Micronutrient Fortification of Food and Its Impact On Woman and Child Health: A Systematic Review

RESEARCH Open Access
Micronutrient fortification of food and its impact

on woman and child health: a systematic review
Jai K Das, Rehana A Salam, Rohail Kumar and Zulfiqar A Bhutta
*
Abstract
Background: Vitamins and minerals are essential for growth and metabolism. The World Health Organization
estimates that more than 2 billion people are deficient in key vitamins and minerals. Groups most vulnerable to
these micronutrient deficiencies are pregnant and lactating women and young children, given their increased
demands. Food fortification is one of the strategies that has been used safely and effectively to prevent vitamin and
mineral deficiencies.
Methods: A comprehensive search was done to identify all available evidence for the impact of fortification
interventions. Studies were included if food was fortified with a single, dual or multiple micronutrients and impact
of fortification was analyzed on the health outcomes and relevant biochemical indicators of women and children.
We performed a meta-analysis of outcomes using Review Manager Software version 5.1.
Results: Our systematic review identified 201 studies that we reviewed for outcomes of relevance. Fortification for
children showed significant impacts on increasing serum micronutrient concentrations. Hematologic markers also
improved, including hemoglobin concentrations, which showed a significant rise when food was fortified with
vitamin A, iron and multiple micronutrients. Fortification with zinc had no significant adverse impact on
hemoglobin levels. Multiple micronutrient fortification showed non-significant impacts on height for age, weight for
age and weight for height Z-scores, although they showed positive trends. The results for fortification in women
showed that calcium and vitamin D fortification had significant impacts in the post-menopausal age group. Iron
fortification led to a significant increase in serum ferritin and hemoglobin levels in women of reproductive age and
pregnant women. Folate fortification significantly reduced the incidence of congenital abnormalities like neural
tube defects without increasing the incidence of twinning. The number of studies pooled for zinc and multiple
micronutrients for women were few, though the evidence suggested benefit. There was a dearth of evidence for
the impact of fortification strategies on morbidity and mortality outcomes in women and children.
Conclusion: Fortification is potentially an effective strategy but evidence from the developing world is scarce.
Programs need to assess the direct impact of fortification on morbidity and mortality.
Keywords: Child, Food, Fortification, Nutrition, Supplementation, Women
Background
Vitamins and minerals are essential for growth and me-
tabolism. The World Health Organization (WHO) esti-
mates that more than 2 billion people are deficient in
key vitamins and minerals, particularly vitamin A, iod-
ine, iron and zinc [1]. Most of these affected populations
are from developing countries where multiple micronu-
trient (MMN) deficiencies coexist.
The population groups most vulnerable to these micro-
nutrient deficiencies are pregnant and lactating women
and young children, given their increased demands [2,3].
According to recent WHO estimates, globally about 190
million preschool children and 19.1 million pregnant
women are vitamin A deficient (that is, have serum retinol
<0.70 mol/l) [4], approximately 100 million women of re-
productive age (WRA) have iodine deficiency [5], and an
estimated 82% of pregnant women worldwide have inad-
equate zinc intakes to meet the normal needs of preg-
nancy [6]. Iron deficiency is widespread and globally about
* Correspondence: [email protected]
Centre of Excellence in Women & Child Health, Aga Khan University, Karachi
74800, Pakistan
2013 Das et al.; licensee BioMed Central Ltd. This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative
Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and
reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
Das et al. Systematic Reviews 2013, 2:67
http://www.systematicreviewsjournal.com/content/2/1/67
1.62 billion people are anemic, with the highest prevalence
among preschool children (47%) followed by pregnant
women (42%) [7]. Suboptimal vitamin B6 and B12 status
have also been observed in many developing countries [8].
These micronutrient deficiencies are also associated with
increased incidence and severity of infectious illness and
mortality from diarrhea, measles, malaria and pneumonia
[9]. The consequences of micronutrient deficiencies are
not limited to health parameters alone but have far-
reaching effects on economies through secondary physical
and mental disabilities and altered work productivity.
Several strategies have been employed to supplement
micronutrients to women and children [10-13]. These
include education, dietary modification, food rationing,
supplementation and fortification. Food fortification is
one of the strategies that has been used safely and effect-
ively to prevent micronutrient deficiencies and has been
practiced in developed countries for well over a century
now. In the early 20th century, salt iodization began in
Switzerland; vitamin A-fortified margarine was intro-
duced in Denmark in 1918; and in the 1930s, vitamin
A-fortified milk and iron and B complex flour was in-
troduced in a number of developed countries. These
fortification strategies are now almost universal in the
developed world and increasingly deployed in many
middle-income countries. Relatively few of these pro-
grams have been adequately evaluated to assess their im-
pact on population health [14].
WHO categorizes food fortification strategies into
three possible approaches: mass, targeted, and market
driven [14]. Mass fortification involves foods that are
widely consumed, such as wheat, salt, sugar; targeted ap-
proaches fortify foods consumed by specific age groups
like infant complementary foods; and the market-driven
approach is when a food manufacturer fortifies a specific
brand for a particular consumer niche. Food vehicles
commonly used can be grouped into three broad cat-
egories: staples (wheat, rice, oils), condiments (salt, soy
sauce, sugar), and processed commercial foods (noodles,
infant complementary foods, dairy products).
Food fortification is an attractive public health strategy
and has the advantage of reaching wider at-risk population
groups through existing food delivery systems, without re-
quiring major changes in existing consumption patterns
[13,15]. Compared with other interventions, food fortifica-
tion may be cost-effective and, if fortified foods are regu-
larly consumed, has the advantage of maintaining steady
body stores [15].
There are a number of systemic reviews and meta-
analyses analyzing the effect of food fortification on
health outcomes. An extensive review of zinc forti-
fication in children described an overall significant
impact on serum zinc levels with no adverse effects
[16]. Reviews on MMN fortification in children showed
improved micronutrient status and reduced anemia
prevalence [10,17]. A review of iron fortification in the
general population also showed an increase in serum
hemoglobin levels and decreased anemia prevalence
[18]. Although iron, zinc and MMN fortification has
been consistently analyzed, literature on vitamin A, iod-
ine and vitamin D fortification in children has not been
sufficiently assessed. Furthermore, iron and MMN forti-
fication in women of different age groups has not been
adequately evaluated. We therefore feel that the current
evidence of certain micronutrients and population groups
may not be sufficient for providing a way forward.
Hence we undertook a systematic review of the current
evidence to assess the effectiveness of food fortification
with single micronutrients (iron, folic acid, vitamin A,
vitamin D, iodine, zinc) as well as MMN when com-
pared with no fortification on the health and nutrition
of women and children.
Conceptual framework
We analyzed the impact of micronutrient fortification
strategies - single, dual or multiple - on various out-
comes guided by our conceptual framework (Figure 1).
These micronutrients were administered through one of
the three food vehicles (staples, condiments or processed
foods) to reach the population targeted. For the scope of
this review, we focused on a priori defined population
groups of infants, children and adolescents under 18
years of age, WRA and post-menopausal women. The
outcomes analyzed were broadly categorized into bio-
chemical indicators, hematologic markers, anthropometric
indicators, pregnancy outcomes, and relevant morbidity
and mortality.
Methods
Search strategy
All available evidence for the impact of fortification in-
terventions was systematically retrieved and analyzed.
A comprehensive search was done for key words in-
cluding Medical Subject Headings and free text terms
for all the micronutrients included in this review. We
searched MEDLINE, PubMed, POPLINE, Literatura Latino
Americana em Cincias da Sade, Cumulative Index to
Nursing and Allied Health Literature, Cochrane Library,
British Library for Development Studies at the Inter-
national Development Statistics, WHO regional databases
and the IDEAS database of unpublished working papers,
Google and Google Scholar. Detailed manual searches
were undertaken, including cross-references and bibliog-
raphies of available data and publications. Existing relevant
reviews were used to identify additional sources of infor-
mation. The search was extended to review the gray litera-
ture in non-indexed and non-electronic sources. The
Das et al. Systematic Reviews 2013, 2:67 Page 2 of 24
bibliographies of books with relevant sections were also
searched manually to identify relevant reports and publica-
tions. We did not apply any language or date restriction
and the date of last search was 1 November 2012.
Inclusion and exclusion criteria
We included randomized controlled trials (RCTs), quasi-
experimental and before-after studies. In addition, other
less rigorous study designs like observational studies (co-
hort and casecontrol), program evaluations and de-
scriptive studies were also reviewed to understand the
context in which these interventions were implemented.
Studies were included if food was fortified with a single,
dual or multiple micronutrients and the impact of forti-
fication was analyzed on the health outcomes and rele-
vant biochemical indicators of women and children. We
included studies with children and adolescents of all age
groups - infants and preschool children (ages 2 to 5
years), school-going children (ages of above 5 years) and
adolescents till 18 years of age. For women, we included
studies on pre-pregnant women, WRA, and post-
menopausal women. The control groups in the included
trials either received unfortified foods or regular diets.
Studies were included if they measured the relevant out-
comes according to our conceptual framework described
above and if the data for these outcomes were presented
in a manner that could be included in the meta-analysis.
