;
printI("Enter two nos");
scanI("d d",&x,&y);
printI("\nBeIore swapping : xd yd",x,y);
swap(x,y);
getch();
}
swap(int a,int b)
int t; ta;
ab; bt;
printI("\nAIter swapping :xd yd",a,b);
}
SYSTEM OUTPUT: Enter two
nos 12 34 BeIore swapping :12
34 AIter swapping : 34 12
CALL BYREFERENCE
When the address oI the value is passed to the Iunction it is called call by reIerence. In call by reIerence since the
address oI the value is passed any changes made to the value reIlects in the calling Iunction.
Example:
#includestdio.h~
#includeconio.h~
swap(int *, int *);
void main()
int x,y;
printI("Enter two nos");
scanI("d d",&x,&y);
printI("\nBeIore swapping:xd yd",x,y);
swap(&x,&y);
printI("\nAIter swapping :xd yd",x,y);
getch();
}
swap(int *a,int *b)
int t;
t*a;
*a*b;
*bt;
}
SYSTEM OUTPUT:
Enter two nos 12 34
BeIore swapping :12 34
AIter swapping : 34 12
INTRODUCTION
Pointers are another important Ieature oI C language. Although they may appear a little
conIusing Ior a beginner, they are powerIul tool and handy to use once they are mastered. There
are a number oI reasons Ior using pointers.
1. A pointer enables us to access a variable that is deIined outside the Iunction.
2. Pointers are more eIIicient in handling the data tables.
3. Pointers reduce the length and complexity oI a program.
4. They increase the execution speed.
5. The use oI a pointer array to character strings result in saving oI data storage
space in memory.
UNDERSTANDING POINTERS
Whenever we declare a variable, the system allocates, somewhere in the memory, an
appropriate location to hold the value oI the variable. Since, every byte has a unique address
number, this location will have its own address number.
Consider the Iollowing statement:
int quantity 179;
This statement instructs the system to Iind a location Ior the integer variable quantity
and puts the value 179 in that location. Assume that the system has chosen the address location
5000 Ior quantity. We may represent this as shown below.
quantity Variable
179 Value
5000 Address
Representation oI a variable
During execution oI the program, the system always associates the name quantity with
the address 5000. To access the value 179 we use either the name quantity or the address 5000.
Since memory addresses are simply numbers, they can be assigned to some variables which
can be stored in memory, like any other variable. Such variables that hold memory
addresses are called pointers. A pointer is, therefore, nothing but a variable that contains
an address which is a location of another variable in memory.
Since a pointer is a variable, its value is also stored in the memory in another location.
Suppose, we assign the address oI quantity to a variable p. The link between the variables p and
quantity can be visualized as shown below. The address oI p is 5048.
Jariable Jalue Address
quantity 179 5000
p 5000 5048
Pointer as a variable
Since the value oI the variable p is the address oI the variable quantity, we may access
the value oI quantity by using the value oI p and thereIore, we say that the variable p points` to
the variable quantity. Thus, p gets the name pointer`.
CESSING THE ADDRESS OF A VARIABLE
The actual location oI a variable in the memory is system dependent and thereIore, the
address oI a variable is not known to us immediately. However we determine the address oI a
variable by using the operand & available in C. The operator immediately preceding the
variable returns the address oI the variable associated with it. Eor example, the statement
p &quantity;
would assign the address 5000(the location oI quantity) to the variable p. The &operator
can be remembered as address oI`.
The & operator can be only used with a simple variable or an array element. The
Iollowing are illegal use oI address operator:
1. &125 (pointing at constants).
2. int x|10|;
&x (pointing at array names).
3. &(xy) (pointing at expressions).
II x is an array ,then expressions such as
&x|0| and &x|i 3|
th th
are valid and represent the addresses oI 0 and (i 3) elements oI x.
The program shown below declares and initializes Iour variables and then prints out these
values with their respective storage locations.
Program
/*******************************************************************/ /*
ACCESSING ADDRESSES OE VARIABLES */
/*******************************************************************/
main()
char a; int
x; Iloat p,
q;
a `A`;
x 125;
p 10.25 , q 18.76;
printI('c is stored as addr u . \n, a, &a);
printI('d is stored as addr u . \n,x , &x);
printI('I is stored as addr u . \n, p, &p);
printI('I is stored as addr u . \n, q, &q);
}
A is stored at addr 44336
125 is stored at addr 4434
10.250000 is stored at addr 4442
