Hollow Core Floor Systems

Structural Engineering Society of New Zealand
New Zealand Society for Earthquake Engineering

New Zealand Concrete Society
Seismic Performance of
Hollow Core Floor Systems
Guidelines for Design Assessment and Retrofit
Preliminary Draft - April 2009
Supported by

Seismic Performance of
Hollow Core Floor Systems
Guidelines for Design Assessment and Retrofit
Structural Engineering Society of New Zealand
New Zealand Society for Earthquake Engineering
New Zealand Concrete Society
Supported by
Department of Building and Housing
Preliminary Draft April 2009
ii Seismic Performance of Hollow Core Floor Systems
2 April 2009
Special note to 3 April version
This draft document is work in progress.

The PCFOG recognises the need for guidance material and has issued these draft
Guidelines in preliminary draft form.

The group believes the document will be a useful source of information to engineers
tasked with designing, assessing or retrofitting buildings with hollow-core floors.

However, users should be aware that many issues have not been resolved to the
satisfaction of the PCFOG. The document should not be regarded as a definitive
practice guide, but as useful additional information to support the processes of
design, assessment and retrofit.

An updated draft for wider comment and trial use will be produced later in 2009.

The PCFOG would welcome constructive comment and suggestions by not later than
20 May 2009. These will be taken into account in producing the next draft.
Seismic Performance of Hollow Core Floor Systems iii
2 April 2009

Foreword
Following concerns about the structural performance of hollow-core floors there was a clear
need for guidance information to improve industry knowledge of the floor behaviour to
promote consistent practice. The Department initiated the development of these Guidelines
by bringing together representatives of New Zealand Concrete Society, the New Zealand
Society for Earthquake Engineering and the Structural Engineering Society of New Zealand.

Design, assessment or retrofit of hollow-core floor systems is a challenging task. These
guidelines bring together information to assist those responsible for the manufacture, design,
construction and approval of hollow-core floor systems. They provide information to assist
TAs, owners and their engineers to design new floor systems, assess existing ones and to
decide on appropriate retrofit approaches and techniques.

The Department is pleased to have supported the New Zealand Concrete Society, the New
Zealand Society for Earthquake Engineering and the Structural Engineering Society of New
Zealand in the development of these guidelines and commends them for use in the industry.

The Department is grateful to the members of the Precast Concrete Floors Overview Group
for their knowledge, skills, experience and commitment of time in producing these
Guidelines.

David Kelly
Deputy Chief Executive Building Quality
April 2009
iv Seismic Performance of Hollow Core Floor Systems
2 April 2009
Members of the Precast Concrete Floors Overview Group (PCFOG)
Desmond Bull University of Canterbury/Holmes Consulting Group, Christchurch
Richard Fenwick University of Canterbury, Christchurch
Rod Fulford Precast Concrete New Zealand, Auckland
Rob Jury Beca, Wellington
David Hopkins Department of Building and Housing, Wellington (Chair)
Graeme Lawrance Department of Building and Housing, Wellington
Len McSaveney Golden Bay Cement Company, Auckland, representing NZCS
Stefano Pampanin University of Canterbury, Christchurch, representing NZSEE
Ashley Smith Structure Smith, Auckland (SESOC past-President)
Peter Smith Spencer Holmes, Wellington, representing IPENZ
Acknowledgement
The support of the Department of Building and Housing in facilitating the groups efforts and
funding background research is gratefully acknowledged.
The commitment and contribution of group members and their employing organisations is
especially appreciated.
Particular thanks are due to Rod Fulford and Len McSaveney for Section 3, to Rob Jury for
Sections 4 and 6, to Desmond Bull, Richard Fenwick and Stefano Pampanin for Section 5,
and to Peter Smith for Sections 7 and 8. David Hopkins was responsible for final editing and
collation, assisted by Dianne Grain.
Disclaimer
These guidelines have been developed to help those with the responsibility for designing,
assessing or retrofitting hollow-core floors in New Zealand. It is hoped that they will be of
value to experienced structural engineers to help identify potential concerns, provide
approaches and techniques for assessment, and develop ideas for retrofit.

The group is conscious that many of the issues covered are being addressed for the first time
and with limited or no research or testing to back them up. Care is needed in the use of these
guidelines.

Users are encouraged to adapt the material to suit particular situations and to use first
principles and other information to resolve a safe course of action.

The Department of Building and Housing, New Zealand Society for Earthquake Engineering,
the Structural Engineering Society of New Zealand, the New Zealand Concrete Society, their
officers, managers, and members who participated in the development of these guidelines:
Do not make any representations, express or implied, as to the accuracy,
completeness, or appropriateness for use in any particular circumstances, of any
of the information provided, requirements identified, or recommendations made.
Do not accept any responsibility for the use or application of, or reliance on these
guidelines or any procedures or other information contained in this document.

Seismic Performance of Hollow Core Floor Systems v
2 April 2009
Contents
Foreword iii
Members of the Precast Concrete Floors Overview Group (PCFOG) iv
1 Background 1
1.1 References 2
2 Introduction 4
2.1 Outline approach 6
3 Hollow-core floor units and systems 8
3.1 Production of hollow-core in New Zealand 8
3.2 Machines and processes 9
3.3 Hollow-core machines 9
3.4 Range of profiles 10
3.5 Amount of prestressing and reinforcing 11
3.6 Prestressing tendons (strand) 12
3.7 Topping 13
3.8 Construction aspects 13
3.9 Hollow-core in existing New Zealand building stock 17
3.10 Determining details of slabs 19
3.11 Historical background 20
3.12 References 30
Appendix 3A: Current New Zealand production 32
Appendix 3B: Hollow-core profiles 34
3B.1 Stahlton profiles 35
3B.2 Stresscrete profiles 39
3B.3 Spiroll profiles 42
4 Performance expectations 43
4.1 Building Act and Building Code requirements 43
4.2 Tolerable impacts 44
4.3 Verification 46
5 Key considerations in hollow-core floor performance 48
5.1 Summary of critical issues for structural performance 48
5.2 Overview of performance issues for hollow-core floors 51
5.3 Possible failure mechanisms 63
5.4 References 119
6 Design and specification of new hollow-core floor systems 123
6.1 Introduction 123
vi Seismic Performance of Hollow Core Floor Systems
2 April 2009
6.2 General considerations 123
6.3 Assessment of seismic demands 126
6.4 Verification of performance 127
Appendix 6A: Vertical seismic loading 131
7 Assessment of existing hollow-core floor systems 133
7.1 General 133
7.2 Key information required 133
7.3 Techniques and approaches for determining as-built condition 141
7.4 Assessment outline approach 142
7.5 Investigation and reporting 144
8 Retrofit of hollow-core floor systems 146
8.1 General considerations 146
8.2 Performance expectations and requirements 146
8.3 Retrofit options overview 146
8.4 Retrofit options 149
8.5 Construction considerations 162

List of Tables
Table 3.1: Prestressing tendons to BS 5896:1980 12
Table 3.2: Hollow-core use in Auckland: 1981 to 2003 18
Table 3.3: Hollow-core use in Christchurch, Wellington and Auckland 18
Table 3.4: Hollow-core Floor Production in New Zealand Outline History 32
Table 4.1: Impact levels for hollow-core floor systems 46
Table 5.1: Summary of failure modes 64
Table 5.2: Assessment summary of example of web cracking due to incompatible
deflections between floor and beam 104
Table 5.4: Strength and torsional deformation of 300 and 200 hollow-core units with 75 mm
topping concrete 108
Table 5.5: Limiting direct tensile stresses, f
dt
114
Table 6A.1: ULS vertical seismic force, F
s
/W, for main centres for T
v
between 0.1 and 0.4s
and taking R
p
=1, according to NZS1170.5 132
Table 6A.2: Distribution of vertical seismic actions along a precast floor unit 132
Table 7.1: Material properties precast flooring system 135
Table 7.2: Material properties topping 135
Table 7.3: Width of sections end support 137
Table 7.4: Reinforcement in topping end support 139
Table 7.5: Reinforcement to edge detail 139
Table 7.6: Techniques for determining as built condition 141
Table 7.7: Assessment issues summary 142
Table 8.1: Summary of retrofit issues and approaches 147

Seismic Performance of Hollow Core Floor Systems vii
2 April 2009
List of Figures
Figure 2.1: Outline approach 6
Figure 3.1: Coredex profile, B&B Concrete 1970s 21
Figure 3.2: Topping-less floors act as seismic diaphragms in Italy 22
Figure 3.3: Termodeck 22
Figure 3.4: Pipefloor 23
Figure 3.5: Pipefloor in practice 23
Figure 3.6: The nil support detail 25
Figure 3.7: Bearing strips avoid sun-camber damage on the upper levels of parking
structures 26
Figure 3.8: Formers for filled cores 27
Figure 3B.1: Early extruded Dycore slabs and wet cast UF hollow-core slabs produced by
Stresscrete 39
Figure 3B.2: Stresscrete 200 series Dycore 40
Figure 3B.3: Stresscrete 300 series Dycore 40
Figure 3B.4: Stresscrete cross-sections 41
Figure 4.1: Tolerable impacts for buildings under various levels of earthquake 45
Figure 5.1: Ductile detailing of supports and linking elements 49
Figure 5.2: Interaction of floor and beam where precast floor units span passed the beam
plastic hinges 52
Figure 5.3: Deep beam action in floor slabs 54
Figure 5.4: Contribution of torsion to column moments in columns in one-way frames 55
Figure 5.5: Failures at or close to supports 57
Figure 5.6: Incompatible displacements between beam and hollow-core floor units 59
Figure 5.7: Torsion induced in units due to drift 60
Figure 5.8: Hollow-core units and eccentrically braced frame 62
Figure 5.9: Vertical displacement between adjacent hollow-core units supported on two walls 63
Figure 5.10: LOSD and LOS failure mechanisms 73
Figure 5.11: Specimen HC3 35 mm seating 74
Figure 5.12: Section of unreinforced seat fallen away 75
Figure 5.13: Elongation and geometric displacement of the ledge away from the soffit of the
floor unit 77
Figure 5.14: HC1 delamination and sliding failure 79
Figure 5.15: Tension induced in a web due to loss of support 80
Figure 5.16: Behaviour of hollow-core floor under gravity loading 82
Figure 5.17: Negative flexural crack at the termination point of the starter bars leading to a
brittle shear failure 84
Figure 5.18: Bending moments and moment coverage (drawn for 12 m span, Christchurch
seismic actions) 87
Figure 5.19: Critical loading conditions 88
Figure 5.20: Positive moment failure of hollow-core units 91
Figure 5.21: Shear stresses induced in hollow-core units 96
Figure 5.22: Linking slabs to accommodate incompatible displacements 98
Figure 5.23: Analytical model for assessing damage due to incompatible displacements in
web B 100
Figure 5.24: Example of analysis for web cracking associated with incompatible displacement 103
Figure 5.25: Web splitting during test 105
Figure 5.26: Torsion in hollow-core members 107
viii Seismic Performance of Hollow Core Floor Systems
2 April 2009
Figure 5.27: Loss and maintenance of columns as nodes 110
Figure 5.28: Examples of cut-outs in hollow-core units 112
Figure 5.29: Mapping of the delamination of the topping from the hollow-core unit during the
experimental programme 113
Figure 5.30: Possible deformation modes caused by beam elongation 115
Figure 5.31: Elongation versus drift for different types of plastic hinge 117
Figure 5.32: Different designations of potential reversing plastic hinges 118
Figure 6.1: Dimensional requirements for end support of hollow-core units 129
Figure 7.1: Typical details for sealing cores in hollow-core 136
Figure 7.2: Typical support details for hollow-core 136
Figure 7.3: Investigation of support details 137
Figure 7.4: Hairpin detail 138
Figure 7.5: Filled cores 138
Figure 7.6: Reinforcing details at end support 138
Figure 7.7: Reinforcing details at edge support 139
Figure 7.8: Penetrations 140
Figure 7.9: Typical penetrations in hollow-core 140
Figure 7.10: Notching of units around a column 140
Figure 7.11: Establishing unit thickness 141
Figure 8.1: Enhanced support details 149
Figure 8.2: Release of restraint of each of hollow-core units 152
Figure 8.3: Steel hangers 153
Figure 8.4: FRP hangers 153
Figure 8.5: Infilling of cores 154
Figure 8.6: Dowels at joints between units 154
Figure 8.7: Topping ties in cores 155
Figure 8.8: FRP to suppress cracking at end of reinforcement 155
Figure 8.9: Layout of FRP 156
Figure 8.10: Location of alpha slab 156
Figure 8.11: Replacement option for alpha slab 157
Figure 8.12: Use of mild steel hangers to strengthen alpha slab 157
Figure 8.13: Use of FRP hangers to strengthen alpha slab 158
Figure 8.14: Steel support beams under alpha slab plan view 158
Figure 8.15: Steel supporting beams under alpha slab cross section 159
Figure 8.16: Infilled core option for alpha slab not suitable 159
Figure 8.17: Selective weakening option for alpha slab not suitable 160
Figure 8.18: Column restraint with steel ties 160
Figure 8.19: Column tie using steel support beams 161
Figure 8.20: Separating hollow-core unit from column 161
Figure 8.21: Support of units after separation from column 161

1: Background
Seismic Performance of Hollow Core Floor Systems 1
2 April 2009
1 Background
Over the last 30 years, considerable use of pre-cast concrete has been made in the
construction of buildings in New Zealand for floors, beams, columns and walls. The use of
pre-cast concrete has been particularly common in flooring systems, replacing the traditional
and more labour-intensive cast insitu concrete. Units incorporating hollow-cores to reduce
weight without significant loss of strength or stiffness are structurally efficient and
competitive in cost. They became popular for a wide range of buildings in New Zealand and
overseas. Reliance for overall continuity and integrity of the floor system is on reinforcement
placed in the cast insitu topping slab 50 to 65 mm thick, and on the seating and connection
details. Over the years, the thickness of hollow-core units increased from 150 mm to 300 mm
and more recently 400 mm and more, with corresponding increases in spans.

Questions were raised about the integrity of hollow-core floors, particularly after some
failures in the Northridge earthquake in California in 1994. In October 2001, load tests on a
full-scale model of a hollow-core floor assembly at the University of Canterbury [Matthews
et al 2003] indicated potentially serious gaps between assumed and actual behaviour of
hollow-core floor systems in strong earthquake shaking. The hollow-core units collapsed on
to the test floor at lower levels of load than expected, and exhibited brittle failure mechanisms
in some elements. The results caused considerable concern among structural designers,
territorial authority officials and manufacturers.

In April 2002, the Cement and Concrete Association of New Zealand and the New Zealand
Society for Earthquake Engineering set up a Technical Advisory Group representing industry,
research, consulting engineering and local authority interests. The Groups role was to
interpret the outcome of the University of Canterbury tests, disseminate information and
indicate necessary directions of future research and design practice. In August 2002 and
October 2003, this Group reported on the test and recommended changes in design
approaches. They recommended changes to hollow-core seating and connection details.
Changes to the Concrete Design Standard, NZS 3101 [Standards New Zealand 2006], were
made effective in March 2004, and cited as a means of compliance with Clause B1 Structure
of the Building Code in March 2005. (In August 2008, Amendment 2 to the Concrete
Structures Standard NZS 3101 made significant changes to the provisions for the design of
hollow-core floors and indicated one preferred support detail for new structures.)

A report by Sinclair Knight Merz to the Building Industry Authority, submitted in November
2003 [Sinclair et al 2003] and prepared partly in response to the Scarry Open Letter [Scarry
2002], had as one of its recommendations that a survey be conducted to determine the extent
of the hollow-core deficiency that may lead to building failure in a major earthquake event.

In July 2003, the Building Industry Authority started a review of the use of hollow-core floor
systems in New Zealand. The objective was to determine the extent and nature of the use of
these systems nationally, to relate that use to particular concerns raised by the University of
Canterbury tests and to advise the industry of any concerns. This work has been continued by
the Department of Building and Housing.

1: Background
2 Seismic Performance of Hollow Core Floor Systems
2 April 2009
Output from this work included a review of the performance of hollow-core floors in overseas
earthquakes, surveys of details in Christchurch and Wellington, and a review of likely
building displacements in Auckland, Wellington and Christchurch [Beca Carter Hollings and
Ferner Ltd 2004a, 2004b, 2005a, 2005b]. The Department also supported some ongoing work
on failure mechanisms [Fenwick et al 2004].

Since the initial test at the University of Canterbury, two further full-scale tests were
performed [Lindsay et al 2004; MacPherson et al 2005]. Each used details recommended in
the revisions to NZS 3101 [Standards New Zealand 2006]. Both tests showed markedly
improved performance from the original detail.

In June 2005, the Department issued Practice Advisory 5 highlighting issues of concern and
providing recommendations for designers, builders and territorial authority officials.

As a result of its investigations, the Department published a Hollow-core Floor Overview
Report in March 2007 [Department of Building and Housing 2007; Stannard et al 2007]. This
recommended that owners with concerns have their buildings reviewed by a structural
engineer. TAs were also advised to request a report when buildings with hollow-core floors
are altered.

With the heightened interest and concern, it was clear that more owners would seek advice on
buildings with hollow-core floors. There was an urgent need for guidance material to help
designers, particularly to assess existing installations and to devise retrofit solutions.

The Department undertook to support the development of guidance material for designers and
territorial authorities. It contacted NZSEE, SESOC and the NZCS to initiate the group that
has produced these guidelines.

Care is needed in using this document. It is intended for use by experienced suitably qualified
structural engineers. Attention is drawn to the disclaimer on the title page.

1.1 References
Beca Carter Hollings and Ferner Ltd, 2004a. Review of Hollow-core Flooring Performance
in Recent Earthquakes. Report for Building Industry Authority, May.
Beca Carter Hollings and Ferner Ltd, 2004b. Survey of Hollow-core Usage in Christchurch.
Report for Building Industry Authority, October.
Beca Carter Hollings and Ferner Ltd, 2005a. Investigation of the Potential Performance of
Hollow-core in Wellington Auckland and Christchurch. Report for Department of Building
and Housing, February.
Beca Carter Hollings and Ferner Ltd, 2005b. Survey of Hollow-core Usage in Wellington.
Report for Department of Building and Housing, February.
Department of Building and Housing, 2007. Hollow-core Overview Report. DBH Report
ISBN: 0-478-29792-0 (document), ISBN: 0-478-29793-9 (website), March.
1: Background
2 April 2009
Fenwick R, Deam B, Bull D, 2004. Failure Modes for Hollow-core Units. SESOC Journal,
June.
Lindsay R, Mander JB, Bull DK, 2004. Experiments on the Performance of Hollow-core
Floor Systems in Pre-cast Concrete Buildings. Proceedings of the 13th World Conference on
Earthquake Engineering, Vancouver, August.
MacPherson CJ, Mander JB and Bull DK, 2005. Reinforced Concrete Seating Details for
Hollow-core Floor Systems. Pacific Conference on Earthquake Engineering, Wairakei, New
Zealand, March.
Matthews JG, Bull DK, Mander JB, 2003. Preliminary results from the testing of a pre-cast
hollow-core floor slab building. Proceedings of the 2003 Pacific Conference on Earthquake
Engineering.
Scarry J, 2002. An Open Letter to IPENZ Regarding the Parlous State of the Structural
Engineering Profession and the Construction Industry in New Zealand. December (revised
from October 2002 version). (Known as the Scarry Open Letter.)
Sinclair Knight Merz, 2003. Significant Design and Construction Issues arising out of a
Review of the Scarry Open Letter. Report for Building Industry Authority, November.
Standards New Zealand, 2006. Concrete Structures Standard incorporating Amendments 1
(March 2004) and 2 (August 2008)
Stannard M, Bialostocki R, Hopkins D, Jury R, Saunders D, 2007. Hollow-core Floors A
Regulators Perspective. NZSEE Conference, Palmerston North, March.

2: Introduction
2 April 2009
2 Introduction
The Departments investigations and the results of research identified that the behaviour of
hollow-core floors needed to be better understood and guidance information made more
widely available. It was seen as likely that many existing buildings would require evaluation.
Guidelines would assist in identifying the key parameters and promoting consistency. There
would be value in bringing together some recommended remedial (retrofit) actions. For new
buildings guidelines for design and construction needed updating in light of the Canterbury
tests and the Departments investigations. Hence the coverage in these guidelines is of
design, assessment and retrofit aspects.

The Guidelines are intended to be read in conjunction with NZS 3101:2006, the Concrete
Structures Standard and apply to any building with hollow-core floors, whether new or
existing. They apply whether or not the building is earthquake-prone or subject to alteration
or change of use. The underlying theme of the guidelines is for the structural performance of
the hollow-core floor system to comply with the Building Code requirements under full
earthquake loading whether or not this is achieved in a particular case.

The Guidelines address the following issues:
Structure type and implications: Earthquake performance of hollow-core floors is
critically dependent on the displacement the structure experiences and the forces that
are induced. For example, ductile frame structures will have higher inter-storey
displacements than shear wall structures. In addition, supporting beams may be subject
to beam elongation due to plastic hinge formation. However, even in shear wall
structures, deformations of the structure can lead to excessive strains on the floor units
and/or topping.
Range of floor systems (floor units plus supporting structure): There is a variety of
configurations used. Floor unit depth and span varies. Units may span past
intermediate columns. They may be supported on walls or beams. Each configuration
may have different implications for the structural performance overall.
Seating details / performance: Seating details in buildings constructed over the last 30
years vary considerably from those with generous overlap of unit with the support to
those with negative overlap that rely on reinforcement in the cores of the units. The
behaviour of the floor overall is critically dependent on the detailing of the seating
details and associated reinforcement.
Reinforcement details / performance: Reinforcement is needed for diaphragm action
and for bending action in the units. The nature of hollow-core floor units is such that
the placement and quantity of reinforcement has a critical influence on overall floor
performance. More reinforcement does not necessarily give better performance due to
the brittle nature of some failure mechanisms.
2: Introduction
2 April 2009
Topping and diaphragm elements and issues: Pre-cast floors came about to replace the
highly labour-intensive in-situ floors. In-situ floors had the advantage of being held
together strongly by reinforcement between the floor and its supports. Diaphragm
action was assured because of this. For hollow-core floors the connection between the
floor and the supporting elements is usually confined to 50 to 70 mm of topping. This
places much greater demands on the topping slab, all the more so as the depth of the
pre-cast floor unit increases. The effectiveness of this connection may be further
reduced because of the effects of movement of the adjacent beams relative to the units.
Influence of structural displacements on floor performance: The Canterbury tests
highlighted the influence of structural displacements on floor unit performance.
Differential displacements generated over short distances, such as between a supporting
beam and a parallel floor unit, were seen to cause failure of the topping and parts of the
floor unit. Design and detailing must carefully take account of the possible influence of
displacements. This may include beam elongation in ductile frames that rely on beam
hinging. Every effort should be made to reduce the relative displacements or
accommodate them by separation or introducing flexible link members.
Guidance for design: This section of the Guidelines is directed exclusively for the
design of new installations and must be read in conjunction with NZS 3101:2006.
Account is taken of the latest research, testing and theoretical studies.
Guidance for assessment: The assessment of existing floors is most challenging.
Details of the units and supports may be sketchy. They may vary from one place in the
building to another. The guidance for assessment recognises these possible variations
and provides means for making decisions on overall performance. Again these have
been developed taking account of the latest information available.
Guidance for retrofit: Designing practical remedial measures is particularly challenging
for hollow-core floors. The constraints of existing conditions must be accepted and the
variability of details allowed for. Furthermore, the range of possible brittle failure
mechanisms makes the choice of retrofit detail difficult. For example, the use of a
particular detail to achieve adequate support may negate or seriously reduce diaphragm
capability. The guidance material highlights these difficulties and provides ideas on
how to overcome them. Where possible, solutions to common situations are provided,
but designers are urged to consider the potential for detrimental interaction of proposed
retrofit measures.

2: Introduction
2 April 2009
2.1 Outline approach
The approach taken in assembling and presenting the material in this document is shown in
the following diagram.

Figure 2.1: Outline approach
Demand
Loads
Displacements
Capacity
Hollow-core
floor function
End support
Slab
Diaphragm
Structure
restraint
General demand / capacity
considerations
Earthquake-induced
displacements (including
beam elongation)
Cut-outs and penetrations
Vertical seismic load
Tensile strength of concrete
Critical dimensions of units
Beam strength enhancement
Design
Rules
Rules
Rules
Rules
Assessment
Criteria
Criteria
Criteria
Criteria
Retrofit
Solutions
Solutions
Solutions
Solutions
Rules / criteria / solutions Outcome
Adequate
performance

Whether dealing with design, assessment or retrofit, the required outcome is adequate
structural performance, which may be generally taken as compliance with the Building Code.
Criteria for adequate structural performance may differ for new and existing buildings, but the
principle of attaining a defined performance remains the same.

The approach taken is to assess the demand on the hollow-core floor, assess the capacity of
the floor and then produce rules, criteria or solutions that will deliver adequate structural
performance.

The demands on a hollow-core floor system are essentially loads, such as gravity or seismic,
and displacements. Both loads and displacements must be considered when assessing the
demand on the floor system, or a particular aspect of its behaviour.

There is a range of possible failure mechanisms that need to be considered in assessing the
capacity of the floor to meet the demands placed on it. These are described in some detail in
the document in order to encourage a high level of understanding of the factors influencing
the structural performance of hollow-core floors.

The four aspects of capacity shown in the diagram represent a grouping of these mechanisms
in how they affect the key roles of the hollow-core slab system:
End support is critical.
Slab action must be maintained to carry gravity and seismic (horizontal and vertical)
loads to the supports.
Diaphragm action must remain viable and in line with assumptions made in the design.
Structure restraint is vital. Global analyses of the structure generally assume that
columns are restrained by the floor.

2: Introduction
2 April 2009
This guidance document encourages the user to think about the above roles of the slab
system, and to deal with them one at a time even though there are interdependencies. Users
are encouraged to examine the various demands and the influence they have on capacity.
They are given rules for new designs, criteria for assessment and solutions (or approaches) for
retrofit.

Users are urged to read these guidelines with this overall approach in mind. It should help to
identify the specifics that need to be dealt with in different circumstances.

3: Hollow-core floor units and systems

3 Hollow-core floor units and systems
3.1 Production of hollow-core in New Zealand
Machine produced hollow-core is formed on a long flat bed. The machine travels along the bed
forming a continuous finished concrete profile using very dry zero slump concrete that is
subjected to high compaction forces to create the finished shape. The finished slab, formed
during a single pass of the machine, will have shaped sides that key adjacent slabs together as
they are filled with concrete when the topping is placed. It will have between three and six
depending on the slab thickness and the manufacturer, and a roughened top surface to bond with
the insitu topping. Once the concrete has sufficient strength, the continuous concrete section is
cut to specific lengths required for individual slabs.

Performance of hollow-core units depends on the:
1. profile of the unit and its physical dimensions
2. concrete strength
3. compaction of the concrete
4. number and size of the prestressing tendons (strands)
5. level of prestress in the tendons.

Items 1 and 4 can be determined by inspection of hollow-core units prior to the concrete topping
being placed.

For item 2, special quality assurance tests are required to verify the performance of this dry-mix
concrete when it has been formed into hollow-core units. Production requirements for high early
release strengths means nominal 28 day strengths are seldom an issue.

Item 3 has a critical effect on the tensile strength and therefore shear strength and bond to the
prestressing tendons. The FIP Guide to good practice Quality assurance of hollow-core floor
slabs [FIP London 1992] gives details of a shear test for quality assurance that also tests the
bond of the strand at the extreme ends of the saw cut slabs and the tensile strength of the
concrete.

Item 5 is difficult to confirm with accuracy, but the test referred to in the previous paragraph will
give a degree of confidence.

In practical terms, the level of prestress, or lack of it, will have little significant effect on the
performance of the floor under gravity loads while the underside of the unit remains free of
concrete flexural tension cracks.

Typical strengths achieved in hollow-core units are extremely high due to the use of very low
water cement ratios, very high compaction forces, and the need for high early strengths to allow
distressing and cutting on a 24-hour production cycle. The fact that the unit survives cutting and
subsequent handling without obvious distress such as slipping of the tendons due to bond failure
or cracking at the ends indicates strengths of about 30 MPa at 16 hours and much higher 28 day
strengths.

This provides a quality check that is built in to every unit produced and close inspection by an
experienced observer of the ends of the sawcut units prior to the concrete topping being placed
can give a high level of confidence of most factors critical to the satisfactory performance of the
Seismic Performance of Hollow Core Floor Systems
2 April 2009
unit without further testing. Experience is required to assess the significance of the degree and
type of any splitting, cracking, strand pull in, apparent compaction variations.

3.2 Machines and processes
The different machines and processes have their relative merits (often related to machine noise)
but the differences in the performance of the end product, from the consumers point of view, are
minor.

In all cases the prestressing tendons are run out along a bed and tensioned. The bed is flat except
for small radii to shape the bottom edges of the finished slab.

The machine travels along the bed forming the concrete to shape. A single pass of the machine
compacts the concrete around the prestressing tendons and forms the shape of the finished slab
complete with continuous voids.

A very dry concrete mix is required for hollow-core production. The concrete must have a
suitable workability for the machine to form the concrete to shape and compact it well, while
still retaining its profile immediately adjacent to the heavily vibrating machine. It is also
required to achieve sufficient early strength for a 24-hour production cycle.

The critical strength is for release (at 16 hours) when a minimum of 30 Mpa is normally
required. The 28 day strength is not a manufacturing consideration, but would typically range
from 50 MPa to well over 60 MPa.

3.3 Hollow-core machines
Hollow-core casting machines come in many different types. Because of seismic design
requirements in New Zealand, manufacturers here have opted for machines that will produce
precast units of minimum weight. In countries where most of the precast floors do not have a
structural topping, hollow-core units have smaller cores to provide the required fire and acoustic
performance without the extra mass of a structural topping. Untopped hollow-core in some
earthquake-prone markets use a longitudinally waved shear key to provide a seismic diaphragm
(Figure 3.2), while other markets use hollow-core slabs mainly as wall panels and choose
machines capable of producing symmetrical sections, with a high-quality finish on all sides.

Machine manufacturers build their extruders and slipformers to suit empirical international
guidelines on maximum strand sizes, minimum strand centres, and minimum concrete cover.
Depths commonly range from 150 mm to 400 mm, but some producers are now making
machines for 600 mm and 800 mm deep floor slabs. As concrete technology improves, span
lengths increase.

Special hollow-core sections are also produced for the Termodeck System (Figure 3.3), where
cool night air is drawn through the cores of the floor, to reduce the air-conditioning load in the
building through the day. Other systems, popular in the Netherlands, allow all building services
to be on the occupiers side of the acoustic separation between tenancies, and fully accessible
from that side for maintenance (Figures 3.4 and 3.5).

3.3.1 Machine types
Spiroll machines have always been used (and still are) at the Riverbank Rd plant in Otaki. This
plant was originally Precast Components until ownership changed in 2006 to Fulton Hogan

operating as Stahlton. No other plants in New Zealand operate Spiroll machines. These
machines produce units with circular cores. Spiroll is also an extrusion machine and differs from
the other extrusion machines in that the dies that form the finished void rotate, and this limits the
voids to a circular shape.

Extrusion machines (Dycore, Stresscore, Partek, Elematic) have been used at all other New
Zealand plants. Extrusion machines such as Dycore, Partek, and Elematic force the concrete
from the machine under pressure and with high vibration. The concrete is forced through
formers to create the finished shape and the machine is propelled along the bed by the pressure
of the concrete being forced from it.

Slideformer machines: Precast Systems, Masefield Street, Upper Hutt, operated a Roth
slideformer from 1987 until 1995 when it was transferred to Stahlton at Ranui Auckland. In
2003, Echo slideformer machines replaced the Roth. Both of these plants have only used
slideformer machines, and slideformer machines have not been used elsewhere in New Zealand.
Slideformer machines such as Roth and Echo move along the bed under power rather than being
thrust along by the pressure of the concrete being forced from it. They operate in two or three
stages. In the first stage the bottom of the slab is placed and compacted around the prestressed
tendons near the front of the machine. The vertical webs and top are formed further back along
the machine. The finished product is formed over a distance of two or three metres as the
machine is travelling. The final profile is being formed some distance from the point where the
maximum vibration is required to ensure good compaction around the prestressing tendons.

Slideformer machines are generally able to form a wider range of core shapes.

To date all profiles produced by Precast Systems Upper Hutt and Stahlton Ranui had cores with
parallel-sided webs produced by Roth or Echo slideformer machines. Cores that are rounded but
elongated were produced by one of the extrusion machines such as Dycore, Partek or Elematic.
Cores that are perfectly circular in 200 mm or 300 mm units originating from Otaki, were most
likely produced by a Spiroll machine at Riverbank Road.

Because the profile is unsupported by formwork immediately after being formed and heavy
vibration is being applied close by, the plastic concrete can be subjected to some slumping to
causing the void shape to deform slightly.

3.4 Range of profiles
Diagrams of number of profiles are contained in Appendix 3B.

All hollow-core units produced in New Zealand to date (2009) were on machines set for a 4-foot
or 1200 mm module.

Units have been produced with nominal thicknesses of 150, 200, 250, 300, and 400 mm.

The most common thickness has been 200 mm, followed by 300 mm. 400 mm units were not in
use in New Zealand until about 1997.