Studies were not considered that focused on home for-
tification with micronutrient powders, food contents,
intake levels, bioavailability, comparisons between diffe-
rent food vehicles or comparisons among compounds of
the same micronutrient, comparisons between fortifica-
tion and supplementation, bio-fortification and studies
evaluating the sensory impacts of fortification.
Study selection process
All the available studies underwent triage with standard-
ized criteria for evaluating outputs from primary screening.
Following an agreement on the search strategy, the ab-
stracts and full texts were screened by two independent ab-
stractors to identify studies adhering to the objectives. Any
disagreements on selection of studies between the two pri-
mary abstractors were resolved by the third reviewer.
Data extraction
After retrieval of the full texts of all the relevant studies,
each study was double data abstracted into a standard-
ized form, which included the following details.
General information
Title, author, year of publication, country of intervention,
study design.
Intervention
Study duration, characteristics of intervention and com-
parison groups.
Fortification
Micronutrient fortified, food vehicle used, fortificant
compound and its concentration in the food.
IRON
FOLIC ACID
ZINC
VITAMIN A
IODINE
VITAMIN D
CALCIUM
MULTIPLE
MICRONUTRIENT
S
STAPLES
CONDIMENT
PROCESSED
FOODS
INFANT
CHILDREN
WOMEN OF
REPRODUCTIVE
AGE
POST
MENOPAUSAL
WOMEN
BIO-CHEMICAL
INDICATORS
ANTHROPOMETRIC
INDICATORS
HEMATOLOGIC
MARKERS
MORTALITY
MORBIDITY
PREGNANCY
OUTCOMES
Figure 1 Conceptual framework.
Key outcome measures
Outcome measures were identified and evaluated separ-
ately for the various micronutrients. Relevant biochem-
ical indicators included serum micronutrient levels and
hematologic markers (anemia, iron deficiency anemia,
hemoglobin). Anthropometric indicators were stunting;
wasting; underweight; and changes in Z-scores for height
for age (HAZ), weight for age (WAZ) and weight for
height (WHZ). Pregnancy outcomes included twinning
and congenital abnormalities. Morbidity outcomes in-
cluded diarrhea, pneumonia, malaria, urinary tract infec-
tions (UTI), fever and mortality (Table 1). These were
reported as means, standard deviations, number of
events or other usable outcomes that could be pooled.
Where information was missing or incomplete, the au-
thors were contacted for clarification and access to data.
In cases where it was not possible, the outcome was not
considered for further analysis.
Data analysis
We performed meta-analyses of all outcomes using
Review Manager Software version 5.1. For dichotomous
data, we presented results as summary risk ratio (RR)
and odds ratio (OR) and their respective 95% confidence
intervals (CI). For continuous data, we used the standard
mean difference (SMD) if outcomes were comparable.
We performed separate meta-analyses for RCTs or quasi
experimental and before-after studies to maintain the
quality of evidence. Results of before-after meta-analyses
were only reported if there were no RCTs or quasi-
experimental studies in a particular category of micronu-
trient fortification. For analyzing and pooling cluster
randomized trial data, the entire cluster was used as the
unit of randomization and the analysis was adjusted for
design. The data of cluster-randomized trials were incor-
porated using a generic inverse variance method in
which logarithms of RR estimates were used along with
the standard error of the logarithms of RR estimates.
Subgroup analyses were performed according to the dif-
ferent age groups, countries, population characteristics,
type of food fortified and the duration of intervention.
For the outcomes where only medians were reported,
medians were converted to approximate of the means
and then pooled for analysis [19].
The level of attrition was noted for each study and its
impact on the overall assessment of treatment effect ex-
plored by using sensitivity analysis. Heterogeneity between
trials was assessed using the I-squared statistic (I
2
>30)
and a p-value <0.1 (on chi-square) and by visual inspection
of forest plots, and a random effect model was used.
Risk of bias and quality assessment of evidence
We used the Cochrane Collaborations tool for assessing
risk of bias for the included RCTs and quasi-experimental
studies [20]. It is a two-part tool addressing the seven
specific domains, namely sequence generation, allocation
concealment, blinding of participants and personnel,
blinding of outcome assessment, incomplete outcome
data, selective outcome reporting, and other issues.
Within each entry, the first part of the tool describes what
was reported to have happened in the study in sufficient
detail to support a judgment about the risk of bias. The
second part of the tool assigns a judgment relating to the
risk of bias for that entry. This is achieved by assigning a
judgment of low risk, high risk or unclear risk.
We summarized the evidence by outcome, including
qualitative assessments of study quality and quantitative
measures, according to the standard guidelines. For each
outcome, the quality of the evidence was assessed inde-
pendently by two review authors using the Grading of
Recommendations Assessment, Development and Evalu-
ation (GRADE) approach, which involves consideration
of within-study risk of bias (methodological quality), dir-
ectness of evidence, heterogeneity, precision of effect es-
timates, and risk of publication bias. A grade of high,
moderate, low and very low was used for grading the
overall evidence indicating the strength of an effect on
specific health outcome [21-24].
Results
A total of 201 studies were identified for inclusion in this re-
view. Of these, 121 [25-145] studies were on infants and
Table 1 Outcomes for various micronutrients analyzed
Micronutrient Outcomes analyzed
Zinc Serum zinc concentration, height velocity, alkaline phosphatase, hemoglobin and serum copper concentration
Folate Serum folate concentration, red blood cell folate concentration, folate deficiency, twinning, incidence of neural tube defects,
anencephaly and spina bifida
Vitamin A Serum vitamin A concentration, vitamin A deficiency and hemoglobin
Vitamin D/calcium Serum 25-hydroxy vitamin D
3
concentration, alkaline phosphatase and serum parathyroid hormone
Iodine Serum thyroxin levels, prevalence of hypothyroidism and urinary iodine concentration
Iron Serum ferritin, serum transferrin, hemoglobin and anemia
Multiple
micronutrients
Serum ferritin, serum zinc, serum retinol, vitamin A deficiency, iron deficiency anemia, hemoglobin levels, height for age
Z-scores, weight for age Z-scores, weight for height Z-scores and morbidity.
children and 79 [146-224] were on women, while one study
had both women and children as their study population [33]
(Figure 2). Furthermore 125 [25-28,30,32-39,41-44,47,48,
51,53,54,56,59,60,62,63,65-73,75-77,81-83,85,86,88-90,92,93,
95-104,107-109,111-117,119-127,129,130,132-136,139-144,
223,225-228] of these trials were RCTs; the rest were
quasi-experimental [46,55,61,74,78,87,91] and before-
after studies [29,31,40,45,49,50,52,57,58,79,80,84,94,95,105,
131,137,138,149,150,153,157,159-169,172,174,177,181,183-
186,189-191,193,195-200,202,205-211,213,219-222,224].
Various micronutrients were used as fortificants in these
studies including iron, zinc, vitamin A, folate, iodine, cal-
cium and vitamin D alone and in combination. Food vehi-
cles chosen varied for each micronutrient fortification and
are described in detail in the relevant section. For the 125
RCTs included in this review, randomization and allocation
concealment were adequate in 41 of the studies
[33-37,56,60,63,65,68,69,72,75,77,83,88,92,97,99,101,103,107,
108,112,113,115,116,122,125,127,132,135,139,140,142,143,
146,147,188,214,217], information regarding attrition rates
was adequately discussed with reasons in 110 studies
[33-39,41-44,47,48,51,53,54,56,59,60,62,63,65,67-73,75-77,
81-83,85,86,88-90,92,93,96-104,107-109,111-117,119-127,
129,130,132-136,139-144,171,173,175,176,178-180,182,187,
188,192,194,201,212,214-218,223] and blinding was de-
scribed adequately in 62 studies [25,26,28,30,32,35,38,39,
47,48,51,53,54,56,59,60,62,65,67-72,75-77,81,83,86,93,96,99,
100,103,108,109,113,116,119,123-125,130,133,134,140-144,
146,170,171,179,180,182,187,192,194,201]. The studies pro-
vided insufficient information on selective reporting, which
limited us from making any judgment. We analyzed the
outcomes separately for women and children and the out-
comes analyzed for each micronutrient fortification are
Table 2 Definitions of various micronutrient deficiencies
Term Definition
Anemia
a
Children 6 to 59 months of age: Hb less than 110
g/l
Children 5 to 11 years of age: Hb less than 115 g/
l
Children 12 to 14 years of age: Hb less than 120
g/l
Women 15 years and older: Hb less than 120 g/l
Vitamin A
deficiency
b
Plasma (serum) retinol concentration of less than
20 g/dl
Zinc deficiency
c
Serum zinc concentration of less than 10.7 mol/
L
Asymptomatic zinc
deficiency
Serum zinc concentration of less than 10.7 mol/
L with the absence of clinical signs and
symptoms.
a
Adapted from WHO VIMNIS (available from http://www.who.int/vmnis/
indicators/haemoglobin/en/) [229].
b
Adapted from WHO. Global prevalence of vitamin A deficiency in
populations at risk 19952005 [230].
c
Adapted from WHO. Trace elements in human nutrition and health. Geneva,
Switzerland: WHO, 1996 [231] Hb, hemoglobin.