18.760000 is stored at addr 4438.
DECLARING AND INITIALIZING POINTERS
Pointer variables contain addresses that belong to a separate data type, which must be
declared as pointers beIore we use them. The declaration oI the pointer variable takes the
Iollowing Iorm:
data type *pt name;
This tells the compiler three things about the variable pt name:
1. The asterisk(*) tells that the variable pt name.
2. pt name needs a memory location.
3. ptname points to a variable oI type data type.
Example:
int *p;
Iloat *x;
Once a pointer variable has been declared, it can be made to point to a variable using an
assignment operator such as
p &quantity;
BeIore a pointer is initialized it should not be used.
Ensure that the pointer variables always point to the corresponding type oI data.
Example:
Iloat a, b;
int x, *p;
p &a;
b *p;
will result in erroneous output because we are trying to assign the address oI a Iloat variable to
an integer pointer. When we declare a pointer to be oI int type, the system assumes that any
address that a pointer will hold will point to an integer variable.
Assigning an absolute address to a pointer variable is prohibited. The Iollowing is wrong.
int *ptr;
..
ptr 5368;
..
..
A pointer variable can be initialized in its declaration itselI. Eor example,
int x, *p &x;
is perIectly valid. It declares x as an integer variable and p as a pointer variable and then
initializes p to the address oI x. The statement
int *p &x, x; is not valid.
ACCESSING A VARIABLE THROUGH ITS POINTER
To access the value oI the variable using the pointer, another unary operator *(asterisk),
usually known as the indirection operator is used. Consider the Iollowing statements:
int quantity, *p, n;
quantity 179;
p &quantity;
n *p;
The statement n*p contains the indirection operator *. When the operator * is placed
beIore a pointer variable in an expression (on the right-hand side oI the equal sign), the pointer
returns the value oI the variable oI which the pointer value is the address. In this case, *p
returns the value oI the variable quantity, because p is the address oI the quantity. The * can be
remembered as value at address`. Thus the value oI n would be 179. The two statements
p &quantity;
n *p; are equivalent to
n *&quantity;
which in turn is equivalent to
n quantity;
The Iollowing program illustrates the distinction between pointer value and the value it
points to and the use of indirection operator(`) to access the value pointed to by a pointer.
Check Your Progress
Ex 1) SpeciIy a Iew reasons to use Pointers.
---------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------
Ex 2) Pointer variable stores
Program ACCESSING VARIABLES USING POINTERS
main( )
int x, y ;
int * ptr;
x 10;
ptr &x;
y *ptr;
printI ('Value oI x is d \n\n,x);
printf (~d is stored at addr u \n , x, &x);
printf (~d is stored at addr u \n , `&x, &x);
printf (~d is stored at addr u \n , `ptr, ptr);
printf (~d is stored at addr u \n , y, &`ptr);
printf (~d is stored at addr u \n , ptr, &ptr);
printf (~d is stored at addr u \n , y, &y);
`ptr 25;
printf(~\n Now x d \n,x);
]
AvC Engg college , Bept of cse Page 79
The statement ptr &x assigns the address oI x to ptr and y *ptr assigns the value
pointed to by the pointer ptr to y.
Note the use oI assignment statement
*ptr25;
This statement puts the value oI 25 at a memory location whose address is the value oI
ptr. We know that the value oI ptr is the address oI x and thereIore the old value oI x is
replaced by 25. This, in eIIect, is equivalent to assigning 25 to x. This shows how we can
change the value oI a variable indirectly using a pointer and the indirection operator.
POINTER EXPRESSIONS
Like other variables, pointer variables can be used in expressions. Eor example, iI p1 and
p2 are properly declared and initialized pointers , then the Iollowing statements are valid.
1) y *p1* *p2; same as (* p1) * (* p2)
2) sum sum *p1;
3) z 5* - *p2/ *p1; same as (5 * (-(* p2)))/( * p1)
4) *p2 *p2 10;
Note that there is a blank space between / and * in the statement 3 above.
C allows us to add integers to or subtract integers Irom pointers , as well as to subtract
one pointer Irom another. p1 4, p2 2 and p1 p2 are all allowed. II p1 and p2 are both
pointers to the same array, then p2 p1 gives the number oI elements between p1 and p2. We
may also use short-hand operators with the pointers.
p1;
--p2;
Sum *p2;
Pointers can also be compared using the relational operators. Pointers cannot be used in
division or multiplication. Similarly two pointers cannot be added.
A program to illustrate the use oI pointers in arithmetic operations.
Program POINTER EXPRESSIONS
AvC Engg college , Bept of cse Page 8u
main ( )
int a, b, *p1,* p2, x, y, z;