150 mm units had limited early use but were reintroduced at the Stahlton Ranui plant in 2008.

250 mm units were only produced from some plants for a limited time.

2 April 2009
Additionally a 320 mm thick Spiroll unit was produced with cores as for a 300 mm unit but with
the thickness of the top and bottom flanges increasing by a combined 20 mm.

The number of cores varied from three to six. Thicker units typically have fewer cores, but all
units from the Ranui Stahlton plant using the Echo machine from 2003 were made with six cores
regardless of thickness.

The dimensions given in manufacturers literature are nominal and can vary due to slumping of
the plastic concrete after the forming process has passed, and due to wear on the formers
reducing the void dimensions.

Small increases in hollow-core unit thickness can be made by retaining the core profile while
increasing the top and or bottom flange thickness. This increases the concrete volume, cost, and
weight.

Increasing the nominal thickness of a hollow-core unit in some cases is only a matter of
increasing the height of the webs and does not in itself involve greatly increased cost. Thicker
units are generally associated with longer spans and or higher loads which also require additional
prestress, but for any particular load span combination, if it is approaching the limit of capacity
for a particular thickness of unit, the benefits of using a thicker unit requiring less prestress and
providing better performance will often outweigh the relatively small cost increase.

3.5 Amount of prestressing and reinforcing
Machine produced hollow-core in New Zealand typically only has prestressing tendons near the
bottom face.

Some machines are able to accommodate a limited number of tendons near the top surface.
These can be used to reduce the camber by raising the centroid of the prestressing, but increasing
cover to the bottom tendons has the same effect at lower cost. For deeper units (eg, 400 mm) the
bottom prestressing has a greater eccentricity and high levels of prestress can induce tension in
the top surface. Top tendons can limit tension cracks in the top surface from strand eccentricity,
or from handling or stacking with support not located at the extreme ends of the units.

New Zealand manufactured units, as cast, have no transverse reinforcing and no vertical shear
reinforcing. Vertical shear reinforcing cannot be incorporated in New Zealand production
processes and the web thicknesses would not accommodate stirrups with adequate concrete
cover and tolerances. Additional shear capacity is easily achieved by breaking out cores for
some distance at the support, placing reinforcing in the cores, and filling with concrete as the
topping is placed.

The minimum number of tendons in a 1200 wide unit is not only determined by strength and
serviceability requirements, but also by the number required to provide a ductile mode of failure.
That is, the flexural capacity of the reinforcing tendons is required to exceed the tensile strength
of the concrete by a least 30%.

The maximum number of prestressing tendons that can be used in any profile varies and depends
on the geometry of the cross section, cover requirements, manufacturing processes etc. Refer to
each manufacturers literature for the maximum possible numbers. 150 mm and 200 mm deep
units were most commonly manufactured with six cores and would accommodate a maximum of
seven tendons.


Manufacturers load span tables are based on maximum prestress and are not indicative of the
capacity of any units actually supplied.

Manufacturers design the units to provide the bending and shear capacity required by the loads
specified in the contract documents although they may have been supplied with greater than
required prestress to suit manufacturing requirements. For existing buildings, the manufacturer
will only be able to supply information regarding the amount of prestress required by their
design and will not retain records of additional prestress that may have been used.

Hollow-core units are manufactured on long beds, typically 100180 metres, and all units in any
production run would be manufactured with the same level of prestress. The level of prestress
for all units would be determined by the maximum prestress required by any unit in that
production run. Units supplied may have more prestress than required by their design or
nominated on drawings or production schedules.

Hollow-core units are not particularly sensitive to minor variations in strand location, the
water/binder ratio in the concrete or slumping of the webs. Quality assurance tests on the
extruded sections are used to determine acceptable tolerances.

3.6 Prestressing tendons (strand)
Seven wire prestressing strand used in hollow-core manufacture is imported into New Zealand
from various countries and has been produced to different standards over the years.

Although the standards and nominal diameters vary slightly, most are very similar with the
characteristic strength of the strand used being the most significant feature.

Table 3.1: Prestressing tendons to BS 5896:1980
Type Nominal
diameter
Nominal
stress
Nominal
area
Characteristic
strength
mm MPa sq mm kN
9.3 1770 52 93
11.0 1770 71 125
12.5 1770 93 164
7 wire standard
15.2 1670 139 232
9.6 1860 55 102
11.3 1860 75 139
12.9 1860 100 186
7 wire super
15.7 1770 150 265

The most common prestressing tendons in current use would be 12.512.9 mm diameter with a
characteristic strength of 184 to 186 kN.

Early production would have used half-inch or 12.5 mm diameter strand with a characteristic
strength of 165 kN. The lower strength was the standard at the time. Higher strength (super)
strand required greater bond stress which was more easily achieved as machines and concrete
technology developed.

2 April 2009
3.7 Topping
3.7.1 Topping thickness
The topping thickness most commonly used has been 65 mm, but this thickness will vary
according to the structural requirements. For example transfer diaphragms often require thicker
topping and heavier reinforcement than simple diaphragms. The use of cast-insitu drag-strips,
the full depth of the floor, has also been common to transfer high forces between load-resisting
elements. For topping thicknesses as low as 50 mm, steel fibre reinforced concrete has been
used to avoid the loss of concrete cover associated with congestion of overlapping reinforcing
bars.

3.7.2 Topping strength
Typical topping concrete strength was 25 Mpa. The bending capacity of the composite floor is
not particularly sensitive to the topping concrete strength. Higher strengths would be specified
where required for the diaphragm strength, or where the topping was to be cast at the same time
as supporting beams requiring higher strengths.

3.7.3 Topping reinforcement
Typical topping reinforcing was 665 HRC mesh over the body of the floor, and starters from the
perimeter supports and all supports where the floor does not continue both sides of the support,
and normally, but not always, saddle bars over all internal supports.

Starter bars, (and saddle bars where they were used) would typically be 10 mm diameter at
300 centres or 12 mm diameter at 400 centres.

The lack of ductility of HRC mesh has shown shortcomings for use in diaphragms resisting
seismic forces and reinforcing bars are now more commonly used for floor topping reinforcing
in ductile frame structures.

Higher levels of topping reinforcing may be specified.

Saddle bars will normally contribute to flexural strength and reduce deflections by providing
restraint or continuity moments. Hollow-core units are typically unpropped during construction
and in those cases the saddle bars are only activated by loads applied to the completed composite
floor. This limits the effect of the saddle bars on strength, deflections and serviceability.

3.8 Construction aspects
3.8.1 Propping
Hollow-core floors in New Zealand are normally constructed with no temporary propping, this
feature being one of the cost benefits associated with the system.
Propping is used at, or close to, the supports where there is limited seating. For instance at short
seating lengths or notches around columns where the bearing is limited. Propping close to the
support does not affect the bending strength or deflection performance of the finished floor.

In some cases hollow-core floors may have temporary propping at mid span. This may be for
structural reasons to reduce the soffit tension at mid span. The negative reinforcing is mobilised

by self weight of the floor system when the temporary propping is removed thereby reducing
mid span moments and deflections. Care must be taken with mid span propping to ensure
excessive tensile stresses are not developed at the top of the hollow-core unit.

Mid span temporary propping is sometimes used for architectural reasons to even out the natural
variations in camber that occur in longer units where the soffit is to be left exposed. This may be
purely for the appearance, but may provide performance benefits as well. The effect of mid span
temporary propping on strength, deflections and stresses of the finished floor depend on the
force in the props and the ability of the floor to develop restraint moments at the supports as a
result of the propping being removed.

When reviewing international practice with regard to hollow-core floor construction details, the
use of propping is often a key driver of variations in the detailing. For example:
in New Zealand, building contractors have ready access to low cost propping systems, so it
is more acceptable to use seating details that will require occasional use of propping as part
of the remedial work to compensate for inadequate seating lengths resulting from an
adverse combination of tolerances
consequently seating allowances for construction tolerances are less than those in countries
where temporary propping of precast floor systems is avoided because of its impact on
construction cost and on the building programme
in some countries, hollow-core units are extensively modified in the precast factory to
accommodate site-placed shear stirrups; end core filling, for negative moment capacity;
and air circulation ducts, or other mechanical services penetrations. In these cases, site
propping is often required to safely support the precast units and maintain their alignment
until the composite topping has cured
all-precast construction systems, which are designed to be constructed without the use of
temporary falsework, require seating details that can accommodate the most adverse
accumulation of tolerances.

3.8.2 Seating
Different specifiers have taken different approaches to seating of hollow-core units, and there
may also have been some regional differences, often related to the propping considerations
mentioned above and local contractors preferences. The following paragraphs give general
comment on some typical practices, but reference must be made to the original construction
drawings to determine the details used in any particular building.

Early specifications called for precast floor units (not just hollow-core) to be seated on a bed of
plastic mortar. Practical experience showed the theoretical benefits were almost impossible to
obtain and most floor units were seated directly onto whatever surface they were supported by.
Units were seated directly onto hardened concrete, beam or wall formwork, concrete blocks, or
steel beams.

Hollow-core units are typically hoisted using slings. When the unit is initially placed, there will
be a gap between it and the next unit already in position, to enable the sling to be removed.
Once the sling is removed, the unit is slid horizontally to its final position. This disturbance
tends to limit the accuracy of the mortar bed, while continued working on the floor units as the
deck is prepared for concreting further impairs the effectiveness of mortar seating. Current
practice is to only shim and mortar pack if there is gross unevenness that the low-friction bearing
strip is unable to accommodate.
2 April 2009
These low-friction plastic seating strips (such as the McDowel strip) were introduced into New
Zealand in 1996 although they had been in common use in North America since the early 1970s.
They overcame the problems associated with mortar beds and allowed faster slab placement.
Low-friction bearing pads also improve the serviceability performance by accommodating creep,
shrinkage and temperature movements without causing edge spalling. In New Zealand their use
increased gradually, becoming more widespread with the introduction of NZS3101:2006.

Seating lengths onto steel or hardened concrete varied, but lengths of 50 mm were often
specified. This left little allowance for construction tolerances and where bearing lengths
dropped below 50 mm, remedial measures such as addition of reinforcing to the cores were used
while temporary propping was provided at the support as a construction safety measure. This
was a Department of Labour requirement during the 1980s and the remedial detail had to be
approved by a registered engineer before topping concrete could be placed.

Where the units were supported by an insitu concrete beam, and the supporting beam was being
cast at the same time as the topping concrete was being placed, the units would normally be
supported on the beam formwork and protrude into the boxed up beam. In some cases a
McDowel bearing strip has been fixed to the underside of the hollow-core seating area before the
concrete is placed to accommodate creep, shrinkage and thermal movements without spalling the
edge of the support.

In some cases, typically in Wellington during the 1980s, the hollow-core would seat only onto
the cover concrete. This detail was used when designers were trying to achieve the minimum
dimensions for the beams, the available seating length was limited to the minimum concrete
cover to the beam stirrups, with the placing tolerance accommodated by staggering the
placement of the hollow-core units. Refer to Guidelines for the use of Structural Precast
Concrete in Buildings, Centre for Advanced Engineering, 1999.

In other cases, the beam design would provide reinforcing under the hollow-core seating by
having different width stirrups to the portion of the beam below the floor seating level. This
detail was commonly used prior to the early 1980s.

Where hollow-core units seated onto shell beams, the top edge of the shell beam provided a
width or 70 mm or more, and with the tapering shell beam sides there was room to take the
hollow-core unit past the shell beam edge and protrude over the beam core without clashing with
the beam reinforcement. In these cases, the supplier could detail hollow-core units with a
generous seating of 75 mm or more. With the narrow top edge of shell beams, low friction
bearing strips for seating were not commonly used until required by NZS3101:2006.

The columns of reinforced concrete buildings designed in New Zealand are generally wider than
the beams. Concrete cover to columns is generally insufficient to allow hollow-core seating to
comply with design codes.

A commonly used detail to overcome the recurring problem of short seating, whether by design
such as at columns, or as a result of construction tolerances, was to break out the tops of the
cores, place D10, hair pin shaped bars from the support into the cores, and fill with compacted
concrete as the topping was placed. Refer to Guidelines for the use of Structural Precast
Concrete in Buildings, Centre for Advanced Engineering, 1999.

This detail was borrowed from North American practice and the number of bars was calculated
by a shear-friction analysis (section 7.7, NZS 3101:2006), or by 30 degree kinking, to carry the
full ultimate end shear. The completed floors were tested to verify the capacity of this remedial

detail that was simple yet effective. Shear friction is an effective mechanism for low crack
widths, but if beam elongation or displacement incompatibility was expected to cause wider
cracks than aggregate interlock could cope with, the 30 degree bar kinking model was used to
calculate the shear capacity across the open crack. Reference is Herlihy, PhD thesis, Canterbury
University 1994. Testing at Works Central Laboratories (Blades et al 1990) and Canterbury
University (Herlihy 1994) confirmed its suitability.

During the 1990s the problem of sun camber became apparent. Where the top surface of a floor
is exposed to the sun, such as in parking buildings, the thermal gradient through the floor
thickness resulting from solar heating caused more expansion of the top surface. The result of
this is a daily hogging of the floor that causes a rotation at the support and sliding at the seating.
Continual sliding at the support caused spalling that could progress and compromise the support.
Use of the McDowel bearing strip introduced in 1996 overcame this problem. The bearing strip
is high strength plastic with a serrated underside to prevent it moving on the support, and a low
friction top surface that permits the precast unit to slide without damaging either surface. They
also provided the benefit of faster erection by enabling the units to be more easily moved on
their support after placing by crane and before the topping was placed.

The publication of Amendment No. 3, to NZS 3101:1995, in March 2004, following the
recommendations of the Hollow-core Support Technical Advisory Group, made the use of
bearing strips, and a full 75 mm seating length mandatory, unless it could be shown by analysis
or test that the performance of alternative details would be acceptable.

3.8.3 Spaced hollow-core units
Spaced hollow-core became more widely used around the mid 1990s. The 1200 mm wide
hollow-core units are spaced 400 mm to 800 mm apart. Permanent timber infill formwork is
seated into notches in the hollow-core units and an insitu slab formed over the timber, as the
topping is placed. The 35 mm deep notches in the hollow-core units give 75 topping over the 25
mm timber infills when 65 mm is used over the precast unit.

This resulted in lighter cheaper floors and it was easier to accommodate services within the
timber infill sections. Temporary propping during placing of the concrete topping would often
be required to support the additional construction load on each unit.

Around 2000, deeper recesses, to seat the timber in-fills lower, were used by some
manufacturers to enable the spaced infill floors to provide the acoustic separation required
between residential units, and a higher fire rating.

3.9 Hollow-core in existing New Zealand building stock
The Department of Building and Housing published Hollow-core Floor Overview Report in
2007 and it is available from their website: www.dbh.govt.nz/technical-reports.

The Overview Report gives background to the concerns relating to existing buildings with
hollow-core floors in New Zealand. It also gives information on research and testing that has
been carried out and it gives summaries of hollow-core use in different areas and for different
building types.

Because of the concerns that arose from a full scale test when unexpected failures occurred at
large drift displacements in a ductile frame with very specific characteristics, a survey of hollow-
core use in the three main centres was carried out. From this it was concluded that:
2 April 2009
Auckland contains more than 50% of the installed hollow-core in New Zealand and
because of the predominance of stiff buildings and lower seismic drift, they were unlikely
to present a significant risk
a total of 13 buildings in Wellington were brought to the attention of the territorial
authority as warranting further investigation
in Christchurch two buildings were referred to the territorial authority as warranting
further investigation.

The survey could not examine all buildings in detail, and Engineers should not rely on the results
of the survey or its conclusions when called upon to report on a particular building.

The following tables taken from the Overview Report give an indication of hollow-core use in
New Zealand. The information is incomplete and reference should be made to the full report.
The categorisation of the buildings as shear wall or frame is based on the suppliers
interpretation and while giving a general indication, cannot be relied upon as definitive.

Table 3.2: Hollow-core use in Auckland: 1981 to 2003
Size Date Shear wall Frame Shear wall + frame
m
2
% m
2
% m
2
H200 8185 2,380 61% 1,508 39% 3,888
8690 7,232 26% 20,181 74% 27,413
9195 45,371 73% 16,918 27% 62,289
9600 147,620 73% 53,853 27% 201,473
0105 82,709 80% 21,248 20% 103,957
H200 all years 285,311 72% 113,708 28% 399,019
H250 8185 0 0 0
8690 9,195 34% 17,890 66% 27,085
9195 582 55% 480 45% 1,062
9600 0 0% 720 100% 720
0105 0 0 0
H250 all years 9,777 34% 19,090 66% 28,867
H300 8185 311 100% 0 0% 311
8690 3,943 58% 2,380 42% 6,773
9195 83,955 77% 24,713 23% 108,668
9600 87,727 82% 19,389 18% 107,116
0105 73,965 77% 21,959 23% 95,924
H300 all years 249,901 78% 68,891 22% 318,792
H400 8185 0 0 0
8690 0 0 0
9195 0 0% 127 100% 127
9600 15,138 72% 5,767 28% 20,905
0105 13,744 92% 1,128 8% 14,872
H400 all years 28,882 80% 7,022 20% 35,904
Total all 573,871 73% 208,711 27% 782,582


Table 3.3: Hollow-core use in Christchurch, Wellington and Auckland
Area vs depth Christchurch % vs depth Christchurch Units 300 mm or more
HC unit m
2
m
2
m
2
Size % % % m
2
m
2

(see note)
Stiff Flexible Total Stiff Flexible CHC total Total Flexible
H150 7,200 2,700 9,900 H150 73 27 4
H200 126,100 36,600 162,700 H200 78 22 63
H250 0 0 0 H250 0
H300 60,000 3,100 63,100 H300 95 5 24 63,100 3,100
H350 5,500 0 5,500 H350 100 0 2 5,500 0
H400 18,000 0 18,000 H400 100 0 7 18,000 0
216,800 42,400 259,200 100 86,600 3,100
84% 16% 100% Christchurch is 17% 33% 1.2%
Unit mark is H followed by depth in millimetres of NZ total of total for Christchurch

Area vs depth Wellington % vs depth Wellington
HC unit m
2
m
2
m
2
Size % % % m
2
m
2

(see note)
Stiff Flexible Total Stiff Flexible WGN total Total Flexible
H150 12,100 10,200 22,300 H150 54 46 5
H200 110,000 250,000 360,000 H200 31 69 77
H250 1,900 0 1,900 H250 0
H300 84,000 2,000 86,000 H300 98 2 18 86,000 2,000
H350 0 0 0 H350 0 0 0
H400 0 0 0 H400 0 0 0
208,000 262,200 470,200 100 86,000 2,000
44% 56% 100% Wellington is 31% 18% 0.4%
Unit mark is H followed by depth in millimetres of NZ total of total for Wellington

Area vs depth Auckland % vs depth Auckland
HC unit m
2
m
2
m
2
Size % % % m
2
m
2

(see note)
Stiff Flexible Total Stiff Flexible WGN total Total Flexible
H200 285,311 113,708 399,019 H200 72 28 51
H250 9,777 19,090 28,867 H250 34 66 4
H300 249,901 68,891 318,792 H300 78 22 41 318,792 68,891
H400 28,882 7,022 35,904 H400 80 20 5 35,904 7,022
573,871 208,711 782,582 354,696 75,913
73% 27% 100% Auckland is 52% 45% 9.7%
Unit mark is H followed by depth in millimetres of NZ total of total for Auckland

Total all three centres
998,671 513,311 1,511,982 527,296 81,013
66% 34% 100% 35% 5.4%
of total for NZ
Stiff denotes hollow-core in buildings where assessed inter-storey deflection in a major earthquake would be less
than 1% of storey height.
Flexible denotes hollow-core in buildings where assessed inter-storey deflection in a major earthquake would be
more than 1% of storey height.
2 April 2009
3.10 Determining details of slabs
Details of hollow-core units in an existing building can only be obtained with certainty from the
original manufacturer of the units. With changes of ownership, plant closures and the passage of
time, information relating to older buildings may not be available from the manufacturer but, if
available, is the often the only source of reliable information.

The original permit drawings from the Engineer specifying a particular product may be correct
but can not be relied upon because the builder may have accepted an alternative suppliers tender
and may even have used a totally different type of floor. Unit sizes are sometimes adjusted
during construction to accommodate changes to loads for services or client requirements, or
because the original units specified were not the most suitable.

A visual site inspection will provide little information on hollow-core units unless a core is
broken out from the underside. That will enable an assessment of unit depth and core
configuration to be made. That information together with building location and date of
construction will indicate likely manufacturers. This process should involve someone with in
depth experience of the manufacturing industry.

3.11 Historical background
3.11.1 Early New Zealand practice
The earliest precast, prestressed hollow-core flooring in New Zealand was produced during the
late 1960s. Cardboard, or rubber tubes, were used to form circular voids. Stresscrete produced
cores; and 9 inches (229 mm) deep with 5171 mm diameter cores. B&B Concrete Ltd made
similar slabs, which were 8 inches and 12 inches deep (Figure 3.1). In the mid 1970s,
Stresscrete also used urea formaldehyde, and later, polystyrene foam, to form rectangular cores
(3 No. 130mm deep by 320 mm wide in 200 mm deep by 1200 mm wide precast units). The
foam was left in place. In both of these production methods, medium slump (120 to 150 mm) 42
MPa concrete was vibrated into place and the units were reinforced with conventional 6 mm
stirrups. They were typically prestressed with seven-wire Regular Grade, 9.3 mm or 10.9 mm
diameter strands of 94 kN or 125 kN ultimate tensile capacity and were designed to act
compositely with a 60 mm thick concrete topping layer.

For government buildings, or buildings seeking to have government departments as tenants, PW
81/10/01 (Design of Public Buildings, Code of Practice, Ministry of Works, Wellington, 1970)
required:
a structural topping thickness of 2.5 inches (65 mm)
ties between the topping concrete and the precast section, equivalent to one six-gauge
double-leg tie (or equivalent) every three square feet (0.3 m
2
). The spacing of these ties
was originally 18 inches (450 mm), but was later increased to 24 inches (600 mm)
minimum bearing length of three inches (75 mm) as defined in ACI 512.67, with the
principal longitudinal reinforcement extending 2.5 inches over the support
all precast units to be bedded on plastic mortar
continuous construction inspection by a Clerk of Works.

Other consultants preferred to follow the recommendations of the American Prestressed
Concrete Institute, but it was common practice to closely supervise the manufacture of all types
of precast flooring and its installation.

In November 1974, B&B Concrete in Auckland introduced the first Dycore, hollow-core
extruding machine to New Zealand. That machine produced 1.21 m wide by 203 mm (and
305 mm) deep sections, the full length of the 41 m casting bed. After steam curing overnight,
individual units were saw-cut to length the next day and stacked for transport to the site. The
extrusion machines of that time could not accommodate transverse reinforcing bars, or stirrups,
so extensive testing was undertaken in Europe and North America, to confirm the shear capacity
of these units. References to these early tests can be found in the PCI and ACI Journals, and in
Manual for the Design of Hollow Core Slabs PCI, Chicago, 1985.

Figure 3.1: Coredex profile, B&B Concrete 1970s

Continuity and diaphragm action was achieved by means of welded-wire mesh and saddle bars
in a 60 mm thick composite concrete topping layer. B&Bs product literature called for the units
to be seated on a 50 mm wide bed of wet mortar, but this mortar was only used if the supports
were very uneven and likely to spall. Most flooring units were seated directly on the supporting
beams or walls. Market penetration was slow, and in 1976, B&B Concrete was purchased by
Stresscrete Industries Ltd.

The market for precast building systems grew steadily through the late 1970s and by the early
1980s Dycore was replacing Vibradek and the other prestressed rib and masonry infill flooring
systems. Hollow-core offered the advantages of reduced propping, a flat soffit, faster erection, a
safe and stable working platform, and low cost. Simple details were developed to cope with
erection tolerances and Dycore took an increasing share of the precast flooring market for spans
in the 6 to 12 metre range.

A principal specifier of hollow-core in buildings in the 1970s and through the 1980s was the
Auckland practice of Carl OGrady, later OGrady and Mitchell. Their philosophy of all
precast construction suited the needs of property developers of that time. They followed the
structural design approach of California, using simple structural forms (precast frames, or precast
shear walls) in low-drift buildings. They had their own proprietary method for optimizing the
performance of precast shell beams and hollow-core floors in multi-storey structures. Slab
seating lengths were generous and there was regular inspection during both the precast
fabrication and site erection.

2 April 2009
Figure 3.2: Topping-less floors act as
seismic diaphragms in Italy
Note: Smaller diameter cores, to meet fire resistance
ratings.
Figure 3.3: Termodeck
Low energy structural ceiling slab system providing
thermal storage at room temperature, cooling without
refrigeration and ventilation without recirculation.


Figure 3.4: Pipefloor
Pipefloor is a popular use of hollow-core in the Netherlands. All services are
on the occupiers side of the acoustic separation between apartments.
Figure 3.5: Pipefloor in practice

Most hollow-core casting machines are capable of accommodating a limited number of top pre-
tensioning strands, but these are rarely required. They are sometimes used in deeper units if
there is concern about the possibility of tensile failure in the top flange of the bare unit during
handling. With the hollow-core profiles used in New Zealand, web widths are able to safely
cope with construction load stresses without the use of stirrups. Where service load shear
stresses exceed allowable values for the precast section, additional shear capacity can be added
in selected cores, or in the shear keys between adjacent units. The addition of stirrups in the
cores has been common practice in worldwide at cut-outs; under concentrated loads; or for units
at the extreme end of their load-span range.

Stirrups, or shear-connector ties, have also been frequently used where seismic shear in
diaphragms exceeds the allowable interface shear for an un-reinforced connection.

3.11.2 Early seating practices
New Zealand hollow-core details followed 1970s North American practice, with a nominal
seating length of two inches (50 mm). Bearing pads were not used in New Zealand although in
2 April 2009
the USA and Canada, it was common practice to seat hollow-core slabs on strips of rubber,
plastic, or hard-board (Masonite). In New Zealand, if supporting surfaces were rough, the units
were bedded on plastic mortar, but in most cases, direct concrete to concrete, or concrete to steel
contact was accepted. A seating length of 65 mm was commonly used when bearing on concrete
masonry, with the floor unit passing over the face shell and onto the grouted core.

Construction tolerances were a recurring problem and short seating was overcome by inserting
d10, hair-pin shaped bars in the cores and breaking out the top of those cores to ensure adequate
compaction of the topping concrete around the bars (Figure 3.6). This detail was borrowed from
North American practice and the number of bars was calculated by a shear-friction analysis
(section 7.7, NZS 3101:2006) to carry the full ultimate end shear. The completed floors were
tested in accordance with the requirements of section 18 of NZS 3101:1995 to verify the
capacity of the remedial detail.

This detail was simple but effective. Testing at Works Central Laboratory [Blades et al 1990]
and Canterbury University [Herlihy 1994] confirmed its ductility and suitability. Herlihy
extended the design method to allow for beam-elongation, or complete lack of support, and
recommended the 30 degree kinking model to carry vertical shear across a wide crack. Both
design methods give similar results in terms of the required bar area to resist the factored load
shear.

The detail is widely used in North America, Europe and Asia and a number of additional tests
were carried out for New Zealand consultants to provide assurance and obtain acceptance on
specific projects.

This remedial detail became a commonly used method of overcoming short seating due to any
construction or manufacturing tolerances, or for use where hollow-core units passed columns
and full seating was impractical. Bars in alternate cores provided a quick, simple and effective
means of accommodating construction tolerances and contributed to hollow-core flooring
gaining widespread acceptance wherever it was available in New Zealand.

Different details were used by some consultants who considered much smaller seating acceptable
and in some cases stopped the hollow-core units short of their support and relied on reinforcing
from the cores projecting into the support to provide the total connection and transfer the shear.
Such details were not widely used.


Figure 3.6: The nil support detail

Tested by Opus Central Labs 1990, and modified by Herlihy 1994.

By the mid 1990s there had been a small number of hollow-core support spalling problems
associated with the effects of sun-camber on the top levels of parking structures (Figure 3.7). To
solve this, the McDowell bearing strip was introduced in 1996. This bearing strip was modelled
on common North American practice, where the use of a plastic strip, smooth on one side, but
with a higher coefficient of friction on the reverse side, provides a slip-layer to accommodate
thermal movement without the danger of it working its way out over a few thousand thermal
cycles. Plastic bearing strips however were only seen as necessary in floors exposed to direct
sun. In general construction, the McDowell Bearing Strips were used by a few contractors who
realised that the advantage of faster precast erection more than offset the cost of the bearing
strips, but their use was not common for some time after their initial introduction.

2 April 2009
Figure 3.7: Bearing strips avoid sun-camber damage on the upper levels of parking structures

Publication of Amendment No. 3, to NZS 3101:1995, in March 2004, made the use of bearing
strips, and a full 75 mm seating length, mandatory unless it could be shown by analysis or test
that the performance of alternative details would be acceptable.


Figure 3.8: Formers for filled cores

Cores are filled with topping concrete for a length equal to the depth of the section. This is a FIB recommendation to
prevent web splitting when the bottom flange is required to resist high compression.

Bulletin 6, of the fib, Special design considerations for precast prestressed hollow-core floors
[FIB January 2000], recommends filling all cores, for length equal to the depth of the hollow-
core unit, where the precast unit is designed to take significant compression in the bottom flange
(Figure 3.8). This recommendation is based on non-linear finite element analysis and
comprehensive testing [Akesson 1993], [Gryzbowski 1991] and is aimed at preventing web-
splitting. It has not been adopted in New Zealand but the two details (now only one) in section
C18 of NZS 3101 Part 2:2006, achieve the same purpose, although in a slightly more complex
way.

The Grey Book Guidelines for the Use of Structural Precast Concrete in Buildings provided a
comprehensive summary of the state of the art, worldwide, with regard to floor unit support and
continuity. It was widely followed in New Zealand after it was published in August 1991.

2 April 2009
3.11.3 Research on hollow-core floors
3.11.3.1 Early research
New Zealand has relied heavily on the results of overseas research for the design and
manufacture of precast hollow-core flooring. Nevertheless, seismic design concepts vary around
the world resulting in some unique issues for us to solve. One being the use of Capacity Design
techniques for the construction of ductile moment-resisting frame buildings, with discrete
hinging zones in the beams and relatively high lateral displacement of 2% of the floor to floor
height.

Beginning in the early 1990s, Canterbury University instigated a number of research projects
aimed at gaining a better understanding of how the support of precast floors could be detailed to
accommodate the type of displacement incompatibility expected with modern capacity design.
In particular, research was focused on how precast floors would cope with the beam elongation
associated with plastic hinge formation in ductile moment resisting frame buildings.

The emphasis was primarily on pulling hollow-core slabs off their supporting beams [Herlihy
1995] but rotation was also applied to the beam to floor junction to pre-crack the connection
before the direct tension was applied. Herlihy built on the earlier work of Mejia-McMaster
[1994] and Engstrom [1992] to develop a simple paperclip detail that could cope with a complete
loss of support as a result of beam elongation, loss of seating cover at plastic hinges, or
concentrated forces at strut and tie node points.

At the time that Herlihy was completing his experimental work, Los Angeles was severely
shaken by the Northridge earthquake resulting in the failure of a number of structural steel and
reinforced concrete framed buildings. Two failures of hollow-core floors were reported over the
wide area affected by the Northridge earthquake. The first was a sloping ramp, which was
incorrectly detailed to act as a strut. The second failure occurred in the parking structure of the
Meadows Apartment building, where the failure of un-braced steel frames and poorly detailed
chord reinforcement in this single suspended level structure removed the support at the ends of
the hollow-core slabs, allowing whole bays to collapse when the topping mesh fractured. In
some bays, the hollow-core units also separated from the topping (or from the top flange) where
the welded wire mesh had not fractured.

The New Zealand reconnaissance team brought back photographs of this failure, which indicated
that the floor was not typical of New Zealand construction:
Support at the ends had been as little as 10 mm, with no additional core reinforcement
provided to comply with the local building code requirements.
Diaphragm continuity was provided solely by the mesh, with no ductile saddle bars.
Laps in the perimeter chord tie-bars were poorly detailed for cyclic loading.

The photographs showed that the hollow-core units had pre-existing web-splitting cracks likely
to have been caused by saw-cutting the units to length before the concrete had reached the
required transfer strength. Seismic performance of the floor depends on concrete tension and pre
existing cracks at the point of maximum shear would be expected to have an adverse effect.
Such cracks may not prevent the floor carrying the required gravity loads, but they are
significant when horizontal shear is or could be imposed by support rotation in ductile frame
buildings.


Although the details were not altogether typical of New Zealand construction, there was
sufficient concern to prompt further research on the behaviour of hollow-core floors for New
Zealand conditions, particularly the effects of earthquake-induced displacements.

3.11.3.2 Full-scale 3-d tests at the University of Canterbury
This concern led to industry support for a full-sized super-assembly to be tested using 300 mm
hollow-core units supported on beams forming part of a ductile moment-resisting frame. That
test, which has become known as the Matthews Test [Matthews 2006] showed that the type of
failure that had occurred at the Meadows Apartment parking structure could be replicated at a
lateral drift of 2%, under the following conditions:
The hollow-core units spanned two bays of a stiff moment resisting perimeter frame
structure, with no allowance for displacement incompatibility with the adjacent beams
spanning in the same direction as the hollow-core flooring. The floor units spanned two
bays of the parallel frame resulting in major displacement incompatibilities between the
floor and the adjacent beam.
The floor units had short seating (20 mm) and no hairpin bars in the cores.
They were fixed to the beam ledge with an adhesive grout.
The hollow-core units were pre-split at the ends of the webs.