Figure 2 Summary of search strategy.
Table 3 Summary of results for iron fortification in children
Outcome/
quality of
evidence
Combined
effect
Population Age groups Country Fortificant type Food vehicle
General/healthy
population
(studies/
participants)
Deficient
population
Infants Preschool
and school-
going
children
Low- and
lower middle
income
countries
Upper middle-
and higher-
income
countries
Ferrous
sulfate
NaFeEDTA Processed
food
Staples Condiments
Hemoglobin
levels
SMD: 0.55
(95% CI:
0.34, 0.76)
SMD: 0.50 (95%
CI: 0.28, 0.71)
SMD: 0.79
(95% CI:
0.19, 1.38)
SMD: 0.81
(95% CI:
0.31, 1.31)
SMD: 0.46
(95% CI: 0.24,
0.67)
SMD: 0.32
(95% CI: 0.14,
0.50)
SMD: 0.67 (95%
CI: 0.36, 0.97)
SMD: 0.50
(95% CI:
0.14, 0.86)
SMD: 0.76
(95% CI:
0.06, 1.47)
SMD: 0.55
(95% CI:
0.29, 0.82)
SMD: 0.44
(95% CI:
0.10, 0.79)
SMD: 1.14
(95% CI: -0
.09, 2.37)
Quality of
evidence:
Moderate
25 studies 5,083
participants
6 studies
1,184
participants
12 studies
1,834
participants
16 studies
3,832
participants
10 studies 1,937
participants
20 studies 4,176
participants
9 studies
1,076
participants
6 studies
1,172
participants
18 studies
3,317
participants
8 studies
1,941
participants
3 studies
705
participants
Serum
ferritin
levels
SMD: 0.91
(95% CI:
0.38, 1.44)
SMD: 0.63 (95%
CI: 0.28, 0.98)
SMD: 1.37
(95% CI:
0.01, 2.74)
SMD: 0.63
(95% CI:
0.28, 0.98)
SMD: 1.37
(95% CI: 0.01,
2.74)
SMD: 1.37
(95% CI: 0.01,
2.74)
SMD: 0.68 (95%
CI: 0.49, 0.87)
SMD: 0.84
(95% CI:
0.60, 1.09)
SMD: 1.83
(95% CI: -0
.08, 3.73)
SMD: 0.66
(95% CI:
0.36, 0.97)
SMD: 0.48
(95% CI:
0.17, 0.78)
SMD: 2.80
(95% CI:
2.43, 3.17)
Quality of
evidence:
Moderate
4 studies 952
participants
3 studies
555
participants
4 studies
952
participants
3 studies 555
participants
3 studies 555
participants
3 studies 547
participants
3 studies
539
participants
2 studies
385
participants
5 studies
1,097
participants
1 study 170
participants
1 study 240
participants
Effect on
anemia
RR: 0.55
(95% CI:
0.42, 0.72)
RR: 0.64 (95% CI:
0.50, 0.82)
RR: 0.23
(95% CI:
0.04, 1.25)
RR: 0.42
(95% CI:
0.24, 0.72)
RR: 0.60
(95% CI: 0.43,
0.84)
RR: 0.91 (95%
CI: 0.72, 1.14)
RR: 0.41 (95%
CI: 0.28, 0.61)
RR: 0.52
(95% CI:
0.34, 0.79)
RR: 0.46
(95% CI:
0.17, 1.23)
RR: 0.46
(95% CI:
0.28, 0.76)
RR: 0.81
(95% CI:
0.60, 1.10)
RR: 0.12
(95% CI:
0.01, 2.16)
Quality of
evidence:
Moderate
15 studies 3,096
participants
3 studies
555
participants
6 studies
1,234
participants
10 studies
2,013
participants
6 studies 1,171
participants
11 studies 2,396
participants
4 studies
630
participants
4 studies
800
participants
10 studies
1,617
participants
5 studies
1,312
participants
2 studies
568
participants
Estimates in bold show significant impacts. CI, confidence interval; NaFeEDTA, sodium iron ethylenediaminetetraacetate RR: relative risk; SMD: standard mean difference.
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Table 4 Summary of results for zinc fortification in children
Outcome/
quality of
evidence
Combined
effect
Age groups Zinc compound used for
fortification
Food vehicle Duration
Newborns
with very
low birth
weight
Full
term
healthy
infants
Infants
at risk of
stunting
Malnourished
infants
School-
going
children
School-going
children with
asymptomatic
zinc deficiency
Zinc
sulfate
Zinc
chloride
Zinc
acetate
Milk
products
Cereal
products
Less than
6 months
6 months
or more
Serum zinc
levels
SMD: 1.28
(95% CI:
0.56, 2.01)
SMD: 0.51
(95% CI: -0
.32, 1.34)
SMD:
3.49
(95% CI:
-0.36,
7.33)
SMD: 0.09
(95% CI: -
0.24, 0.41)
SMD: 0.12 (95%
CI: -0.55, 0.78)
SMD: 1.12
(95% CI: -0
.21, 2.46)
SMD: 2.77
(95% CI: 1.43,
4.11)
No
studies
identified
No
studies
identified
No
studies
identified
SMD: 1.46
(95% CI:
0.26, 2.66)
SMD: 1.16
(95% CI:
0.08, 2.24)
SMD: 1.48
(95% CI:
0.57, 2.39)
SMD: 1.51
(95% CI:
0.13, 2.89)
Quality of
evidence:
Moderate
2 studies
64
participants
2 studies
71
infants
1 study
147
infants
1 study 35
infants
2 studies
347
participants
1 study 19
children
5 studies
176
participants
4 studies
513
participants
4 studies
381
participants
4 studies
155
participants
Hemoglobin
level
SMD: -0.11
(95% CI: -0
.52, 0.31)
No studies
identified
No
studies
identified
No
studies
identified
f
No studies
identified
No studies
identified
No studies
identified
SMD:
0.00
(95% CI:
-0.67,
0.67)
SMD: -0
.39 (95%
CI: -1.03,
0.24)
SMD:
0.28
(95% CI:
-0.62,
1.19)
SMD: -0.21
(95% CI: -0
.67, 0.25)
SMD: 0.28
(95% CI: -0
.62, 1.19)
No studies
identified
No studies
identified
Quality of
evidence:
Low
1 study
34
children
1 study
39
children
1 study
19
children
2 studies
73
participants
1 study 19
participants
Serum
copper levels
SMD: 0.57
(95% CI: -0
.91, 2.06)
No studies
identified
SMD:
0.75
(95% CI:
-1.65,
3.16)
No
studies
identified
SMD: 0.21 (95%
CI: -0.46, 0.87)
No studies
identified
No studies
identified
No
studies
identified
No
studies
identified
No
studies
identified
SMD: 0.57
(95% CI: -0
.91, 2.06)
SMD: -0.61
(95% CI: -1
.54, 0.31)
No studies
identified
No studies
identified
Quality of
evidence:
Very low
3 studies
126
infants
1 study 35
infants
3 studies
142
participants
1 study 19
participants
Serum
alkaline
phosphatase
levels
SMD: 0.94
(95% CI: -0
.29, 2.17)
No studies
identified
SMD:
0.68
(95% CI:
-0.90,
2.25)
No
studies
identified
No studies
identified
No studies
identified
SMD: 1.56
(95% CI: 0.50,
2.62)
No
studies
identified
No
studies
identified
No
studies
identified
SMD: 0.68
(95% CI: -0
.90, 2.25)
SMD: 1.56
(95% CI:
0.50, 2.62)
No studies
identified
No studies
identified
Quality of
evidence:
Low
2 studies
100
infants
1 study 19
children
2 studies
100
participants
1 study 19
participants
Weight gain SMD: 0.50
(95% CI: -0
.12, 1.11)
SMD: 0.33
(95% CI: -0
.33, 0.99)
SMD:
1.48
(95% CI:
-1.49,
4.45)
SMD: 0.00
(95% CI: -
0.30, 0.30)
SMD: -0.10
(95% CI: -0.73,
0.52)
SMD: 0.25
(95% CI: -0
.17, 0.67)
No studies
identified
No
studies
identified
No
studies
identified
No
studies
identified
SMD: 0.77
(95% CI: -0
.43, 1.96)
SMD: 0.08
(95% CI:-
0.16, 0.33)
No studies
identified
No studies
identified
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Table 4 Summary of results for zinc fortification in children (Continued)
Quality of
evidence:
Moderate
1 study 36
infants
2 studies
80
infants
1 study
176
infants
1 study 39
infants
1 study 88
children
4 studies
155
participants
2 studies
264
participants
Height
growth
SMD: 0.52
(95% CI:
0.01, 1.04)
SMD: 0.70
(95% CI:
0.02, 1.37)
SMD: -0
.48 (95%
CI: -2.45,
1.48)
SMD: 0.05
(95% CI: -
0.25, 0.35)
SMD: 0.16 (95%
CI: -0.47, 0.79)
SMD: 0.31
(95% CI: -0
.11, 0.74)
No studies
identified
No
studies
identified
No
studies
identified
No
studies
identified
SMD: -0.09
(95% CI: -1
.17, 0.99)
SMD: 0.14
(95% CI: -0
.11, 0.38)
No studies
identified
No studies
identified
Quality of
evidence:
Moderate
1 study 36
infants
2 studies
80
infants
1 study
176
infants
1 study 39
infants
1 study 88
children
5 studies
187
participants
2 studies
264
participants
CI, confidence interval; SMD: Standard mean difference. Estimates in bold show significant impacts.