a 12;
b 4;
p1 &a;
p2 &b;
x *p1 * *p2 6;
y 4* - *p2 / *p1 10;
printI('Address oI a u\n, p1);
printI('Address oI b u\n, p2);
printI('\n);
printI('a d, b d\n, a, b);
printI('x d, y d\n, x, y);
*p2 *p2 3;
*p1 *p2 - 5;
z *p1 * *p2 6;
printI('\n a d, b d, , a ,
b); printI('\n z d\n , z);
}
POINTER INCREMENTS AND SCALE FACTOR
We have seen that the pointers can be incremented
like p1 p2 2;
p1 p1 1;
and so on .
Remember, however, an expression
like p1;
will cause the pointer p1 to point to the next value oI its type.
That is, when we increment a pointer, its value is increased by the length oI the data
type that it points to. This length is called the scale Iactor.
The number oI bytes used to store various data types depends on the system and can be
Iound by making use oI size oI operator. Eor example, iI x is a variable, then size oI(x) returns
the number oI bytes needed Ior the variable.
1 2 3 4 5
POINTERS AND ARRAYS
When an array is declared, the compiler allocates a base address and suIIicient amount
oI storage to contain all the elements oI array in contiguous memory location. The base address
is the location oI the Iirst element (index 0) oI the array. The compiler also deIines the array
name as a constant pointer to the Iirst element. Suppose we declare an array x as Iollows:
static int x|5| 1,2,3,4,5};
Suppose the base address oI x is 1000and assuming that each integer requires
two bytes, the Iive elements will be stored as Iollows:
Elements x|0| x|1| x|2| x|3| x|4|
Value
Address 1000 1002 1004 1006 1008
The name x is deIined as a constant pointer pointing to the Iirst element x|0| and
thereIore value oI x is 1000, the location where x|0| is stored . That is ,
x &x|0| 1000
Accessing array elements using the pointer
Pointers can be used to manipulate two-dimensional array as well. An element in a
two-dimensional array can be represented by the pointer expression as Iollows:
*(*(ai)j) or *(*(pi)j)
The base address oI the array a is &a|0||0| and starting at this address, the compiler
allocates contiguous space Ior all the elements, row-wise. That is, the Iirst element oI the
second row is placed immediately aIter the last element oI the Iirst row, and so on.
A program using Pointers to compute the sum oI all elements stored in an array is
presented below:
POINTERS IN ONE-DIMENSONAL ARRAY
main ( )
int *p, sum , i