One of the key differences between the hollow-core floors that had survived the Northridge
earthquake, and the Matthews Test, was the North American practice of seating precast hollow-
core slabs on Korolath bearing strips (a two-inch wide plastic strip, with one side smooth and the
other side rough) and ensuring all floor units had a full 50 mm of bearing with the ability to
slide.

Further testing at the University of Canterbury has confirmed the importance of the length of
support and the use of a slip-layer under the hollow-core slabs to be critical factors.

A test at the University of Canterbury in mid-2003, confirmed what Engstroms Swedish testing
had already determined in 1992: that over-reinforcing the cores will cause web splitting when
the floor is subject to significant support rotation.

As a result of concerns about the Matthews test, two further 3-dimensional tests were performed.
[Lindsay 2003] [McPherson 2004]. These tested alternative design details at the supports and
showed much improved capability to cope with the displacements imposed up to an equivalent
inter-storey drift of more than 4%. This prompted the inclusion of these design details in the
Commentary to the Concrete Structures Standard see below.
3.11.4 Industry response to the Matthews Test
Immediately following the failure of the soffit of the precast floor in the Matthews Test, a
Technical Advisory Group (TAG) was formed. This Group comprised structural engineers
representing the Earthquake Society, Structural Engineering Society, Concrete Society,
Association of Consulting Engineers NZ (ACENZ), and The Contractors Federation.

The brief of this group was:
to assess the risk of similar failures occurring in existing buildings
to determine how building practice could be improved to ensure that the structural integrity
of future building could be enhanced
2 April 2009
to communicate those findings to building professionals.

The outcomes from the TAG were:
development of details to overcome the performance issues evident from the Matthews
Test
research and further testing to confirm their ability to accommodate 4% lateral drift and
beam elongation in a ductile frame structure
an amendment to the Concrete Structures Standard, NZS 3101, containing:
two isolation details designed to protect the relatively brittle hollow-core units from
high ductility demands.
a tied detail to connect the hollow-core units to the structural frame in a manner that
limited the ductility demand on the slabs
Note: Amendment 2 to NZS3101:2006 issued in August 2008 removed one of the details,
leaving only the tied one which is shown in Figure C18.4 of the Commentary.
a minimum seating requirement of 75 mm for hollow-core units, in line with
international practice
a series of national seminars were run by the New Zealand Concrete Society, to inform
designers
a general agreement was reached that very few existing buildings were at risk, and that
these should be assessed individually as the need arose (change of use or refitting, due
diligence for changing ownership, etc).

The Building Industry Authority (later to become the Department of Building and Housing) also
commissioned studies of existing buildings containing precast hollow-core floor slabs in each of
the three main commercial centres (Christchurch, Wellington and Auckland) to assess the level
of risk to existing buildings. These studies showed that a most buildings containing hollow-core
floors were unlikely to be subject to significant earthquake-induced displacement. However,
there were concerns regarding the performance of hollow-core floors in earthquake in more
flexible buildings, particularly ductile frame buildings.

In its Hollow-core Floor Overview Report, [DBH 2005] the Department recommended that
territorial authorities require a report from a qualified structural engineer when buildings with
hollow-core floors are subject to significant alteration. They also identified some specific
buildings for which further investigations were recommended, and urged building owners with
concerns to seek advice from a qualified structural engineer. This highlighted the need for
guidance material to assist designers, territorial authorities and building owners.

3.12 References
Akesson M, 1993. Fracture Mechanics Analysis of the Transmission Zone in Prestressed
Hollow-core Slabs. Chalmers University of Technology, Gothenburg, Sweden.
Blades PS, Jacks DH, Beattie GJ, 1990. Investigation of the Influence of the End Support
Condition on the Shear Strength of Prestressed Voided Slabs. Works Consultancy Services
Central Laboratories Report 90-25115. August.
Department of Building and Housing, 2005. Hollowcore Floor Overview Report. DBH
publication, ISBN0-478-00000-0. www.dbh.govt.nz
Ensgtrom B, 1992. PhD thesis. Sweden.

Gray Book, August 1991 and revised December 1999. Guidelines for the Use of Structural
Precast Concrete in Buildings. NZ Concrete Society, NZ Society for Earthquake Engineering
and the Centre for Advanced Engineering, CAE the University of Canterbury.
Grzybowski M, Wesstergberg B, 1991. Prestressed Concrete Hollow Core Slabs Subjected to
Negative Moments. Royal Institute of Technology, Stockholm, Sweden.
Lindsay R, 2004. Experiments on the Seismic Performance of Hollow-core Floor Systems in
Precast Concrete Buildings. ME thesis, Civil Engineering, University of Canterbury.
MacPherson C, 2005. Seismic Performance and Forensic Analysis of Precast Concrete Hollow-
core Floor Super-assemblage. ME thesis, Civil Engineering, University of Canterbury.
Mejia-McMaster JC, Park R, 1992. Precast Concrete Hollow Core Floor Unit Support and
Continuity. Research Report 94?4. Department of Civil Engineering, University of Canterbury.

2 April 2009
Appendix 3A: Current New Zealand production
New Zealand manufacturers
Over the 40 years hollow-core has been produced in New Zealand, there have been a number of
different manufacturers and changes of ownership of various plants. Production of hollow-core
requires a relatively high capital investment and a large area of suitable flat industrial land and
preferably to be located close to a major market to minimise transport costs.

The following table is indicative only with approximate dates.

Table 3.4: Hollow-core Floor Production in New Zealand Outline History
Dates of operation Location Original
operator
Further detail
Auckland region
19741984 Onehunga B & B Purchased by Stresscrete in 1976 and operation later
transferred to Lunn Avenue.
Dycore extrusion machine.
19841994 Lunn
Avenue
Stresscrete Operation transferred to Papakura.
Dycore, Partek, Elematic and similar extrusion machines.
1986present Papakura GH Concrete GH Concrete was owned by Mainzeal and Readymix
Concrete.
Purchased by Stresscrete who transferred their Auckland
production to this site in 1994.
Ownership changed to Russell Group/Paul Cane J uly 2007
but Stresscrete name retained.
19841987 Puhinui Angus Closed down and plant shipped overseas.
Dycore extrusion machine.
1995present Ranui Stahlton Ownership changed to Fulton Hogan 2001.
Slideformer machines, Roth to 2003 then Echo
slideformer.
Wellington region
Early 1970spresent Main
Highway,
Otaki
Stresscrete Sold to Precision Precast in 1978.
Repurchased by Stresscrete in 1997.
Ownership changed to Russell Group/Paul Cane J uly 2007
but Stresscrete name retained.
1987present Riverbank
Road, Otaki
Precast
Components
Purchased by Fulton Hogan March 2007 and operated
under Stahlton brand.
Has always operated Spiroll extrusion machines.
19891998 Porirua Stresscrete Closed down and transferred to Otaki.
Dycore or similar extrusion machines.
19871995 Masefield
Street,
Upper Hutt
Precast
Systems
Plant transferred to Stahlton Auckland.
Roth slideformer machine.
Christchurch region

Dates of operation Location Original
operator
Further detail
19872000 Wigram Precision
Precast
Stresscrete purchased Precision J anuary 1997 and traded
as Stresscrete. Relocated to Waterloo Road in 2000.
Dycore or similar extrusion machines.
2000present Waterloo
Road
Stresscrete Purchased by Fulton Hogan 2007 and operated under
Stahlton brand.
Dycore, Elematic or similar extrusion machines.

During the last 40 years machines have evolved, concrete technology has improved, and New
Zealand manufacturers have changed machines, processes, and concrete profiles to varying
degrees. Additionally there have been changes to the overseas manufacturers of the machines
with takeovers and rebranding.

As at the beginning of 2009, there are only two manufacturers of machine cast hollow-core units
in New Zealand.

Fulton Hogan operate the following plants under the Stahlton Brand:
Ranui, Auckland, operating Echo slideformer machines
Riverbank Road, Otaki, operating Spiroll extrusion machines
Christchurch, operating Elematic type extrusion machines.

Each Fulton Hogan / Stahlton plant was purchased as a going concern from other operators and
each operates different machines producing different profiles. Refer to the appendix.

Stresscrete branded plants as follows:
Papakura, Auckland, operating extrusion machines.
Main highway, Otaki, operating extrusion machines.

2 April 2009
Appendix 3B: Hollow-core profiles
This Appendix is under preparation as at April 2009.

The intention is to provide an aid to designers to help choose the most appropriate hollow-core
unit, and to help those involved in assessment and/or retrofit to identify the units in place.

The permission of the manufacturers to include these details is gratefully acknowledged.


3B.1 Stahlton profiles
The following profiles are current (2009) production at Stahlton plants. C series is produced at
the Ranui Auckland plant using Echo slideformer machines, E series is produced at the
Christchurch plant using Elematic extrusion machines, and S series is produced at the Otaki
plant using Spirol extrusion machines.

All dimensions are nominal and may vary due to concrete slump and former wear.

2 April 2009


2 April 2009

2 April 2009
3B.2 Stresscrete profiles

Figure 3B.1: Early extruded Dycore slabs and wet cast UF hollow-core slabs produced by
Stresscrete

2 April 2009

Figure 3B.2: Stresscrete 200 series Dycore

Unit Area (m
2
) Yb (mm) I (m
4
) Self weight (kPa)
300 Dycore/Partek 0.1192 100 6.510
-4
2.20

Figure 3B.3: Stresscrete 300 series Dycore

Unit Area (m
2
) Yb (mm) I (m
4
) Self weight (kPa)
300 Dycore/Partek 0.1606 153 2.0410
-3
3.20

2 April 2009
Figure 3B.4: Stresscrete cross-sections
Produced by Auckland and Otaki plants up to present and by Stresscrete Christchurch plant
up to 2007 which was purchased by Fulton Hogan in 2007 and then operated as Stahlton

2 April 2009
3B.3 Spiroll profiles
Produced by Precast Components Otaki plant from 1987 and from the same plant under Fulton Hogan
ownership operating as Stahlton from 2007.

4: Performance expectations

4 Performance expectations
4.1 Building Act and Building Code requirements
The purpose of the Building Act is to enable people who use buildings to do so at an
acceptable level of risk and also to ensure that the risk of damage is appropriate. The New
Zealand Building Code elaborates on this principle and in particular Clause B1 defines two
high level performance objectives that are applicable for building elements such as hollow-
core. These objectives can be recast specifically in terms of hollow-core namely that hollow-
core floor systems shall:
have a low probability of rupturing , becoming unstable, losing equilibrium, or
collapsing during construction or alteration and throughout their lives, and
have a low probability of causing loss of amenity through undue deformation, vibratory
response, degradation, or other physical characteristics throughout their lives, or during
construction or alteration when the building is in use.

The New Zealand Building Code requires that account shall be taken of all physical
conditions likely to affect the stability of hollow-core systems. It lists a number of conditions
of which the following are applicable for hollow-core floors in buildings:
self weight
imposed gravity loads arising from use
temperature
earthquake
snow
fire
differential movement
influence of equipment, services, non structural elements and contents
time dependent effects including creep and shrinkage, and
removal of support.

The list is not exhaustive but includes the effects likely to be critical for hollow-core floors
systems.

The Building Code also requires that due allowance be made for consequences of failure, the
intended use of the building, effects of uncertainties resulting from construction activities,
variation in the properties of materials, and accuracy limitations inherent in the methods used
to predict the stability of buildings.

For building elements these performance objectives are typically deemed to be satisfied if the
element satisfies the requirements for the Ultimate and Serviceability Limit States set out in
the New Zealand Loadings Standard and the appropriate companion materials Standards. For
hollow-core systems these Standards will be AS/NZS 1170 and NZS 3101.

2 April 2009
These guidelines primarily address the performance of hollow-core floor systems in
earthquakes but, in terms of the list of conditions above, it will be clear that aspects such as
construction tolerances, differential movements and creep and shrinkage, and how these
impact on the support of the floor system will be inextricably linked to seismic performance
of a precast system such as hollow-core.

4.2 Tolerable impacts
When considering what might be acceptable performance for a building system in it is useful
to consider the impacts that would be tolerable under increasing severity of loading.

Figure 4.1 provides tolerable impacts for buildings under various levels of earthquake
described in terms of the likelihood of the earthquake shaking. The lower the likelihood, the
more severe the shaking. This figure was developed during a review of the Building Code by
the structural review group. It currently has no official status but it does represent a view on
tolerable impacts that is consistent with the objectives in the Building Code.

2 April 2009
Figure 4.1: Tolerable impacts for buildings under various levels of earthquake
Earthquake event definition
(indicative annual probability)
Chances of event
occurring in lifetime of
building
Performance group
1 2 3 4
Performance matrix structural
Earthquake intensity factor
fromAS/NZS 1170 (for
reference purposes only)
>1/2500 Extremely low
1/1000 Very low
Tolerable impact
Level 5 (very severe)
Tolerable impact
Level 6 (extreme)
Tolerable impact
Level 6 (extreme)
Tolerable impact
Tolerable impact
Level 4 (severe)
Tolerable impact
1/500 Low
Tolerable impact
Tolerable impact
Level 4 (severe)
Tolerable impact
Level 4 (severe)
Tolerable impact
Level 3 (high)
Tolerable impact
Level 2 (moderate)
1/100 Medium
Tolerable impact
Level 4 (severe)
Tolerable impact
Level 3 (high)
Tolerable impact
Level 2 (moderate)
Tolerable impact
Level 1 (mild)
1/25 High
Tolerable impact
Level 2 (moderate)
Tolerable impact
Level 1 (mild)
Tolerable impact
Level 1 (mild)
Tolerable impact
Level 1 (mild)
Every day Very high
Tolerable impact
Level 0 (insignificant)
Tolerable impact
Tolerable impact
Tolerable impact
>1.8
1.3
1.0
0.5
0.3
0.0
TIL 1
Mild
Building function
maintained. Little or
no damage to
structure. Minor
damage to building
fabric. Some contents
affected. Building fully
accessible and safe to
occupy.
TIL 2
Moderate
TIL 3
High
TIL 4
Severe
TIL 5
Very severe
TIL 6
Extreme
TIL 0
Insignificant
No significant
effects on
building
elements,
occupants or
functions
Key to tolerable
impact levels
(TIL)
Building function affected
for less than one hour.
Minor damage to
structure. Moderate
damage to building fabric.
Contents affected.
Building accessible and
safe to occupy.
Building function affected
for up to seven days.
Moderate but repairable
damage to structure.
Damage to building fabric
requires replacement of
some items. Most
contents affected.
Access inhibited. Most
buildings safe to occupy
after clearance by
authorities.
Building unsafe to
occupy for up to one
year. Major damage to
structure and building
fabric, but capable of
repair. Most contents
seriously affected.
Building function
extensively affected.
Unassisted evacuation
possible.
Building unsafe to
occupy for one year or
more. Major and
extensive damage to
structure and building
fabric. Not repairable.
Contents not
salvageable. Access
denied for an indefinite
period. Building function
ceases.
Building collapse
Mild Moderate High Severe Very severe Extreme Insignificant
Track of key
objectives
Structural
integrity
Stability
Support
Progressive
collapse
Damage/loss of
amenity
Damage to other
properties
Fully maintained
Fully maintained
Fully maintained
None
None
None
Fully maintained
Fully maintained
Fully maintained
None
Not significant
None
Maintained
Maintained
Maintained
None
None
Possible
Maintained except
for minor areas
Maintained except
for minor areas
Maintained except
for minor areas
Unlikely
Moderate
Likely
Not maintained for
significant parts
Not maintained for
significant parts
Not maintained for
significant parts
Possible
Significant
Moderate
Not maintained for
most parts
Not maintained for
most parts
Not maintained for
most parts
Extensive
Extensive
Significant
Gone
Gone
Gone
Complete
Total
Extensive

2 April 2009
This figure also tracks key issues against key objectives to provide further reference for the
descriptions of tolerable impacts.

A continuum of potential impacts, consistent with the impact levels for buildings, can be
defined for hollow-core floor systems. These are presented in Table 4.1 for the Building
Impact Levels 0 to 6 shown in Figure 4.1.

Table 4.1: Impact levels for hollow-core floor systems
Impact levels
0
Insignificant
1
Mild
2
Moderate
3
High
4
Severe
5
Very severe
6
Extreme
Description Very minor
spalling at
precast unit
seats.
Very fine and
minor
cracking.
Repair not
considered
necessary.
Mild spalling
at precast
unit seats.
Repair not
considered
necessary.
Moderate
spalling at
precast unit
seats. No
differential
movement
between
precast units
and supporting
or adjacent
structure.
Minor cracks
expected in
the floor
topping.
Minor repairs
required.
Spalling at precast
unit seatings and
some (ie, <10 mm)
differential
movement
between the
precast units and
supporting and
adjacent structure.
No apparent loss
of integrity of the
precast units, loss
of attachment of
the floor topping to
the precast units or
of the floor system
to the primary
supporting
structure. Cracks
in the floor system
expected.
Repairs required.
Significant
spalling of
precast unit
seatings and
significant
differential
movement
(<40mm)
between some
precast units and
supporting
structure. No
loss in integrity
of floor system
as a whole or in
diaphragm
action as a
whole.
Extensive
cracking but
repairable.
Extensive
repairs required
before
reoccupation.
Up to 15% of
precast units
lose seating.
Up to 5% of
precast units
may collapse.
Loss in integrity
between topping
and precast units
in some areas.
Diaphragm
largely intact but
severely
damaged.
Floor may not be
repairable.
Complete
floor
collapse

The tolerable impacts applicable to hollow-core systems are determined from Table 4.1 using
the tolerable impact level from Figure 4.1 which corresponds to the building importance and
chance of event occurring. For example, for a 1 in 500 year event and a building of
importance level 2, the TIL from Figure 4.1 is Level 3 (High). This means that, for this
situation, the impacts shown in the Level 3 column of Table 4.1 may be regarded as tolerable.

4.3 Verification
Verification of compliance with all of the performance objectives discussed in 4.2 above
would be prohibitive and for the majority of building designers the description of the
expected performance of hollow-core systems outlined in the sections above will be of little
practical interest. To get over this difficulty design standards require verification of
performance at two codified limit states; serviceability limit state (SLS) and the ultimate limit
state (ULS). The codified provisions of these two limit states are set to provide confidence
that the performance of the system, across the continuum of potential demands, and the
overall risk are acceptable.

In this section the steps required to show compliance are described.
2 April 2009

4.3.1 Demonstrating compliance
Compliance is achieved if capacity exceeds demand by the required margin.

4.3.1.1 Demand
The demands on hollow-core systems will be characterised in terms of actions within the
hollow-core (ie, shear, flexure, torsion, axial compressions, axial tensions) imposed
deformations, particularly on the supports (ie, rotations, differential displacements between
the hollow-core unit and supporting structure) and the effects of construction tolerances.

In many cases building drift may be an indicator of demand but designers should be aware
that lateral drift on its own will not fully define demands.

A discussion on the assessment of demands is given in section 6.3 for new construction and
section 7.2 for existing buildings.

4.3.1.2 Capacity
Capacity can be determined from testing or from calculation.

4.3.1.3 Testing
General principles for determining the capacity of a hollow-core floor system by testing are
outlined in Appendix B AS/NZS 1170.0. The testing rig, arrangement and programme shall
be sufficient to test all aspects relevant for the building for which the test results are to be
relied on. These will include but not necessarily be restricted to:
building drift
inelastic effects in the primary structure (eg, beam elongation)
expected distortions in the primary structure (eg, rotation of supports, differential
distortions between floor and primary structure)
building tolerances
manufacturing variances.

4.3.1.4 Calculation
Capacity can also be determined by calculation provided all failure mechanisms are identified
and appropriately dealt with. Designers can assume that the capacity has been adequately
determined by calculation if the requirements of NZS 3101 and these guidelines are followed.
These steps are set out in detail in the following sections.

5: Key considerations in hollow-core floor performance
2 April 2009
5 Key considerations in hollow-core floor performance
5.1 Summary of critical issues for structural performance
There is a wide range of variables that can affect the structural performance of hollow-core
floors. Because of the discontinuities involved in precast concrete, details of the end supports
are critical. Small changes from accepted practice can result in major reductions in load-
carrying capacity. Reduction of capacity is mostly due to the displacements induced in the
floor elements by earthquake ground motions.

Inter-storey drifts are just the start. The impact on the floor system of inter-storey drifts is
highly dependent on the particular context and details of the floor units and topping. A small
overall inter-storey displacement can cause disproportionately large local strains in floor
units.

For ductile frames, beam elongation due to plastic hinge formation must be considered. Once
again, a relatively small elongation can have a disproportionate effect on the unit or on the
topping.

Loads, including vertical seismic loads, make up the other part of the demand side.

With a range of floor details involved, the induced displacements and the induced or applied
loads, the overall effect on safety and structural capacity can be difficult to determine, and at
times seem impossible.

The approach taken in this document is to examine closely the various aspects of floor system
behaviour and the influence on the structural performance of the floor. In other words, to
look at potential failure mechanisms and see what steps are needed to make failure a tolerably
low probability.

In the following section this has been outlined by considering the role of the floor to have
adequate end support, maintain its integrity to act as a slab, retain stiffness and strength
capability to act as a diaphragm and to provide restraint to main structural members.

Consideration must be given to:
beam strength enhancement
cut-outs and penetrations
vertical seismic load
tensile strength of concrete
critical dimensions of hollow-core units
earthquake-induced displacements (deflections, rotations, twists).


Hollow-core flooring units have been designed to resist gravity loading conditions and for
these actions, the units appear to have adequate strength. However, for conditions
(displacement and induced forces) that may arise in an earthquake there are a number of
potential brittle failure modes. To provide protection against these, a capacity design
approach should be followed in a design, or in planning a retrofit. Typically the supports of
the hollow-core units are designed and detailed to act as ductile fuses, which limit the actions
and displacements that can be transmitted to the units to safe levels. In addition, in some
cases it is necessary to introduce ductile linking elements to prevent high forces being
transmitted between a hollow-core unit and other structural elements. Refer Figure 5.1.

Figure 5.1: Ductile detailing of supports and linking elements

It should be noted that brittle failure modes of hollow-core units occur predominantly as a
result of either:
local displacements between adjacent hollow-core units or between a hollow-core unit
and an adjacent structural element, or
structural actions induced into the hollow-core unit and its insitu concrete topping.

Global displacements of the building are of significance only if they can be related to local
displacements, which are the cause of damage to hollow-core units. In any design, or retrofit,
it is essential to assess the magnitude the local displacements and actions which may be
induced in an earthquake. In summary, to assess the potential seismic performance it is
essential to consider all the potential failure modes. Performance cannot be assessed from the
projected inter-storey drift alone, though it is a useful broad measure.

The different forms of failure, which may occur in an earthquake, are briefly noted below. In
subsequent sections these are described in greater detail together with methods of assessing
the strength and/or deformation levels which may be expected to cause failure.

2 April 2009
In relation to the four main roles of the slab, the following are key considerations.
5.1.1 End support
Consider the following mechanisms that could result in loss of end support:
The width of supporting ledge may be insufficient to support the floor; consideration
needs to be given to construction tolerances, edge distance, minimum bearing, likely
beam elongation, relative rotation and spalling of cover concrete.
5.1.2 Slab action
Consider the following mechanisms that could affect slab action:
Positive moment failure close to the face of the support, including dowel / prying action
of the concrete plug cast into the ends of the units.
Negative moment failure at the end or close to the end of started bars in the topping
concrete or reinforcement infilled cores if these are present:
Allowance for vertical seismic loads is made.
Web splitting due to vertical shear transfer or differential displacements.
Torsional failure due to twist applied to hollow-core units due to deformed shape or
displacement of supporting or adjacent structure.
Diagonal tension failure of un-reinforced webs in negative moment zones.
5.1.3 Diaphragm action
Consider the following mechanisms that could affect diaphragm capability:
Overstressing of the floor system when subjected to displacements from the main
structural elements to which the floor is connected (beams, columns, walls, steel bracing).
Failure of the linking slab between the main beam and adjacent hollow-core unit due to
differential elongation, vertical displacements and shear transfer.
Failure / lack of ductility of topping reinforcement.
Loss of compressive stress load paths due to localised damage resulting from significant
cracks forming in the diaphragms.
5.1.4 Structure restraint
Insufficient tie-backs to columns to achieve stability.
5.1.5 Other considerations
Allow for the effects of cut-outs or possible on-site modifications.
Allow for any increase in beam strength due to the contribution of pre-stressed floor
units and topping, or from restraint of beam elongation. Beam strength enhancement
could change the frame failure mode from a ductile beam sway mechanism to a non-
ductile column sway mechanism. This applies to all types of floors containing precast
pretensioned floors, and details on strength enhancement are given in 5.2.2.


5.2 Overview of performance issues for hollow-core floors
5.2.1 Introduction
Research has shown that the use of pretensioned precast units in floors can have a number of
adverse effects on seismic performance of buildings. Many of these aspects were not
understood until recently and consequently many existing buildings contain detailing that is
now considered substandard. This section gives and overview of problems involved with the
use of precast prestressed floor units in buildings. Section 5.2.2 deals considers the strength
increase that can occur due to the interaction of floor slabs containing pretensioned units and
reinforcement concrete beams. This problem is associated with beams designed to sustain
inelastic deformation in the event of a major earthquake. Section 5.2.3 looks at problems
related to the detailing of support of precast floor units and section 5.2.4 gives an overview of
potential damage arising from incompatible displacements that may be imposed on hollow-
core units by the structure. These displacements can cause damage, or in extreme cases
collapse of a floor in a major earthquake.

5.2.2 Strength enhancement of beams
This is an area of active research in 2008. The problems related to strength enhancement of
beams due to interaction with floors slabs should be understood in greater depth when current
research projects have been completed. Consequently the recommendations given below
should be taken as tentative (in 2009).

Research [Fenwick et al 2005; Fenwick et al 2006; Lau 2007] has shown that the level of
strength enhancement, due to the presence of pretensioned units in a floor, can be
considerably greater than that indicated by over-strength calculations based on editions of the
Structural Concrete Standard (NZS 3101) published prior to 2006. In carrying out an
assessment for retrofit of existing buildings it is important to assess the significance of the
potential increase in strength of beams on seismic performance, as this can potentially change
the failure mode and reduce the lateral displacement capacity of the building. For example a
chosen ductile beam sway failure mode in capacity design may be replaced by a column sway
failure mode, which can lead to premature collapse due to its lower lateral displacement
capacity. However, there are other potential failure modes that may arise such as shear failure
in beams due to an under-estimate of flexural strength of beams.

Figure 5.2 illustrates a situation where the use of pretensioned units in a floor can result in
significant strength enhancement of beams in a ductile moment resisting frame. When a
plastic hinge forms, elongation occurs in a reinforced concrete beam. Where the precast units
span past plastic hinges, such as those marked A in Figure 5.2(c), elongation is partially
restrained by the floor and pretensioned units in the floor. As a result of this restraining
action the floor slab sustains a tension force, T
slab
. This tension force acts with the tension
force sustained by the reinforcement in the beam to increase the negative moment flexural
strength, see Figure 5.2(a). However, the tension force in the slab, T
slab
, has little effect on
the positive moment flexural strength as its line of action is nearly the same level as the
component of compression force that is balancing it. It should be noted that the area of
concrete available to resist compression force for the positive moment includes part of the
slab adjacent to the beam and consequently the magnitude of the internal level arm for the
tension force in the bottom of the beam is not significantly reduced, see Figure 5.2(b). The
Structural Concrete Standard, NZS 3101-2006 (see 9.4.1.6.2) gives details of how the flexural
2 April 2009
strength over-strength can be assessed when precast prestressed floor units span past an
intermediate column where plastic hinges may form on both sides of a column in a major
earthquake.

Figure 5.2: Interaction of floor and beam where precast floor units span passed the beam
plastic hinges


Figure 5.3 illustrates a second situation where precast units in a floor can increase the flexural
strength. In this case the pretensioned units are supported on transverse beams which frame
into the columns. Consequently the pretensioned units do not span past the plastic hinges.
The pretensioned units tie the regions of floor slab between the transverse together so that
each of these regions as a strong stiff block. Elongation of the plastic hinges on each side of a
column opens up wide cracks close to the column in the slabs immediately adjacent to the
supporting beams. This displacement imposes bending and shear forces on the floor blocks,
which act in a similar manner to deep beams, as illustrated in Figure 5.3. The case of a
perimeter frame with multiple bays is shown in Figure 5.3(b). In this case, in a perimeter
frame with multiple bays, the restraining force can build up due to the restraint from more
than one deep beam. The restraining tension force, T
slab
, is in part resisted by reinforcement
spanning across the transverse beams and in part transmitted by flexural and shear forces
resisted by the deep beam action to a region of the floor located some distance from the
perimeter frame. Lau [2007] found that this deep beam action resulted in an increase in
strength which was considerably greater than could be accounted by the slab reinforcement
spanning the transverse beam that is assumed in the Concrete Structures Standard: NZS 3101
[2006] to contribute to beam over-strength.

At present there is no published method of assessing the potential strength increase due to
deep beam action. There have been two recent tests at the University of Canterbury, each of
which has looked at the case of a floor supported on three transverse beams. These tests have
indicated that this deep beam action in floor slabs can significantly increase the flexural
strength of plastic hinges.

The magnitude of the tension force resisted by a floor in both cases described above depends
on the magnitude of elongation sustained in the plastic hinges. The theoretical flexural
strength of a section (based on measured properties of materials, taken as 1.1M
n
) is typically
sustained at a section ductility of the order of 3 to 5. At this level of inelastic deformation
only a narrow width of slab contributes to the strength. The peak flexural strength (measured
from tests, taken as 1.15 x 1.1M
n
) is sustained at a section ductility which is order of
magnitude greater than that corresponding to the theoretical strength and due to the higher
inelastic deformation a very much wider width of slab contributed to the strength. For this
reason the Concrete Structures Standard, NZS 3101-2006, requires different sections to be
used for calculating the design (M
n
) and over-strength values (M
o
). Test results indicate for
ductile moment resisting frames indicate that typically the strength sustained at a curvature
ductility of the order of 3 to 5 is approximately 1.15 times the design strength, and the
corresponding drift is of the order of 0.6 to 0.8 percent. The peak flexural strength
(corresponding approximately to over-strength) is sustained at a displacement of the order of
2.5 to 3 percent drift.

2 April 2009
Figure 5.3: Deep beam action in floor slabs


The over-strength moments induced in a column are generally assumed to be limited by the
flexural over-strength of the beams framing into it. However, as illustrated in Figure 5.4 this
ignores the moment that can be induced in a column as a result of torsion in a transverse
beam. This is only likely to be significant in one way frames (where secondary beams,
framing in to the main frame, are prevented from forming plastic hinges; such beams are
usually in frames which are in line with relatively stiff elements of low interstorey drift, such
as walls). In two-way frames, plastic hinges may be expected to develop in the transverse
beams, which will greatly reduce their torsional stiffness and strength. The torsional moment
contribution of beams is difficult to assess. Design criteria for torsion have been developed
from tests on statically determinate members, which are free to elongate when diagonal
torsional cracks develop. However, in practice the structure is highly indeterminate and
elongation associated with the development of torsional cracking will be at least partially
restrained, which increases the torsional moment that can be resisted. Further more design
equations assume that torsional cracking will occur when the principal tensile stress reaches
0.33 times the direst tensile strength of concrete. This value approximately corresponds to the
lower characteristic strength with the corresponding upper tensile strength being of the order
of twice this value. As a tentative recommendation it is suggested the torsional resistance of a
transverse beam framing into a column in a one-way frame may be taken as 1.5 times the
torsional cracking moment given in NZS 3101 [2006].

Figure 5.4: Contribution of torsion to column moments in columns in one-way frames

2 April 2009
5.2.3 Support details for hollow-core units
In an earthquake as the building sways backwards and forwards the beams supporting precast
units will rotate. Floor containing precast units try to oppose this rotation as they are
relatively stiff. Beams which run parallel to the precast units may form plastic hinges and
consequently elongate, pushing apart the beams supporting the floor and placing the floor in
tension. The weakest section for resisting flexure and tension in the floor is either at the
supports or close to the supports, and hence this elongation and rotation can result in wide
cracks developing either at the support or in the precast unit close to the support.

In assessing any support detail the following actions have to be considered:
What structural actions can be transmitted to the precast units and can the units sustain
these actions without failure?
Does the supporting ledge have sufficient width to sustain the predicted displacement
due to elongation of the parallel beams and rotation of the supporting beam allowing for
typical construction tolerances?
Is the supporting ledge adequately reinforced to limit potential spalling of the ledge
supporting precast units. This is particularly important where supporting ledges are
located in potential plastic hinge zones, as extensive spalling of cover will occur.

Figure 5.5(a) illustrates the case where the relative rotation between the floor and supporting
beams introduces negative moments near the support (tension on the top surface of the floor).
The magnitude of the bending moment introduced into the floor at the support depends on the
amount and strength of reinforcement in the concrete topping and in any concrete cast into the
hollow-core cells. Often in the past, starter reinforcement in the concrete topping was
extended to a distance of 400 mm to 1.5 m into the floor, where it was lapped to mesh
reinforcement in the topping. The flexural strength provided by the mesh, which has very
limited ductility, is very much lower than that provided by the starter reinforcement and any
hairpin or paperclip type reinforcement in the infilled cells. This potentially allows a
brittle negative moment flexural to occur if negative moments, with or without axial tension,
exceed the flexural strength where the starter bars are lapped to the mesh.

