Viking and medieval amulets in Scandinavia

Fuglesang, Signe Horn

Fornvnnen 84, 15-27
http://kulturarvsdata.se/raa/fornvannen/html/1989_015
Ingr i: samla.raa.se
Viking and medieval amulets in
Seandinavia
By Signe Horn Fuglesang
Fuglesang, S. H, 1989. Viking and medieval amulets in Seandinavia. Fornvnnen
84, Stockholm.
Identification of Viking period and medieval amulets entails problems of source
criticism: the literary sources on medicine, leechcraft etc. are all late and depend
on West-European prototypes, and to distinguish between amulets, ornaments
and cult objects is difficult. Many types of amulets have been postulated for the
Viking period and the Middle Ages, but the theories sometimes seem exagger-
ated.
Signe Horn Fuglesang, Universitetet i Oslo, Inst. for kunsthislork og klassisk arkeobgi,
Postboks 1019 Blindem, Oslo 3, Norway.
The identification of Viking and medieval
amulets from Seandinavia entails several prob-
lems of source criticism. For instance, poten-
tially relevant plant and animal remains in the
archaeological material may have dissolved or
been overlooked, and consequently what sur-
vives may not be representative. All texts on
medicine and leechcraft are late (the earliest is
from the 13th century) and depend on West-
European prototypes (Sorensen, 1966). They
may reflect contemporary Scandinavian practi-
ces, but their value for our underst andi ng of
earlier customs remains doubtful unless con-
firmed by archaeological finds. In fact, all
Scandinavian texts concerning amulets are late
and projecting their information backwards in
time can easily result in a circular argument.
For example, attention may be drawn to the
discrepancy between literature and actual re-
mains in the case of runic inscriptions on
weapons. The Sigrdnfumdl, written in the 13th
century, contains a famous passage on how to
incise "r unes of vi ct ory" on weapons. In actual
fact only 20 of the 5.000 or so weapons sur-
viving from the Viking and Medieval periods
bear runic inscriptions, and none of them has
a magical content (Diiwel, 1981, esp. pp. 163-
167).
It is also notoriously difficult to draw the line
between amulets on the one hand and orna-
ments or cult objects on the other. In the Viking
period, miniatures of tools and weapons of sil-
ver or bronze were frequently worn on a neck-
lace (Fig. 1.) They can easily have been orna-
ments. The interpretation of them as amulets
rests partly on the simultaneous occurrence of
identical models in iron (Arrhenius, 1961) part-
ly on the interpretation of similar, earlier ob-
jects from graves in England and on the Conti-
nent (Meaney, 1981). The suggested association
of some of these models with particular pagan
gods raises further questions. Apart from
Thor ' s hammer, which seems certain, none of
them is an obvious attribute and their identifi-
cation with Odi n, Thor and Freyr rests mainly
on inference. Finally, it is noteworthy that none
of the Scandinavian Viking amulets depicts
animals of the species wich lter sour-
ces associate with the pagan gods, e.g. Thor ' s
goats, Odi n' s rvens or Freyr' s boar.
Minbture objects are normally of metal; most of
them are miniatures of tools and weapons
which have a fairly long European tradition
(Fig. 1) (Arrhenius, 1961; Nsman, 1972-73;
Schwarz-Mackensen, 1978; Meaney, 1981;
Duczko, 1986). The miniatures of weapons
from the dwellings at Eketorp, l and, probably
date from the 6th-7th century and conform to
contemporaneous West-European types of mo-
dels (Nsman, 1972-73). The Viking minia-
Fornvnnen 4(1)
16 S. Horn Fuglesang
Oo
Fig. 1. Pendant miniatures of bronze: horse, sword, spear, chair, from Sweden; provenance unknown.
Museum of National Antiquities, Stockholm. (Photo ATA, Stockholm. Drawing from Arrhenius 1961.)
Miniatyrer av bronse: hest, sverd, spyd og stol fra Sverige, ukjent funsted.