static int x|5| 5,9,6,3,7};
i 0; p
x; sum
0;
printI('Element Value Address \n\n);
while(i 5)
printI(' x|d} d u\n, i, *p, p);

sum sum *p;
i, p;
}
Output
printI('\n Sum d \n, sum);
printI('\n &x|0| u \n, &x|0|);
printI('\n p u \n, p);
}
Element Value Address
X|0| 5 166
X|1| 9 168
X|2| 6 170
X|3| 3 172
X|4| 7 174
Sum 55
&x|0| 166
p 176
POINTERS AND CHARACTER STRINGS
We know that a string is an array oI characters, terminated with a null character. Like in
one-dimensional arrays, we can use a pointer to access the individual characters in a string.
This is illustrated in the program given below.
/` Pointers and character Strings `/
main()
char * name;
int length;
char * cptr name;
name 'DELHI;
while ( *cptr ! \0`)
printI( 'c is stored at address u \n, *cptr,cptr);

cptr;
}
length cptr-name;
printI('\n length d \n, length);
}
String handling by pointers
One important use oI pointers in handling oI a table oI strings. Consider the Iollowing
array oI strings:
char name|3||25|;
This says that name is a table containing three names, each with a maximum length oI
25 characters ( including null character ).
Total storage requirements Ior the name table are 75 bytes.
Instead oI making each row a Iixed number oI characters , we can make it a pointer to a
string oI varying length.
Eor example,
static char *name|3| 'New zealand,
'Australia,
'India
};
declares name to be an array oI three pointers to characters, each pointer pointing to a
particular name as shown below:
name|0| New Zealand
name|1| Australia
name|2| India
POINTERS AS FUNCTION ARGUMENTS
Program POINTERS AS FUNCTION PARAMETERS
main ( )
int x , y;
x 100;
y 200;
printI('BeIore exchange : x d y d \n\n , x , y);
exchange(&x, &y);
printI('AIter exchange : x d y d \n\n ' , x , y);
}
exchange(a, b)
int *a, *b;
int t;
t * a; /*Assign the value at address a to t*/
* a ` b ; /*Put the value at b into a*/
* b t; /*Put t into b*/
}
In the above example, we can pass the address oI the variable a as an argument to a
Iunction in the normal Iashion. The parameters receiving the addresses should be pointers. The
process oI calling a Iunction using pointers to pass the addresses oI variable is known as call by
reIerence. The Iunction which is called by ReIerence` can change the value oI the variable
used in the call.
Passing of pointers as function parameters
1. The Iunction parameters are declared as pointers.
2. The dereIerence pointers are used in the Iunction body.
3. When the Iunction is called, the addresses are passed as actual arguments.
Pointers parameters are commonly employed in string Iunctions.
Pointers to functions
A Iunction, like a variable has an address location in the memory. It is thereIore,
possible to declare a pointer to a Iunction, which can then be used as an argument in another
Iunction. A pointer to a Iunction is declared as Iollows:
type (*Iptr)( );
This tells the compiler that Iptr is a pointer to a Iunction which returns type value.
A program to illustrate a Iunction pointer as a Iunction argument.
Program
POINTERS TO EUNCTIONS
#include math.h~
#deIine PI 3.141592
main ( )
double y( ), cos( ), table( );

printI('TableoI y(x) 2*x*x-
x1\n\n); table(y, 0.0 , 2.0, 0.5);
printI('\n Table oI cos(x) \n\n);
table(cos, 0.0, PI , 0.5);
}
double table(I, min, max, step)
double (*I) ( ), min, max , step;
double a, value;
Ior( a min; a max; a step)
value (*I)(a);
printI('5.2I 10.4I\n, a, value);
}
}
double y(x)
double x;
return (2*x*x-x1);
}
POITNTERS AND STRUCTERS
The name oI an array stands Ior the address oI its zero
th
element. Consider the Iollowing declaration:
struct inventory
char name|30|;
int number;
Iloat price;
} product|2|, *ptr;
This statement declares product as an array oI two elements, each oI type oI struct
inventory and ptr as a pointer to data objects oI the type struct inventory.
zero
The assignment
ptr product;
would assign the address oI the
th
using the Iollowing notation .
ptr name
ptr number
ptr price
element oI product to ptr. Its members can be accessed
Initially the pointer ptr will point to product|0|, when the pointer ptr is incremented by one it
will point to next record, that is product|1|.
We can also use the notation
(*ptr).number
to access the member number.
A program to illustrate the use oI structure pointers.
Program POINTERS TO STRUCTURE VARIABLES
struct invent
};
main( )
char *name|20|;
int number; Iloat
price;
struct invent product|3|,
*ptr; printI('INPUT\n\n);
Ior(ptr product; ptr product 3; ptr )
price);
scanI('s d I, ptr name, &ptr number , & ptr
printI('\Noutput\n\n);
ptr product; while(ptr
product 3)
printI('-20s 5d 10.2I\n ,
ptr name,
ptr number ,
ptr price); ptr;
}
}
While using structure pointers we should take care oI the precedence oI operators.
Eor example, given the
deIinition struct
int count;
Iloat *p;
} *ptr;
Then the statement
ptr count;
increments count, not ptr.
However ,
(ptr) count;
increments ptr Iirst and then links count.
UNIT V STRUCTURES AND UNIONS 9
Introduction need Ior structure data type structure deIinition Structure declaration Structure
within a structure - Union - Programs using structures and Unions Storage classes, Pre-processor
directives.
11.2 STRUCTURE DEFINITION
Unlike arrays, structure must be deIined Iirst Ior their Iormat that may be used later to
declare structure variables. Let us use an example to illustrate the process oI structure
deIinition and the creation oI structure variables. Consider a book database consisting oI book
name, author, number oI pages, and price. We can deIine a structure to hold this inIormation
as Iollows:
struct book bank
char title|20|;
char author|15|;
int pages;
Iloat price;
};
The keyword struct declares a structure to hold the details oI Iour data Iields, namely
title, author, pages, and price. These Iields are called structure elements or members. Each
member may belong to diIIerent type oI data. book bank is the name oI the structure and is
called the structure tag. The tag name may be used subsequently to declare variables that have
the tag`s structure.
The general Iormat oI a structure deIinition is as Iollows:
struct tag name
data type member1;