Figure 5.5(b) shows a diagonal tension failure of a hollow-core floor. In the negative moment
region flexural cracking can develop on the top surface of the floor. Prestress strands in most
hollow-core units used in New Zealand are located close to the bottom surface and
consequently they induce either no compression or a small tension on its upper surface. With
the formation of flexural cracks, the shear strength is limited to the flexural shear cracking
strength, which reduces to the shear strength of an equivalent reinforced (non-prestressed)
beam in cases where there is no compression stress due to prestress acting on the critical
tension fibre of the member (see NZS3101-2006, 19.3.11.2.2). It should be noted that at
simple supports, positive moment flexural cracks cannot develop and hence the shear strength
is limited by web shear cracking. As web shear cracks develop at a much higher shear stress
than flexural shear cracks test results from simple supported beams cannot be used to predict
shear strength in negative moment regions.


Figure 5.5: Failures at or close to supports

2 April 2009
Figure 5.5(c) illustrates the case where the positive moment strength at the support detail is
greater than the positive flexural strength of a hollow-core unit close to the support. This
situation can occur when the hollow-core units are mounted on mortar, which together with
infill concrete in the end 75 mm of the unit allows significant flexural tension to be
transmitted into the soffit of the unit to generate a flexural tension crack. At this location the
pretension strands are not developed to an appreciable extent and consequently they are
ineffective at resisting the flexural tension force. At this location, the positive moment
flexural strength is limited by the tensile strength of the concrete. A positive moment flexural
crack in this location will widen due to rotation of the supporting beam and elongation of
plastic hinges in beams. When the crack reaches a critical width collapse occurs.

Figure 5.5(d) shows spalling of the cover concrete of the beam, at a support. The structural
actions inducing the spalling consist of a positive moment rotation and shear force in the
hollow-core and a shear force is sustained by the insitu concrete at the top of the floor. The
combination of these actions generates a concentrated inclined reaction between the precast
unit and the supporting ledge as illustrated in the figure. This reaction can cause either the
back surface of the hollow-core unit to spall, or the front portion of the supporting ledge
spalls. In either case the length of ledge available to support the precast unit is reduced giving
the possibility that collapse may occur if the remaining length is insufficient to accommodate
movement due to elongation and construction tolerances.

Figure 5.5(e) points out the problem of supporting precast units in a potential plastic hinge
region. In such zones extensive spalling of cover concrete may be expected, which may cause
loss of the supporting ledge if it is not adequately tied into the beam.

Figure 5.5(f) shows the reinforcement detail which should be used to reinforce a supporting
ledge into the beam together with a low friction bearing pad, which reduces the positive
moment that can be transmitted to the hollow-core unit. The reinforcement should be
anchored round a bar such that the low bearing strip is located on concrete that is protected by
the reinforcement from spalling.

5.2.4 Incompatible displacements
Seismic deformation of a building can in a number of situations induce significant vertical
displacement between adjacent hollow-core floor units or a hollow-core floor unit and other
structural elements. The forces induced in attempting to restrain this deformation can in some
cases lead to damage or collapse of the floor. A number of situations where damaging
displacement can arise are illustrated in Figures 5.6, 5.7 and 5.8.

Figure 5.6 shows the plan of part of a perimeter frame in a building. Seismic forces cause the
building to sway. The hollow-core units try to remain straight between their supports. Due to
the deformation in the beams, vertical displacements develop between the beam and the
adjacent hollow-core unit, as illustrated in the Elevation A-A in the figure. The situation
illustrated in the figure is particularly severe as the corner rises, as illustrated, as the
cantilever beam that is parallel to the precast units is stronger than the beam at right angles
due to the interaction of the precast unit and beam. However, it should be noted that a test has
shown that even if the hollow-core unit is supported on transverse beams framing into each
column the vertical deflection induced is sufficient to result in premature collapse [Matthews
2004] unless a flexible linking slab is used between the beam and adjacent hollow-core unit

(see 5.3.2.6). As illustrated in section B-B of the figure, the concrete topping and upper
portions of the hollow-core unit acts as a lever to apply tension to the webs, which fail one
after the other. The complete separation of the soffit portion of the hollow-core unit
containing the pretension strands from the top portion of hollow-core unit and insitu concrete
can occur. The stage at which collapse occurs depends on the support details and the vertical
seismic forces acting on the floor.

Figure 5.6: Incompatible displacements between beam and hollow-core floor units

2 April 2009
Figures 5.7 and 5.8 illustrate problems which can arise when structural components
supporting hollow-core units deflect in such a way that they twist the precast floor units.
Hollow-core units act as box sections and consequently they have a relatively high stiffness.
As there is no torsional reinforcement in these units, torsional cracking may be expected to
result in failure at relatively low angles of twist. In Figure 5.7, the vertical movement of a
corner cantilever beam results in torsional moment being induced in any precast unit
supported by it. Similar angles of twist may also arise if the precast floor units are supported
on a coupling beam, see Figure 5.7, or on the active link in an eccentrically braced steel
frame, see Figure 5.8. It should also be noted that appreciable vertical displacement can also
arise between eccentrically braced frames and precast floor units, see Figure 5.8. Flexible
linking slabs are required to prevent such differential vertical displacements from severely
damaging the hollow-core units and potentially causing collapse.

Figure 5.7: Torsion induced in units due to drift


(b) (b)

(c) (c)

2 April 2009
Figure 5.8: Hollow-core units and eccentrically braced frame


Figure 5.9 shows the case where one end of a hollow-core floor is supported on a pair of
structural walls. Lateral displacement of the walls generates relative vertical deflection
between the walls and between hollow-core floor units supported by the walls. The vertical
deflection can cause the webs to crack in tension giving a potential failure condition.

Figure 5.9: Vertical displacement between adjacent hollow-core units supported on two
walls

5.3 Possible failure mechanisms
The possible failure mechanisms for hollow-core are summarised in Table 5.1. The table has
references to sections of the document, the discussions on fundamental causes, critical
assessment criteria and key design parameters.

2 April 2009
Table 5.1: Summary of failure modes
Failure modes Causes or sources Critical assessment criteria Reference
Section
5.3.1 Loss of end support
Can apply to supports on concrete and steel beams and walls.
Minimum seating width:
5.3.1
If less than this actual seating width is available then the floor is prone to collapse
Expected pull-off of the floor from the support
Relative rotation between the beam and floor
5.3.1.1
Floor dislodging from supporting ledge
Example of one of the four modes of loss of
support at the floor-to-beam interface.
Inadequate as-built width of
support for the unit, considering
the spalling of the edge of the
supporting ledge and/or fracture
of the edge of the soffit of the
hollow-core unit
Construction tolerance that need to be considered
Floor supported on unreinforced or reinforced cover concrete: spalled edge of
ledge or unit
Residual bearing width
Creep and shrinkage
If the longitudinal reinforcement in the PHZ should yield under seismic action it
should be assumed that this spalling will occur.
5.3.5.4
Spalling of the cover concrete of the supporting
beam in the Plastic Hinge Zone
Spalling of cover concrete at
Plastic Hinge Zones
5.3.1.3
2 April 2009
Section
Actions associated with loss of support to a web Cut outs or uneven contact along
the support can cause
Simplistically, it can be assumed that for every web or group of strands cut that
the flexural capacity of the floor is reduced in portion to the number of strands cut.
The shear capacity of the modified section should be determined according to
section 5.3.1.8 where loss of support of a web(s) is considered.
When significant modification of a unit occurs, there is required redistribution of
gravity loads to other members or floor units advice from the precast
manufacturer should be sought.

5.3.2 Slab action
Bending moment effects

These types of failure has the potential to be brittle so should be avoided.
Hollow-core floors which contain mesh reinforcement, filled cores or over
reinforced connection details, are particularly vulnerable to this kind of failure.
1. Negative moment effects Negative moment induces tension
of the topping. Shear failure can
occur.
Initial vertical crack forms at a relative rotation between the unit and the support
0.2%
This is the limit of the elastic response of the unit, assuming the pull off is
negligible.
5.3.2.1
2 April 2009
Section
Loss of support, including the dowel action of the strands in the unit, is assumed
when the width of the vertical crack exceeds:
x 0.8 x d
s

where =0.6 ds =diameter of strand
It is assumed that loss of support will NOT occur, if:
2. Positive moment effects

Positive moment induces tension
on the soffit of the unit. The floor
can be unseated due to a
combination of pull-off and
relative rotation between the
beam and floor.
A crack of 0.5 mm or more, in the topping, at the back face of the unit AND the
unit is not seated on mortar.
A crack of 2 mm or more, in the topping, at the back face of the unit AND the
unit is seated on mortar.
If cells at the end of the hollow-core have been broken out, reinforced and
filled with concrete.
5.3.2.3
Failure due to incompatible displacements
First unit cast in to beam

The first hollow-core unit cast in
to the adjacent beam (concrete or
steel, including EBF link spans)
undergoes curvatures produced
in the beams. These can lead to
loss of the lower half of the first
unit.
Assume that if a unit is next to any beam this mode of failure is likely.
Extensive guidelines for assessment of the extent of damage to the first unit are
given in section 5.3.2.6.
5.3.2.6
2 April 2009
Section
Over-reinforced, concrete filled cells of the units Paper-clips or hairpins in concrete
filled cells can over-reinforce the
units leads to failures and
collapse that start at the ends of
the infills.

Overload of linking slab between the floor and
beam or to walls

Relative displacement between
the beam, EBF link or wall and
the first hollow-core unit
Slab flexure and shear requirements (NZS 3101) 5.3.2.6
2 April 2009
Section
5.3.2.7 Torsion failure of hollow-core units

Torsional actions may be applied
to hollow-core units causing
cracking of the unreinforced
sections of the unit.
The torsion actions arise from
differential rotation of supports , at
each end of a unit, or differential
displacements between a hollow-
core unit and an adjacent
structural member
It is suggested that the safe twist per m length of hollow-core floor with insitu
concrete topping should be less than:
0.001

radians per metre for 300 hollow-core and
0.002 radians per metre for 200 mm hollow-core.
5.3.2.7
1 Gaps between the floor and supports
Beam elongation
B
e
a
m
e
lo
n
g
a
t
io
n
L
o
s
s

o
f
s
u
p
p
o
r
t

p
o
s
s
ib
le

o
v
e
r

t
h
is

r
e
g
io
n
Mode 2

Columns and walls can be
separated from the diaphragm
because localised high strains
and damage to the neighbouring
floor. The compression load path
and possibly the tension load path
can be compromise.
5.3.3
2 April 2009
Section

2 Hollow-core partially supported on walls

The hollow-core unit that
straddles two adjacent walls or
from a secondary beam on to the
wall, will be subjected to
deformations beyond the capacity
of the unit. Typically web splitting
and loss of gravity capacity
occurs.

2 April 2009
Section
3 Hollow-core spanning next to walls

Similar issues to units next to
beams. Either there will be
concentrated damage at the
junction of the walls may lead to
loss of flexural strength , including
delamination of the topping and
separation of the lower half of the
unit.
Possible loss of the lateral load
path in to the walls from the
diaphragm will occur.

Diaphragm action and column tie-back.

Localised delamination and
possible rupture of topping steel
(cold-drawn wire mesh),
elongation of hinging beams
(concrete and steel) leading to
large cracks in the topping of the
floor, insufficient reinforcing steel
in the topping to tie the columns
back in to the floors and to
provide the tension capacity
needed in the floor plates.
Minimum tie back force should be a percentage of the maximum axial force on the
column, at that level:
Concrete column 5%
Steel column 2.5%
5.3.4
2 April 2009
Section
5.3.5 General demand considerations
Cut-outs and on-site modifications

The hollow-core unit will cut to
allow access for services or to
avoid a clash of the unit and other
structural elements.
These are actions and may not be
done with the knowledge of the
precasters, structural engineer or
main contractor. Often holes are
cut after the building is occupied
(changes of use).
Consult the precast manufacturer. 5.3.5.1
Delamination of the insitu concrete topping Delamination at PHZs and out in
to the floor under successive
ductility demands in the structure.
5.3.5.2

2 April 2009
5.3.1 End support
Loss of support for the hollow-core floor failure mechanisms:
The width of supporting ledge may be insufficient to support the floor; consideration
needs to be given to construction tolerances, edge distance, minimum bearing, likely
beam elongation, relative rotation and spalling of cover concrete.

Loss of support: Designers recognise that there is an inherent difference in performance/
integrity of precast flooring systems and traditional cast-in-place concrete floors. Essentially,
it is felt that precast, topped floors are not as robust or tolerant of racking movement and not
as effective as diaphragms under earthquake actions as cast-in-place floors. As with any
suspended floor, the consequences of failure to carry gravity loads are significant. Even a
localised collapse is likely to overload the floor below, leading to a progress collapse of a
large number of floors. The loss of life and property can be considerable when compared to
effects of a localised shear failure of a beam or even dropping precast cladding panels in to
the street. The consequence of losing support of a floor or multiple floors is significant loss
of life.

Basic seating allowance: The width support provided by the concrete ledge is a function of a
number of features that need to be considered in either design or assessment of an existing
structure. These features include:
expected pull-off of the floor from the support
relative rotation between the beam and floor
construction tolerance that need to be considered
floor supported on unreinforced or reinforced cover concrete
shrinkage and creep shortening of the floor
loading or displacement demand on the structure
to satisfy the NZ Building Act, performance under both the design based earthquake
(approximately 500-year return period) and the maximum credible earthquake
(approximately 2500-year return period) the latter is concerned with producing an
acceptably low probability of collapse
current design standard requirements
NZS 3101:2006 has a minimum width of seating that must be in place after all
reasonable construction tolerances have been allow for. This minimum includes
some allowance for the support being pushed away from the floor by elongation of
the adjacent structure and accounts in a rudimentary way for the displacements
imposed on the structure in an MCE event.

These features are discussed in detail in the following sections.

5.3.1.1 Loss of support through spalling of the edge of the supporting ledge and/or
fracture of the edge of the soffit of the hollow-core unit
The following discussion summarises the research undertaken by J Jensen [Jensen et al 2007],
unless otherwise noted.
2 April 2009

For hollow-core units supported on bare un-reinforced ledges (seat or seating), two
distinctive mechanisms for loss of support of a hollow-core floor with insitu concrete topping
have been described. These failure modes are the loss of seating with delamination of the
insitu concrete topping (LOSD) and loss of seating without delamination of the insitu topping
and rupture of the starter/continuity bars (LOS).

Loss of support can, in part, be attributed to three modes of damage and the interaction of
these modes. The first is the trapping of the seated portion of the soffit of the hollow-core
unit in to the adjacent cast insitu beam. The second is the spalling of the un-reinforced beam
ledge that supports the hollow-core units. The third mode is the rupture of the cast insitu
concrete stubs in the ends of the voids in the hollow-core units. See Figures 5.10a and b
and Figure 5.11.

Figure 5.10: LOSD and LOS failure mechanisms
a) Loss of seating with delamination (LOSD)

b) Loss of seating without delamination (LOS)

Source: J ensen 2007.

Figure 5.11: Specimen HC3 35 mm seating
a) Collapse of HC3 at -2.0% drift

b) Underside of HC3 test specimen c) HC3 seating beam post test

2 April 2009
It was reported that for the specimens examined, the hollow-core units did not slide on the
bare ledges, as is traditional believed. The damage to the ends of the hollow-core units, to the
stubs and the edge of the supporting ledges forms a nearly vertical interface between the
supporting beam and the end of the hollow-core units. The mode of collapse was the floor
system sliding down this interface until all support (aggregate interlock and friction) was lost.

The onset of the damage modes, shown in Figure 5.10, was observed at 0.25% relative
rotation between the supporting beam and floor unit that caused the hollow-core soffit to be in
tension. At this early stage of loading, the elongation applied to the specimen was negligible.

5.3.1.2 Loss of support through spalling of the cover concrete of the supporting beam in
the Plastic Hinge Zone
Lindsay et al [2004] observed that the cover concrete in the plastic hinge zones of beams
delaminates see Figure 5.12.

Should hollow-core units be seated in the Plastic Hinge Zones, it should be assumed that
support with be lost. The length of this zone can be greater than the overall depth of the
beam.

This assumption of loss of support is consistent with requirements of NZS 3101 [2006] for
detailing of new structures. The Standard does not permit hollow-core to be supported on the
cover concrete of potential plastic hinge zones. For such regions an alternative support
system is required for hollow-core units, see section 8.

Figure 5.12: Section of unreinforced seat fallen away

Source: Lindsay 2004.

5.3.1.3 Influences of the elongation of the beams parallel to the span of the floor and
relative rotation between the floor and supporting beam
In concrete moment resisting frames, elastic and plastic longitudinal elongation of the beams
occurs at plastic hinge zones (PHZs). When the elongating beams are parallel to the span
of the flooring units, this elongation can push the supporting beam away from the floor.
This feature occurs at the same time as the interface between the floor and beam is damaged.

2 April 2009
For structural steel buildings elongation is less than that seen for similar inter-storey drifts
in concrete buildings. In steel moment resisting frames, it may be assumed that the
elongation of each beam plastic hinge is half that assessed for a reinforced concrete beam of
similar depth and strength.

Complete collapse of topped hollow-core floors is a function of two facets: primarily
elongation and secondly the relative rotation between the supporting beam and the floor.
Relative rotation causing tension on the soffit of the unit reduces the width of contact between
the floor and supporting beam. Associated with this rotation is elongation in an adjacent
beam plastic hinge zone, which pushes the supporting beam away from the floor. These two
actions reduce the support length for hollow-core units and can result in collapse.

Support of a floor may come from seating provided on walls. Similar issues of the supporting
wall being pushed away from the floor and relative rotations between the wall support and
floor occur. These mechanisms of loss of support are functions of the structural configuration
of a specific building.

The amount of elongation and drift required to drop the floor is influenced by the original
provided width of seating (the actual contact width of the hollow-core soffit on the supporting
ledge not the width of the ledge as cast or flange dimension if a steel angle or similar is
used). The larger the original width of contact between the hollow-core soffit and the ledge,
the greater the elongation required to cause collapse. However, increasing the contact width
beyond a certain point could restrain the ends of the units and could lead to other forms of
failure in the hollow-core units, such as flexure-shear failure when the soffit of the unit is in
tension.

5.3.1.4 Calculating the required width of seating or ledge
NZS 3101:1995 and 2006 require that after tolerances have been used up, these minimum
seatings must remain. The tolerances should be realistic allowances as described in the
Precast Guidelines [1998]. The absolute values of the required tolerances are not expected
to be added together. The Precast Guidelines suggest using square-root sum of the
squares of the tolerances.

Once tolerances to NZS 3109 have been considered for: out of position, cross-sectional
dimensions and straightness of the beam and length and squareness of the unit, the result if
added algebraically is 36 mm of tolerance. If the alternative of [ x
i
] is used, then the
allowance for tolerances reduces to 17 mm. This would be an acceptable allowance.

NZS 3101 [2006] has a minimum width of seating of 75 mm that must be in place after all
reasonable construction tolerances have been allowed for. This Code minimum includes
some allowance for the support being pushed away from the floor by elongation of the
adjacent structure and accounts in a very rudimentary way for the displacements imposed on
the structure in an MCE event. The Commentary to NZS 3101 [2006] says that shrinkage and
creep need not be considered with the 75 mm prescribed by Clause 18.7.4 this is thought to
be accounted for by the 15 mm minimum overhang at the back of the unit. This 75 mm
allowance may be unsafe in some cases a method for a detailed assessment of seating width
follows.

2 April 2009
If a detailed design or assessment of an existing connection is required, the seating widths
need to allow for:
Residual seating: Precasters have recommended that, in an extreme event, the residual
width of seating for precast units (hollow-core, flat slab and rib) should be 20 mm. At
this time the minimum residual seating width for tee and double tee units has not been
determined; this should be larger.
Spalling of the support or unit: 20 mm total loss of support through spalling of the unit
or seating or both (aggregate of 20 mm total with partial damage in each). All the bare
ledge specimens of Jensen et al [2007] sustained between 10 and 35 mm loss of support
due to spalling from either the end of the hollow-core unit or the front surface of the
supporting ledge (see Figure 5.10). The recommendation of a reduction of 20 mm is a
mean value of loss of support and it should be treated as an absolute minimum.
Shrinkage and creep of the floor (topping and unit): At each end of the floor unit, allow
for x 1.0 mm/m of floor span.
Tolerances of placing of floor units: 17 mm (by square root of the sum of the squares,
from CAE Precast Guidelines 1998).
Elongation: elastic and plastic elongation occurs: Calculation of elongation at the mid-
depth of the hinging beam a function of plastic rotation of the hinge and location in
the structure: Elongation at the mid-depth of the hinging beam from section 5.3.3.4:
h h
l
04 . 0 =
Equation 1
Where h is the overall depth of the hinging beam and is the rotation at the support,
nominally the interstorey drift, , divided by the storey height. Note that this equation
is an empirical formula based on observed behaviour after a number of cycles of
inelastic movement in a beam plastic hinge zone. With reference to Figure 5.5, this is
approximately double the geometric displacement that would be expected if a simple
rotation,, about the centreline of the beam had been considered.
Elongation in structural steel moment resisting frames may be taken as half that of the
equivalent reinforced concrete beam (similar h and similar yield strength).
Equation 1 is an upper bound value, determined for beam hinges next to corner
columns. There is an option to use a reduced
l
for specific situations.
Geometric displacement of the floor relative to the support: Another source of moving
the support away from the floor is the geometric lateral displacement between the
support ledge and the mid-depth of the hinging beam, g. See Figure 5.13.
.
2

=
L g
h
h
Equation 2
Therefore, if the ledge coincides with the mid-depth of the beam then there is no
geometric displacement.

2 April 2009
Figure 5.13: Elongation and geometric displacement of the ledge away from the soffit of the
floor unit

Below are two examples of calculating the width of seating:
1. Reinforced concrete beams of moment resisting frames comprehensive calculation:
The residual seating of 20 mm after a major event is needed.
Elongation of PHZs in beams
Take the beam as h = 1000 mm.
At MCE, the drift/rotation is 3.5% (< 4.0%).
Elongation at mid-depth of the beam is:
= 0.35 x 1000 35 mm.
Geometric elongation
Ledge height h
L
(ledge to top of beam) = 150 mm
Geometric elongation is
.
2

L
h
h

= ( 1000/2 150 ) x 0.035 = 12 mm
Shrinkage and creep
Span of floor unit = 10 m therefore shortening at one end
= 0.5 x 1 x 10m = 5 mm
Spalling of the unit and support ledge
Designers need to allow for a minimum of 20 mm* of spalling of the un-armoured
concrete unit or ledge
* The allowance for a loss of cover by spalling of 20 mm may not be sufficient is all
cases.
A minimum of 20 mm* of spalling of the un-armoured concrete unit or ledge, 20 mm of
residual ledge for support, 5 mm for shrinkage and 35 mm elongation at mid-depth, a
further 12 mm pull-off at the level of the ledge. This aggregates to:
20 + 20 + 5 + 35 + 12 = minimum seating AFTER tolerances = 92 mm
Therefore when including the mandatory tolerances of 17 mm:
the minimum design width of ledge 110 mm.
2 April 2009
2. By NZS 3101 [2006]:
75 mm seating (code minimum) + 17 mm tolerances = 92 mm minimum ledge width,
say 95 mm.
This is significantly shorter than the recommended method above.

5.3.1.5 Lack of reliability in load paths through the insitu concrete topping for support
gravity
The starter/continuity bar reinforcement cast into the seating beam and in-situ topping on the
hollow-core unit cannot be relied upon to provide vertical support to the unit. Either
delamination of the in-situ topping concrete from the unit or rupture of the starter bars at the
cracked interface between the hollow-core units and seating beam prevents this reinforcement
from providing effective vertical support, see Figure 5.10.

Figure 5.14 shows a delamination failure with the unit sliding down the interface between the
unit and beam. Another feature of this type of delamination is the rupture of cold-drawn wire
mesh at the section where the starter/continuity bars stop. Therefore, such an arrangement of
mild steel starter bars lapping to cold-drawn wire mesh can not be relied upon to hold up the
floor should support be lost.

More recent buildings have conventional mild steel covering the entire floor, embedded in the
topping concrete. In this situation, it is expected that the topping reinforcement would not
rupture. However, the topping may continue to debond from the precast units or break out of
the concrete and be ineffective at restraining the precast units from collapse.
Rupture of the starter/continuity bars can occur when there in no delamination of the topping
from the hollow-core unit. It may be assumed that the bars will rupture when the crack at the
interface between the unit and the support is larger than 15 mm (at the level of the bars).

Figure 5.14: HC1 delamination and sliding failure
a) HC1 during test prior to collapse

b) Collapse of HC1 at 25 mm elongation

c) HC1 seating beam post test

d) HC1 hollow-core unit post test

2 April 2009

5.3.1.6 Performance of the supporting ledge and the soffit of the hollow-core unit when
low friction bearing strips are provided on the seating ledge
Lindsay et al [2004] and MacPherson et al [2005] reported that the presence of a low friction
bearing strip on the supporting ledge significantly reduced damage to the edge of the seating
and to the soffit of the hollow-core units.

In evaluation an existing building it may be assumed when a low friction bearing strip is
provided (similar to that described in NZS 3101[2006], Clause 18.7.4(b)), with at least 15 mm
set back from the edge of the ledge, that spalling will be minimal. Therefore, the reduction
of 20 mm on the provided, as-built width of bearing is not required.

5.3.1.7 Floor-to-wall performance of the supporting ledge and the soffit of the hollow-core
unit
The above discussion focuses on findings for floor-to-beam connections, but the same
behaviour can be expected when the hollow-core units are supported on corbels/ledges that
are part of wall elements. The issues affecting performance of a connection are:
the relative rotations at the support,
elongation (pull-off) that may occur at the connections,
detailing of the connection (bare ledge, bearing strip, width of effective seating).

5.3.1.8 Actions associated with loss of support to a web
Figure 5.15 illustrates the situation where the support to one of the hollow-core webs is
missing. Positive moments acting near the support of the unit cause the line of action of the
compression force, C, to follow the inclined trajectory shown in the figure, with the shear
force being resisted by the vertical component of the compression force. The prestress force
in the development length of the strands resists the longitudinal component of the
compression force, C. This leaves the shear force to be carried by the vertical component of
tension stresses in the web. Above the web this tension force is resisted by shear in the
concrete, which in turn is balanced by compression forces in the adjacent webs. If the shear
force in the web is of sufficient magnitude the web will split. Tensile stresses induced by this
action combined with anchorage zone stresses associated with the pretension strands
[Fenwick et al 2004] will increase the tendency for splitting to occur due to other actions.

Loss of support to a web of a hollow-core unit can arise due to:
a web being cut to allow access for services or to prevent the hollow-core unit
impinging on another structural element
the hollow-core member being supported on a beam, which can be subjected to curvatures
of sufficient magnitude to cause one or more of the webs to lift off the supports
spalling of concrete in a plastic hinge region under some of the webs of a hollow-core
unit.

2 April 2009
Figure 5.15: Tension induced in a web due to loss of support

5.3.2 Slab action
1. Actions associated with bending moment effects adjacent to supports include:
positive moment failure close to the face of the support, including dowel / prying
action of the concrete plug cast into the ends of the units
negative moment failure at the end or close to the end of started bars in the topping
concrete or reinforcement in-filled webs, if these are present
vertical seismic loading, up or down.
2. Actions associated with shear / torsion effects in hollow-core units include:
torsional failure due to twist applied to hollow-core units due to deformed shape or
displacement of supporting or adjacent structure
web splitting due to vertical shear transfer or differential incompatible displacements
diagonal tension failure of un-reinforced webs in negative moment zones.

5.3.2.1 Behaviour of hollow-core units under gravity loading
Hollow-core units have been designed to resist gravity loads as simply supported members.
The pretensioned strands are located close to the soffit of the unit, which gives these units
have a high positive moment flexural strength but low negative moment flexural strength.
The shear in positive moment zones, which do not contain flexural cracks but is outside the
2 April 2009
transmission lengths for the pretensioned reinforcement, is resisted principally by the vertical
component of the flexural compression force, as illustrated in Figure 5.16. Diagonal tension
cracking, which defines the shear strength of members without shear reinforcement, can arise
in two ways, namely flexural shear cracking or web shear cracking.
Flexural shear cracking is critical in regions which contain flexural cracks. This form
of shear failure is generally not expected in floors containing pretensioned units under
gravity load conditions as flexural cracking is not expected to occur, except possibly in
the mid-span region where the shear stresses are low.
Web shear cracking can develop in a region of a beam which does not contain flexural
cracks but is subjected to high shear stresses. This form of diagonal cracking is
generally critical in low moment zones in members with thin webs. Diagonal tension
web shear cracks form when the principal tensile stress reaches the direct tensile
strength of the concrete. The shear stress, v, in a web of a beam prior to the formation
of flexural cracks is given by:
b h
V
b I
Q V
v 5 . 1 = Equation 3

Where V is the shear force, Q is the first moment of area above fibre being considered about
the neutral axis, I is the second moment of area about the neutral axis, b is the width of the
fibre being considered and h is the overall depth of the section.

Figure 5.16: Behaviour of hollow-core floor under gravity loading

2 April 2009
In NZS 3101-2006, the design principal tensile strength of the concrete, f
dt
, is taken as
0.33f
c
. The magnitude of the shear stress, v
max
, causing the principal tensile stress increases
with the longitudinal compression stress, f
lc,
and it is given by:
) 1 (
max dt lc dt
f f f v + = Equation 4
where f
lc
is taken as positive for compression and f
dt
is taken as positive for tension.

Making a conservative assumption that the longitudinal compression stress is zero gives a
critical shear stress of 0.33f
c
at the formation of a web shear crack. With the different
300 hollow-core sections, the minimum total web width varies, but typically it is greater than
180mm, while with the 200 mm hollow-core sections the corresponding width is greater than
240 mm. On the basis of the approximation given by Equation 3 the calculated shear
sustained at diagonal web shear cracking, V
cw
, is given by:
'
22 . 0
c w cw
f h b V Equation 5
where b
w
is the minimum width of the web being considered and h is the depth of the unit.
Assuming the concrete strength at the critical fibre is 50 MPa and using the minimum web
widths given above, the nominal shear strengths are close to 100 kN for both 300 and 200
hollow-core units with 75 mm topping. From this assessment it is concluded that shear
failure due to gravity loading is not critical for the composite floor provided negative
moments, which may lead to flexural cracking of the hollow-core unit, do not act.

Under seismic conditions, when flexural cracking is induced in the insitu concrete by negative
bending moment regions near the supports and vertical seismic actions, flexural shear
cracking becomes critical. The shear stress which may be sustained in flexural shear critical
zones is generally considerable smaller than the corresponding shear stress for web shear
critical zones. Consequently shear strength based on test, or calculations, for simply
supported units do not apply, as they can over-estimate the strength by a considerable margin.
Section 5.2.2.4 considers the shear strength in negative moment regions.

5.3.2.2 Negative moment flexural strength and ductility
Introduction
Hollow-core units have generally been designed to resist gravity loading as simply supported
members. However, to allow floors to act as diaphragms starter reinforcement is placed in the
insitu concrete topping to tie the floors into the supporting structural elements. This
establishes continuity, which enables negative moments and axial tension to be transmitted
into a floor at it supports due to:
creep, shrinkage and thermal movements
live loads
lateral forces due to wind or seismic actions
vertical seismic actions and
elongation of beams.

Generally prior to the publication of an amendment to the New Zealand Structural Concrete
Standard, NZS 3101-1995 in 2004, starter reinforcing bars, which extended between 400 to
2 April 2009
1,500 mm into the slab [Woods 2008], were generally lapped with mesh reinforcement. The
amendment required ductile reinforcement to be used in the topping concrete. From the
length of the starter reinforcement that was typically used [Woods 2008] it appears that the
mesh reinforcement was not designed to sustain the negative moments, which could be
induced into the floor. This gives rise to the possibility of brittle negative moment failures
occurring in the floor close to a support due to the low reinforcement content and non-ductile
characteristics of mesh reinforcement, with the critical section being at the point where either
the starter reinforcement terminated or the location where reinforcement cast into filled cells
at the ends of the units terminated.

Mesh reinforcement typically has a strain at maximum stress of the order of 1.5 percent. 665
mesh, which was typically used to reinforce topping concrete, has an area of 145 mm
2
per
metre and a design strength of 485 MPa. If this reinforcement is placed in a 75mm thick
concrete topping the reinforcement proportion is just under 0.002 and the force that it can
transmit across a crack corresponds to a stress in the insitu concrete of 0.94 MPa. As this is
well below the stress level which could be expected to result in cracking of the concrete,
which rules out the possibility of secondary cracks, and consequently only primary flexural
tension cracks can be expected to form in a negative moment zone. In a test of a 300 hollow-
core unit with 75 mm topping the spacing of cracks was found to be close to 500 mm, which
is consistent with the formation of primary flexural cracks [Woods 2008].