tures which have been found tn situ in graves
seem normally to have been suspended from a
necklace rather than a chat dai ne. This facili-
tates their distinction from toilet implements,
but raises the possibility of their being orna-
ments. For instance, the Viking sieve spoon
normally lacks a handle, and its position on a
necklace suggests that its function was amuletic
or ornament al rather than practical. (Duczko
1985, pp. 47 f; Meaney 1981, p. 152. For a prac-
tical function of those on chat dai nes see Grs-
lund, 1978-79, esp. p. 299.) Circular shield-
shaped pendants of bronze or silver are found
on necklaces from the lOth century. Since they
are not usually associated with other miniature
weapons, they may have been regarded as orna-
ments although their form and decoration coin-
cide strikingly with early Anglo-Saxon exam-
ples (e.g. Arbman, 1940, Pl. 97:1-20; Duczko,
1985, p. 50; Meaney, 1981, Fig. V:o). In addi-
tion to those from Western Europ, Scandina-
vian Viking miniatures include spade-like
objects, scythes, strike-a-lights and staffs (Arr-
henius, 1961). Thei r precise symbolic conno-
tations are unknown, although Odi n, Thor and
the fertility god Freyr have been mentioned in
this connection (Arrhenius, 1961; Andersen,
1971). Mi ni at ure chairs are apparently peculiar
to Seandinavia. So far, 13 examples are known
from Sweden (i nd. Gotland) and Denmark
(i nd. Bornholm). They date from the mid-
Viking period (c. 875/900-950/975), and have
(been connected with the cult of Odi n (Arrhe-
nius, 1961, esp. p. 157; Drescher and Hauck,
1982, esp. pp. 289, 294 f).
Pendant capsules of silver occur sporadically in
mid- and late-Viking contexts (Stenberger,
1958, pp. 181-185; Duczko, 1978-79 and
1985, pp. 61-66). They presumably contained
fragrant herbs, and one from Birka grave 552
has a runic inscription indicating that it was
used aginst vermin (Duczko, 1985).
Votive rings are a group of amulets peculiar to
East-Scandinavia, esp. to Uppland, Sderman-
land and Vst manl and in Sweden (Fig 2;
Strm, 1974 and 1984). They are large rings
(diameter about 15 cm) made from an iron rod
with twisted locks of different types. When
found complete, they have suspended ham-
mer-, spatula- and L-shaped miniatures, oc-
casionally with additional rings and spirals.
Ninety-five per cent of the approximately 450
" Thor ' s r i ngs" of this type come from the M-
lar region, and most of them date from the 9th
century. They could be worn around the neck,
as shown by some of the inhumation graves
at Birka, but since the overwhelming majori-
ty of such rings come from cremation graves
their use in the world of the living remains con-
jectural. The association of such rings with the
Fornvnnen 84 (!)
Viking and medieval amulets 17
Fig. 2. Votive ring from
Birka, grave 985, Uppland,
Sweden. Viking period.
Museum of National Anti-
quities, Stockholm. (Photo
ATA, Stockholm.) Votiv-
ring fra Birka, grav 985.
Vikingtid.
cult of Thor seems reasonable, and their regio-
nal distribution is striking. But it should not
be overlooked that they bear a marked resem-
blance to small rings with miniatures of both
iron and other metals found in other areas of
Seandinavia (e.g. Arrhenius, 1961; Andersen,
1971; Muller-Wille, 1976).
Mimature hammers occur in pre-Viking times
both in Seandinavia and in England (Fig 3;
Schwarz-Mackensen, 1978, p. 85 with refs.;
Meaney, 1981, p. 151). But their number in-
creased markedly in Viking-Age Seandinavia.
The material is iron, bronze, occasionally
amber, and from the lOth century onwards
silver. They are predominantly, though not
exclusively, found in women' s graves, while
most of the silver examples come from hoards of
the late lOth and the llth century (Stenberger,
1958, esp. pp. 167-171; Strm, 1984, esp. p.
136). The hammer-shaped pendant is normally
interpreted as the symbol of the god Thor, an
interpretation based on contemporaneous
Fig. 3. Pendant hammer of silver from Birka, grave
750. lOth century. Museum of National Antiquities,
Stockholm. (Photo ATA, Stockholm.) Miniatyr-
hammer av solv fra Birka, grav 750. 900-tallet.
Fornvnnen 4 ( I )
18 S. Horn Fuglesang
Fig. 4. Casting mould of soapstone from Trendgr-
den, Jutland, Denmark. Danish National Museum,
Copenhagen. (Photo Danish National Museum,
Copenhagen.) En stopeform av klebersten fra
Trendgrden, Jylland.
iconography and on lter but fairly reliable lite-
rary evidence. Its amuletic significance is taken
to be generally prophylactic. The proliferation
of silver hammers in the lOth and llth centuries
has occasionally been interpreted as a pagan
riposte to the Christian pendant cross with be-
came current in the same period. The casting
mould from Trendgrden, Jut l and, demonstra-
tes that cross and hammer were manufaclured
simultaneously (Fig. 4).