data type member2;
--------- -----
--------- -----
};
In deIining a structure, we may note the Iollowing syntax:
1. The template is terminated with a semicolon.
2. While the entire deIinition is considered as a statement, each member is
declared independently Ior its name and type in a separate statement inside
the template.
3. The tag name such as book bank can be used to declare structure variables oI
its type, later in the program.
ARRAY VS STRUCTURE
1. An array is a collection oI related data elements oI same type. Structure
can have elements oI diIIerent types.
2. An array is derived data type whereas structure is a programmer-deIined one.
3. Any array behaves like a built- in data type. All we have to do is to declare an
array variable and use it. But in the case oI a structure, Iirst we have to design
and declare a data structure beIore the variables oI that type are declared and
used.
STRUCTURES WITHIN STRUCTURES
Structures within structures means nesting oI structures. Nesting oI structures is
permitted in C. Let us consider the Iollowing structure deIined to store inIormation about the
salary oI employees.
struct salary
char name|20|;
char department|10|;
int basic pay;
int dearness allowance;
int house rent allowance;
int city allowance;
}
employee;
This structure deIines name, department , basic pay and three kinds oI allowances. We
can group all items related to allowance together and declare them under a substructure as
shown below:
struct salary
char name|20|;
char department|10|;
struct
int dearness;
int houserent;
int city;
}
allowance;
}
employee;
An inner structure can have more than one variable. The Iollowing Iorm oI declaration is
legal:
struct salary
..
struct
int dearness;
...
}
allowance,
arrears;
}
employee|100|;
It is also possible to nest more than one type oI structures.
struct personalrecord
struct namepart name;