As the critical section for negative moment flexure generally occurs at either the position
where starter bars terminate, or where bars cast into filled cells at the ends of a unit terminate.
This type of negative moment flexural failure has been observed in several sub-assembly tests
at the University of Canterbury including those completed by Liew [2004], Bull and
Matthews [2003], and Woods [2008]. The failure from Woods test, which used 665 mesh
and one metre long, HD12 starter bars at 300 centres, is shown in Figure 5.17. It can be seen
in this figure that once a vertical flexural crack opened up, the 665 mesh snapped and a
horizontal shear failure occurred. This crack pattern is typical the failure crack patterns
observed in these tests. In the Woods test, insitu topping concrete had a crack initiated in it so
that instrumentation placed across the crack. The use of a crack initiator should not have had
a significant influence on flexural behaviour as had the specimen been older the topping
concrete would most likely have contained cracking due to shrinkage.

2 April 2009
Figure 5.17: Negative flexural crack at the termination point of the starter bars leading to a
brittle shear failure

Source: Woods 2008.

Analysis
In design, or in planning a retro-fit, a capacity design approach should be taken. The critical
sections of the floor in the negative moment region of the slab need to be identified and these
designed to resist the maximum over-strength actions that can be induced on these sections
due to gravity load and seismic actions. In this assessment the starter reinforcement above the
support should be assumed to be stressed to its ultimate stress level as the crack width above
the back face of the precast units can exceed 15 mm.

Hollow-core floors constructed using mesh reinforcement, short starter bars or with over-
reinforced end connections are prone to a negative flexural failure. Woods [2008] has shown
that the use of standard flexural theory over-estimates negative moment flexural strength.
This theory has to be modified to allow for:
the low ultimate strain capacity of mesh and
the low reinforcement proportion of reinforcement in the insitu concrete topping.

As previously noted due to the low reinforcement proportion of negative moment
reinforcement only primary flexural tension cracks may be expected to form with spacing of
the order of 1 to 1.5 times the overall depth of the floor. With this wide spacing of cracks the
influence of concrete strains on ultimate strength cannot be ignored.

Standard flexural theory for concrete members is based on three assumptions.
2 April 2009
1. Plain sections in a region remain plain. It should be noted that this assumption applies
to a region and not to the immediate vicinity of a single crack.
2. The strain in the reinforcement is either uniform or varies linearly over the region.
3. The stress levels in reinforcement and concrete are assumed to be uniquely related to
stress, with tensile stresses in concrete being neglected.

The depth of a neutral axis in a region is a function of the average tensile strain in the
reinforcement and the average compressive strain on the extreme compression fibre.
However, in the flexural tension zone, due to the wide spacing of cracks and low
reinforcement content, the concrete between the cracks resists a high proportion of the
flexural tension force. This reduces the average tensile strain in the reinforcement, with the
tensile extension of the tension zone being concentrated in the locality of the crack. To
predict the actual tensile strain in the reinforcement at a crack from the average strain at the
same level in the region it is necessary to multiply by a strain concentration factor.

In a test of a 300 hollow-core unit with 75 mm insitu concrete topping Woods [2008], found
that the negative moment crack spacing was close 500 mm. With 665 mesh reinforcement
(mesh spacing 150 mm) it was found that the strain concentration factor was close to 4. This
value was predicted analytically on the basis of 500 mm crack spacing, an assumption that the
mesh was effectively anchored at the positions where it was welded to transverse bars and by
making an allowance for bond appropriate for plain bars cast in topping concrete. The value
of 4 was supported by experimental strain and displacement measurements. Using a value of
4 for the strain concentration factor, and assuming that the ultimate limiting strain in the mesh
reinforcement is 0.02, gives an average tensile strain of 0.02/4, equal to 0.005. This value of
strain is used for calculating the depth of the neutral axis. With this limiting strain level, the
corresponding strain and hence stress level on the extreme compression fibre is within the
elastic range. Consequently the commonly used rectangular stress block assumption for
concrete stresses, which is based on a strain of 0.003 in the concrete, cannot be used and the
centre of compression force is located higher in the section than would be calculated from
standard flexural theory. It should also be noted that the behaviour is not ductile.

The strain concentration factor of 4 was found from one test; hence it should be taken as a
tentative value at this stage. For other depths of construction, the factor may be assessed as
proportional to overall depth, h. Thus for other depths of hollow-core floors the strain
concentration factor, S
cf
, may be assessed from the equation:
( )
h
S
cf
375
4 = Equation 6

Liew [2004] demonstrated that a section is at the end of concrete filled, reinforced cores of
the units can also be critical. Where cells are filled and reinforced near the supports, the
reinforcement in the cells extends between 600 mm and 1000 mm along the unit. Infilling of
cores has been used as a solution for when, on site, the seating width for the unit is inadequate
or when there was an attempt to place a band of addition tension capacity across a floor
diaphragm. As shown by Liew this practice may have inadvertently made negative flexural
failure more likely.

2 April 2009
If the amount of reinforcing steel used across the floor-to-support beam interface is the same
as that along the length of the floor, then negative flexural failure of the hollow-core unit
should not be a problem unless there is a very high seismic demand.

Calculating negative flexural moment demand
At the interface between the hollow-core unit and the supporting beam, the reinforcement in
the insitu concrete topping is likely to be close to its ultimate strength in a major earthquake.
This is due to elongation of beams parallel to the hollow-core units and/or rotation of the
seating beams associated with storey drift. The maximum negative flexure demands that need
to be considered, occurring at the same time, are a combination of gravity loads, vertical
seismic forces (up and down), together with the actions that may be transmitted through the
support details from the elongation and rotation displacement. These loads are shown in
Figure 5.18(a).

2 April 2009
Figure 5.18: Bending moments and moment coverage (drawn for 12 m span, Christchurch
seismic actions)

2 April 2009
Gravity load and vertical seismic actions need to be considered with two critical moment
components produced from actions transmitted to the floor through the supports,. These two
components are:
maximum bending moment with no axial load (shown in Figure 5.19(i)). In this case it
can be assumed that one end of the floor is at its overstrength moment and the other is
pinned (zero moment), with a linear variation of moment between the support points.
The overstrength bending moment capacity at the floor end can be assessed assuming
that the interface section acts as a singly reinforced concrete beam section.
maximum axial load due to parallel beam elongation (Figure 5.19(ii)). End moments in
the floor are produced by the eccentricity of the applied axial tension through the starter
bars. In this scenario the end moments are generally less than the maximum bending
moments, but the section capacity is reduced due to the axial tension that acts.

Figure 5.19: Critical loading conditions

The end conditions of the floor vary considerably during an earthquake. However these two
cases are thought to be representative and conservative.

From the bending moments induced by the actions at the supports are added moments due to
gravity loads and moments arising from vertical seismic ground motion. These can be found
from the New Zealand Loadings Code [AS/SANZ 2002-2004]. Generally the vertical seismic
forces these are 0.7 times the elastic site spectra multiplied by the weight of the floor and
modified to allow for an appropriate structural ductility factor. With mesh reinforcement a
structural ductility factor of 1 should be used due to its brittle behaviour. Where ductile
reinforcement is used over the whole surface of the floor the structural ductility factor may be
increased to 2.0. These values are selected on the basis that:
the mesh has a very low ductility
the hollow-core units with insitu concrete topping have very different stiffness
characteristics for loading in the upward and downward directions.

This difference can significantly increase the displacement induced by seismic ground
motion.

2 April 2009
The vertical seismic actions should be distributed in the shape of a parabola along the length
of the floor. This distributes the load approximately proportionally with the expected
deflected shape of the floor [SANZ 2004]. Negative moments induced in the hollow-core
floor will be greatest under upwards vertical actions therefore the bending moments resulting
from this parabolic load along the beam must be subtracted from those resulting from bending
moments transmitted through the supports and gravity induced bending moments. The
combined loading conditions for a 12 m span hollow-core floor under Christchurch seismic
actions are shown in Figure 5.18(b) and (c).

It is conservative to assume an overstrength end moment due to elongation and rotation of the
support beams together with the maximum vertical earthquake excitation. This is because the
period of the floor excited by the vertical motion is short compared to the fundamental period
of the structure; therefore there is the possibility the maximum moments or near maximum
moments will occur simultaneously.

Conclusions
Negative moments induced by seismic actions can cause negative flexural failure in hollow-
core floors. This type of failure has the potential to be brittle so should be avoided. Hollow-
core floors which contain mesh reinforcement, filled cores or over reinforced connection
details, are particularly vulnerable to this kind of failure. Standard flexural theory needs to be
modified to allow for the effect of tension stiffening and limited ductility of mesh
reinforcement before it can be used to assess negative moment flexural strengths of hollow-
core floors.

5.3.2.3 Positive moment failure at supports
Positive moment failure mechanism
This form of failure is associated with flexural cracking close to a support, in the transfer
length of the prestressed strands or wires. This form of failure arises due to the application of
positive moments at the end of a hollow-core unit. It has been observed in a test of a hollow-
core floor and perimeter frame [Matthews 2009] and in tests of individual hollow-core units
with insitu concrete topping [Bull and Matthews 2003]. Breaking out the cells of hollow-core
units near a support, adding reinforcement and filling with concrete increases the positive
moment strength near the supports and prevents this form of failure. The stages leading to
collapse of a hollow-core floor unit, due to the formation of a positive moment crack near a
support, are illustrated in Figure 5.20. Sway of a building induces positive and negative
moments in the hollow-core units at the face of supporting beams. The negative moment
strength depends on the number, size and grade of starter bars linking the unit to the
supporting beam. However, the positive moment strength depends on the tensile strength of
the concrete in the hollow-core section. The critical section for positive moment, section 2.2
in Figure 5.20(a), is typically 60 to 80 mm from the end of the unit; consequently the
pretension strands are only capable of resisting a few percent of their design force due to their
short development length. Furthermore as the strands are concentrated in the webs, the little
prestress that is sustained at this section does not induce significant compression into the
concrete below the voids, which is up to a distance of 120 mm from the nearest strand. When
the concrete below the voids cracks in tension it is unlikely that the remaining concrete can
sustain the lost tension force. Consequently the positive moment flexural strength of the
2 April 2009
hollow-core at this section depends almost entirely on the tensile strength of the concrete.
When a flexural crack forms at this section the strands slip through the concrete between the
end of the unit and the critical section.

There are three factors which have a major influence on the potential for a positive moment
flexural crack to form at the face of a supporting beam, section 2.2 in Figure 5.20(a). These
are outlined below:
1. If a crack forms between the back face of the hollow-core unit and the supporting beam,
section 1.1 in Figure 5.20(a), the positive moment flexural strength of this section is
reduced and this reduces the magnitude of the positive moments that may be induced at
the critical section at the face of the support, section 2.2. A crack often develops at the
back face of the unit due to shrinkage and creep of the hollow-core and insitu concrete
topping, and/or due to differential thermal stresses between the main beams and floor.
It should be noted however, that a narrow crack at the back face of the hollow-core unit
does not exclude the possibility of a positive moment failure of the hollow-core unit.
Narrow cracks did form in the Matthews floor test [Matthews 2004], but failure still
occurred due to positive moment flexural cracking near the face of the support.
2. The use of a mortar pad between hollow-core units and their support beams increases
the shear force that can be applied to the soffit of a hollow-core unit. This increases the
magnitude of positive moment which may induced at the critical section at the face of
the support beam. In both cases where this form of failure has been observed the units
were supported on mortar. It appears that that the longitudinal shear force transmitted
through the mortar pad was sufficient to initiate positive moment cracking by itself in
the Matthews test as some cracking had occurred at the back face of the unit [Matthews
2004].
3. Calculations show that the higher the strength of the insitu concrete the greater the
probability that a positive moment flexural crack will form at the critical section in a
major earthquake.

The formation of a positive moment flexural crack near the face of the support beam creates a
weak section; see Figure 5.20(b), which widens when elongation of main beams applies
tension to the floor, as illustrated in Figure 5.20(c). When the crack width reaches a width if
the order 1 to 2 mm shear transfer by aggregate interlock action across the crack is for
practical purposes lost, and stress redistribution occurs, as shown in Figure 5.20(c). The
prestress force in the strand typically develops over a distance of approximately 40 strand
diameters from the crack at the face of the support. The longitudinal component of this force
is balanced by the longitudinal component of the compression in the concrete. For
equilibrium the vertical component of the compression force, which under positive moments
is equal to the shear force, must be resisted. When the width of this crack was small a large
portion of this vertical force was resisted by aggregate interlock. However, with the opening
up of this crack this component is redistributed to the vertical component of tension stresses
in the concrete in the webs of the hollow-core member and to a very limited extent to dowel
action in the strands, see Figure 5.20(c). The proportion of shear resisted by dowel action in
the strands is small as they are flexible and there is inadequate shear displacement across the
crack to mobilise this action. As shown in Figure 5.20(c) near vertical tension stresses in the
webs increase causing the flexural crack to extend in a near horizontal direction. With this
crack extension the shear displacement across the crack at the level of the strands increases
2 April 2009
and this allows dowel action in the strands to pick up a high proportion of the shear force.
Continued elongation of the main beams results in further increase in crack width until failure
occurs with the strand pulling out of the concrete. In the Matthews test of a floor slab
[Matthews 2004], collapse occurred when the elongation of the end plastic hinges in the
beams near the support points for the hollow-core units were of the order of 12 mm. This
implies that the crack widths at the face of the support were of the order of 12 mm. In the
individual units tests [Bull and Matthews 2003], the crack widths and elongation were not
directly measured. However, a photographic record together with deflection measurements
indicate that collapse occurred when the positive moment flexural crack were of the order of
1015 mm in width. In these tests the effect of vertical seismic ground motion was not
considered. The rapidly alternating vertical accelerations, associated with vertical ground
motion, could result in failure at a reduced width of crack.

Figure 5.20: Positive moment failure of hollow-core units

2 April 2009
There have been no tests of the dowel capacity of strands. It is difficult to estimate the dowel
capacity as this depends on the degree of composite action between the strands and concrete.
However, even if the strands fail in flexure due to dowel action it is likely that wedging in the
crack would prevent collapse until the crack width was of the order of the strand diameter, or
the concrete surrounding the strands was extensively broken up.

There is another possible trigger for this form of failure. The 75 mm plug of concrete cast
into the ends of the hollow-cores can act as a dowel. If bond between this plug and the
hollow-core concrete is poor, as is often the case, the plug can only be broken by prying
forces acting at the end of the plug and the back face of the hollow-core unit. The magnitude
of these forces can be high and of sufficient magnitude to split the web of a hollow-core unit
[Matthews 2004]. Once the horizontal web crack has formed the failure follows the mode
previously described for positive moment failure.

Conclusions
Positive moment flexural cracking may be anticipated in a major earthquake in hollow-core
units close to their support if either:
they are supported on mortar and there is no evidence of the hollow-core unit slipping
over the mortar
if the insitu concrete at the back of the hollow-core unit has cylinder strength of 40 MPa
or more.

Where a positive moment flexural crack forms at the face of a supporting member collapse
may be expected to occur when the crack width reaches the order of 80% of the diameter of
the pretension strands in the unit. This crack width can be taken as the elongation sustained
in the plastic hinge in the main beam parallel to the span of the unit and located closest to the
support of the hollow-core unit.

The development of a positive moment flexural crack forming in an earthquake can be ruled
out if either:
A crack with a width of 0.5 mm or more exists in the topping at the back face of the
hollow-core and the unit is not supported on mortar. This indicates the infill concrete in
the cores is cracked and critical positive moments can not be applied to the hollow-core
at the face of the support.
If the crack in the topping is equal to or more than 2 mm it can be assumed that slip has
occurred between the hollow-core unit and the mortar pad and consequently the
longitudinal shear force that can be applied through the mortar pad will be insufficient
to crack the hollow-core unit.
If cells at the end of the hollow-core have been broken out, reinforced and filled with
concrete, the resultant additional positive moment strength should prevent the
possibility of a positive moment failure from occurring.

2 April 2009
5.3.2.4 Shear strength in negative moment regions
Introduction
As discussed in section 5.2.3, hollow-core units close to their supports have high shear
strength when they act as simply supported beams and are subjected to gravity loads. In this
situation where only low positive moments can act and there is no flexural cracking the shear
strength is limited by web shear cracking. However, under seismic conditions, as illustrated
in section 5.3.2.2, the starter bars can transmit both moment and axial tension to a hollow-
core floor near the supports. The shear strength in the negative moment region, if it contains
flexural/axial tension cracks, is limited by the flexural shear cracking strength. Hence the
shear strength of this region is influenced by continuity reinforcement which ties the floor to
the supporting structure.

At the back face of the hollow-core unit, wide cracks may develop in a major earthquake due
to elongation of beams parallel to the precast units and the rotation of the supporting
structural element (beam or wall) relative to the floor. Reinforcement crossing this crack is
likely to be stressed close to its ultimate value. As shown in Figure 5.21(a), the tension force
resisted by the reinforcement in the insitu concrete topping decreases as the distance of the
section increases from the support. This is in part due to the decrease in bending moments
and in part due to the transfer of the pretension force from the pretensioned reinforcement to
the concrete. In Figure 5.21(c), the equilibrium of the concrete between the two cracks is
illustrated. The change in tension force, T, in the reinforcement in the topping concrete
applies a shear force to the concrete. The resultant shear stress is found by dividing T by the
distance between the cracks, x, and the width of the web at the level being considered, as
illustrated in Figure 5.21(c) and (d). The shear stresses in the compression zone are increased
due to the inclination of the compression force along the member. However, this increase in
shear stress is not critical as the longitudinal stress in this region suppresses the diagonal
tensile stresses. It is the shear stresses sustained in the flexural tension zone that lead to
flexural shear cracking.

Woods [2008] made a series of analyses of the hollow-core floors when subjected to gravity
loads and seismic actions together with the starter reinforcement in the topping concrete
stressed to its ultimate stress where it crossed the crack between the supporting beam and the
back face of the hollow-core units. Analyses were made for floors with different quantities of
reinforcement in the concrete topping and for two different loading conditions. In the first of
these loading conditions, the rotation between the floor and supporting beam was assumed to
enable the tension force resisted by the reinforcement, where it crossed the crack at the back
face of the hollow-core units, to be balanced by a compression force of equal magnitude.
That is the reinforcement applied a bending moment. In the second case it was assumed that
elongation had displaced the hollow-core units across the supporting ledge so that the tension
force resisted by the topping reinforcement could not be balanced by a compression force. In
this case, the tension force applied a moment and axial tension force to the floor as the
reinforcement was eccentric to the floor.

2 April 2009
From the analyses the following conclusions were made:
1. Changing from applying a pure moment across the crack at the back face of the hollow-
core units to applying an eccentric tension force (axial tension and reduced moment) in
the starter reinforcement did not significantly change the shear stress levels in the
flexural tension zone.
2. Increasing the amount of reinforcement in the topping concrete increased the length of
floor subjected to negative moments but it did not significantly change the magnitude of
the shear stresses in the flexural tension zone at the critical section of the floor. This
critical section was assumed to be located at a distance of an effective depth from the
edge of the support.
3. The shear stress levels in the flexural tension zone near the critical section were for
practical purposes equal to those that would be sustained by a reinforced concrete beam
with the same dimensions.

The conclusions from these analyses regarding shear strength in negative moment zones for
hollow-core units without top strands were:
the critical section for shear in negative moment regions should be taken at a distance of
an effective depth out from the edge of the support and where cells were filled and
reinforced at the end of the filled cells
the shear strength should be calculated as for an equivalent shaped reinforced concrete
section
where a hollow-core floor with hollow-core units contain near circular voids the design
shear stress limit may be increased for the reasons outlined in the following paragraph.

Due to the shape of the cross-section, the presence of some compression in the concrete from
the pretensioned strands at the critical section for shear, the height of the zero strain fibre in
the section is higher than would be expected in a rectangular or tee beam. This combined
with the reduction in average tensile strain in the reinforcement in the topping concrete due to
tension stiffening (see 5.3.2.2) results in flexural crack widths sustained at the mid depth of
the hollow-core unit being appreciably less could be expected in an equivalent rectangular
beam. Collins and Kuchma [1999] have shown that the shear stress that can be sustained in
the flexural tension zone of a reinforced concrete beam depends on the crack width. The
magnitude of shear stress that can be transmitted across a crack increases as the crack width
decreases. In hollow-core sections with near circular voids, the crack widths are small where
the web width is close to its minimum. Where the crack widths are greater, the web width is
also greater. Consequently, taking the effective shear area as the minimum web width times
the effective depth, as defined the Concrete Structures Standard, NZS 3101 [2006], a higher
shear stress may be sustained than is the case with hollow-core units or other precast
pretensioned floor units that have uniform web widths in their flexural tension zones.

2 April 2009
The assessment described above has led to the design criteria for determining the design shear
strength of floors containing precast units detailed in Amendment 2 to NZS 3101-2006. It
may be noted that the design approach given by fib Commission 6 [2000] recommends
determining the negative moment shear strength as though the critical section was not
prestressed. Noting that fib Commission 6 does not consider aspects such as elongation or
capacity design and it recommends details which differ considerably from New Zealand
practice.

Recommendations
On the basis of recent research findings, recommendations have been included in
Amendment 2 to NZS 3101-2006 on the design of precast units for shear in negative moment
zones. These recommendations should be used as a basis in retro-fit analyses and for the
design of new structures.

5.3.2.5 Flexural and shear actions transverse to span of hollow-core units
General
There are a number of structural situations where hollow-core floors may be subjected to
bending moments, which act at right angles to the span of the units, due to either gravity
loading or seismic actions. One simple case arises when concentrated loads act on a hollow-
core floor. The vertical displacement under the load induces bending transverse to the span of
the units. The change in transverse flexural compression force associated with the transverse
moments is balanced by a corresponding change in flexural tension force. Equilibrium
requires the webs to resist an out of plane shear force. These shear forces induce out of plane
moments in the webs in much the same way that a Vierendeel Truss acts to resist moment and
shear. Such actions may result in tensile cracking of the tension flange, which is of little
consequence, or cracking of the webs, which can be very significant in that this separates the
tension flange containing the main flexural tension reinforcement from its compression flange
(see 5.3.2.6 and Figure 5.25). Under normal live loading conditions for buildings, the
concentrated loads are of insufficient magnitude to cause this cracking. Where high
concentrated loads may act, for example in bridges, it is important that the webs contain shear
reinforcement to prevent this form of brittle failure.

Under seismic conditions, transverse bending can be induced in hollow-core floors supported
on a beam which deforms due to bending. If the hollow-core voids at the supports are filled,
to a distance of 75 mm or more, the filled cells act as a diaphragm and enables shear arising
from any change in transverse moment to be transmitted to the tension zone without any
Vierendeel type bending action in the webs. The fib Commission 6 [2000] contains a method
of assessing these actions.

2 April 2009
Figure 5.21: Shear stresses induced in hollow-core units

2 April 2009
Recommendations
In buildings subjected to normal live loading, the voids in hollow-core units should be filled
to a minimum distance of 75 mm from the end of the unit at support points. The filled portion
of the cells can act as a diaphragm to limit local out of plane bending of webs if the
supporting element deforms in flexure.

Where high concentrated loading may act on a hollow-core floor or deck slab, in a bridge, the
webs should be reinforced with stirrups to prevent possible brittle failure due to out of plane
bending moments and shears forces.

5.3.2.6 Failure due to incompatible displacements
General
There are a number of situations in an earthquake where appreciable differential displacement
may arise between a hollow-core unit and other structural elements. Figure 5.22 illustrates
two such cases. Part (a) of this figure shows a hollow-core unit adjacent to a beam. The
Concrete Structures Standard [2006] (Clause 18.6.7) requires that the beam and hollow-core
unit are linked by a thin slab, known as a linking slab. This slab has a minimum clear span
equal to or greater than the larger of 600 mm or six times the thickness of the linking slab.
This allows differential displacement to develop between the floor and beam without
endangering the hollow-core unit. Very few buildings existing in 2007 will have a flexible
linking slab to connect precast floor units to beams or other structural elements (beams or
walls). Consequently in planning retrofit of hollow-core floors it is essential to assess the
extent of damage and danger to life due to the differential displacement a hollow-core unit
and a beam, wall or other precast floor units. A structural test of a floor, carried out at the
University of Canterbury, showed that a beam was cast against the side of the first hollow-
core unit led to extensive cracking in the webs when the beam deformed in flexure. This web
cracking separated the tension flange from its compression flange, which contributed to the
premature collapse of the floor [Matthews 2004].

Part (b) of Figure 5.22 shows hollow-core units supported on adjacent pairs of walls. Seismic
actions cause the walls to deform inducing relative vertical displacement between adjacent
hollow-core units. A linking slab should be used in this situation to prevent damage from
being induced in the precast units. Restrepo et al [2000] tested such an arrangement using
200 mm hollow-core units with insitu concrete topping, but without a linking slab. They
found that extensive cracking occurred in the webs of the hollow-core units at relatively small
drifts. It should be noted that in this test it was predominantly the webs that failed and there
was little tension failure at the horizontal interface of the insitu concrete and hollow-core unit.

2 April 2009
Figure 5.22: Linking slabs to accommodate incompatible displacements

Failure mechanism and analytical model
Figure 5.23 illustrates the actions arising where differential displacement develops between a
beam and adjacent hollow-core unit. These actions are complex as longitudinal flexure,
shear, torsion and bending interact with flexural, shear and axial forces sustained within the
section due to section distortion. To assess these actions a simple model is required, such as
that shown in Figure 5.23(c). It should be noted that this model may only be used to assess
the likely range of actions which may lead to failure.

Figure 5.23(a) shows the structural arrangement of a beam cast against the side of a hollow-
core unit. Bending of the beam causes it to deflect relative to the floor. This causes the
portion of hollow-core immediately adjacent to the beam to move vertically with it, as
illustrated in Figure 5.23(b). The hollow-core units and insitu concrete topping partially
restrain the vertical movement of the beam and as a result bending moments and shear forces
are initiated in the concrete and reinforcement linking the beam to the hollow-core unit. A
flexural crack will form in the insitu concrete topping, either at the interface to the beam, or
above the first void in the hollow-core. For the purposes of analysis the crack may be
assumed to develop at the interface to the beam. The compression force acting at this section
is inclined, as shown in Figure 5.23(b), to resist the shear force. The magnitude of the
compression force is limited by the tension force that can be resisted by the reinforcement.
The line of action of the compression force is such that it passes just above the first void
without causing the concrete to crush.
2 April 2009
For the purpose of assessing the likely magnitudes of the structural actions within the section
the hollow-core unit it can be broken down into a number of equivalent elements, as shown in
Figure 5.23(c). The concrete above the voids and the reinforcement in the insitu concrete are
assumed to act as a beam, which is supported on a number of I beams. These I beams
represent the actions of the webs and the portions of top and bottom flange that acts with each
web. Applying a bending moment and shear force at the interface of the insitu concrete and
the beam induces the pattern of moments and shears illustrated in Figure 5.23(d) within the
section. In this analysis it is assumed the web is flexible compared to the beam representing
the concrete above the web. Any bending moment induced in a web would reduce strength of
the web. Consequently, the analysis may give a web splitting assessment on the un-
conservative side. The vertical prying forces these actions induce on the webs along a
hollow-core unit as shown in Figure 5.23(e). The vertical tension or compression force acting
on each web is resisted by a change in the shear force along each web. As shown in
Figure 5.23(f) vertical tension or compression is induced in the critical section of the web by
the component of the change in shear force sustained in the region below this section. Given
the overall shape of the section this results in close to 40 percent of the prying force acting on
one I beam inducing vertical tension or compression at the critical section of the web.

To assess the section, the maximum moment that can be sustained at the interface of hollow-
core unit and beam is found together with the corresponding value of the maximum moment
acting at the face of the second web (web B) in the of the hollow-core unit. The face of the
web is assumed to be located at a distance of half the minimum web thickness from the web
centreline. As the flexural stiffness of the web is considerably smaller than the stiffness of the
top slab the bending moments on both sides of the web may be assumed to be equal to each
other (this is an approximation). The bending moment is multiplied by a carry over factor,
which may be taken as 0.4, to find the bending moment at the face of the next web, and so on.
From these values the shear forces resisted by the slab can be found and this gives the
reactions, or prying forces, acting against the webs. Cracking of this web is assumed to occur
when the principal tensile stresses in the critical section of the web reaches the direct tensile
strength of the concrete. If the calculated critical tensile stress exceeds the direct tensile
strength the actions are scaled back to give a direct tensile strength equal to the desired value.
Having found the actions which cause the second crack to form one can now look at the
conditions in the next web. The corresponding structural actions are found following the
same process used in the first analysis except that the particular I beam representing the
cracked web is removed from the analytical model.

In analyses for longitudinal cracking in the webs, due to incompatible displacements between
a beam and a floor, it was found the shear force induced by the prying forces has a major
influence on the magnitude of the principal tensile stresses in a web; see Figure 5.3(e). The
value of this shear force depends on the length and distribution of prying forces along the
hollow-core unit. Unfortunately there has been no research, either experimental or analytical,
which indicates how the prying forces and resultant shears are distributed along a hollow-core
web member. This distribution depends on the relative flexural and torsional stiffness of the
beam and hollow-core units and on the level of inelastic deformation sustained by plastic
regions in the beam. Clearly the magnitude and distribution of differential displacement
between the floor and beam increases with the inelastic deformation sustained by the beam.
This is an area which requires research.

2 April 2009
Figure 5.23: Analytical model for assessing damage due to incompatible displacements in
web B

Unless subjected to more detailed analysis it is recommended that the critical shear force from
the prying forces is calculated assuming the local shear in a web is taken as the prying force
times the overall depth of the beam. This value could be un-conservative and this needs to be
born in mind when considering the results of such as assessment.

2 April 2009
As noted in section 5.3.5.3, it is important to adopt an appropriate value for the direct tensile
strength of concrete. In assessment for retrofit or design this value should be equal to or less
than the lower characteristic strength times a strength reduction factor (= 0.6). However, in
many cases, due to the possibility of a progressive failure a lower value should be used.
When comparing experimental observations with predicted performance the average tensile
strength of concrete should be used.

The difference in deflection between a beam and a web is a critical value in assessment for
web splitting. For webs located within 6 times the depth of concrete above the voids the
tension stress in the reinforcement is likely to be close to constant between the critical
sections as it is unlikely the high bond stresses implied by conventional flexural theory could
be resisted. With a constant, or near constant stress in the tension reinforcement, the
changing moment along the beam would be to a large extent be carried by the diagonal
trajectory of the compression force, as illustrated in Figure 5.23(b). Over most of the length
of the diagonal compression force, the compression stresses would be small and consequently
any shortening of this diagonal can be ignored. On this basis the deflection of web can be
calculated by geometry from the extension of the reinforcement between the web and the
beam and the angle of inclination of the diagonal compression force. When the distance
between the beam and web being considered exceeds six times the thickness of the concrete
above the voids, flexural theory is likely to be more appropriate for calculating load
deformation characteristics.

Example of assessment failure of webs
Figure 5.24(a) shows reinforced concrete beam cast against the side of a 300 deep hollow-
core unit (Stress-core) with a 75 mm thick insitu concrete topping. The compression
strength of the insitu concrete is assumed to be 30 MPa. The topping is reinforced with
12 mm Grade 430 starter bars at 300 mm centres and with 665 mesh, which stops just short of
the face of the beam. The 12 mm bars extend 750 mm over the hollow-core unit. The
concrete in the hollow-core unit is assumed to have a compressive strength of 50 MPa. The
following analysis is made as for a comparison with test observations and consequently the
tensile strength of the concrete is taken as the average value as given in Table 5.4. As noted
in the previous section a much lower value of tensile strength should be used for a design or
retrofit assessment. For the purposes of this assessment the maximum stress levels in the
12 mm bars and 665 mesh are taken as 515 and 610 MPa respectively. These values are in
line with the values which could be anticipated from the Matthews diaphragm test [2004].

The concrete in the beam is cast against web A and hence this web cannot fail. Step one of
the assessment is to see if a longitudinal crack will form in web B. This might occur if the
maximum bending moment that can be sustained develops in the insitu concrete topping at
both the face of the beam A, and at the face of the web B. The beam rising relative to the
floor, as shown in Figure 5.24(a), might induce such bending moments. The line of action of
the compression force passes a few millimetres above the first void, as shown in Figure
5.24(b). At section B-B, the centre of the compression force is about 6 mm below the top
surface of the concrete. Both the critical positions of the compression force are assessed on
the basis of the standard rectangular stress block used for ultimate strength design. This
defines the line of action of the compression force as indicated in Figure 5.24(b). The
maximum bending moments at sections 1-1 and 2-2 are 20 and 9 kNm/m run, respectively.
As these sections are 279 mm apart a shear force of 104 kN/m can be sustained. A bending
2 April 2009
moment of close to 9 kNm/m is induced on the right hand side of web B and a moment of
close to 3.6 kNm/m is carried over to web C. The carry over factor for this case is of the
order of 0.4. Given the approximations there is no point in trying to refine the values further.
From these moments and a distance of 254 mm between the faces of webs B and C the shear
is approximately 50 kN/m. These values are shown in Figure 5.24(c). The resultant axial
force (tension in this case) acting on the I beam representing web B is 154 kN/m. Of this
value approximately 40 percent is sustained by a vertical tension force in the web at its
thinnest section close to mid height of the voids. This gives a tensile stress of the order of
1.62 MPa (see Figure 5.23(f)). The shear force acting in the web due to the prying force of
154 kN/m is taken as the beam depth (0.8 m) times the prying force, which is equal to
123 kN. From Equation 3, the shear stress, v, is of the order of 13 MPa. To this should be
added the shear stress due to gravity loads, which will be in the range of 0.5 to 1 MPa, but
acting in the opposite direction to the shear due to prying loads (1 MPa assumed in this case).