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outlined in Table 1. Definitions of various outcomes used
are outlined in Table 2. The characteristics of the included
studies and quality assessment of the evidence are summa-
rized below and in Tables 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 and 8 and further de-
tails along with the forest plots are provided in Additional
files 1, 2 and 3.
Children
Iron fortification
A total of 41 [25,26,28,30-32,35,39,48,49,54,56,57,65,70,
77,80,81,83,85,88,89,97,99,101,104,106-108,112,113,114,116,
120,124,126,127,129,135,136,139] studies reported out-
comes for impact of iron fortification. Four of the studies
were before-after studies and the rest were RCTs. Nineteen
of these studies had infants as their study population, forti-
fying formula milk, cows milk and complementary baby
foods. Condiments such as curry powder, fish sauce and
soy sauce were the vehicles used in a few studies targeting
Asian populations. Drinking water, food bars, candies, noo-
dles and fruit juices were also assessed as potential vehicles
by various studies. Seven studies used sodium iron ethyl-
enediaminetetraacetate (NaFeEDTA) and 15 used ferrous
Table 5 Summary of results for iodine, Vitamin A and calcium/vitamin D fortification in children
Iodine fortification
Outcome/quality of
evidence
Combined effect
Serum thyroxin levels SMD: 0.45 (95% CI: -1.15,
2.06)
2 studies 1,131 participants reported this outcome. The studies were conducted in
Africa on school-going children.
Quality of evidence: Low
Urinary iodine
concentrations
SMD: 6.39 (95% CI: 2.69,
10.08)
2 studies 1,016 participants reported this outcome. The studies were conducted in
Africa on school-going children.
Quality of evidence:
Moderate
Vitamin A fortification
Outcome/quality of
evidence
Combined effect
Hemoglobin levels SMD: 0.48 (95% CI: 0.07,
0.89)
2 studies with1,538 participants reported the outcome. The study by Zhang et al. [132]
used four different comparison groups. The first group received low amounts of
vitamin A-fortified biscuits for 9 months daily. The second group received high
amount of vitamin A-fortified biscuits for 3 months daily. The third group received
very high amounts of vitamin A-fortified biscuits for 3 months weekly. The standard
mean differences for the three groups were 0.73 (95% CI: 0.42, 1.04), 0.62 (95% CI: 0.38,
0.85) and 0.63 (95% CI: 0.38, 0.88) respectively.
Serum vitamin A
concentration
SMD: 0.61 (95% CI: 0.39,
0.83)
3 studies with 2,362 participants reported the outcome. The study by Zhang et al.
[132] used four different comparison groups as explained in comments for
hemoglobin levels. The standard mean differences for the three groups were 0.52
(95% CI: 0.21, 0.82), 0.73 (95% CI: 0.49, 0.97) and 0.44 (95% CI: 0.22, 0.66).
Vitamin A deficiency RR: 0.39 (95% CI: 0.09, 1.74) 2 studies with 1,465 participants reported the outcome. The study by Zhang et al.
[132] showed positive impacts in reducing vitamin A deficiency whereas the study by
Solon et al. [110] showed negative impacts. The latter used monosodium glutamate
for vitamin A fortification and the quantity of vitamin A used was much less than that
used by Zhang et al.
Moderate
Calcium and vitamin D fortification
Outcome/quality of
evidence
Combined effect Calcium only Vitamin D only Calcium and vitamin D
Serum parathyroid hormone
levels
SMD: -0.40 (95% CI: -0.56,
-0.24)
SMD: -0.28 (95% CI: -0.50,
-0.06)
No studies identified SMD: -0.52 (95% CI: -0.74,
-0.29)
Quality of evidence: Low 2 studies 317 participants 2 studies 327 participants
Serum vitamin D levels SMD: 1.23 (95% CI: 0.35,
2.11)
SMD: -0.15 (95% CI: -0.41,
0.10)
SMD: 1.76 (95% CI: 0.37,
3.15)
SMD: 1.58 (95% CI: 1.28,
1.87)
Moderate
1 study 233 participants 2 studies 651 participants 1 study 235 participants
Serum calcium levels SMD: -0.40 (95% CI: -0.59,
-0.20)
SMD: -0.30 (95% CI: -0.56,
-0.04)
No studies identified SMD: -0.50 (95% CI: -0.76,
-0.24)
Quality of evidence: Low 1 study 231 participants 1 study 235 participants
Estimates in bold show significant impacts. CI, confidence intervals; RR: relative risk; SMD: standard mean difference.
Table 6 Summary of results for multiple micronutrient fortification in children
Outcome/
quality of
evidence
Combined
effect
Age groups Country Number of micronutrients used Duration of fortification
General/
healthy
population
Deficient
population
Infants Preschool
and school-
going
children
Low- and
lower middle-
income
countries
Upper middle-
and higher-
income
countries
5 or less 6 to 12 More than
12
Less than
6 months
6 to 11
months
12
months or
more
Hemoglobin
levels
SMD: 0.75
(95% CI:
0.41, 1.08)
SMD: 0.72
(95% CI:
0.37, 1.07)
SMD: 1.06
(95% CI:
0.75, 1.38)
SMD: 1.05
(95% CI:
0.48, 1.63)
SMD: 0.45
(95% CI:
0.12, 0.79)
SMD: 0.50
(95% CI: 0.21,
0.78)
SMD: 1.25
(95% CI: 0.45,
2.06)
SMD: 1.50
(95% CI: -0
.23, 3.23)
SMD: 0.51
(95% CI:
0.24, 0.78)
SMD: 0.71
(95% CI:
0.32, 1.09)
SMD: 0.07
(95% CI: -0
.17, 0.31)
SMD: 1.05
(95% CI:
0.55, 1.56)
SMD: 0.52
(95% CI:
0.07, 0.98)
Quality of
evidence:
Moderate
13 studies
2,876
participants
1 study 175
participants
7 studies
1,508
participants
7 studies
1,543
participants
8 studies 1,769
participants
6 studies 1,282
participants
4 studies
747
participants
6 studies
1,449
participants
4 studies
855
participants
2 studies
310
participants
8 studies
2,025
participants
4 studies
716
participants
Serum
ferritin
levels
SMD: 0.37
[0.13, 0.62)
SMD: 0.37
(95% CI:
0.13, 0.62)
No studies
identified
SMD: 0.43
(95% CI:
0.17, 0.68)
SMD: 0.06
(95% CI: -0.17,
0.29)
SMD: 0.47
(95% CI: 0.14,
0.80)
SMD: 0.18 (95%
CI: -0.03, 0.40)
SMD: 0.45
(95% CI:
0.00, 0.90)
SMD: 0.62
(95% CI:
0.18, 1.06)
SMD: 0.17
(95% CI: -0
.16, 0.50)
SMD: 0.45
(95% CI:
0.00, 0.90)
SMD: 0.48
(95% CI:
0.07, 0.89)