struct addrpart address;
struct date date oI
birth ....
....
};
struct personalrecord person 1;
The Iirst member oI this structure is name which is oI the type struct namepart. Similarly,
other members have their structure types.
12.3 STRUCTURES AND FUNCTIONS
C supports the passing oI structure values as arguments to Iunctions. There are three
methods by which the values oI a structure can be transIerred Irom one Iunction to another.
The Iirst method is to pass each member oI the structure as an actual argument oI the
Iunction call.
The second method involves passing oI a copy oI the entire structure to the called
Iunction.
The third approach employs a concept called pointers to pass the structure as an
argument.
The general Iormat oI sending a copy oI a structure to the called Iunction is:
function name(structure variable name)
The called Iunction takes the Iollowing Iorm:
datatype Iunction name(stname)
struct type stname;
....
.....
return (expression);
}
The Iollowing points are important to note:
1. The called Iunction must be declared Ior its type, appropriate to the data type it is
expected to return. Eor example, iI it is returning a copy oI the entire structure, then it
must be declared as struct with an appropriate tag name.
2. The structure variable used as the actual argument and the corresponding Iormal
argument in the called Iunction must be oI the same struct type.
3. The return statement is necessary only when the Iunction is returning some data. The
expression may be any simple variable or structure variable or an expression using
simple variables.
4. When a Iunction returns a structure, it must be assigned to a structure oI identical type
in the calling Iunction.
5. The called Iunction must be declared in the calling Iunction Ior its type, iI it is placed
aIter the calling Iunction.
Check Your Progress
Ex 1) Can we nest the structures?
-----------------------------------------------
2) Can we use arrays within structure?
-----------------------------------------------
12.4 UNIONS
Like structures, a union can be declared using the keyword union as Iollows:
union item
int m;
Iloat x;
char c;
} code;
This declares a variable code oI type union item.
The compiler allocates a piece oI storage that is large enough to hold the largest
variable type in the union.
To access a union member, we can use the same syntax that we use Ior structure
members. That is,
code.m
code.x
code.c
are all valid member variables. During accessing, we should make sure that we are accessing
the member whose value is currently stored. Eor example, the statement such as
code.m 379;
code.x7859.36;
printI('d, code.m);
would produce erroneous output.
In eIIect, a union creates a storage location that can be used by any one oI its members
at a time. When a diIIerent member is assigned a new value, the new value supercedes the
previous member`s value.
12.5 SIZE OF STRUCTURES
We normally use structures, unions and arrays to create variables oI large sizes. The
actual size oI these variables in terms oI bytes may change Irom machine to machine. We
may use the unary operator sizeoI to tell us the size oI a structure. The expression
sizeoI(struct x)
will evaluate the number oI bytes required to hold all the members oI the structure x. II y is a
simple structure variable oI type struct x, then the expression
sizeoI(y)
would also give the same answer. However, iI y is an array variable oI type struct x, then
sizeoI(y)
,
would give the total number oI bytes the array requires.
This kind oI inIormation would be useIul to determine the number oI records in a
database. Eor example, the expression
sizeoI(y) / sizeoI(x)
would give the number oI elements in the array y.
12.6 BIT FIELDS
C permits us to use small bit Iields to hold data items and thereby to pack several data
items in a word oI memory. Bit Iields allow direct manipulation oI string oI a string oI
preselected bits, as iI it is represented an integral quantity.
A bit Iield is a set oI adjacent bits whose size can vary Irom 1 to 16 bits in length. A
word can be divided into a number oI bit Iields. The name and size oI bit Iields are deIined
using a structure.
The general Iorm oI bit Iiled deIinition is
struct tag-name
data-type name1 : bit-length;

---------
---------
---------
data-type nameN : bit- length;
}
The data type is either int or unsigned int or signed int and the bit- length is the number oI
bits used Ior the speciIic name. The bit- length is decided by the range oI value to be stored.
The largest value that can be stored is 2
n-1
where n is bit-length. The internal
representation oI bit- Iield is machine dependent. It depends on the size oI int and the
ordering oI bits.
Example :
Suppose we want to store and use the personal inIormation oI employees in
compressed Iorm. This can be done as Iollows:
struct personal
unsigned sex: 1
unsigned age : 7
unsigned mstatus: 1
unsigned children: 3
unsigned : 4
} emp;
This deIines a variable name emp with 4 bit Iields. The range oI values each Iiled
could have is as Iollows:
Bit Eiled Bit length Range oI values
sex 1 0 or 1
age 7 0 to 127 ( 2
7
1)
mstatus 1 0 or 1
3
children 3 0 to 7 ( 2 1)
The Iollowing statements are valid :
emp.sex 1 ;
emp.age 50;
It is important to note that we can not use scanI to read the values in to the bit Iield.
11.4 GIVING VALUES TO MEMBERS
We can access and assign values to the members oI a structure in a number oI ways.
The members themselves are not variables. They should be linked to the structure variables in
order to make them meaningIul members. Eor example, the word title has no meaning,
whereas the phrase title oI book` has a meaning. The link between a member and a variable
is established using the member operator `.`,which is also known as dot operator` or period
operator`. Eor example,
book1.price
is the variable representing the price oI the book1 and can be treated like any other ordinary
variable. Here is how we would assign values to the member oI book1:
strcpy(book1.title, 'COBOL);
strcpy(book1.author, 'M.K.ROY);
book1.pages 350;
book1. price 140;
We can also use scanI to give the values through the keyboard.
scanI('s\n, book1.title);
scanI('d\n, &book1.pages);
are valid input statements.
Example :
DeIine a structure type, struct personal, that would contain person name, date oI
joining and salary. Using this structure, write a program to read this inIormation Ior one
person Irom the keyboard and print the same on the screen.
Structure deIinition along with the program is shown below. The scanI and printI
Iunctions illustrate how the member operator .` is used to link the structure members to the
structure variables. The variable name with a period and the member name is used like an
ordinary variable.
Program
/*******************************************************************/ /*
DEEINING AND ASSIGNING VALUES TO STRUCTURE MEMBERS */
/*******************************************************************/
struct personal
char name|20|;
int day;
char month|10|;
int year;
Iloat salary;
};
main()
struct personal person;