To find the principal tensile stress the longitudinal, vertical stresses and shear stress are
required. In this assessment the longitudinal stress, due primarily to prestress, is taken as
7 MPa. In practice it may vary appreciable due to prestress in the member, loading on the
floor, elongation of the beam and creep and shrinkage characteristics of the beam, topping
concrete and hollow-core unit etc. Using the standard equations for principal stresses, f
p
, are
given by:
2
2
2 2
v
f f f f
f
v l v l
p
+
+
= Equation 7

Where f
l
and f
v
are the longitudinal and vertical stresses and v is the shear stress. In the case
being considered, the principal tensile stress in the concrete at the critical section of the web
is found to be 10 MPa in tension and 15.4 MPa in compression. Hence, as the average tensile
strength of the concrete is 4.1 MPa, it is very likely that this web will split. Multiplying the
stresses induced by the prying forces by 0.58 brings the principal tensile stress back to
4.1 MPa and the corresponding average stress in the reinforcement is of the order of
278 MPa. This stress in the longitudinal reinforcement can now be used to assess the relative
deflection between the face of the beam and web B.

2 April 2009
Figure 5.24: Example of analysis for web cracking associated with incompatible displacement

2 April 2009
The extension of the reinforcement between the side of the beam and web B must include the
extension arising from development of the bars in the beam. The development lengths given
by the Standard, NZS3101 [2006] are design values and hence conservative. A more realistic
value (and a conservative value for this case) is given by using 2/3 of the design length. For a
stress level of 278 MPa, this length is 265 mm. The extension of the 12 mm bars and 665
mesh between the end of their development point in the beam and the web B is found by
multiplying the strain corresponding to the average stress by the distance between section A-
A and B-B plus half the development length. As indicated in Figure 5.24(d), this value is
0.6 mm and from this the relative vertical displacement can be assessed as 1.34 mm, see
Figure 5.24(d). However, given all the approximations involved in this assessment the likely
range is of the order of two-thirds to twice this value, that is 0.9 to 2.7 mm.

The process can be repeated for web C, ignoring web B as it has been separated from the
remainder of the hollow-core, and then for web D ignoring webs B and C. The result of these
calculations are summarised in Table 5.2 for the cases where the beam deflects both up and
down relative to the floor. Again it must be noted that this is an assessment only. The
magnitude of the principal tension is strongly dependant on the distribution of prying forces
along the hollow-core unit. As noted previously in this assessment the critical shear in a web
has been taken as the prying force times the depth of the beam. However, more work is
required to obtain a better method of establishing the critical shear force.

Table 5.2: Assessment summary of example of web cracking due to incompatible deflections
between floor and beam
Web fails at differential deflection between web and beam Beam
movement
A B C D
Comments
Moves up 1 to 3 mm 5 to 18 mm N F*
8 to 25 mm
N F
N F
Failure occurs only if

12 mm bars extended
Moves down 0.5 to 2 mm 2.5 to 8 mm N F
7 to 24 mm
N F
Failure occurs only if

12 mm bars extended
* N F assessment indicates failure does not occur.

Conclusions
1. A method of assessing web cracking due to incompatible displacements between a
beam, or other structural element and a floor is given. It should be noted that this
method is tentative, which should indicate the range of differential displacements that is
likely to cause web splitting. More research is required to establish the distribution of
prying forces and the local shear forces in a web along a hollow-core unit.
2. Where a beam is cast against the side of a hollow-core unit the vertical movement of the
beam in the elastic range can be expected to split any webs located within a distance of
450 mm of the side of the beam.
3. In assessing the significance of web cracking on seismic performance it is necessary to
assess if this cracking can lead to collapse of the hollow-core unit below the web
cracks, or if the top slab has sufficient strength to prevent collapse under seismic and
gravity loading.
2 April 2009
4. The form of web cracking predicted by the method of assessment was seen in the
Matthews frame floor test [2004]. The pictures in Figure 5.25 show web splitting
observed during a test where the beam was cast against the side of a hollow-core unit
and the top portion of a hollow-core unit after the remainder has collapsed.

Figure 5.25: Web splitting during test
(a)

(b)

(c)

Source: Matthews 2004.

2 April 2009
5.3.2.7 Torsional failure of hollow-core units
General
There are a number of situations where torsional actions may be applied to hollow-core units
due to either differential rotation of supports or differential displacements between a hollow-
core unit and an adjacent structural member.

There have been few tests of torsional flexibility of hollow-core sections, either with or
without topping concrete. Theoretical estimates can be made of the torsional cracking
moment. However, this depends on the longitudinal compression stress acting at the critical
point in a critical section, which may be located anywhere along the member or around the
perimeter. The longitudinal stress depends on the prestress and on the bending moment,
which varies continuously during an earthquake. Consequently for practical purposes the
conditions leading to torsional cracking can only be assessed to be in a likely range of
structural actions. It should be noted that hollow-core units have no torsional reinforcement
and consequently when torsional cracking occurs, torsional resistance decreases.

In rectangular, Tee and L beams without torsional reinforcement this cracking could be
expected to result in collapse. However, in a hollow-core section, due to the inherent
redundancy in the section, a limited level of cracking in torsion would probably not result in
collapse, but result in a redistribution of actions. There is limited experimental evidence to
support this [Broo et al 2005, 2007]. In two tests, members sustained deflections of between
two and four times the displacement corresponding to torsional cracking before complete failure
occurred. Torsional behaviour of hollow-core sections is complex and it needs further study.

In analyses for torsion, it is assumed that a torsional shear flow can develop round a section as
illustrated in Figure 5.26(a). When a beam supporting hollow-core units is subjected to
negative bending, longitudinal cracks may be expected to form in the hollow-core below the
voids, as illustrated in Figure 5.26(b). Such cracking reduces the torsional stiffness, though a
shear flow may still be sustained by shear transfer across the cracks by aggregate interlock
action. In extreme cases, where wide cracks form, the unit could effectively be divided into a
series of I beams linked through the insitu concrete topping.

Stiffness and strength assessments
The torsional strength and stiffness prior to cracking is based on thin tube theory [Collins and
Mitchell 1987; SANZ 2006]. The thickness of the tube is taken as the smaller of the wall
thickness or 0.75 times to area contained within the perimeter of the section, A
c
, divided by
the perimeter, p
c
, which is given by
c c
p A 75 . 0 [SANZ 2006].

For hollow-core sections, the thickness of the walls varies along the sides. Typically the
thinnest portion in the soffit slab and exterior webs is of the order of 30 mm. However, the
average, or effective thickness for stiffness calculations would be higher than this. For the
purpose of assessing torsional performance the critical thickness of the soffit slab and the
external webs has been taken as 30 mm for strength calculations and 40 mm for stiffness
calculations. For the top of the hollow-core and insitu concrete, the effective tube thickness is
given by 0.75 A
c
/p
c
. For the 300 hollow-core with 75 mm topping concrete the effective
thickness is close to 100
o
mm while for the corresponding 200 hollow-core it is close to 80 mm.
2 April 2009
Figure 5.26: Torsion in hollow-core members

2 April 2009
The torsional shear stress causing cracking, v
t
, is based on the value sustained when the
principal tensile stress in the concrete, f
dt
, is equal to the tensile strength of the concrete. On
this basis the limiting shear stress is given by:
dt
lc
dt t
f
f
f v + = 1
Equation 8
where f
lc
is the longitudinal stress compression in the concrete at the point in the section being
considered. As noted in section 5.2.5.3, the direct tensile strength varies considerable. The
CEB-FIP Model code [1990] gives an average value of tensile strength of
3 / 2
'
10 4 . 1
c
f with
the lower characteristic value being 0.68 times this value and the upper characteristic strength
being 1.32 times this value.

The effective torsional thin wall section for hollow-core with 75 mm topping concrete is
shown in Figure 5.26(c). The concrete strength for the hollow-core has been taken as 50 MPa
and for the insitu concrete as 30 MPa. The longitudinal stress at the critical position in the
critical section has assumed to be in the range of 0.0 to 7.0 MPa with the torsional strengths
and twists being worked out for critical longitudinal stress levels of 0.0, 3.5, and 7.0 MPa.
The design strengths are based on lower characteristic strengths, which are taken as 0.68
times the average strength, and the values are further multiplied by a strength reduction factor
of 0.6.

Table 5.4 gives the results of calculations, based on thin tube theory (ignoring section
distortion), for the average and design strengths of 300 and 200 hollow-core members with
75 mm of insitu-concrete topping. The values are indicative only as effective longitudinal
compression stresses at the critical positions in the critical section have been assumed to be
those listed in the table. Any interaction with shear has been neglected. The table lists the
theoretical twist sustained at the onset of torsional cracking. This was based on the
assumption that the tensile strength of the concrete is the average value. For comparison, the
design strength is also listed.

Table 5.4: Strength and torsional deformation of 300 and 200 hollow-core units with 75 mm
topping concrete
Item 300 hollow-core 200 hollow-core
Longitudinal compression, f
lc

(MPa)
0.0 3.5 7.0 0.0 3.5 7.0
Torsional shear stress at
cracking, v
t
, (MPa)
4.1 5.58 6.75 4.1 5.4 6.75
Average torsional cracking
moment, (kNm)
86 117 142 61 83 100
Design torsional strength,
(kNm)
35 48 58 25 34 41
Twist/m at torsional cracking
based on average tensile
strength (radians)
0.84 x 10
-3
1.14 x 10
-3
1.38 x 10
-3
2.3 x 10
-3
3.7 x 10
-3
4.7 x 10
-3

2 April 2009
Conclusions
There is a need for research to establish the maximum torsional rotation that can be sustained
by hollow-core floor slabs without either serious loss in flexural and shear strength or
collapse occurring. From the limited test results sighted in the literature and from the
analyses described above, it is suggested that the safe twist per m length of hollow-core floor
with insitu concrete topping should be less than 0.001

radians per metre for 300 hollow-core
and 0.002 radians per metre for 200 mm hollow-core units. With a 300 hollow-core floor
with 75 mm topping spanning 12 m this would give a limiting twist of 0.012 radians or a
differential deflection across the precast unit width of 1,200 mm of 15 mm in the design
ultimate load condition.

Consider the following mechanisms that could affect diaphragm capability:
Overstressing of the floor system when subjected to displacements from the main
structural elements to which the floor is connected (beams, columns, walls, steel
bracing).
Loss of compressive stress load paths due to localised damage resulting from significant
cracks forming in the diaphragms.
Failure of the linking slab (5.3.2.6) between the main beam and adjacent hollow-core
unit due to differential elongation, vertical displacements and shear transfer.

5.3.3.1 Diaphragm action
The floor units and topping are part of the overall structural system and as such they are relied
upon to maintain the integrity of the building structure. In particular, the floor must continue
to act as a diaphragm and to provide adequate restraint to the columns at all floor levels.

Importantly, it is generally recognised that there is a higher degree of integrity in an in-situ
concrete floor than in a precast concrete floor, with the significant discontinuities of structure
in these floors.

Earthquake movements can reduce the diaphragm and column tie-back performance and need
to be accounted for in design and assessment of performance.

5.3.3.2 Potential loss of lateral load paths through the floor diaphragms
Gap between the floor and supports
Gaps up to 40 mm can be formed by the elongation mechanism between the end of the floor
and the face of the support, as described in the section 5.3.5.4.

Compression load paths are lost. Therefore, the traditional method of using columns as the
nodes of the Strut & Tie model for transferring forces through and out of the floor
diaphragms and in to the vertical lateral force resisting structures (as described in
NZS 3101:2006) cannot apply.
2 April 2009
The region of floor around columns in conventional reinforced concrete frames may be
severely damaged due to plastic hinge formation in the adjacent beams. This further
aggravates the loss of compression load path to the columns. Referring to section 5.3.5.4 and
Figure 5.27 the main areas of concern are the corner columns. If the intermediate columns
have either secondary beams framing in to the sides of the columns or reinforced tie zones
restraining the column in to the floor, then it may be assumed that there is some ability for the
compression stress fields to arrive at those columns.

The ability to transfer compression forces to or near columns is a matter of judgement and
assessment of this need to consider the degree of damage around the columns and the sizes of
gaps or cracks in the vicinity of the columns, including the effect on plastic hinge zones
adjacent to the columns when the secondary frames undergo plastic actions due to bi-
directional loading.

Where the gaps are sufficiently large (15 mm or so see section 5.3.1.5) the starter/continuity
bars in the topping can rupture and the tension capacity of that section of floor is negated. In
some cases where delamination occurs, there is a low probability of rupture of the starter bars.
This is due to the strain in the bars being accommodated over 300 mm to 1200 mm of
delaminated topping, rather than being concentrated at one large crack (regions of
delamination are discussed in section 5.3.5.2).

Figure 5.27: Loss and maintenance of columns as nodes

Source: Bull 2005.

5.3.4.1 Insufficient tie-backs to columns to achieve stability
There is the risk of columns (concrete and steel) disconnecting from the floor plates because
of the severe localised damage that can occur at columns with adjacent beams undergoing
plastic rotations. Should this disconnection occur, the effected column can buckle between
the floors to which the column remains connected. The potential for buckling of the columns
gets worse when the disconnection occurs over an increasing number of floors.
2 April 2009

Section 5.3.5.4 describes how beam elongation can damage the floor-to-column connect.
Figure 5.27 shows a recommendation for new buildings where the columns are tied in to the
diaphragms. Restraint of columns is assumed when either or both secondary beams are
framing in to the sides of the columns or reinforced tie zones restraining the column in to the
floor.

For the restraint of each column to be effective, the strength of the restraint needs to be:
for a concrete column, 5% of the maximum axial load at that floor level [SANZ 2006]
for a steel column, 2.5% of the maximum axial load at that floor level [SANZ 1997].

For buildings with cold drawn wire mesh as diaphragm reinforcement, which is lapped to
conventional mild steel, Matthews [2004] found that the typically brittle mesh fractured at the
junction of the first and second hollow-core units. Up until this investigation, it was
commonly held that the distributed starter bars out of the beam, lapped with the diaphragm
mesh, either side of the column of interest, was sufficient to restrain the column. Probably,
this is not a reliable detail for restraint of columns.

5.3.5 General demand considerations
5.3.5.1 Cut-outs and penetrations
The hollow-core unit may be cut to allow access for services or to avoid a clash of the unit
and other structural elements such as a column, see Figure 5.28.

These are actions and may not be carried out without the knowledge of precaster, structural
engineer or main contractor. Often holes are cut after the building is occupied (changes of
use).

Simplistically, it can be assumed that for every web or group of strands cut that the flexural
capacity of the floor is reduced in portion to the number of strands cut. The shear capacity of
the modified section should be determined according to section 5.3.1.8, where loss of support
of a web(s) is considered.

When significant modification of a unit occurs, redistribution of gravity loads to other
members or floor units is required advice from the precast manufacturer should be sought.

2 April 2009
Figure 5.28: Examples of cut-outs in hollow-core units

Source: Firth Industries.

5.3.5.2 Delamination of the insitu concrete topping
In the three full-scale experimental programmes [Matthews 2004, MacPherson 2005, Lindsay
2004], it was observed that the topping concrete gradually delaminated from the top of the
hollow-core units see Figure 5.29. There appears to be insufficient bond between the cast-
in-place topping and the precast units to transfer the forces generated by the actions of the
neighbouring beams and starter bars undergoing significant tension strains. The debonding of
the topping is localised and restricted to the ends of most units.

Current New Zealand construction practice does not normally use aids to bind the topping to
the units not practical and too costly.

Loss of bond in these localised areas should not detrimentally affect the gravity carrying
capacity of the floor system. As can be seen in Figure 5.29, the majority of the composite
action is still intact, even after large imposed drifts during the testing.

If the vertical cracks through the delaminated topping are sufficiently small (less than 1 mm
in width) then compression stresses can be assumed to be maintained. Tension fields
(reinforcing bars) will function through delaminated topping, up to the capacity of the bars or
that of the anchorage of the bars in that vicinity.
2 April 2009
Figure 5.29: Mapping of the delamination of the topping from the hollow-core unit during the
experimental programme
(a) Delamination map after completion of the +2.0%
and -2.5% drift cycles [Matthews 2004]
South
North
Tear
(b) Delamination map after completion of the +2.0%
and -2.0% drift cycles [MacPherson, 2005]
Unit 4
Unit 3
Unit 2
Unit 1
Timber
infill

5.3.5.3 Tensile strength of concrete
In assessing the appropriate value for the tensile strength of concrete to use in a design or
retrofit assessment of a hollow-core floor it is essential that the difference between the direct
tensile strength and flexural tensile strength (also known as modulus of rupture) is recognised.
The flexural tensile strength of concrete is found from standard shaped specimens, which
have a width of 100 mm and a depth of 100 mm. The direct tensile is seldom measured as it
is difficult to apply a direct uniform stress to a test specimen. The splitting tensile strength
(Brazilian test) is found by applying compression across the diameter of standard cylinders
(100 or 150 mm in diameter). Both the flexural tensile strength and the splitting strength are
calculated from test measurements on the assumption that the stress strain behaviour of
concrete in tension is linear up to the point where failure occurs. However, this assumption is
not correct, as some non-linearity occurs prior to cracking and even when cracks have formed
some tensile resistance remains as some hydrated cement crystals can span crack widths of
the order of 0.2 mm [CEB-FIP 1990, Gopalaratham and Shah 1985]. The direct tensile
strength is of the order of 60 percent of the modulus of rupture found from measurements
made on standard shaped specimens and 90 percent of the splitting strength (Brazilian test).
The flexural strength varies with the size of the member. With a 2 m deep member, the
flexural tensile strength approaches the direct tensile strength, while the corresponding value
for a 100 mm rectangular section is approximately 1.6 times the direct tensile strength. Many
factors influence the tensile strength of concrete. However, most codes of practice only
recognise the influence of the cylinder strength. Other factors include the aggregate grading
and aggregate type, admixtures, the direction of tensile stress relative to direction of casting
and the length of members or region of member subjected to tension.

Tensile stresses can be induced in members due to self strain actions, such as differential
temperature conditions or differential shrinkage and creep of concrete. Where the strength of
a member depends on the tensile strength it is essential to make allowance for possible
adverse effects due to self strain actions.

2 April 2009
Typical values of direct tensile strength, f
dt
, are given below. These values are based on the
recommendations contained in the CEB-FIP Model Code [1990] and some are contained in
the commentary to NZS 3101 [2006]. To obtain the flexural tensile strength (modulus of
rupture) some allowance should be made for non-linear behaviour of the concrete in tension.
To allow for this effect the flexural tensile strength may be taken as the product of the direct
tensile strength and a factor which varies with depth and shape of section.

When the extreme tension fibre is in the insitu concrete topping on a hollow-core unit the
shape of the flexural tension zone is similar to that of a rectangular beam. Consequently the
factor relating the modulus of rupture to the direct tensile strength can be taken from the
literature [CEB-FIP 1990]. For this case with a 300 mm hollow-core member with 75 mm of
topping concrete, the flexural tensile stresses at failure can be taken as 1.27 times the
corresponding value of direct tensile strength. When the flexural tension is on the bottom
surface, the concrete below the voids resists a high proportion of the flexural tension force.
For this situation, very limited stress redistribution can occur when the concrete enters the
non-linear range and consequently the modulus of rupture is close to the direct tensile
strength. It is suggested for this situation the flexural tensile strength is take as 1.05 times the
corresponding direct tensile strength.

Table 5.5: Limiting direct tensile stresses, f
dt

Tensile strength for bending average, upper and lower characteristic values (MPa) Cylinder strength
(MPa)
Average Upper Lower
30 2.9 3.84 1.98
50 4.1 5.40 2.78

In selecting the appropriate value of tensile strength to be used in an assessment it is
important to consider the following points:
In some situations the failure of a unit can lead to collapse. The weight of this falling
material is likely to lead to a progressive collapse of all the floors below this unit.
Several of the assessment approaches given in this report are based on limited
experimental and analytical research. Several of them can only be used to indicate the
likely order of critical conditions for the loading situation being considered.
In practice critical tensile stresses would be induced by a combination of actions rather
than the single situation being addressed. For example in 5.3.2.6, a method of assessing
splitting of webs due to incompatible displacements between a beam and a floor is
given. However, in this case additional stresses may be induced at the critical sections
due to: differential temperature, differential shrinkage and creep of concrete, stresses
induced due to elongation of the beam, torsion in the hollow-core unit and local bending
and shear due to point loads acting on the floor.
Site inspection shows that many hollow-core units contain significant cracking before
they are built into a structure and consequently their tensile strength at some critical
sections may be in doubt.

2 April 2009
To be consistent with the Loadings Standard, AS/NZS 1170 [2002-2004] and the Concrete
Structures Standard, NZS 3101 [2006], the design tensile strength should be based on the
lower characteristic strength and it should be used with a strength reduction factor of 0.6.

5.3.5.4 Beam elongation in earthquakes
Elastic and plastic rotations in beams parallel to the span of the floor units will cause
elongation of the beams. This in turn pushes the element providing support to the floor away
from the floor. The element can be a beam, edge of a column or face of a wall.

Simulated seismic loading on three full-scale, three-dimensional reinforced concrete frames
[Matthews 2004, MacPherson 2005, Lindsay 2004] have shown that the supporting beams are
translated as near-rigid bodies away from the floor see Figure 5.30(b). The movement of
the support from the floor can be over the entire length of the support. This is a function of
the structural layout of that part of the structure and where elongation occurs. The mode
described in Figure 5.30(a) was not observed in the three programmes.

Figure 5.30: Possible deformation modes caused by beam elongation
(a) Mode 1-Beam plastic hinge rotates to allow for
beam elongation
B
e
a
m

e
l
o
n
g
a
t
i
o
n
Beam elongation
L
o
s
s

o
f

s
u
p
p
o
r
t

p
o
s
s
i
b
l
e

o
v
e
r

t
h
i
s

r
e
g
i
o
n
Mode 1

(b) Mode 2-Entire beam rotates to allow for beam
elongation
Beam elongation
B
e
a
m
e
l
o
n
g
a
t
i
o
n
L
o
s
s

o
f

s
u
p
p
o
r
t

p
o
s
s
i
b
l
e

o
v
e
r

t
h
i
s

r
e
g
i
o
n
Mode 2

Source: Matthews 2004, MacPherson 2005, Lindsay 2004.

Recommendations for estimating the amount of elongation in beams, as a function of inter-
storey drift and plastic hinge locations with respect to the structural configuration, are
presented in the following section.

Background
Reinforced concrete beams, slabs, wall and columns with light axial load ratios (N*/A
g
f
c
)
increase in length, or elongate, when flexural cracks form. This occurs as the magnitude of
the strain in the flexural tension reinforcement is greater than the corresponding strain in the
extreme fibre of the compression zone and this causes the fibre at mid-depth to increase in
length. The magnitude of this elongation increases very significantly when plastic hinges
form.

2 April 2009
The mechanisms causing elongation are described in references [Fenwick and Megget 1993,
1988]. Two forms of plastic hinge can be induced in concrete structures, namely
unidirectional and reversing plastic hinges. The former occurs in gravity dominated beams,
where two positive moment plastic hinges form in the span of the beam and two negative
moment plastic hinges form against the column faces. With reversing plastic hinges both
negative and positive inelastic rotations are sustained in the same location and there are only
two plastic hinges. For this case, the magnitude of inelastic rotation can be assessed from the
inter-storey drift [Fenwick et al 1999]. However, with unidirectional plastic hinges there is
no simple relationship. For this situation maximum curvatures can be assessed from
references [Fenwick et al 1999, SANZ 2004]. If the inelastic rotation imposed on
unidirectional plastic hinges in a beam is known the elongation can be accurately predicted by
standard flexural theory [Fenwick and Megget 1988, Fenwick and Davidson 1993].

For reversing plastic hinges elongation occurs as a result of both positive and negative
inelastic rotations acing together with their associated shear forces. The elongation that is
sustained at any stage depends on the loading history. In particular, the maximum elongation
that occurs is smaller in earthquake records in which the maximum displacement occurs early
in the record than is the where the maximum displacement is sustained towards the end of the
record.

Several different method of assessing elongation in plastic hinges have been proposed
[Matthews 2004, Lee and Watanabe 2003, Restrepo-Posada 1993]. However, all contain
empirical coefficients which limit their use. None are suitable for inclusion in an analysis
package. An analytical model, which shows promise [Peng et al 2007], is being developed
for use with a computer analysis package. However, it is not currently (early 2009) available
for use. It is hoped that this model can be run in the near future to obtain statistical data
relating elongation to rotation demand and design ductility levels. Until such information is
available, recourse is made to the results of tests on cantilever beams and structural frame
assemblages.

Experimental measurements of elongation
Figure 5.31 shows plots of elongation versus inter-storey drift for a number of different
structural situations. This figure only gives results for reversing plastic hinges. The results
shown in this figure have been obtained from tests in which gradually increasing cycles of near
equal magnitudes of positive and negative displacement have been applied to the beam or
structural sub-assembly. This form of displacement history tends to maximise the elongation
that is induced, hence elongation values based on these values will, in general, be conservative.
However, it should also be recalled that the design drifts and inter-storey displacements
specified in the Loadings Standard, NZS 1170.5 [SANZ 2004], are not peak values that may be
expected in a design level earthquake, but a value expected to be sustained several times during
the earthquake. The S
p
factor, in effect, reduces the design values to S
p
times the value
predicted by the widely accepted equal displacement concept. The value of S
p
, or its equivalent
in earlier codes of practice, is equal to 0.7 for the 2004 Earthquake Loadings Standard, 2/3 for
the 1992 Earthquake Loadings Standard and 0.55 for the 1976 and 1984 Earthquake Loadings
codes. In assessment for retrofit, it is important to consider the peak displacement or drift. On
this basis it considered realistic to use the conservative peak elongation values based on
experimental results noting that this conservatism is balanced by a lack of conservatism in peak
drift values calculated from the Earthquake Loadings Standard [SANZ 2004].
2 April 2009
Figure 5.31: Elongation versus drift for different types of plastic hinge
(a) Elongation measurements in beams
Cantilever beam
tests
0.0
1.0
2.0
3.0
4.0
5.0
0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0
Drift %
E
l
o
n
g
a
t
i
o
n

/

b
e
a
m

d
e
p
t
h

%

(b) Elongation measurements in type E plastic hinges
Extenal plastic
hinges
0.0
1.0
2.0
3.0
4.0
0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0
Drift %
E
l
o
n
g
a
t
i
o
n

/

b
e
a
m

d
e
p
t
h

%
(c) Elongation measurements in type U plastic hinges
Transverse
beams
0.0
1.0
2.0
3.0
4.0
0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0
Drift %
E
l
o
n
g
a
t
i
o
n

/

b
e
a
m

d
e
p
t
h

%
(d) Elongation measurements in type C-1 plastic
hinges
Internal plastic
hinges
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0
Drift %
D
r
i
f
t

/

b
e
a
m

d
e
p
t
h

%

Recommendations for assessing elongation demand in plastic hinges
Figure 5.32 shows potential plastic hinges, labelled as U, E, C1 or C2 on a floor plan. The
label varies with the extent that prestressed floor units can restrain elongation in plastic
hinges. Tests on Tee beams have shown that normal reinforcement in a slab does not
significantly influence elongation [Fenwick et al 1981, 1995]. However, prestressed
reinforcement in precast floor units spanning parallel to beams does provide restraint to
elongation.

The potential plastic hinges marked U are located in beams which support precast floor units.
As the prestress is at right angles to these members essentially no restraint is provided to
elongation in these plastic hinges.

The potential plastic hinges marked E are located against external columns in beams, which
are parallel to the precast units. As the plastic hinge is located close to the support point of
the precast units, the prestress in the floor unit provides only limited restraint to elongation.

2 April 2009
Potential plastic hinges marked as C-1 are located in beams against columns where the
precast prestressed floor units span directly past the column. In this situation the prestressed
units provide very significant restraint to elongation and associated with this is a very
substantial increase in flexural strength, which if neglected in design may lead to the
formation of a column sway mechanism in a major earthquake rather than the intended ductile
beam mechanism [Fenwick et al 2005, 2006; Lau 2007]. The Concrete Structures Standard
[2006] contains a method of assessing the over-strength of the plastic hinges in this situation.

Figure 5.32: Different designations of potential reversing plastic hinges

The potential plastic hinge zones marked as C-2 are located against a column where there is a
transverse beam or beams framing into a column. A key feature with these is that there are
precast floor units supported by the transverse beam or beams on both sides of the beam.
Elongation of the C-2 type plastic hinges causes wide cracks to develop between the
supporting (transverse) beam and the end of the precast floor units. The prestress units tie the
bay in which they are located together so that the floor in the bay acts as a deep beam. The
bending strength arising from the deep beam action confines elongation in the C-2 plastic
hinges, greatly increasing their strength [Fenwick et al 2005, Lau 2007, Lau and Fenwick
2001]. There is a lack of direct experimental measurement of elongation in plastic hinges for
this situation, but given the observed level of confinement and resultant strength
enhancement, it is likely the elongation values would be similar to those for the C-1 plastic
hinges.

2 April 2009
Figure 5.31(a) shows elongation measurements made on cantilever beams [Fenwick et al
1981, Fenwick and Fong 1979]. The elongation is plotted against the deflection of the beams
at the load point divided by the distance between springing and load point. In these tests there
was no restraint to elongation. The tests included beams with different reinforcement
proportions on the top than on the bottom and in addition the results from a Tee beam have
been included in the test data. It can be seen that elongation was generally less than the ratio
of deflection to span times the beam depth with an upper limit of 0.04 times the beam depth.

Figure 5.31(c) shows the elongation recorded in plastic hinges in the transverse beams in the
frame diaphragm tests carried out at Canterbury [Matthews 2004, MacPherson 2005, Lindsay
2004]. It can be seen that the drift elongation values are very similar to those obtained in the
cantilever beam tests. For these plastic hinges the assessed elongation,
l
, for retrofit
purposes may be taken from Equation 9:
h h R
l
04 . 0 = Equation 9
where R is the ratio of inter-storey drift to storey height and h is the overall depth of the
beam.

Figure 5.31(b) shows of elongation measurements made in the same series of tests for the type
E plastic hinges. It can be seen the elongation versus drift ratio values are very similar to the
type U beams. Consequently the assessed elongation in potential plastic hinges can be taken
from Equation 9.