SMD: 0.20
(95% CI: -0
.23, 0.64)
Quality of
evidence:
Low
7 studies
1,848
participants
6 studies
1,547
participants
1 study 301
participants
4 studies 1,380
participants
3 studies 468
participants
1 study 79
participants
2 studies
748
participants
4 studies
1,021
participants
1 study 79
participants
3 studies
1,049
participants
3 studies
7,20
participants
Serum zinc
levels
SMD: 0.08
[0.02,
0.19)
SMD: 0.08
(95% CI: -0
.02, 0.19)
No studies
identified
SMD: 0.04
(95% CI: -0
.10, 0.17)
SMD: 0.17
(95% CI:
0.04, 0.30)
SMD: 0.12
(95% CI: 0.01,
0.23)
SMD: -0.02 (95%
CI: -0.26, 0.23)
SMD: -0.12
(95% CI: -0
.75, 0.51)
SMD: 0.13
(95% CI: -0
.02, 0.29)
SMD: 0.06
(95% CI: -0
.05, 0.17)
SMD: 0.31
(95% CI:
0.06, 0.57)
SMD: 0.06
(95% CI: -0
.09, 0.21)
SMD: 0.02
(95% CI: -0
.11, 0.15)
Quality of
evidence:
Moderate
11 studies
2,972
participants
7 studies
1,780
participants
4 studies
1,192
participants
7 studies 1,960
participants
4 studies 1,012
participants
2 studies
232
participants
4 studies
1,820
participants
5 studies
920
participants
1 study
223
children
6 studies
1,128
participants
4 studies
1,221
participants
Serum
retinol levels
SMD: -0.05
[0.23,
0.13)
SMD: 0.05
(95% CI: -0
.23, 0.13)
No studies
identified
SMD: 0.04
(95% CI: -0
.22, 0.30)
SMD: -0.21
(95% CI: -0.34,
-0.07)
SMD: -0.06
(95% CI: -0.25,
0.14)
SMD: 0.01 (95%
CI: -0.63, 0.64)
SMD: -0.28
(95% CI: -0
.45, -0.11)
SMD: -0.03
(95% CI: -0
.33, 0.27)
SMD: 0.02
(95% CI: -0
.27, 0.31)
No studies
identified
SMD: -0.08
(95% CI: -0
.29, 0.13)
SMD: 0.03
(95% CI: -0
.37, 0.43)
Quality of
evidence:
Low
8 studies
1,927
participants
4 studies
964
participants
4 studies 963
participants
6 studies 1,320
participants
to 2 studies 607
participants
2 studies
533
participants
5 studies
878
participants
3 studies
516
participants
3 studies
1,676
participants
3 studies
251
participants
Effect on
anemia
RR: 0.55
(95% CI:
0.42, 0.71)
RR: 0.59
(95% CI:
0.46, 0.75)
RR: 0.20
(95% CI:
0.10, 0.40)
RR: 0.59
(95% CI:
0.50, 0.70)
RR: 0.45
(95% CI:
0.22, 0.89)
RR: 0.50 (95%
CI: 0.37, 0.67)
RR: 0.69 (95% CI:
0.41, 1.15)
No studies
identified
No studies
identified
No studies
identified
RR: 0.77
(95% CI:
0.43, 1.36)
RR: 0.54
(95% CI:
0.36, 0.83)
RR: 0.50
(95% CI:
0.33, 0.77)
Quality of
evidence:
Low
9 studies
2,880
participants
1 study 175
participants
5 studies
1809
participants
5 studies
1246
participants
7 studies 2,229
participants
3 studies 826
participants
1 study
223
children
4 studies
1,097
participants
5 studies
1,726
participants
Effect on
vitamin A
deficiency
RR: 0.90
(95% CI:
0.76, 1.06)
RR: 0.90
(95% CI:
0.76, 1.06)
No studies
identified
RR: 0.85
(95% CI:
0.69, 1.03)
RR: 1.02 (95%
CI: 0.76, 1.38)
RR: 0.88 (95%
CI: 0.73, 1.07)
RR: 0.95 (95% CI:
0.66, 1.36)
No studies
identified
No studies
identified
No studies
identified
No studies
identified
RR: 0.85
(95% CI:
0.71, 1.03)
RR: 1.14
(95% CI:
0.76, 1.71)
Quality of
evidence:
Low
6 studies
2,036
participants
3 studies
687
participants
3 studies
1349
participants
4 studies 1,391
participants
2 studies 645
participants
3 studies
1,308
participants
3 studies
728
participants
Height-for-
age Z-score
SMD: 0.13
(95% CI: -0
.04, 0.29)
SMD: 0.12
(95% CI: -0
.09, 0.32)
SMD: 0.22
(95% CI: -0
.04, 0.47)
SMD: 0.26
(95% CI:
0.12, 0.40)
SMD: -0.01
(95% CI: -0.21,
0.20)
SMD: 0.09 (95%
CI: -0.17, 0.34)
SMD: 0.18
(95% CI: 0.02,
0.34)
SMD: -0.00
(95% CI: -0
.19, 0.18)
SMD: 0.11
(95% CI: -0
.12, 0.34)
SMD: 0.18
(95% CI: -0
.07, 0.42)
SMD: 0.01
(95% CI: -0
.13, 0.15)
SMD: 0.11
(95% CI: -0
.12, 0.34)
SMD: 0.39
(95% CI:
0.24, 0.55)
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Table 6 Summary of results for multiple micronutrient fortification in children (Continued)
Quality of
evidence:
Low
6 studies
1,853
participants
2 studies
245
participants
5 studies
1,083
participants
3 studies
1,009
participants
5 studies 1,485
participants
3 studies 607
participants
2 studies
624
participants
1 study
288
participants
5 studies
1,180
participants
5 studies
1,170
participants
1 study
288
participants
2 studies
634
participants
Weight-for-
age Z-score
SMD: -0.12
(95% CI: -0
.43, 0.20)
SMD: 0.05
(95% CI: -0
.09, 0.18)
SMD: 0.18
(95% CI: -0
.14, 0.49)
SMD: -0.28
(95% CI: -0
.85, 0.29)
SMD: 0.09
(95% CI: -0.16,
0.33)
SMD: 0.10 (95%
CI: -0.13, 0.32)
SMD: -0.48 (95%
CI: -1.45, 0.49)
SMD: -0.02
(95% CI: -0
.28, 0.24)
SMD: -0.03
(95% CI: -0
.26, 0.20)
SMD: -0.22
(95% CI: -0
.76, 0.33)
SMD: -0.25
(95% CI: -0
.90, 0.41)
SMD: 0.06
(95% CI: -0
.09, 0.21)
SMD: -0.68
(95% CI: -2
.79, 1.42)
Quality of
evidence:
Low
6 studies
1,853
participants
2 studies
245
participants
5 studies
1083
participants
3 studies
1,009
participants
5 studies 1,485
participants
3 studies 607
participants
2 studies
624
participants
1 study
288
participants
5 studies
1,180
participants
5 studies
1,170
participants
1 study
288
participants
2 studies
634
participants
Weight-for-
height Z-
score
SMD: -0.11
(95% CI: -0
.40, 0.17)
SMD: -0.17
(95% CI: -0
.56, 0.22)
SMD: -0.56
(95% CI: -1
.42, 0.31)
SMD: 0.08
(95% CI: -0
.06, 0.21)
SMD: -0.39
(95% CI: -1.06,
0.28)
SMD: 0.07 (95%
CI: -0.07, 0.20)
SMD: -0.40 (95%
CI: -1.17, 0.38)
SMD: -0.01
(95% CI: -0
.29, 0.26)
SMD: -0.14
(95% CI: -0
.37, 0.09)
SMD: -0.16
(95% CI: -0
.66, 0.34)
SMD: -0.10
(95% CI: -0
.75, 0.56)
SMD: -0.23
(95% CI: -0
.64, 0.18)
SMD: 0.18
(95% CI:
0.02, 0.34)
Quality of
evidence:
Low
6 studies
1,853
participants
2 studies
245
participants
5 studies
1,083
participants
3 studies
1,009
participants
5 studies 1,485
participants
3 studies 607
participants
2 studies
624
participants
1 study
288
participants
5 studies
1,180
participants
5 studies
1,170
participants
1 study
288
participants
2 studies
634
participants
Estimates in BOLD show significant impacts. CI, confidence intervals; RR: relative risk; SMD: standard mean difference.