printI('Input values\n);
scanI('s d s d I,
person .name,
&person. day,
person.month,
&person.year,
&person.salary);
printI('s d s d .2I\n,
person .name,
person. day,
person.month,
person.year,
person.salary);
}
11.5 STRUCTURE INITIALIZATION
Like any other data type, a structure variable can be initialized at compile
time. main()
struct
int weight;
Iloat height;
}
student 60, 180.75};
...
...
}
This assigns the value 60 to student. weight and 180.75 to student. height. There is a
one-to-one correspondence between the members and their initializing values.
A lot oI variation is possible in initializing a structure. The Iollowing statements
initialize two structure variables. Here, it is essential to use a tag name.
main()
struct st record
int weight;
Iloat
height; };
struct strecord student1 60, 180.75};
struct strecord student2 53, 170.60};
...
...
}
C language does not permit the initialization oI individual structure member within
the template. The initialization must be done only in the declaration oI the actual variables.
11.6 COMPARISON OF STRUCTURE VARIABLES
Two variables oI the same structure type can be compared the same way as ordinary
variables. II person1 and person2 belong to the same structure, then the Iollowing operations
are valid:
Operation Meaning
person1 person2 Assign person2 to person1.
person1 person2 Compare all members oI person1 and person2 and
return 1 iI they are equal, 0 otherwise.
person1 ! person2 Return 1 iI all the members are not equal, 0
otherwise.
Note that not all compilers support these operations. Eor example, MicrosoIt C
version does not permit any logical operations on structure variables. In such cases,
individual member can be compared using logical operators.
11.7 ARRAYS OF STRUCTURES
We use structure to describe the Iormat oI a number oI related variables. Eor example,
in analyzing the marks obtained by a class oI students, we may use a template to describe
student name and marks obtained in various subjects and then declare all the students as
structure variables. In such cases, we may declare an array oI structure, each elements oI the
array representing a structure variable. Eor example,
struct class student|100|;
It deIines an array called student, that consists oI 100 elements. Each elements is
deIined to be oI the type struct class. Consider the Iollowing declaration:
struct marks
int subject1;
Pag
Int ubject2; int subject3;
};
main()
static struct marks student|3|