The corresponding elongation measurements from these tests for the type C-1 plastic hinges
are shown in Figure 5.31(d). For the sub-assembly frame floor tests carried out by Matthews
[2004] and Lindsay [2004] the elongation was less than half the values given by Equation 9.
It is believed the Matthews test is likely to be more representative of existing structures than
that tested by MacPherson [2005]. Consequently for this location of potential plastic hinge it
is recommended the assessed elongation demand,
l,
be taken as:
h h R
l
02 . 0 5 . 0 = Equation 10

There is little information on potential plastic hinges marked C-2 in Figure 5.32. In view of
the lack of experimental measurements it is recommended that elongation demand be
assumed to be midway between that given by equations 9 and 10, hence
l
is given by:
h h R
l
03 . 0 75 . 0 = Equation 11

5.4 References
AS/SANZ, 2002 to 2004. Structural Design Actions: AS/NZS 1170 Parts 0, 1, 2 and 3.
Broo H, Lundgren K, Engstm B, 2005. Shear and Torsion Interaction in Prestressed
Hollow-core Units. Magazine of Concrete Research 57(9): November, pp 521533.
Broo H, Lundgren K, Engstm B, 2007. Shear and Torsion in Hollow-core Units: Finite
element analyses of full scale tests. Structural Concrete 8(2): 87100.
Bull D, Matthews J, 2003. Proof of Concept Tests for Hollow-core Floor Unit Connections.
Commercial Report, C2003-1, Civil Engineering, University of Canterbury, New Zealand.
2 April 2009
Bull DK, 2005. Suspended Floors and Diaphragm Action. In Proceedings, Precast Concrete
Design Seminar, Cement & Concrete Association of NZ and Precast NZ, Wellington, May.
Collins MP, Kuchma D, 1999. How Safe Are Our Lightly Reinforced Concrete Beams, Slabs
and Footing? ACI Structural Journal 96(4): JulyAugust, pp 482490.
Collins MP, Mitchell D, 1987. Prestressed Concrete Basics. Canadian Prestressed Concrete
Institute, Ottawa, Canada.
Comite Euro-international du Beton and Federation Internationale de la Preconstrainte, 1993.
CEB FIP Model Code 1990/ Design Code, 1990. T Telford, London, pp 437.
Fenwick R, Bull D, MacPherson C, Lindsay R, 2006. The Influence of Diaphragms on
Strength of Beams. NZSEE Conference, Napier, March, Paper No. 21.
Fenwick R, Deam B, Bull D, 2004. Failure Modes for Hollow-core Flooring Units. SESOC
Journal 17(1): April, pp 5270.
Fenwick RC, Davidson BJ, 1993. Elongation in Ductile Seismic Resistance Reinforced
Concrete Frames. Paulay Symposium, ACI Special publication SP-157, pp 141168.
Fenwick RC, Davidson BJ, Lau DBN, 2005. Interaction Between Ductile RC Perimeter
Frames and Floor Slabs Containing Precast Units. NZSEE Conference, Wairekei, March,
Paper No. 23.
Fenwick RC, Davidson BJ, McBride A, 1995. The Influence of Slabs on Elongation in
Ductile Seismic Resistant Frames. Proceedings NZNSEE Technical Conference on
Earthquake Engineering, April, pp 3643.
Fenwick RC, Dely R, Davidson BJ, 1999. Ductility Demand for Uni-directional and
Reversing Plastic Hinges in Ductile Moment Resisting Frames. Bulletin of NZ National
Society for Earthquake Engineering 32(1): March, pp 112.
Fenwick RC, Fong A, 1979. Behaviour of Reinforced Concrete Beams under Cyclic Loading.
University of Auckland, Department of Civil Engineering, Research Report No. 176,
December, p 49.
Fenwick RC, Megget LM, 1993. Elongation and Load Deflection Characteristics of
Reinforced Concrete Members Containing Plastic Hinges. Bulletin NZ National Society for
Earthquake Engineering 26(1): March, pp 2841.
Fenwick RC, Tankat AT, Thom CW, 1981. The Deformation of Reinforced Concrete Beams
Subjected to Inelastic Cyclic Loading Experimental Results. University of Auckland, School of
Engineering Report No. 268, October, p 72.
FIB Commission 6, 2000. Special Design Considerations for Precast Prestressed Hollow-
core Floors. Published Federationn internationale du beton, Lausanne, Switzerland.
Gopalaratnam VS, Shah SP, 1985. Softening Response of Plain Concrete in Direct Tension.
Journal of American Concrete Institute 82 (MayJune): 310323.
Jensen JP, Bull DK, Pampanin S, 2007. Experimental Investigation of Existing Hollow-core
Seating Connection Seismic Behaviour Pre and Post Retrofit Intervention. In Proceedings,
2 April 2009
New Zealand Society for Earthquake Engineering Conference, Palmerston North, New
Zealand.
Lau D, Fenwick R, 2001. Influence of Precast Prestressed Flooring Components on the
Seismic Performance of Reinforced Concrete Perimeter Frames. Journal of Structural
Engineering Society of New Zealand 14(2): September, pp 2228.
Lau DBN, 2007. Influence of Precast Prestressed Flooring on Seismic Performance of
Reinforced Concrete Perimeter Frame Buildings. PhD thesis, Civil and Environmental
Engineering, University of Auckland, April, pp 368.
Lee JY, Watanabe F, 2003. Predicting the Longitudinal Axial Strain in the Plastic Hinge
Regions of Reinforced Concrete Beams Subjected to Reversed Cyclic Loading. Engineering
Structures 25(7): 927939.
Liew HY, 2004. Performance of Hollow-core Floor Seating Details. University of
Canterbury, Department of Civil Engineering, ME thesis, p139.
Lindsay R, 2004. Experiments on the Seismic Performance of Hollow-core Floor Systems in
Precast Concrete Buildings. ME thesis, Civil Engineering, University of Canterbury.
Lindsay RA, Mander JB, Bull DK, 2004. Experiments on the Seismic Performance of
Hollow-core Floor Systems in Precast Concrete Buildings. In Proceedings, 13th World
Conference on Earthquake Engineering, Vancouver BC, Canada, 16 August, paper 585.
MacPherson C, 2005. Seismic Performance and Forensic Analysis of Precast Concrete
Hollow-core Floor Super-assemblage. ME thesis, Civil Engineering, University of
Canterbury.
MacPherson CJ, Mander JB, Bull DK, 2005. Reinforced Concrete Seating Details of Hollow-
core Floor Systems. In Proceedings, New Zealand Society for Earthquake Engineering
Conference, Wairakei, New Zealand.
Matthews J, 2004. Hollow-core Floor Slab Performance Following a Severe Earthquake.
PhD thesis, Civil Engineering, University of Canterbury.
Megget LM, Fenwick RC, 1988. Seismic behaviour of a Reinforced Concrete Portal Frame
Sustaining Gravity Loads. Proceedings Pacific Concrete Conference, Vol. 1, November.
Auckland, pp 4152.
Peng B, Dhakal R, Fenwick R, Carr A, Bull D, 2007. Analytical Model on Beam Elongation
within the Reinforced Concrete Plastic Hinges. NZSEE Conference, Palmerston North,
April, Paper No. 43.
Restrepo JI, Rodregios M, Saunders D, 20004. Earthquake Resistant Precast Concrete
Buildings: Wall-slab coupling effects in low-rise buildings. University of Canterbury, Civil
Engineering research report.
Restrepo-Posada JI, 1993. Seismic Behaviour of Connections Between Precast Concrete
Elements. University of Canterbury, Department of Civil Engineering Research Report,
No. 93-3, p 385.
SANZ 1997. Steel Structures Standard, NZS 3404. Standards New Zealand.
2 April 2009
SANZ 2006. Concrete Structures Standard, NZS 3101-2006, including amendments 1 and 2
(2008). Standards New Zealand.
SANZ, 2004. Earthquake Actions Standard, NZS 1170.5. Standards New Zealand.
SANZ. Concrete Structures Standard; NZS 3101-2006. Standards New Zealand.
Woods L, 2008. Significance of Negative Bending Moments in the Seismic Performance of
Hollow-core Flooring. ME thesis submitted, Civil and Natural Resources Engineering,
University of Canterbury.

6: Design and specification of new hollow-core floor systems
2 April 2009
6 Design and specification of new hollow-core floor systems
6.1 Introduction
This section provides guidance for the design of new hollow-core floor systems.

New hollow-core systems will need to satisfy the performance requirements outlined in
section 4 above. As outlined in 4.3 these performance requirements can be assumed to be met
if the new hollow-core floor meets the requirements of NZS 3101(including amendments 1
and 2) and the relevant requirements of NZS1170.5.

However, the provisions of these Standards will need to be interpreted correctly to provide
the required level of performance.

The ability of a hollow-core floor to perform satisfactorily during an actual earthquake will
finally depend on how well the designer has brought together all of the requirements of the
Standards and how well the underlying principles have been understood and executed.

The objective of this guideline is to provide a road map to designers to lead them through the
design process.

6.2 General considerations
6.2.1 Design responsibilities
A new hollow-core floor must satisfactorily meet demands for resisting earthquake actions
and other effects such as those arising from gravity, temperature and shrinkage.

As it is an integral part of the structure the design of the hollow-core floor system can not be
considered in isolation from the main structure to which it is attached.

In the past it has been common practice to assume that the hollow-core floor system is a
proprietary product, the design of which is the responsibility of the precaster. Typically the
precasters designers have only verified the vertical (ie, gravity) component of the design.
This is perhaps not surprising as the precasters would typically have not been made aware of
the demands on the floor system resulting from earthquake loads on the building as a whole
and would have not have had the means to determine these from first principles.

If the building designer did not address the issues related to the design of the floor system for
earthquake actions then the conclusion must be that the effects of earthquake loading on the
floor system had been largely ignored in the design of the building. Clearly this is not
satisfactory as the satisfactory performance of the floor system under earthquake loading,
especially earthquake, is typically critical to ensuring the adequate performance of building as
a whole.

2 April 2009
While it is acceptable to split the design responsibility for verifying satisfactory performance
under gravity and earthquake loads, it is essential that both are addressed and that there are no
gaps in the overall design. In the absence of any other arrangements it is considered that
the design engineer for the building as a whole should be responsible for ensuring that the
design for the floor system and the building as a whole have been fully addressed.

All design parties must be made aware of all of the demands appropriate for the aspect of the
building they hold design responsibility for. This will typically mean that the building design
engineer should provide the floor designer with the expected interstorey drifts, diaphragm
shears, vertical seismic accelerations, any restraints required, any expected supporting beam
inelastic elongations and expected support deformations, irrespective of whether or not the
floor designer is responsible for the effects resulting from the earthquake demands on the
building as a whole.

6.2.2 Design process
The design process for a hollow-core floor system should typically involves the following
steps:
1. Building designer determines the appropriate structural concept for the building,
including indicative dimensions for the hollow-core floor system.
2. Building designer analyses the building structure to confirm the adequacy of the sizing
of the main structural members and assess the demands on the hollow-core floor.
3. Building designer designs the main structural members to verify their adequacy.
4. Building designer prepares a specification for the floor system, including the following
information:
a. General structural arrangement including the assumed self weight of the floor and
any significant floor penetrations.
b. All other permanent actions including partition loads and potentially removable
loads.
c. All design imposed actions on the floor including uniformly distributed live loads
and point loads.
d. Intended floor support arrangements including any special requirements for
plastic hinge regions.
e. Earthquake induced support displacements and rotations.
f. Vertical seismic loads (accelerations).
g. Floor diaphragm requirements.
h. Extent of any expected beam elongations resulting from inelastic behaviour in the
support beams.
i. Tolerance requirements.
j. Any other requirements, eg, minimum concrete strengths, propping restrictions
fire rating, durability, specifically required details, etc.
2 April 2009
5. Floor designer completes the design of the floor system to meet the requirements of the
floor specification and submits the details (shop drawings and calculations) to the
building designer. The floor designers submission should confirm the required hollow-
core sizes and self weights, and also cover any requirements for temporary propping,
expected cambers and deflections, minimum concrete strengths at various stages of
construction, details of prestress reinforcing, seating and connection details etc.
Note: As outlined in 6.2.1 above the design responsibility for the floor system could be
split between the building designer and the floor designer.
6. Building designer reviews the floor designers design submission and judges if it meets
the project specification, that the final floor details are consistent with the original
assumptions made regarding self weight and that the proposed floor design is consistent
with the design assumptions for the building as a whole.
Note: Review and approval by the building designer is not expected to relieve the floor
designer of responsibility in respect of the design to the specification that he/she has
carried out.
7. Building and floor designers amend, if necessary, and finalise designs.

6.2.3 Design, building consent and construction documentation
It is recommended that the documentation to justify/confirm the design and construction of a
hollow-core floor system include but not be limited to:
design basis and assumptions
design details
floor system
floor units
supporting and adjacent structure
design producer statements
construction monitoring requirements
consent and approvals
building consent
fully detailed design
performance-based specifications
obligations of designer
obligations of manufacturer
construction monitoring requirements
code compliance certificate
producer statements
as-built information.

2 April 2009
For more comprehensive guidelines on documentation, and to understand how documentation
for the floor system should interface with other disciplines refer to the NZCIC Design
Documentation Guidelines Structural, as amended August 2008
(http://www.nzcic.co.nz/Design/DDG-Structural.pdf). In particular refer to the Detailed
Design Phase and Construction Design Phase documentation guidelines for recommendations
for building consent submissions and amendments.

6.2.4 Design issues
The design issues relating to hollow-core can be summarised as:
evaluation of demands on the floor system
verification of the performance in terms of:
end support
slab actions
diaphragm actions
structure restraint
cut-outs and penetrations.

6.3 Assessment of seismic demands
The seismic demands on the floor system will typically be assessed by structural analysis.

Analyses shall be completed in accordance with the requirements set out in AS/NZS 1170.
This includes choice of member and material properties.

Demands are required at both the serviceability (SLS) and ultimate limit state (ULS) levels.
Different member and material properties may be required for each.

The demands on the hollow-core floor system will include, but not be necessarily limited to:
imposed in-plane actions (shears, compressions and tensions) resulting from the floor
acting as a diaphragm (refer 5.3.3)
rotation of the hollow-core end support as a result of sway distortions in the structure
(refer 5.3.2)
vertical accelerations
restraint actions resulting from differential displacement/distortion of adjacent structure
(refer 5.2.4 and 5.3.4)
plastic hinge elongation (refer 5.2, 5.3.1 and 5.3.5)
other demands, eg, lateral restraint actions from tied-in columns (refer 5.3.4), cut-outs
and penetrations (refer 5.3.5)
thermal and/or shrinkage effects.

2 April 2009
For the ULS, any demands resulting from distortions imposed on the floor system from the
structure should be assessed assuming elastic lateral earthquake loads on the structure, ie, the
design loads multiplied by . Where appropriate the effect on rotations and distortions of
potential sidesway mechanisms shall be allowed for as specified in NZS 1170.5 clause 7.2.1.1
(ie, in accordance with NZS 1170.5 clause 8.5.3). NZS 3101 also has a requirement to
consider 1.5 times these distortions, ie, MCE, but the PCFOG believes this is too conservative
and beyond what is required in AS/NZS 1170 to show compliance with the ULS.

Vertical accelerations shall be determined from NZS 1170.5 clause 5.4.2. General guidance
on the derivation of vertical loads for hollow-core floors and the application of NZS 1170.5 is
given in Appendix 6A and in section 5.

The presence of pretensioned units such as hollow-core in a floor has the potential to
significantly enhance the strength of the beam plastic hinges. This enhancement should be
evaluated (refer 5.2.2) and taken into account when considering the capacity design of the
structure as a whole.

6.4 Verification of performance
6.4.1 General
Verification of performance of the hollow-core floor system can be achieved by one of the
following:
compliance with NZS 3101:2006
justification from first principles
appropriate testing.

It is expected that the most commonly employed verification method will be compliance with
the requirements of NZS 3101. The following notes are based on achieving compliance with
NZS 3101. Appropriate reference clause numbers from NZS 3101 are shown in bold within
parentheses, thus (3.2.1), immediately following the guidance note. Clause references not in
bold are references to this guideline document.

Justification from first principles is legitimate and will need to address all of the issues
outlined in sections 4 and 5. Such an approach will, however, be an alternative solution under
the Building Code. Consent submitters adopting this approach should expect more scrutiny
than if the building code verification method is used.

It is unlikely that testing would be viable to completely verify a hollow-core floor system.
However, aspects of the design could well be verified by testing. If testing is to be used it
should be in accordance with the requirements of AS/NZS 1170.0 Appendix B.

Hollow-core units verified using NZS 3101 must be designed to achieve the ultimate and
serviceability limit states in accordance with AS/NZS 1170: Part 0 (2.2).

2 April 2009
6.4.2 End support
End support requirements for hollow-core are covered in Clause 18.7 NZS 3102. These
requirements are as follows (dimensional requirements are summarised in Figure 6.1):

6.4.2.1 Seat bearing
Hollow-core units shall be mounted on continuous low friction bearing strips with a
coefficient of friction less than 0.7 and with a minimum width of 50 mm (18.7.4(c)).

6.4.2.2 Seating widths outside plastic hinge regions in supporting beam
Un-armoured edges: After allowances for all tolerances (manufacturing, erection and
accuracy of other construction), the distance from the edge of the support (face of beam) to
the end of the precast unit, in the direction of the span shall be greater than the clear span/180
but not less than 75 mm (18.7.4(b)(i)).

Bearing strips shall be set back at least 15 mm from both the edge of the supporting beam and
the end of the hollow-core unit, or, at least the chamfer dimension at chamfered edges
(18.7.4(b)(ii)).

Armoured edges: The requirements for armoured edges may be reduced by 15 mm provided
that adequate support is retained after allowing for plastic hinge elongation (18.7.4(d)).

Note: The PCFOG is not sure that including the proviso above makes sense. Either the
armouring provides a benefit or it doesnt. Not required for un-armoured edge.

6.4.2.3 Seating widths within plastic hinge regions in supporting beam
When determining the seating width when the seating is within the plastic hinge length of the
supporting beam, the cover concrete of the support shall be assumed to have spalled
(18.7.4(f)) and the edge of the bearing strip shall not project beyond the straight portion of the
horizontal stirrup leg nor beyond the interior face of the corner longitudinal beam bar
(18.7.4(a)).

Note: The PCFOG believes second requirement above is excessive. Not projecting past the
outer face of the vertical beam stirrup legs should be sufficient and such a requirement
should not be necessary if additional support is provided. The PCFOG suggests that either
seating widths be detailed as for outside the plastic hinge region but ignoring the cover width
(to outside of beam stirrups), or that additional support be provided. (eg, as discussed in
section 8).

2 April 2009
Figure 6.1: Dimensional requirements for end support of hollow-core units
(a) Seating of hollow-core units (un-armoured edge)
On
Hollow core unit
Edx Bw Edb
f'c min =40 Mpa
Main beam reo
Cm
Ledge reo
Cm
Beam. f'c =20 Mpa min
Topping

(b) Seating of hollow-core units (armoured edge)
On
Hollow core unit
Edx Bw Edb
Main beam reo f'c min =40 Mpa
Cm
Ledge reo
Cm
Beam. f'c =20 Mpa min
Topping

6.4.2.4 Allowance for support rotation
The end support of the hollow-core unit shall be designed (based on rational calculation or
testing) to meet the assessed rotational demands between the end of the hollow-core unit and
the supporting structure (18.6.7.1, 18.7.4.(g)(i)).

Adequate allowance may be deemed to have been provided if the design and detailing
specified in either clause C18.6.7.1(a) to (d) or C18.6.7.1(e) is adopted.

6.4.3 Slab actions
6.4.3.1 Bending and shear
The adequacy of the hollow-core section (including topping) to carry the bending and shear
actions shall be confirmed. The mechanisms to be considered are discussed in section 5. A
procedure for analysing the hollow-core floor section is provided in Appendix 6B.

6.4.3.2 Torsion
Hollow-core units are unreinforced for torsion. They may be checked for torsion in
accordance with clause 7.6. Or, preferably the potential for torsions to be developed should
be minimised through the introduction of flexible links. Refer 5.2.4 and 5.3.2. Torsional
strengths for 300 and 300 hollow-core units with 75 mm topping are given in Table 5.2 and
indicative safe twists in 5.3.2.7.3.

6.4.3.3 Differential displacement
The demand resulting from differential distortion between hollow-core units and a parallel
spanning structural frame may be deemed to have been met if a linking slab in accordance
with clause 18.6.7.2(a) has been provided.

2 April 2009
If diaphragm shear or other effects demand a thicker slab than allowed for in this clause it will
be necessary to confirm that the arrangement is satisfactory. If this is carried out by
calculation it will typically require a 3D structural analysis with both the structural bent and
the adjacent hollow-core slab modelled to confirm that the hollow-core slab is not
overstressed when the combined system is subjected to the full design lateral displacement.

6.4.4 Diaphragm actions
To be effective as a diaphragm a floor system must be capable of developing the necessary
compressive stress paths, shears and tension fields and fulfil all requirements of section 13
NZS 3101. It must also retain sufficient attachment to the main structural system to enable
transfer of loads when subjected to the full displacements calculated for the ULS. The
potential negative effects of plastic hinge elongation at building corners should be considered
(refer 5.3.3). Curtailment of starter bars shall be staggered (13.3.7.3).

Where column lateral restraint is provided by ties back into the hollow-core floor system the
tieback shall conform to clause 10.3.6. Refer also 5.3.4.

6.4.6 Cut-outs and penetrations
Refer 5.3.5.1.

6.4.7 Delamination of the insitu concrete topping
Refer 5.3.5.2.

6.4.8 Tensile strength of concrete
Refer 5.3.5.3.

2 April 2009
Appendix 6A: Vertical seismic loading
General
Vertical seismic motion generates inertial forces in members which span horizontally. These
actions need to be considered in design or retrofit of elements which do not have a high level
of ductility and where the span to depth ratio (including topping) is reasonably large (ie,
greater than total depth of floor times 35).

The Loadings Standard for Earthquake Actions, NZS 1170.5, in clause 3.2 specifies that the
response spectrum for vertical ground motion should be taken as 70% of that for horizontal
ground motion.

Hollow-core units, which do not have top strands and are reinforced with mesh, have very
limited ductility. The strain causing failure in welded mesh is typically in the range of 1% to
2%. At failure in flexure for negative moments, the tensile strains in the reinforcement are
insufficient to allow appreciable inelastic deformation to develop in the concrete.
Consequently standard ultimate strength theory can not be applied to determine the negative
ultimate flexural strength of these partially prestressed members. The negative moment
flexural strength may be determined either:
(a) using standard ultimate strength theory ignoring prestress and suing a internal lever-arm
equal to the distance of the reinforcement to the mid depth of concrete between the base
of the ducts and the soffit of the hollow-core unit (see 1.3); or
(b) based on a section analysis where the tensile strain in the mesh is limited to 1 percent
and the concrete in compression is assumed to have an elastic response, or a more
comprehensive stress strain relationship is assumed for the concrete.

The first method of assessing the negative moment capacity tends to be conservative.

Vertical seismic actions
In determining the structural ductility that can be safely used to assess vertical seismic actions
in hollow-core flooring units a number of aspects need to be considered:
1. Mesh, if it is used in the topping the floor units have very limited ductility for negative
moments.
2. Under downward loading any flexural cracks on the top surface will close and the
member will behave as an uncracked element. However, under upward loading flexural
cracks should form to allow the reinforcement to resist negative moments. These cracks
significantly reduce the stiffness of the member. As a consequence greater
displacements can be expected in the upward direction than in the downward direction.
The change in stiffness with direction of loading means the commonly used equal
displacement and equal energy concepts no longer apply and standard design rules
based on these can be expected to lead to an underestimates the upward displacement.
2 April 2009
3. Whether reinforced with either mesh or 12 mm bars at 300 centres, the proportion of
reinforcement in the insitu concrete topping is generally low. As a consequence the
tension force capacity of the reinforcement crossing a crack is insufficient to overcome
the tensile strength of the concrete. Hence yielding of reinforcement is confined to one
crack, which severely limits the ductility of the member.

In view of these points it is recommended that design and retrofit actions due to vertical
seismic actions are based on a structural ductility factor, , of 1. may be increased to 2
where ductile reinforcement bars are used. The fundamental period of vibration for vertical
excitation of flooring units is generally in the range of 0.1 to 0.35 seconds. Only the actions
corresponding to the first mode of vibration of the floor need to be considered.

The standard assumption used in elastic analysis for ground motion is that equivalent static
forces representing dynamic actions are proportional to the mass and displacement of the
mass relative to the ground. Consequently for precast units spanning in a horizontal direction
the equivalent static forces are not uniformly distributed. They are distributed in proportion
to the deflected shape. For simply supported units the deflected shape may be approximated
to a parabola. Using this assumption the distribution of moments and shears along a member
can be found from Table 6A.2 in terms of the vertical seismic force, F
pv
, and the span of the
unit, L. The vertical seismic force is given in NZS 1170.5, by:
p p p v pv p p v v pv p p vd pv pv
W W R T C C W R T C C W R C C F 5 . 2 ) ( 7 . 0 ) ( = = =
where W
p
is the gravity weight supported by the unit which for the purposes of checking
vertical earthquake effects will be dead and long term live load where appropriate), T
v
, is the
fundamental period of vibration of the unit and R
p
= 1.

Table 6A.1: ULS vertical seismic force, F
s
/W, for main centres for T
v
between 0.1 and 0.4s and
taking R
p
= 1, according to NZS1170.5
Site subsoil class Location
p
Fundamental
period (s) A and B C D and E
Auckland 1
2
0.10.4
0.10.4
0.22
0.12
0..26
0.15
0.27
0.15
Wellington 1
2
0.10.4
0.10.4
0.65
0.36
0.82
0.45
0.84
0.46
Christchurch 1
2
0.10.4
0.10.4
0.36
0.10
0.45
0.13
0.46
0.25

Table 6A.2: Distribution of vertical seismic actions along a precast floor unit
x/L 0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
V/F
pv
0.5 0.47 0.4 0.28 0.15 0.0
M/F
pv
L 0.0 0.05 0.09 0.13 0.15 0.16
x =distance from support.

7: Assessment of existing hollow-core floor systems
2 April 2009
7 Assessment of existing hollow-core floor systems
7.1 General
The assessment of buildings incorporating hollow-core floor units requires detailed
knowledge of the as-constructed building. While working drawings for the floor systems are
useful, a comprehensive investigation is still required to establish details of construction.
Small variations in construction details can jeopardize structural integrity and erode the
margins of safety required for satisfactory earthquake performance.

The structural deformations of the building at ultimate displacement of the structure
determine the design criteria for assessment of the hollow-core floor system. These
deformations need to be determined in order to assess the ability of the hollow-core floor to
withstand the deformations.

It is important that all key information is carefully obtained.

7.2 Key information required
7.2.1 Site location and characteristics
Information on the site and its seismological, geological and geotechnical features is a critical
part of the assessment. Current thinking on these aspects may be significantly different from
those assumed in design. For example, the seismic hazard factor may have increased or the
soil classification defining likely building response may result in higher demands on the
building when viewed with todays knowledge.

7.2.2 Building history designer / builder / pre-cast supplier / territorial authority
The properties of the hollow-core units vary between manufacturers and the sections profile
are pre-stressing layout have varied since the first hollow-core were introduced.

Where possible the manufacturer of the units should be established. Some hollow-core
manufacturers maintain comprehensive job records and these are invaluable where they are
available. Other sources of information include the territorial authority records, the
consulting engineers or other party responsible for the structural design of the building, the
architects and the main contractor for the building.

Where the above enquires fail to locate the manufacturer and/or the construction details for
the hollow-core units, it will be necessary to establish the profile, pre-stressing and
installation details of the units by on site investigations. Where documentation for the
hollow-core floor exists, a sufficient investigation is still necessary to confirm that important
aspects of the construction comply with the design documentations. The width of the units
and the edge detail can usually be observed from the underside of a floor, often by removal of
ceiling tiles. Determination of the internal profile of the units involves using a proformeter to
locate the pre-stressing strand and drilling into the cores of the units. Other techniques
include wetting the underside of the units and observing the profile of the webs exposed
through the different rates of evaporation on the surface of the underside of the hollow-cores.
2 April 2009
This technique should enable the location and number of webs to be established on the
underside of units. Refer to section 3 for unit types, appendix.

Web thicknesses of the units shown are minimums. Actual web thickness may be greater as
the thickness is dependent on the characteristics of the concrete being extruded.

7.2.3 Design loading versus actual loading
It should not be assumed that the loading requirement at the time of design is the same as that
of current standards. For example, the use of the building may have changed.

Nor should it be assumed that the floor units have exactly the load capacity of the required
design load. It is the depth, profile and extent of pre-stress that determine the load capacity of
the hollow-core floor system.

Every effort should be made to determine the load capacity of the floor using basic
information about its structural elements. All manufacturers have load span tables applicable
to their units or load capacity can be assessed once the profile and extent or pre-stress has
been established.

7.2.4 Structure type and details
The deformations imposed on the hollow-core floor units are determined by the type, size and
detailing of the seismic lateral load resulting elements of the building and the details of the
supporting and surrounding structure

The proportions of the structural system, material of the construction, material properties and
details, including foundations, are necessary to allow modelling of the structure to determine
the deformations imposed on the hollow-core floor system at the ultimate limit state. These
fundamental characteristics could be crucial in proving that an existing hollow-core floor has
adequate safety.

Ductile reinforced concrete frames are expected to exhibit beam elongation under inelastic
deformation. The beam elongation can result in high imposed deformations and induced
stress on the hollow-core floor system. Shear wall structures impose less deformation than
frames and K brace systems need the active link to be free to deform plastically during an
earthquake. The hollow-core floor system must be capable of accepting the deformations of
the structural systems at the limit of the inelastic deformation of the structural system if the
floor system is to withstand the earthquake.

While the ductility of the seismic resisting element assists that element withstanding the
earthquake, the inelastic deformation of the seismic resisting element may initiate premature
failure of the brittle hollow-core floor system.

2 April 2009
7.2.5 Material properties concrete, steel
The following information is desirable prior to undertaking an assessment of the hollow-core
floor system.

Table 7.1: Material properties precast flooring system
Material properties precast flooring systems
Manufacturer
Unit type
Date of manufacture
Concrete strength specified MPa
Concrete strength actual MPa
Pre-stress in units
Number of strands
Strand size mm
Design loadings kPa

Table 7.2: Material properties topping
Material properties topping
Topping MPa
Unit camber on installation mm
Topping thickness at support mm
Topping thickness at midspant mm
Concrete strength specified MPa
Concrete strength actual MPa
Reinforcement proof stress/yield
Reinforcement topping MPa
Reinforcement edge detail MPa
Reinforcement end detail MPa

7.2.6 Floor unit and connection details
The performance of the hollow-core floor system is affected by the construction details
applying at the supports and edges of the hollow-core units.

2 April 2009
7.2.7 Infilling of cores
Many units were provided with plastic end caps (refer Figure 7.1(a)). Some floors were
known to have been constructed with paper forced into the ends of the cores (refer Figure
7.1(b)), while others had no attempt to seal the cavity (refer Figure 7.1(c)). The extent to
which concrete entered the core and developed end fixity is dependent on the method of
sealing the core, if any, and the extent of the vibration undertaken during placement of the
insitu concrete.

The presence of the insitu concrete in the cores can be determined by drilling into the cores at
the ends of the units. The extent of the penetrations can be established by drilling at
progressively increased distances from the ends of the hollow-core units.

Figure 7.1: Typical details for sealing cores in hollow-core

7.2.8 Support details for hollow-core
The type of seating detail for the units can normally be established by inspection of the
interface between the hollow-core units and the supporting beam at the ends of the units.
Units were normally supported on precast units (Figures 7.2(a) and (b)), formwork (Figure
7.2(c)), in which case the support became insitu concrete or on a mortar bed (Figure 7.2(d))
laid on an already formed precast or insitu concrete ledge. Buildings of more recent
construction incorporate a bearing strip. Blockwork offers little restraint to movement of
units supported on it.

Figure 7.2: Typical support details for hollow-core

2 April 2009

The width of seating is more difficult to establish. For units supported on precast beams it is
often possible to slide a sheet of thin material in the interface between the precise elements.
For hollow-core units supported on insitu concrete or on mortar bed where a crack is present
in the topping at the end of the hollow-core units, it may be necessary to drill vertically
through the entire depth of the floor system and measure to the crack on the surface of the
floor and to the face of the support beam on the underside of the floor. The alternative is to
scabble the concrete at the underside if the support to expose the end of the hollow-core unit.

Figure 7.3: Investigation of support details

Often the hairpin detail was adopted when the units were supplied under length. The width of
the seating should therefore be established at both ends floor level. The preferred locations
are zones subject to plastic hinge elongation effects.

Table 7.3: Width of sections end support
Criteria Design Construction
Method of capping hollow-cores Plastic/paper/other Plastic/paper/other
Seating of units Mortar/insitu/precast Mortar/insitu/precast
Width of seating mm mm

2 April 2009
Occasionally a hairpin detail was adopted by the designer (refer Figure 7.4) this detail often
involved the cutting of slots in the top of the hollow-core units to allow concrete to be placed
and vibrated into the core (refer Figure 7.5). This detail, where adopted, develops significant
restraint at the ends of the hollow-core units.

Figure 7.4: Hairpin detail Figure 7.5: Filled cores

7.2.9 Reinforcement in topping at end support
Reinforcing details at the ends of the hollow-core units are typically included on the structural
plans. The structural plans also nominate the reinforcement in the topping. Until recently,
The reinforcement in the topping was hard drawn mesh. An important aspect of the support
detail is the length of the starters from the support beam into the topping slab over the hollow-
core units.

Figure 7.6: Reinforcing details at end support

The spacing and length of the starters can be established using proformeter, the regular layout
of the mesh reinforcement can make locating the ends of the starters difficult and it may be
necessary to expose the end of some rods in order to have confidence of the as constructed
detail.

2 April 2009
Table 7.4: Reinforcement in topping end support
Reinforcement in topping end supports
Size mm
Spacing mm
Length beyond end unit (refer Figure 7.3.6.11) mm

7.2.10 Reinforcement in topping to edge detail
The reinforcing provided between the perimeter frame in the direction of span of the precast
units and the topping over the hollow-core units to adjoining frame should be established.

Figure 7.7: Reinforcing details at edge support

Table 7.5: Reinforcement to edge detail
Reinforcement to edge detail
Size mm
Spacing mm
Length beyond end unit (refer Figure 7.3.6.13) mm

7.2.11 Penetrations
Penetrations in the floor often weaken the hollow-core unit. At large penetration to stairs,
lifts, etc the hollow-core units are typically framed by edge beams or supported on structural
walls. The effect of any notching or cutting into units at such penetrations should be
considered.

2 April 2009
Figure 7.8: Penetrations

Minor penetrations through the core of the hollow-core units for services, if neatly made,
should not significantly affect the strength of the units. Multiple penetrations aligned in
adjoining cores, roughly made penetrations or penetration through the webs of units are more
significant and each needs to be identified and evaluated.

Such penetration in zones of the hollow-core units subjected to significant induced
deformation may initiate premature failure of the units.

Figure 7.9: Typical penetrations in hollow-core

A particularly significant penetration of the hollow-core units is that made in the edge of a
unit spanning parallel to and adjoining a seismic resisting frame where the edges of the unit
are notched to allow a column to penetrate the unit.

Figure 7.10: Notching of units around a column

2 April 2009
7.3 Techniques and approaches for determining as-built condition
The following tables provide a checklist of possible techniques and approaches to determine
the as-built condition of an existing building. It is intended that those responsible for the
assessment will review these and select the techniques most appropriate to their situation. A
review of the list may prompt ideas for different techniques and approaches which better fit
the circumstances than any on the list.