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Table 7 Summary of results for iron, folate and calcium/vitamin D fortification in women
Iron fortification
Outcome/
quality of
evidence
Combined
effect
Population Country Fortificant type Food vehicle
General/
healthy
population
Deficient
population
Low- and lower
middle-income
countries
Upper middle- and
higher-income
countries
Ferrous
sulfate
NaFeEDTA Processed
food
Staples Condiments
Hemoglobin
levels
SMD: 0.62
(95% CI: 0.36,
0.89)
SMD: 0.66
(95% CI: 0.30,
1.02)
SMD: 0.59
(95% CI: 0.34,
0.83)
SMD: 0.52 (95% CI: -0
.12, 1.16)
SMD: 0.66 (95% CI:
0.31, 1.00)
SMD: 0.44
(95% CI: 0.21,
0.67)
SMD: 0.48
(95% CI: 0.22,
0.73)
SMD: 0.50
(95% CI: 0.30,
0.70)
SMD: 0.90
(95% CI: -0.10,
1.90)
SMD: 0.45
(95% CI: 0.22,
0.68)
Quality of
evidence:
Moderate
7 studies 2,819
participants
4 studies 404
participants
2 studies 524
participants
8 studies 2,588
participants
3 studies 310
participants
4 studies 1,588
participants
4 studies 398
participants
3 studies
1,211
participants
4 studies 1,614
participants
Serum ferritin
levels
SMD: 0.41
(95% CI: 0.23,
0.60)
SMD: 0.23
(95% CI: 0.08,
0.38)
SMD: 0.75
(95% CI: 0.47,
1.03)
SMD: 0.48 (95% CI:
0.31, 0.66)
SMD: 0.39 (95% CI:
0.17, 0.61)
SMD: 0.42
(95% CI: 0.05,
0.78)
SMD: 0.45
(95% CI: 0.21,
0.69)
SMD: 0.46
(95% CI: 0.10,
0.82)
SMD: 0.17
(95% CI: -0.15,
0.49)
SMD: 0.50
(95% CI: 0.33,
0.68)
Quality of
evidence: Low
6 studies 2,609
participants
4 studies 400
participants
2 studies 525
participants
8 studies 2,484
participants
1 study 117
participants
4 studies 1,559
participants
5 studies 1,390
participants
to 2 studies
993
participants
3 studies 626
participants
Effect on
anemia
RR: 0.68 (95%
CI: 0.49, 0.93)
RR: 0.65 (95%
CI: 0.40, 1.04)
RR: 0.74 (95%
CI: 0.61, 0.90)
RR: 0.74 (95% CI:
0.61, 0.90)
RR: 0.67 (95% CI: 0.39,
1.17)
RR: 0.57 (95%
CI: 0.34, 0.94)
RR: 0.74 (95%
CI: 0.61, 0.90)
RR: 0.51 (95%
CI: 0.21, 1.25)
RR: 0.67 (95%
CI: 0.39, 1.17)
RR: 0.74 (95%
CI: 0.61, 0.90)
Quality of
evidence: Low
3 studies 1,180
participants
1 study 136
participants
1 study 136
participants
2 studies 1,056
participants
2 studies 199
participants
1 study 136
participants
1 study 124
participants
2 studies
1,056
participants
1 study 136
participants
Folate fortification
Outcome/
quality of
evidence
Combined
effect
Quantity Duration
40 g/100 g More than 100 g/100 g Less than 1 year Greater than 1 year
Neural tube
defects
RR: 0.57 (95%
CI: 0.45, 0.73)
RR: 0.80 (95% CI: 0.75, 0.86) RR: 0.55 (95% CI: 0.41, 0.75) RR: 0.52 (95% CI: 0.28, 0.97) RR: 0.60 (95% CI: 0.50, 0.72)
Quality of
evidence:
Moderate
3 studies 2 studies 3 studies 4 studies
Spina bifida RR: 0.64 (95%
CI: 0.57, 0.71)
Quality of
evidence:
Moderate
Anencephaly RR: 0.76 (95%
CI: 0.68, 0.85)
Quality of
evidence:
Moderate
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Table 7 Summary of results for iron, folate and calcium/vitamin D fortification in women (Continued)
Serum folate
levels
SMD: 1.38 (95%
CI: -0.20, 2.95)
No studies identified No studies identified SMD: 1.65 (95% CI: -0.51, 3.82) SMD: 0.45 (95% CI: -0.06, 0.97)
Quality of
evidence: Low
3 studies 2 studies
Iodine fortification
Outcome/quality of evidence Combined effect
Effect on hypothyroidism RR: 1.42 (95% CI: 1.11, 1.82)
Quality of evidence: Low 2 studies
Urinary iodine concentrations SMD: 7.16 (95% CI: 1.00, 13.31)
Quality of evidence: Moderate 4 studies
Calcium and vitamin D fortification
Outcome/quality of evidence Women of reproductive age Post-menopausal women
Vitamin D only Calcium and vitamin D Calcium only Vitamin D only
Serum parathyroid hormone
levels
SMD: 0.10 (95% CI: -0.28, 0.48) SMD: -0.23 (95% CI: -0.78, 0.32) No studies identified No studies identified
Quality of evidence: Low 2 studies 108 participants 1 study 52 participants
Serum vitamin D levels SMD: 0.26 (95% CI: -0.22, 0.75) SMD: -2.50 (95% CI: -3.22, -1.78) SMD: 0.69 (95% CI: 0.38, 1.00) No studies identified
Quality of evidence: Moderate 1 study 66 participants 1 study 55 participants 3 studies 228
Estimates in BOLD show significant impacts. CI, confidence intervals; NaFeEDTA: sodium iron ethylenediaminetetraacetate; RR: relative risk; SMD: standard mean difference.
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7
sulfate as the fortificant. Other forms of iron used were
ferrous pyrophosphate, unspecified elemental iron and
hydrogen-reduced iron. Twenty-two of the studies were
carried out in upper middle income countries (UMIC) and
higher income countries (HIC), and 18 were from lower
middle income countries (LMIC) and lower income coun-
tries (LIC). Eight of the studies were carried out in popula-
tions with some form of iron deficiency or a comorbidity.
A summary of results is presented in Table 3.
Pooled analyses from the RCTs demonstrated a signifi-
cant increase in hemoglobin concentration (SMD: 0.55
(95% CI: 0.34, 0.76)), serum ferritin levels (SMD: 0.91 (95%
CI: 0.38, 1.44)) and reduction in anemia (RR: 0.55 (95% CI:
0.42, 0.72)). A few studies reported the effect of iron fortifi-
cation on cognition, but these could not be pooled together
because the reported outcomes varied significantly.
Subgroup analysis according to the various age groups
(infants, preschool and school going), countries (LIC/
LMIC and UMIC/HIC) and baseline micronutrient status
(deficient and normal populations) showed consistent
findings for all the outcomes assessed. The impacts on
serum ferritin levels and anemia were significant for all
the three food vehicles, that is, processed food, condi-
ments and staples, whereas the impact on hemoglobin
levels was significant for processed food and staples only.
The effect of NaFeEDTA when used as the fortificant was
significant on hemoglobin levels and anemia but was non-
significant on serum ferritin levels. The impacts of ferrous
sulfate when used as the fortificant were significant for all
the three outcomes assessed.
Zinc
Our search strategy identified 10 studies examining zinc
fortification [34,41,44,53,59,78,91,100,103,125], seven on
infants, where infant formula feeds or milk were forti-
fied, and three on school children, where porridge or
bread was fortified [53,59,91]. Eight of the studies were
RCTs and two were quasi-experimental designs. The
studies varied in the duration of intervention ranging
from 1 month to 12 months. Five studies employed zinc
sulfate as the fortificant; other compounds used were
zinc oxide, zinc chloride and zinc acetate. A summary of
results is presented in Table 4.
Results from the RCTs showed a significant impact of
zinc fortification on increasing serum zinc concentration
(SMD: 1.28 (95% CI: 0.56, 2.01)), whereas non-significant
impacts were observed for height velocity (SMD: 0.08 (95%
CI: -0.53, 0.69)), weight gain (SMD: 0.50 (95% CI: -0.12,
1.11)), serum alkaline phosphatase (SMD: 0.94 (95% CI: -
0.29, 2.17)), hemoglobin levels (SMD: -0.11, (95% CI: -0.52
to 0.31)) and serum copper levels (SMD: 0.22 (95% CI: -
1.14 to 1.59)). Visual inspection of the forest plot for
height velocity showed that the study by Salmenpera
et al. [98] was the main outlier; after sensitivity analysis,
it showed significant improvements (SMD: 0.52 (95%
CI: 0.01, 1.04)).
Subgroup analysis showed a consistent positive effect on
serum zinc levels for both milk- and cereal-based prod-
ucts, and for various durations of fortification (less than
and more than six months). For the various age groups
assessed, the effect was significant for only school-going
children with an asymptomatic deficiency at baseline. The
impact on weight gain was non-significant across all the
various age groups while the effect on height gain was sig-
nificant only for infants with very low birth weight.
Vitamin D and calcium
A total of seven RCTs, one quasi-experimental and two
before-after studies were identified for vitamin D and cal-
cium fortification [33,42,45,51,55,60,66,96,133,134]. Milk
was the preferred food vehicle and the amount of micro-
nutrient used varied significantly among the studies. One
study was on preterm infants while the rest were on chil-
dren and adolescents ranging from 6 years to 18 years of
age. A summary of results is presented in Table 5.
Analysis of the results from RCTs showed that fortifi-
cation with vitamin D significantly increased serum con-
centration of 25-hydroxy-vitamin D
3
(SMD: 1.23 (95%
CI: 0.35, 2.11)) and reduced serum parathyroid hormone
concentration (SMD: -0.40 (95% CI: -0.56, -0.24)).
Vitamin A
A total of three RCTs, one quasi-experimental and four
before-after studies were identified for vitamin A forti-
fication [29,36,79,84,95,110,111,132]. The studies used
monosodium glutamate, sugar and flour as the fortificant.
These studies spanned from 6 months to 2 years in dur-
ation. Five studies had children of ages ranging from 1 to
6 years, and three studies had a range of 6 to 16 years of
age. A summary of results is presented in Table 5.
Table 8 Summary of results for multiple micronutrient
fortification in women
Outcome/quality of evidence Combined effect
Hemoglobin levels SMD: 0.31 (95% CI: 0.13, 0.48)
Quality of evidence: Moderate 1 study 516 women
Serum ferritin levels SMD: 0.47 (95% CI: 0.36, 0.58)
Quality of evidence: Moderate 2 studies 1,214 women
Serum zinc levels SMD: 0.50 (95% CI: 0.38, 0.61)
Quality of evidence: Moderate 2 studies 1214 women
Serum retinol levels SMD: 0.47 (95% CI: 0.30, 0.65)
Effect on anemia RR: 0.76 (95% CI: 0.48, 1.21)
Estimates in bold show significant impacts. RR: relative risk; SMD: standard
mean difference.
Analysis of the RCTs showed significant impacts on
serum retinol concentration (SMD: 0.61 (95% CI: 0.39,
0.83)) and hemoglobin levels (SMD: 0.48 (95% CI: 0.07,
0.89)). A non-significant effect was shown on prevalence
of vitamin A deficiency (RR: 0.39 (95% CI: 0.09, 1.74)).
Iodine
Iodine fortification was identified in seven studies
[40,52,58,94,131,137,138]. All were before-after study de-
signs evaluations of mass salt fortification programs.
The analysis showed a significant effect on median
urinary iodine concentrations (SMD: 6.39 (95% CI: 2.69,
10.08)) whereas the effect on serum thyroxin levels was
non-significant (SMD: 0.45 (95% CI: -1.15, 2.06)). A
summary of results is presented in Table 5.