45, 68, 81}, 75, 53, 69}, 57,36,71}};
This declares the student as an array oI three elements students|0|,
student|1|, and student|2| and initializes their members as Iollows:
student|0|.subject145;
.....
.....
An array oI structures is stored inside the memory in the same way as a multi-
dimensional array.
Check Your Progress
Ex 1) Can we compare structure variables ? II so, how?
------------------------------------------------------------
------------------------------------------------------------
Ex 2) Construct a structure Ior bank details.
Student|0|.subject1
45
.subject2
68
.subject3
81
Student|1|.subject1
75
.subject2
53
.subject3
69
Student|2|.subject1
NSCET , Bept of cse e 98
57
.subject2
36
.subject3
71
The array student inside memory.
STORAGECLASSES
AUTOMATICVARIABLES (LOCAL/INTERNAL)
Automatic variables are declared inside a Iunction in which they are to be
utilized.
They are created when a Iunction is called and destroyed automatically when the
Iunction is exited.
Eg:main()
int number;
---------
---------
}
We may also use the keyword auto to declare automatic variables explicitly.
EXTERNAL VARIABLES
Variables that are both alive and active throughout the entire program
are known as external variables. They are also known as global variables.
Eg: int
numb
er;
float
length
7.5;
main()
-------
-------
}
Iunction1( )
-------
-------
}
Iunction2( )
-------
-------
}
The keyword extern can be used Ior explicit declarations oI external variables.
STATICVARIABLES
As the name suggests, the value oI a static variable persists until
the end oI the program. A variable can be declared static using the
keyword static.
Eg:1) static int x;
2) static int y;
REGISTERVARIABLES
We can tell the compiler that a variable should be kept in one oI the
machine`s registers, instead oI keeping in the memory. Since a register access is
much Iaster than a memory access, keeping the Irequently accessed variables in the
register will lead to Iaster execution oI programs. This is done as Iollows:
register int count;
Check Your Progress
Ex 1) Is the keyword auto is compulsory in declaration?
------------------------------------------------------------
2) What is the other name Ior external variables?
-------------------------------------------------------------
3) Can we declare all variables as register variables?
-------------------------------------------------------------
ANSI C FUNCTIONS
The general Iorm oI ANSI C Iunction is
NSCET , Bept of cse Page 1uu
data-type function-name(type1 a1,type2 a2,...typeN aN)
--------
-------- (body oI the Iunction)
--------
}
Eg: 1) double funct(int a, int b, double c)
Function Declaration
The general Iorm oI Iunction declaration is
data-type function-name(type1 a1,type2 a2,...typeN aN)
Eg:main()
Iloat a, b, x;
Iloat mul(Iloat length,Iloat breadth);/*declaration*/
---------
---------
x mul(a,b);
}
THEPREPROCESSOR
The Preprocessor, as the name implies, is a program that processes the
source code beIore it passes through the complier. It operates under the control oI
preprocessor command lines or directives. Preprocessor directives are placed in the
source program beIore the main line. BeIore the source code passes through the
compiler, it is examined by the preprocessor Ior any preprocessor directives. II
there are any, appropriate actions (as per the directives) are taken and then the
source program is handed over to the compiler.
Preprocessor directives begin with the symbol # in column one and do not
require a semicolon at the end.
Commonly used Preprocessor directives
Directive Function
NSCET , Bept of cse Page 1u1
#deIine DeIines a macro substitution
#undeI UndeIines a macro
#include speciIies the Iiles to be include
# iIdeI Tests Ior a macro deIinition
#endiI speciIies the end oI #iI
#iIndeI Tests whether a macro is not deIined
#iI Tests a compile time condition
#else speciIies alternatives when #iI Iails
Preprocessor directives can be divided into three categories
1) Macro substitution directives
2) Eile Inclusion directives
3) Compiler control directives
Macro Substitution directive
The general Iorm is
#deIine identiIier string
Examples 1) #deIine COUNT 100 (simple macro
substitution) 2) #deIine CUBE(x) x*x*x ( macro with arguments)
3) # deIine M 5
#deIine N M1 (nesting oI macros)
File Inclusion directive
This is achieved by
#include 'Iilename or #include Iilename~
NSCET , Bept of cse Page 1u2
Examples 1) #include
stdio.h~ 2)
#include
'TEST.C
Check Your Progress
Ex 1) Give examples Ior macro substitution directives
---------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------------------
Ex 2) DiIIerentiate #include .~ and #include '.
---------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------------------
Compiler control directives
These are the directives meant Ior controlling the compiler actions. C
preprocessor oIIers a Ieature known as conditional compilation, which can be used
to switch oII or on a particular line or group oI lines in a program. Mostly #iIdeI
and #iIndeI are used in these directives.
NSCET , Bept of cse Page 1uS

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int row, column, product|ROWS||COLUMNS|;

long int result;

int a, b, *p1,* p2, x, y, z;

int *p, sum , i

printI(' x|d} d u\n, i, *p, p);

printI( 'c is stored at address u \n, *cptr,cptr);

double y( ), cos( ), table( );

data type member1;

struct namepart name;

data-type name1 : bit-length;

struct personal person;

static struct marks student|3|

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