Table 7.6: Techniques for determining as built condition
Hollow-core units
Hollow-core unit type Measure width of units on underside units
Refer manufacturers information
Hollow-core unit depth Observe construction at penetration in floor, stairs, etc
Drill through hollow-core to allow measurement of overall floor thickness and
deduct known depth of topping.
Core through entire floor to obtain overall floor thickness from which unit thickness
and measure topping thickness from core can be derived.
Diameter of pre-stressing
steel
Location of pre-stressing
steel
Locate number of strands using a Proformeter on underside of units
Refer manufacturer for size strand
Topping
Figure 7.11: Establishing unit thickness
Topping thickness Observe construction at penetrations in floor
Core through topping into hollow-core to obtain that allows depth of topping from
surface to topping precast unit interface to be measured Refer Figure 7.4.1.
Concrete strength Refer to specified concrete strength
Refer to concrete manufacturers testing records
Use of Schmidt hammer
(Other)
Reinforcement
Location Use of Proformeter
Local opening up
X-ray
Grade Refer to construction plans
Exposure of sufficient length to determine grade from reinforcing markings
Recovery of sample and testing
2 April 2009
Hollow-core units
Cover Use of Proformeter
Detailing
Precast unit seating Observe crack in floor
Measure from penetration of drill through core to allow seating depth to be
established or scabble beam at underside of unit to expose width of seating
Length of starters Use of proformeter combined with confirmation by local opening up
Crack at junction Confirm by opening up floor at probable location of joint

7.4 Assessment outline approach
Section 4 sets out performance criteria for new hollow-core floors, describing all key aspects.
Section 5 describes the potential failure mechanisms, while section 6 outlines design
procedures to avoid the potential failure mechanisms and meet the requirements of section 4.

It is important that existing hollow-core floors have similar levels of safety to new buildings,
so that the first objective of the assessment should be to compare the performance with that
expected of a new building. Any shortfalls can then be identified and attempts made to
quantify them as a first step in deciding on any remedial action.

Table 7.7 is a summary of issues that need to be considered in making the assessment of
performance, dealing with the role of the floor in providing end support, and acting as a slab,
as a diaphragm and as a restraining element for the surrounding structure. The possible
adverse impacts of cut-outs are noted.

The significance of each of these items needs to be assessed and possible remedial measures
noted.

Table 7.7 gives general guidance on the issues and what to look for. Section 7.5 attempts to
define minimum acceptable performance levels for the most important aspects of hollow-core
floor safety.

Table 7.7: Assessment issues summary
Section A Demand issues
a Earthquake-induced displacements
deflections, rotations, twists
Can markedly affect hollow-core floor functional capacity support,
slab action, diaphragm role and structure restraint
b Critical dimensions of hollow-core units Small changes in dimensions can change structural properties
markedly for example, the minimum width of web
c Beam elongation Differential displacement can fracture steel that provides
diaphragm action and structure restraint; can reduce effective
width of supporting ledge
d Vertical seismic load May be a significant proportion of the gravity load and thus
increase shear in webs of units; increases relative rotations at
support
2 April 2009
e Tensile strength of concrete A critical factor in determining the shear capacity of units and the
support capacity of supporting ledges
f Gravity load Generally dead load of units and topping will be on simply
supported basis; subsequent load will be on the basis of some fixity
at the supports, depending on the amount and detailing of top steel

Section B Capacity issues
Ref
no.
Critical floor
function
Nature or cause of
failure
Contributory cause / effect Assessment criteria
1 End support a Insufficient
seating
Reduction due to construction
tolerances/errors
Insufficient edge distance
Less than minimum bearing
Insufficient allowance for beam
elongation
Insufficient allowance for relative
rotation
After all allowances, there must be
at least 20 mm residual overlap
between the end of the unit,
including any reinforcement in
infilled cells, and the face of the
beam
2 Slab action
2.1 Bending
moment
effects
a Positive
moment failure
Relative rotation Positive moment is induced by
relative rotation and causes
tension at the bottom of the unit
(refer section 5 for details of
potential failure mechanisms)
b Negative
moment failure
Relative rotation or end moment Negative moment induces tension
in the topping near the end of the
unit (refer section 5 for details of
potential failure mechanisms)
c Vertical seismic
loading up
1) Makes (a) above worse;
2) Inadequate negative moment
capacity at centre span
Allow for this when assessing
adequacy of joint to cope with
rotation and of capacity of centre
section (refer section 5 for details
of potential failure mechanisms)
d Vertical seismic
loading down
1) Makes (b) above worse;
2) Inadequate positive moment
capacity at centre span; 3)
Inadequate negative moment
capacity
Allow for this when assessing
adequacy of joint to cope with
rotation and of capacity of centre
section (refer section 5 for details
of potential failure mechanisms)
2 April 2009
Ref
no.
Critical floor
function
Nature or cause of
failure
Contributory cause / effect Assessment criteria
2.2 Shear /
torsion effects
a Torsional failure Twisting induced by structure
displacements
Assess twisting; assess capacity of
units to tolerate without failure
b Web splitting Shear due to load or
displacement
Assess load and/or displacement;
check capacity of web (refer
section 5)
c Diagonal
tension in
negative
moment zones
Shear / bending moment
combination due to load or
displacement
Assess effects of applied or
induced loads; design units to
tolerate these within allowed
material properties
d Vertical seismic
loading up
Makes effects of 3 a), b), c) worse Allow for this when designing joint
to cope with rotation and checking
the capacity of the centre section
(refer section 5)
e Vertical seismic
loading down
Makes effects of 3 a), b), c) worse Allow for this when designing joint
to cope with rotation and checking
the capacity of the centre section
(refer section 5)
3 Diaphragm
action
a Failure of
linking slab
Differential elongation
Differential vertical displacements
Shear forces to be transferred
Assess elongation, displacements
and shear actions; check capacity
of linking slab to cope without
undue loss of diaphragm capacity
b Failure of
topping steel
Insufficient ductility to cope with
movements and/or diaphragm
loads
Assess displacements / strains in
topping steel at all critical locations
(refer section 5 for details)
4 Structure
restraint
Inadequate or
ineffective tie-back
to stabilise main
structural elements,
eg, columns
Inadequate steel, lack of proper
anchorage of tie reinforcement, or
inadequate ductility to cope with
relative movements
Assess displacements, ductility
demand and capacity to tie the
column when subject to maximum
displacements (refer section 5 for
details)
5 Cut-outs and
penetrations
Adverse effects of
cut-outs or
modifications to
standard units or
floor details
1) Loss of shear capacity; 2) Loss
of moment capacity; 3) Crack
initiation; 4) Unsupported sections
of unreinforced unit; 5) Higher
bearing stresses on ledge
Assess detrimental effects on floor
under maximum expected
displacements (refer section 5 for
details)

7.5 Investigation and reporting
Considerable care is needed in planning and carrying out the investigation and reporting on it.
The objective must be to cause a minimum of inconvenience consistent with obtaining the
required information. There is every prospect that the knowledge of the investigation will
raise questions of safety in the minds of occupants. Information given needs to be short and
to the point and worded in a way that does not cause unnecessary or undue concern.

2 April 2009
It is recommended that those responsible for the assessment develop a clear, written plan
outlining the proposed approach. The plan should cover the following issues:
notification of original designer
clear definition of purpose and scope of investigation
access and disruption issues
the prospect of questions and concerns from the owners and occupants about safety
implications for the existing building
communication with the owner, occupants and the territorial authority
content and distribution of information
confidentiality of information.

8: Retrofit of hollow-core floor systems
2 April 2009
8 Retrofit of hollow-core floor systems
8.1 General considerations
This section provides guidance and options in methods of retrofitting existing buildings
incorporating hollow-core floor units. Retrofitting of existing buildings incorporating
hollow-core floors may require strengthening of the hollow-core units and/or releasing the
restraint of the hollow-core units to prevent brittle failure of the units. As the objective is the
survival of the floor system during inelastic deformation of the seismic resisting elements of
the building, the extent of retrofit may vary over the height of the building.

Where it is not practical to strengthen the hollow-core units or to release the restraint
including strains within the hollow-core units, it may be necessary to provide catch frames to
support the lower potion of the hollow-core units in the event that web splitting or
delamination occurs.

8.2 Performance expectations and requirements
As a starting point, the objective of any retrofit solution should be to bring the structural
performance of the floor and structure up to the standard required of a new building.
Performance expectations and requirements would be as described in section 4 and as implicit
in the design criteria presented in section 6. These could be described as representing new
building standard (NBS).

If retrofit to 100% of NBS cannot reasonably be achieved, then performance as nearly as is
reasonably practicable to that of a new building should be aimed for. Note that the overall
measure of the %NBS achieved will be that of the lowest performing aspect.

As a minimum, more than 33% NBS must be achieved to avoid classification of the building
as earthquake-prone.

It is important that the level to be achieved by the retrofit is agreed with the owner on the
basis of information on the costs and performance of various alternatives. Two points are of
particular note:
it is likely that, for many critical aspects, for example the end support, the cost of
achievement of high levels of performance will not be significantly greater than for
achievement of lower levels; much of the cost will be in set-up, labour and disruption
the expected performance of the overall structure may be less than 100% NBS and
incline the designer to settle for less than 100% NBS in the floor retrofit. Such a
temptation should be resisted at least to the extent of examining the probabilities and
consequences of failure of the overall structure and the floor elements.

8.3 Retrofit options overview
Table 8.1 is a summary of retrofit issues that should be considered, showing some basic
retrofit options for each. This is intended to give a brief overview and to act as a prompt for
further ideas.

2 April 2009
Table 8.1: Summary of retrofit issues and approaches
a Earthquake-induced displacements
deflections, rotations, twists
Can markedly affect hollow-core floor functional capacity support,
slab action, diaphragm role and structure restraint
b Critical dimensions of hollow-core units Small changes in dimensions can change structural properties
markedly for example, the minimum width of web
c Beam elongation Differential displacement can fracture steel that provides
diaphragm action and structure restraint; can reduce effective
width of supporting ledge
d Vertical seismic load May be a significant proportion of the gravity load and thus
increase shear in webs of units; increases relative rotations at
support
e Tensile strength of concrete A critical factor in determining the shear capacity of units and the
support capacity of supporting ledges
f Gravity load Generally dead load of units and topping will be on simply
supported basis; subsequent load will be on the basis of some fixity
at the supports, depending on the amount and detailing of top steel

Ref
no.
Critical floor
function
Nature or cause of
failure
Contributory cause / effect Retrofit options
1 End support a Insufficient
seating
Reduction due to construction
tolerances/errors
Insufficient edge distance
Less than minimum bearing
Add / extend supporting ledge
Insufficient allowance for beam
elongation
Insufficient allowance for relative
rotation
1) Stiffen building; or 2) Add
supporting ledge
1) Stiffen building; or 2) Add
supporting ledge
2 Slab action
2.1 Bending
moment
effects
a Positive
moment failure
Relative rotation 1) Stiffen building; 2) Insert shear
dowels
b Negative
moment failure
Relative rotation or end moment 1) Stiffen building; 2) Insert shear
dowels; 3) Sawcut reinforcement
c Vertical seismic
loading up
1) Makes (a) above worse;
2) Inadequate negative moment
capacity at centre span
1) Stiffen building; 2) Insert shear
dowels; 3) Increase negative
moment capacity at centre span
d Vertical seismic
loading down
1) Makes (b) above worse;
2) Inadequate positive moment
capacity at centre span; 3)
Inadequate negative moment
capacity
1) Stiffen building; 2) Insert shear
dowels; 3) Increase moment
capacity at centre span; 4) Sawcut
topping reinforcement at support;
2 April 2009
Ref
no.
Critical floor
function
Nature or cause of
failure
Contributory cause / effect Retrofit options
2.2 Shear /
torsion effects
a Torsional failure Twisting induced by structure
displacements
1) Stiffen building to reduce
displacements; 2) Isolate units
from effects of displacements;
3) Insert shear dowels
b Web splitting Shear due to load or
displacement
3) Insert shear dowels
c Diagonal
tension in
negative
moment zones
Shear / bending moment
combination due to load or
displacement
3) Insert shear dowels;
4) Suppress crack propagation
d Vertical seismic
loading up
Makes effects of 3 a), b), c) worse 1) Allow for in retrofit solution
e Vertical seismic
loading down
Makes effects of 3 a), b), c) worse 1) Allow for in retrofit solution
3 Diaphragm
action
a Failure of
linking slab
Differential elongation
1) Stiffen building to prevent or
reduce beam elongation effects;
2) Reduce stiffness of connection
of slab to surrounding structure
Differential vertical displacements 1) Stiffen building to prevent or
reduce effects of relative vertical
displacements; 2) Reduce stiffness
of connection of slab to
surrounding structure
Shear forces to be transferred 1) Increase shear capacity of
topping slab
b Failure of
topping steel
Insufficient ductility to cope with
movements and/or diaphragm
loads
1) Insert replacement
reinforcement with capability to
deform; 2) Review need for or
mechanisms of diaphragm action
4 Structure
restraint
Inadequate or
ineffective tie-back
to stabilise main
structural elements
Inadequate steel, lack of proper
anchorage of tie reinforcement, or
inadequate ductility to cope with
relative movement
1) Install continuous tie with
effective anchorage to take forces
involves and ability to cope with
anticipated movements
5 Cut-outs and
penetrations
Adverse effects of
cut-outs or
modifications to
standard units or
floor details
1) Loss of shear capacity; 2) Loss
of moment capacity; 3) Crack
initiation; 4) Unsupported sections
of unreinforced unit; 5) Higher
bearing stresses on ledge
Some of the above options could
be considered, but the retrofit will
probably need to be specially
matched to the circumstances

Although Table 8.1 is set out in sections covering end support, slab action, structure restraint
and cut-outs/penetrations, it may be seen that some retrofit options deal with more than one
deficiency in performance.

As far as possible the retrofit options described in more detail below have been presented in
the order shown in Table 8.1.
2 April 2009
8.4 Retrofit options
8.4.1 Building structure
For some buildings with stiff structural systems the hollow-core floor system may be
demonstrated to have the capacity to accept the deformation imposed on the floor under the
inelastic deformation of the building at the ultimate limit state. In this case, provided no
detail issues such as end support exist, no retrofit will be necessary.

If structural deformations are too high, it may be practical to stiffen the structural elements of
a building sufficiently that the deformations induced on the hollow-core floor can be safely
absorbed or resisted. The cost of such stiffening and the disruption involved will vary
according to circumstances and it will be necessary to examine these issues and the impact on
the functionality of the building.

8.4.2 End support
Loss of support can occur where the hollow-core units run parallel to a ductile reinforced
concrete frame in which plastic hinge elongation is occurring. There may also be additional
seating demand caused by rotations between the floor system and structural frame at the
support. The overall movement of the hollow-core on the seating may be sufficient to cause
loss of support. The units should have a 30 mm minimum seating, not including cover
concrete, after the maximum elongation has occurred.

Industry practice was to install units with as little as 50 mm seating or less. Additional
support is normally required.

The following detail is recommended for improving the support of the hollow-core units.

Figure 8.1: Enhanced support details

The minimum length of the RHS should be 75% of the width of the hollow-core unit being
supported and each length should be fixed with a minimum of three M16 bolts. The RHS
should not be glued to the hollow-core unit and no mortar should be placed between the RHS
and the underside of the hollow-core unit. It is important the RHS does not develop restraint
under displacements causing rotation of the supporting beam. Similarly no bearing strip is
necessary.

2 April 2009
The rounded corners of the RHS have been demonstrated to be important in the prevention of
induced cracking of the hollow-core webs.

Angles or channel sections should not be used as the sharp edges may initiate cracking of the
hollow-core units.

Fire rating of the RHS support is not necessary providing the additional support is not
required under normal gravity loading.

The connection of the RHS to the edge beam should be designed for the moment induced by
the eccentricity of loading between the centreline of the top flange of the RHS and the
interface of the RHS with the support beam.

The RHS also confines the concrete directly under the hollow-core and prevents spalling of
the cover concrete. The bolts securing the RHS should be anchored within the reinforcing
cage for the supporting beam.

It is necessary to locate reinforcement and stirrups in the supporting beam prior to drilling the
holes for the bolts securing the RHS. Slotted holes in RHS allow standardisation of this
component for most applications.

Where the RHS is installed across a plastic hinge region in the frame supporting the hollow-
core, the slotted holes allow for plastic hinge elongation in the supporting beam without
inducing shear failure of the bolts securing the RHS to the supporting bam.

In new construction this detail is preferable to the use of a hairpin detail when the seating of
the hollow-core units does not achieve code requirements.

8.4.3 Slab action
For most buildings where the deformations imposed on the hollow-core floor exceed the
deformation capacity of the hollow-core floor, the hollow-core floor will require
strengthening, selective weakening or the provision of dowels or catch frames to maintain the
necessary integrity.

Retrofit options are included below for the following conditions:
release of negative moment restraint on hollow-core
enhancement of positive moment capacity of hollow-core
enhancement of hollow-core shear capacity and slab integrity
reducing stress concentrations at ends of starters to edge detail
securing of the alpha slab (the floor unit adjacent to the surrounding structure).

2 April 2009
8.4.3.1 Release of negative moment restraint on hollow-core
If the hairpin detail has been used at the end of the hollow-core units where insitu concrete
has extended into the hollow-cores at the ends of the units or where the hollow-core units are
seated on a mortar pad, the interface between the hollow-core units and the supporting beam
may develop significant negative moment capacity. Loading conditions to consider are
gravity, rotation of the supporting beam under deformation of the seismic resisting system
parallel to the span of the hollow-core units and vertical accelerations under seismic.

Strengthening the interface by reinforcing the joint between the topping to the hollow-core
and the top of the support beam increases forces and shear induced in unreinforced webs of
the hollow-core units. Reinforcing the interface between the support beam and the topping of
hollow-core is therefore undesirable.

The preferred option is to reduce the restraint of the hollow-core at the supporting beam so
that the stresses induced in the unreinforced webs of the hollow-core units are at a more
acceptable level.

If concrete infill has not been placed in the ends of the cores and the units are supported on an
insitu concrete corbel or a precast ledge without a mortar pad, testing indicates that the units
will be effectively released under the effects of negative moment.

If the units are supported on mortar bedding, the concrete infill has been placed in the ends of
the cores or the hairpin detail has been used, it is recommended that the extent of any restraint
be established and if necessary the end restraint be released.

The hairpin detail involved the cutting of slots in the top of the hollow-core units to allow
concrete to be placed and vibrated into the core. This detail develops significant restraint at
the ends of the hollow-core units.

It is assessed that end restraint will not be effective if the topping slab has cracked in line with
the end of the hollow-core units and the crack is in excess of 2 mm in width. Under these
conditions the ends of the hollow-core units can be assumed to be released under negative
moment effects and no further action need be taken.

If the units are not effectively released and diaphragm requirements permit, the restraint on
the hollow-core units from the supporting beam may be reduced by drilling of the concrete at
the junction of the hollow-core and supporting beam.

It is important that any drilling should not damage the hollow-core unit as it may act as a
stress concentration in the hollow-core and initiate cracking of the unreinforced web.

Drilling across the width of the core of the hollow-core is more effective than at the end of the
webs to the hollow-core unit.

2 April 2009
Figure 8.2: Release of restraint of each of hollow-core units

Note: Reduction of the negative moment capacity is only appropriate where the hollow-core units, without the
development of negative moment, have sufficient strength to carry the gravity and earthquake induced vertical
loads. Where the negative moment capacity is required under gravity load, webs of the hollow-core units will need
to be strengthened.

The location and extent of reinforcement and the alignment of the end of the hollow-core
units should be accurately determined prior to cutting:
Saw cutting of topping and cutting of a selected number of the steel reinforcing starters
in the topping at the junction of hollow-core and the support beam is not recommended.

8.4.3.2 Enhancement of positive moment capacity of hollow-core
Where rotations of the supporting beam occur under inter-storey drift in the direction parallel
with the hollow-core units, it is possible to develop positive moments in the hollow-core units
at the support. Positive moments may also be induced at the support by vertical seismic
effects.

A suggested detail for enhancing the strength of the hollow-core units under positive
movement of the support is to apply FRP to the underside right up to the junction with the
face of the supporting beam. This will confine the position of the potential failure point to the
face of the beam. The FRP must not be anchored into the support beam so that sliding
movement is still possible.

To safeguard the unit from failure at the beam face an RHS should be provided at the support.

8.4.3.3 Enhancement of hollow-core shear capacity and flange integrity
Satisfactory performance of the hollow-core units in zones subjected to high shear in the webs
due to the development of the negative moment or high gravity loading can be achieved by
enhancing the strength of the hollow-core webs.

The shear strength of the webs of the hollow-core units may be enhanced by the following
methods:
i. steel hangers
ii. FRP hangers
iii. void reinforcement.

2 April 2009
8.4.4 Steel hangers
Provision of steel hangers at regular centres along the hollow-core in areas of high-induced
shear stress is one method of enhancing the strength of the hollow-core web.

Figure 8.3: Steel hangers

These hangers need to be anchored near the top surface of the topping and on the underside of
the hollow-core. Adequate washers should be used on the underside of the hollow-core to
ensure an adequate spread of load. Threaded ends should be provided on the underside so
that the hangers can be pre-tensioned. Functional requirements normally require the steel
plates to be embedded in the concrete topping. The use of mechanical anchors anchored
within the depth of the topping may be an acceptable alternative.

Exposed washers and nuts at the end of the hangers on the underside of the hollow-core are
normally satisfactory as the underside of the units either occur in the ceiling space or are in an
industrial environment.

The hangers should be tensioned to induce compression in the web of the hollow-core unit,
thereby delaying the onset of cracking of the unreinforced web.

It is recommended that a minimum of the two penultimate webs be reinforced with hangers in
all hollow-core units.

8.4.5 FRP hangers
FRP hangers can be used as an alternative to steel to strengthen the web of the hollow-core
units. As the FRP hangers cannot pre-tensioned, the hangers may not be effective until crack
formation develops.

Figure 8.4: FRP hangers

2 April 2009
FRP hangers must be capable of being bent tight radius at each end in the anchorage area and
to be capable of maintaining the full strength of the hanger around the shard bend. FRP
hangers must also be fully anchored to the topping slab and the underside of the hollow-core
beyond the tight bend. Infilling of the cores of the hollow-core through which the hangers
pass may assist in the hangers contributing to the shear strength of the webs prior to the
initiation of the shear crack.

It is recommended that minimum of the two penultimate webs be reinforced with hangers in
all hollow-core units.

8.4.6 Unsuitable alternatives
The following details for enhancing the shear strength of the hollow-core were considered and
were assessed as unsuitable for the following reasons.

8.4.6.1 Infilling of cores (unsuitable)
Figure 8.5: Infilling of cores

The detail does not provide a tie between the pre-stressed lower chord of the hollow-core and
the topping. The detail also increases the stiffness of the hollow-core unit in the positive
moment zone and therefore potentially attracts additional load.

8.4.6.2 Locating dowels between units (unsuitable)
Figure 8.6: Dowels at joints between units

The dowel is located to far from the centre of the hollow-core units and may only prevent
failure of the webs at the edge of the units. Failure of the central portion of the lower chord to
the hollow-core may occur as indicated.

2 April 2009
8.4.6.3 Steel hangers anchored in cores (unsuitable)
Figure 8.7: Topping ties in cores

This detail involves chasing into the topping for anchorage of stirrups and drilling into select
cores. Steel stirrups are then placed into the core.

The detail does not anchor the lower half of the hollow-core to the top half of the hollow-
core. Infilling of cores, stiffens the hollow-core units and potentially attracts additional load
that may initiate earlier failure.

8.4.6.4 Reducing stress concentrations at ends of starters to edge detail
Starters for the supporting beam often extend an inadequate and/or a uniform distance into the
topping over the hollow-core unit. As a result, the ends of the starters act as a crack initiator.

It is possible to place FRP on the surface of the topping extending beyond the starters to
reinforce this weakness. The FRP should not extend beyond the end of the hollow-core as
any reinforcement of the section at the end of the hollow-core will increase negative moment
development, and may induce a web shear failure. The common length between the FRP and
the starters over the hollow-core units must achieve anchorage development of the FRP.

A suggested detail for preventing a crack initiating at the ends of the starters in the topping is
shown in Figure 8.8 as follows.

Figure 8.8: FRP to suppress cracking at end of reinforcement

If FRP is used, it may be desirable to place it in an orthogonal strip along the end of the
hollow-core.

2 April 2009
Figure 8.9: Layout of FRP

8.4.6.5 Improving integrity of alpha slab
The alpha slab is a hollow-core unit closest and parallel to a ductile seismic resisting frame.

Figure 8.10: Location of alpha slab

Requirements for the alpha slab vary with the unit in end bays being more critical than those
in internal bays. Enhancing the strength of the alpha slab for strain induced affects due to
elongation of the plastic hinge in the adjoining seismic frame is not considered desirable or
practical.

Suggested methods of achieving compliance with the requirements of NZS1170 are as
follows.

2 April 2009
8.4.7 Replacement of alpha slab
The highest level of protection and compliance with NZS3101 is achieved by removal of
alpha unit and replacement of alpha slab units with an insitu slab meeting the requirements of
NZS3101.

Figure 8.11: Replacement option for alpha slab

While in theory this option has advantages, the potential damage to starters from the seismic
frame and a loss in the integrity of starters from the topping on adjoining hollow-core units
are likely to compromise the completed work.

8.4.8 Strengthening of the alpha slab
The webs of the alpha hollow-core unit can be strengthened by the following methods:
steel hangers
FRP hangers.

These options will also act to retain the lower portion of the hollow-core units should failure
of the webs to the hollow-core alpha unit occur.

8.4.8.1 Use of mild steel hangers at regular centres
Mild steel hangers can be used to strengthen the webs and ultimately support the lower flange
of alpha slab.

Figure 8.12: Use of mild steel hangers to strengthen alpha slab

2 April 2009
Steel hangers should be located at a maximum spacing of the column spacing divided by four,
or 1.2 m, whichever is the lesser.

8.4.8.2 Use of FRP hangers
FRP hangers can also be used to support the lower half of the alpha slab and potentially
provide some assistance in preventing crack migration in the webs of the alpha slabs.

Figure 8.13: Use of FRP hangers to strengthen alpha slab

The FRP hangers should be spaced at similar centres to mild steel hangers and provide
protection against total collapse of the lower portion of the alpha slab.

8.4.8.3 Provision of steel support beams under alpha slab
An alternative method of restraining the lower chord of the alpha slab is to provide steel
beams with the outer edge supported by supporting beam and the inner end supported off the
hollow-core unit adjoining the alpha unit. The steel support beams should be provided at a
spacing equivalent to the column spacing divided by four.

Figure 8.14: Steel support beams under alpha slab plan view

2 April 2009
Figure 8.15: Steel supporting beams under alpha slab cross section

It is important that the fixing of the support beam to the seismic frame occurs with slotted
holes that allow for the strains that result from plastic deformation of the seismic frame.

8.4.9 Unsuitable alternatives for the alpha slab
Alternative options considered but dismissed as unlikely to be effective are as follows.

8.4.9.1 Infilling of cores (not suitable)
Infilling of cores of the alpha slab with cement grout or fibre reinforced concrete will stiffen
the outer slab and attract more load. Infilling is not expected to improve the strength of
unreinforced webs of the alpha slab unit.

Figure 8.16: Infilled core option for alpha slab not suitable

8.4.9.2 Selective weakening of alpha slab (not suitable)
The selective weakening of the alpha slab with priority to weakening the alpha slab in the end
bays of a multi bay building or end sections of a single bay building is not recommended.

Any release of the connection between the perimeter seismic frame and the floor diaphragm
has the potential to reduce the shear capacity of the interface under seismic loading and may
result in the seismic frame being inadequately restrained as the frame experiences in elastic
deformation.

2 April 2009
Figure 8.17: Selective weakening option for alpha slab not suitable

8.4.10 Restraint of columns
An important role of any slab or floor system is to restrain the columns in the horizontal
plane. Adequate restraint is assumed in structural analysis models and robust means of
achieving this must be maintained.

Methods of restraining the columns of the seismic frame are indicted below.

8.4.10.1 Steel ties in topping
Lateral restraint to intermediate columns in the edge seismic frame can be provided by
anchorage of a steel bar in column and extending the rod well into the topping of the floor.

Figure 8.18: Column restraint with steel ties

8.4.10.2 Use of steel support beams
An alternative is to extend the steel tie beams used to support the underside of the hollow-
core units as the restraint mechanism for the external frame.

The beams need to be extended at least the width of the hollow-core units into the diaphragm
and be tied to the diaphragm.

2 April 2009
Figure 8.19: Column tie using steel support beams

8.4.10.3 Column projecting into hollow-core
Where the columns of the seismic frame penetrate into the alpha hollow-core unit and the
hollow-core unit has been cut to fit around the column, it is necessary to provide separation
between the projecting faces of the column and the adjoining hollow-core.

Figure 8.20: Separating hollow-core unit from column

The zone of concrete next to the column should be drilled out to prevent the column inducing
excessive shear in outer webs of the hollow-core alpha unit.

Support of the hollow-core should be provided at these locations.

Figure 8.21: Support of units after separation from column

2 April 2009
8.4.11 Cut-outs and penetrations in the hollow-core
Any penetrations in the hollow-core of an alpha unit or near the negative moment zone of
hollow-core floor should be provided with an alternative support.

The use of steel RHS sections anchored to the underside of the hollow-core with steel dowels
in turn anchored in the topping slab, are preferred as dowels can be pre-tensioned to enhance
the shear capacity of the unreinforced web of the hollow-core around the penetration.

8.5 Construction considerations
8.5.1 General
Retrofit of hollow-core floors will inevitably involve access to key points in the structure.
The work involved in investigation and in the retrofit solutions will be disruptive to occupants
who will have to move out or tolerate construction operations while they work. Techniques
chosen for investigations and retrofit solutions need to account for the disruption. This means
that loss of use of the spaces involved, reduced productivity and costs of alternative
accommodation must be considered.

When a building with the potential for the occurrence of known hollow-core failure
mechanisms has been identified, a detailed examination of the expected seismic
displacements, rotations and their effects on the construction details will quickly indicate
which are the critical areas requiring modification, or strengthening. Analyses of some
buildings have shown that at-risk areas can be quite localised.

8.5.2 Access
Top access to the affected floor areas will normally be as simple as moving furniture and
rolling back the floor coverings.

8.5.2.1 Topping reinforcement
Inadequate (or non-ductile) topping reinforcement will require access to the top surface of the
effected floor areas. A variety of proprietary external reinforcement techniques are available
to provide extra tensile or flexural strength. These are relatively flat, and can be fitted
underneath normal floor coverings. The lack of fire protection could require that the external
strengthening is assessed and, replaced after a significant fire; but regular building inspection
procedures are currently in place to monitor such building modifications.

8.5.2.2 Slab shear capacity
Shear capacity can be increased by inserting shear ties through holes drilled through the
topping; into the required number of cores, and over the slab length that detailed analysis
indicates an unacceptable risk of potential shear failure. Those affected cores can be dammed
with expanding foam and grouted with a suitable grout.

2 April 2009
8.5.2.3 Reinforcement at cut-outs and penetrations
These are usually reinforced at the time of construction, but if the detail provided by the
hollow-core designer does not adequately cope with deformation incompatibility in the
supporting structure, reinforcing and grouting cores from above may be a simple solution.

Bottom access to affected areas may be complicated by the need to temporarily remove
mechanical services ducts, cable trays, etc, which may require a general evacuation of the
occupants of that floor.

8.5.2.4 Inadequate seating
Placing additional support brackets, to increase the slab seating length, or to secure beam
cover concrete will require the removal of ceilings adjacent to the beams, and possibly the
relocation of services penetrating the floor, on the face of the beams.

8.5.2.5 Displacement incompatibility
Again, providing some form of catching frame, or ductile bandage, may be required where
analysis shows that displacements, or rotations, across the hollow-core slabs or along their
length may exceed the localised capacity of the precast units.

8.5.3 Procurement of specialist services
Designers need to be generally aware of but do not need to become experts in the specialist
techniques that are evolving for structural repairs and retrofitting.

Contracts can be managed by inviting proposals from suitably skilled specialists and selecting
an experienced team that can:
demonstrate the required expertise in design and execution
work with the owner/occupier to minimise disruptions
meet the required programme
price to a schedule of work that can be expanded or reduced as the structure is opened
up and the actual construction details are determined.

That contracting team would then work with the owners engineer to develop the optimum
solution within the budget set, and in compliance with territorial authoritys requirements for
earthquake strengthening.

Specifications and contract documents should require the submission of detailed plans on how
disruption will be minimised.

8.5.4 Disruption to occupants
Before investigations or retrofit activity commences, mutually acceptable arrangements for
access, will need to be negotiated with the tenants, or occupiers, in the affected areas. There
may be sensitive issues that the building owner would prefer for occupants not to be aware of.
These sensitivities should be respected.

2 April 2009
Careful planning of operations is needed to minimize disruption.

Techniques such as temporary dust-proof walls can be provided around the required work
areas; cutting and drilling can be done at night; and all repair components can be transported
by normal passenger lifts and rubber-tyred trolleys.

Do not forget the disruptive influence of movement of workers and materials.

As areas are completed, they can be handed back to the building occupier, and the
strengthening crew can move progressively through the building.

8.5.5 Communications
Effective communication between all parties is vital, particularly between the contractor and
occupants/owner. This must be maintained throughout the process.

A building owner is likely to initiate the first communication, by seeking to:
modify the building in a manner that requires a building consent
secure the sale of the building to a knowledgeable buyer
reduce the risk of business disruption.

If the seismic upgrading is not part of a normal building refurbishment, the nature of the
disruption will need to be communicated to the occupier.

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