Dual fortification
Ten studies were identified to study dual fortification
[27,90,109,123,128,140-144]. Nine of the studies were
RCTs and one was a quasi-experimental design and in-
cluded children ranging from 5 to 17 years. Iron and iodine
were the most commonly used micronutrients with salt as
the food vehicle. Our analysis showed a significant impact
of iron and iodine fortification on hemoglobin concentra-
tion (SMD: 0.53 (95% CI: 0.18, 0.89)) and on reducing the
prevalence of anemia (RR: 0.47 (95% CI: 0.34, 0.66)).
Multiple micronutrients
MMN fortification was considered when three or
more micronutrients were fortified together. A total of 34
studies were identified that reported outcomes on children
[36,37,38,43,46,47,50,61-64,67-69,71-76,82,86,87,92,93,
98,102,105,115,117,118,121,122,130]. Three of these were
before-after studies and the rest were RCTs and quasi-
experimental studies. Eleven studies had infants as their
study population, others included children up to 15 years
of age. The duration of fortification ranged from 3 months
to 4 years. All the studies employed targeted fortification
as their fortification strategy. A summary of results is
presented in Table 6.
Analysis of the RCTs showed a significant effect of
MMN fortification on hemoglobin levels (SMD: 0.75
(95% CI: 0.41, 1.08)), serum ferritin concentration (SMD:
0.37 (95% CI: 0.13, 0.62)) and on reducing anemia preva-
lence (RR: 0.55 (95% CI: 0.42, 0.71)). The impacts were
non-significant on serum zinc concentration, serum ret-
inol concentration and vitamin A deficiency. MMN for-
tification also had a non-significant impact on HAZ,
WAZ and WHZ with a SMD of 0.13 (95% CI: -0.04,
0.29), 0.11 (95% CI: -0.06, 0.28) and 0.04 (95% CI: -0.08,
0.16) respectively, although showing positive trends.
Analysis showed a non-significant effect on overall mor-
bidity (including fever, UTI, diarrhea and respiratory in-
fections) with a RR of 1.19 (95% CI: 0.98, 1.44). There
was a non-significant impact on diarrhea and respiratory
infections but the incidence of UTIs was significantly re-
duced, although the evidence of UTIs was from a single
study.
Subgroup analyses for various age groups demon-
strated a significant impact on hemoglobin levels, serum
ferritin levels, anemia prevalence and HAZ in infants.
Significant effects were observed in hemoglobin levels,
serum ferritin levels and anemia prevalence for pre-
school and school-going children. Subgroup analyses
according to countries showed that MMN fortification
in LMIC/LIC and UMIC/HIC had significant impacts on
hemoglobin levels, whereas in LIC/LMIC, the significant
impact was on serum ferritin levels and serum zinc
levels.
Women
Iron fortification
A total of 13 studies, including 11 RCTs, reported out-
comes for the impact of iron fortification in women
[35,151,154-156,173,175,178,203,204,216,218,223]. Vari-
ous fortificants, including NaFeEDTA, ferrous sulfate
and ferrous pyrophosphate, were used. Ten of the stud-
ies were carried out in UMIC/HIC and three studies
were from LIC/LMIC. Four of the studies were carried
out in populations with some form of micronutrient de-
ficiency or comorbidity. The most commonly reported
outcomes included hemoglobin levels, serum ferritin
levels and anemia. A summary of results is presented in
Table 7.
Analysis of the RCTs showed a significant effect of
iron fortification on hemoglobin concentration (SMD:
0.64 (95% CI: 0.30, 0.97)), serum ferritin levels (SMD:
0.41 (95% CI: 0.23, 0.60)) and on prevalence of anemia
(RR: 0.68 (95% CI: 0.49, 0.93)).
Subgroup analyses showed that there was a significant
impact on hemoglobin and ferritin levels for both the
healthy and iron-deficient population, whereas the im-
pact on anemia was only significant for iron-deficient
population. Further subgroup analyses based on coun-
tries showed significant impacts of iron fortification on
anemia and serum ferritin levels in LIC/LMIC and
UMIC/HIC whereas hemoglobin was significantly af-
fected only in UMIC/HIC. All different types of
fortificants used showed positive impact on anemia
prevalence and hemoglobin levels.
Folate
Thirty one before-after mass fortification studies were
identified[149,150,153,157,159,164,168,169,172,174,177,
181,184-186,189,193,195-197,199,200,202,205,206,209-211,
221,222,224]. Flour was used as the food vehicle with the
level of fortification varying from 40 g/100 g to 500 g/
100 g. Duration of intervention varied between 1 and 10
years. A summary of results is presented in Table 7. Al-
though anencephaly and spina bifida are two specific forms
of neural tube defects, some studies described results for
neural tube defects without mentioning the specific type.
Thus we have pooled anencephaly, spina bifida and neural
tube defects separately as mentioned in studies to avoid
any misinterpretation.
Our analysis showed that folate fortification had a sig-
nificant impact in reducing neural tube defects (RR: 0.57
(95% CI: 0.45, 0.73)), spina bifida (RR: 0.64 (95% CI:
0.57, 0.71)) and anencephaly (RR: 0.80 (95% CI: 0.73,
0.87)). The impacts were non-significant for red blood
cell folate levels (SMD: 1.26 (95% CI: -0.49, 3.01)), serum
folate concentration (SMD: 1.38 (95% CI: -0.20, 2.95))
and twinning (RR: 1.06 (95% CI: 0.92, 1.22)).
Subgroup analyses showed that use of various concen-
tration of folate (40 g/100 g or more than 100 g/100
g) had consistent significant impacts in reducing neural
tube defects and spina bifida, whereas only 40 g/100 g
folate fortification was effective in reducing incidence of
anencephaly. In a subgroup analysis based on duration
of intervention of 1 year or more than 1 year, both had
significant impacts in reducing neural tube defects, spina
bifida and anencephaly.
Iodine
A total of 16 studies were identified investigating iodine
fortification [160-163,165-167,183,190,191,198,207,208,213,
219,220]. All of these were before-after studies that used
mass fortification as the strategy with salt being the most
commonly used food vehicle.
The analysis showed that iodine fortification had a sig-
nificant impact on median urinary iodine concentrations
with a SMD of 7.16 (95% CI: 1.00, 13.31) and on the in-
cidence of hypothyroidism with a RR of 1.42 (95% CI:
1.11, 1.82). The effect was non-significant on serum thy-
roxin levels with a SMD of 0.45 (95% CI: -1.15, 2.06).
Vitamin D and calcium
A total of 13 RCTs and one before-after study were identi-
fied for vitamin D and calcium fortification [146,147,158,
170,171,179,180,182,187,192,194,201,212,215]. The level of
fortification varied significantly. Fortification durations var-
ied from 2 weeks to 2 years. Reported outcomes included
serum parathyroid hormone levels, serum vitamin D levels,
serum calcium levels and bone mineral density. Target
populations included WRA and post-menopausal women.
A summary of results is presented in Table 7.
The analysis showed that vitamin D and calcium fortifi-
cation in WRA had a non-significant impact on vitamin
D
3
levels with a SMD of 1.10 (95% CI: -3.81, 1.60) and
serum parathyroid hormone levels with SMD of 0.01
(95% CI: -0.32, 0.30). For the post-menopausal women,
pooled analysis showed significant impacts on serum
concentration of 25-hydroxy-D
3
with a SMD of 0.82 (95%
CI: 0.30, 1.34) and on serum parathyroid hormone con-
centration with SMD of 2.53 (95% CI: -4.42, -0.65).
Results also indicated a significant impact of vitamin D
and calcium fortification on reducing the serum levels of
bone resorption markers: P1NP and CTx. Specifically,
pooled analyses showed significantly reduced serum levels
of P1NP (three studies; SMD of 3.36 (95% CI: -6.37, -0
.35)) and CTx (four studies; SMD of 4.93 (95% CI: -7.78,
-2.08)) in both WRA and post-menopausal women
Multiple micronutrients
Five RCTs were identified for the impact of MMN forti-
fication on women [148,176,188,214,217]. Varying num-
ber (3 to 20) of micronutrients were used and the
duration of intervention ranged from 6 months to 2
years. The study population included WRA, pregnant
and post-menopausal women. A summary of results is
presented in Table 8.
Analysis showed that MMN fortification significantly
improved hemoglobin levels (SMD: 0.31 (95% CI: 0.13,
0.48)), serum ferritin (SMD: 0.47 (95% CI: 0.36, 0.58)),
serum zinc (SMD: 0.50 (95% CI: 0.38, 0.61)) and serum
retinol (SMD: 0.47 (95% CI: 0.30, 0.65)), and reduced
anemia prevalence (RR: 0.76 (95% CI: 0.48, 1.21)). How-
ever, these findings should be interpreted with caution
as only a few studies were pooled for each outcome.
Discussion
Various strategies have been pursued globally to alleviate
nutritional deficiencies including food programs, diet
modification, supplementation and fortification. In this re-
view, we have attempted to broadly quantify the impacts of
fortification of various commodities with micronutrients,
singly or in combination, and to compare benefits.
Our review of fortification strategies among children
does show significant impacts on increasing respective
serum micronutrient concentrations, which could indir-
ectly be used to assess impact at population level. Zinc
fortification led to a significant increase in serum zinc
concentration, and the same was observed with vitamin A
and vitamin D fortification on respective serum micronu-
trient concentrations. Fortification with iron or MMN for-
tification was associated with a significant increase in
serum ferritin, whereas the effect of MMN fortification on
serum retinol and serum zinc was non-significant. Other
hematologic markers also improved following food fortifi-
cation among children with vitamin A, iron and MMN,
suggesting some conjoint benefits. Comparable to the
findings by others [65], the observed lack of negative ef-
fects of zinc fortification on hemoglobin concentrations
suggests that that the quantities of zinc present in fortified
foods is not high enough to alter the absorption of iron.
Although benefits of zinc fortification were seen on linear
growth, MMN fortification was not associated with any
significant benefits on HAZ, WAZ and WHZ.
Our analysis of the impact of fortification among
women indicates that calcium and vitamin D fortifica-
tion do not lead to an increase in serum vitamin D
3
levels in WRA but has a significant effect in post-
menopausal age groups. Iron fortification led to a signifi-
cant increase in serum ferritin and hemoglobin levels in
WRA and pregnant women. Folate fortification signifi-
cantly reduced the incidence of congenital abnormalities
like anencephaly, spinal bifida and neural tube defects.
Similarly, fortification of salt with iodine decreased the
incidence of hypothyroidism and led to higher median
urinary iodine concentrations. This evidence suggests
that mass fortification strategies can be extremely pro-
ductive and beneficial for numerous health outcomes.
The total number of studies pooled for zinc and MMN
fortification in women were insufficient to draw firm
conclusions.
Few studies in our review reported the direct impact
of fortification on morbidity. However, as many supple-
mentation trials have already proven the effects of im-
proved micronutrient status on morbidity, it could be
inferred that these improvements in micronutrient sta-
tus, reflected in changes in serum concentrations, could
also have beneficial effects on health outcomes including
morbidity and mortality. However, this cannot be defin-
itely concluded without large scale studies measuring
the direct impact of fortification on such outcomes or
direct comparisons of fortification and supplementation
strategies.
Notwithstanding the conclusions above, we are aware
that biochemical responses to specific micronutrient for-
tification strategies may differ depending on the under-
lying nutritional conditions of the individuals or
populations, the micronutrient compound used for forti-
fication, and the food vehicle chosen. To cater to these
variations, which are inherent to this strategy, we under-
took diverse subgroup analyses to confirm and account
for the differences, where possible. For this, we divided
the studies and reported separate estimates based on the
various age groups targeted, baseline micronutrient sta-
tus, compound and foods chosen, concentration of the
micronutrient in the food, the duration of intervention,
and whether the evidence was from HIC or LMIC. Our
analyses suggest that the impact of food fortification
were stronger in populations with nutritional deficien-
cies at baseline, as there was greater hematological im-
pact from food fortification with iron and MMNs in
marginalized at-risk populations. We also analyzed the
impact of food fortification on infants alone and the re-
sults indicated that iron fortification was associated with
a significant increase in serum ferritin and also a reduc-
tion in the incidence of anemia, although effects on
hemoglobin concentrations were non-significant. Zinc
fortification in infants raised serum zinc concentrations
without any observed benefits on linear growth and
weight gain. MMN fortification significantly improved
hematological parameters and was also associated with
significant gains in HAZ scores, whereas no beneficial
effects were observed for WAZ and WHZ.
The choice of food and fortificant are critically import-
ant. The fortificant must be stable, have a long shelf life
and should not alter the color, taste and appearance of
food. The food matrix should not interfere with the ab-
sorption of the micronutrient, thereby affecting its bio-
availability, for example through phytates. Apart from
the scientific aspects, the choice of food should be such
that it is readily available to the target population and
the quantity consumed should be enough to match the
dietary requirements. This is particularly true for chil-
dren, who typically do not consume the same foods and
staples. A variety of food vehicles have been chosen for
fortification, broadly classified as staples, condiments
and commercially processed foods. Our review shows
that, overall, staples have been the primary choice as
they are widely consumed by the population, whereas
processed foods and cereals have been chosen when in-
fants were the target population. Iodine fortification al-
most exclusively used salt as a traditional and proven
method, folate fortification was commonly employed
through grains or grain products, and milk has been the
carrier of choice for vitamin D and calcium. Of the out-
comes analyzed in this review, we could not conclude
whether a specific compound was better for impacting
individual micronutrient status, as consistent results
were observed for iron sulfate and NaFeEDTA when
used in iron fortification, and zinc sulfate, zinc chloride
and zinc oxide when used in zinc fortification. However,
we did not compare costs or the cost effectiveness of
various approaches.
The process of fortification comes with significant
costs, which have to be ultimately borne by the end con-
sumer or the state. As the poor have limited purchasing
power, funding agencies and public private partnerships
are needed to provide costs subsidies and cost-sharing
to ensure that the products reach those who need them
most. Additional demand creation and social marketing
may be necessary through campaigns to ensure adequate
marketing pull factors and consumption.
Fortification promises to tackle a multitude of micro-
nutrient deficiencies through a single intervention: a
one-window solution. Although the results are encour-
aging, more is needed. The evidence from these sub-
group analyses for different fortification vehicles and
compounds was not conclusive, and suggests that fur-
ther trials are needed with defined functional and bio-
logical outcomes. Most national programs analyzed were
from developed countries and data from the developing
world were relatively scarce. However, where available,
the results showed comparable benefits. This scarcity of
studies from developing countries is due to the fact that
national fortification programs require large resources;
robust scientific and research facilities are required to
identify the ideal food, micronutrient compound and in-
dustrial support. The experience of commodities such as
pre-fortified ready-to-use fortified foods indicates that
global procurement and supply as well as local produc-
tion is possible.
Our review has many limitations because we included
a range of studies of varying sizes and scientific rigor.
This was due to the fact that large scale fortification pro-
grams are, in general, before-after evaluations. Many
studies used different foods and concentrations of
micronutrients and the frequency of feeding/intake was
not uniform. Limited information on confounding fac-
tors like age and nutritional status at the initiation of the
intervention also limited inference of outcomes by age
bands and nutrition categories, and the duration of the
intervention period evaluated also varied across studies.
There is limited evidence available for the direct impact
of fortification on anthropometric measures, morbidity
and mortality and these are essential to evaluate future
benefits and effective strategies. We propose that further
future trials are warranted, which should take into con-
sideration the limitations identified in this review and
draw upon this, so that we have a pool of appropriate
studies with good quality study designs to impute the ac-
tual impacts of this promising strategy.
Conclusion
Fortification, though promising, is not an answer to the
global widespread nutritional deficiencies. With high
burdens of diarrhea and enteropathy, widespread malab-
sorption may be a barrier to this strategy taking maximal
effect. Integration of fortification and supplementation
strategies together with other mother and child health
and prevention programs may be the answer to address
the widespread global under-nutrition and to ensure sus-
tainable benefits. Community education and promotion
campaigns should also be implemented parallel to the
primary fortification programs to increase awareness, ac-
ceptability and equity. Fortification is potentially an ef-
fective strategy but evidence from the developing world
is scarce and future programs also need to assess the di-
rect impact of fortification on morbidity and mortality.
Additional files
Additional file 1: Characteristics of included studies.
Additional file 2: Forest plots.
Additional file 3: Summary of findings and quality of outcomes.
Abbreviations
CI: Confidence interval; GRADE: Grading of Recommendations Assessment,
Development and Evaluation; HAZ: Height for age Z-scores; HIC: High-
income countries; LIC: Lower-income countries; LMIC: Lower middle-income
countries; MMN: Multiple micronutrient; OR: Odds ratio; RCT: Randomized
controlled trial; RR: Relative risk; SMD: Standard mean difference;
UMIC: Upper middle-income countries; UTI: Urinary tract infections;
WAZ: Weight for age Z-scores; WHZ: Weight for height Z-scores; WHO:
World Health Organization; WRA: Women of reproductive age.
Competing interests
The authors declare that they have no competing interests.
Authors contributions
ZAB was responsible for designing and coordinating the review. JKD, RAS
and RK were responsible for data collection, screening the search results,
screening retrieved papers against inclusion criteria, appraising quality of
papers, abstracting data from papers, entering data into RevMan, analysis
and interpretation of data and writing the review. ZAB and JKD critically
reviewed and modified the manuscript. All authors read and approved the
final manuscript.
Acknowledgments
We would like to acknowledge Sohni Dean and Zohaib Sohail, who helped
us in the search and abstraction of data for the iron and iodine fortification
components respectively. We would also like to thanks our Research
Assistant Talha Mirza for his administrative support. We are grateful to the
Nestle Nutrition Institute for its unrestricted support towards the genesis of
this review and its external assessment in an advisory group meeting in
Zurich in October 2011.
Received: 16 January 2013 Accepted: 5 August 2013
Published: 23 August 2013
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doi:10.1186/2046-4053-2-67
Cite this article as: Das et al.: Micronutrient fortification of food and its
impact on woman and child health: a systematic review. Systematic
Reviews 2013 2:67.
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