Cross pendants have been found in all parts of
1
Seandinavia (Fig. 5). Some, particularly bronze
crosses, are found in graves, but most of the sur-
viving pices are of silver and have been recove-
red from hoards (Stenberger, 1958, pp. 171-
181; Muller-Wille, 1976, pp. 37 f; Grslund,
1984 with refs.). Crosses in graves are at times
associated with other types of amulet pendants,
in Birka grave 968, for instance, with a minia-
ture chair which is usually interpreted as a sym-
bol of Odi n, the figure of a small woman, pos-
sibly a pagan "val kyri e", and a shidd-shaped
pendant (Grslund, 1984, p. 115). Another
grave contained both a cross and a Thor ' s ham-
mer (Birka grave 750; Grslund, 1984, esp. p.
118). Similarly, a grave in Taskula, Finland, had
a pendant cross and a miniature axe (Kivikoski,
1965, p. 32). Such combinations of pagan and
Christian amulets correspond to the occur-
rence of cross pendant s in graves showing
pagan ritual, and probably reflect individual
vagaries in the period of transition to Christi-
Fig. 5. Pendant cross of silver from Birka, grave 480.
lOth century. Museum of National Antiquities,
Stockholm. (Photo ATA, Stockholm.) Hengekors
av solv fra Birka, grav 480. 900-tallet.
anity (Grslund, 1984, pp. 115-118). Normally,
neither hammers nor crosses found in hoards
are hacked (Stenberger, 1958, pp. 168, 176).
As mentioned, animals associated with speci-
fic gods do not occur among the amulet minia-
tures. The bosses on some types of lOth century
brooches are occasionally shaped like semi-
naturalistic goats which may have had an amu-
letic function through the animaFs association
with Thor (Roesdahl, 1982, p. 162). However,
other animal types used for bosses are without
deistic connotations. On the other hand, a
small bronze frog crouching behind what has
been interpreted as female genitals is clearly
amuletic (Fig. 6; Brndsted, 1942). It was found
in a woman' s grave in Jut l and, Denmark.
Figure representations, i ndudi ng bracteates
which may have been worn as amulets (Hauck,
1985, vol. 1:1), are of more interest for the histo-
ry of religion. But two groups should be men-
tioned. One is peculiar to Seandinavia, namely
the small gold plaques with repouss render-
ings of a man, a woman or a couple. There
Fo r n v n n e n 4 (1' I. H' I)
Vikinp and medieval amulets 19
Fig. 6. Grave amulet of bronze: frog or tad crouching behind female genitals (?), from Sonderteglgrd,
Jutland, Denmark. Viking period, probably lOth century. Danish National Museum, Copenhagen.
(Photo Danish National Museum, Copenhagen.) Gravamulett av bronse: frosk sammenkropet bak en
vulva (?). Vikingtid, sannsynligvis 900-tallet.
seems to be both a regional and a chronological
distinction between the iconographies: a man
and woman rendered on separate sheets appear
to be pre-Viking and mainly South-east Scandi-
navian (Fig. 7), while the couple is of Viking
date and has a pan-Scandinavian distribution
(Fig. 8; Stenberger, 1973). Although the identi-
fication of the figures with specific gods is un-
certain, the facing and sometimes embracing
pair is probably a fertility symbol (Norden,
1938; Blindheim, 1959; Holmqvist, 1958; Li-
den, 1969). The pices have no sign of fasten-
ing, and their diminutive size and fragility
argue against a practical or ornament al func-
tion. The earliest are pre-Viking (Stenberger,
1973) and they seem to have continued through
most of the Viking period. Some have been
found singly, but surprisingly often they occur
together in large numbers, e.g. 26 at Hdg,
Sweden, 19 at Maere, Norway (Gustafson,
1899; Holmqvist, 1958, Liden, 1969). The
latest, exciting discovery of hundreds of such
pices in one locality on the Island of Bornholm
strengthens the theory that the gold plaques
served as votive gifts (Watt, 1987). The other
group is, in contrast, found only singly and
rardy, and consists of small bronze or bone sta-
tuejttes of sitting men. Those that can be dated
are from the llth century. The ithyphallic figure
from Rllinge, Sweden, is sometimes taken to
be a model of the fertility god Freyr which
Adam of Bremen mentions as one of the cult
statues in the Temple of Uppsala, while other
statuettes of bearded men are interpreted va-
riously as Thor or Odi n (e.g. Drescher and
Hauck, 1982). They are sometimes taken to be
amulets, on the strength of two saga texts of
the 13th century which mention 9th- and lOth-
century worship of Freyr and Thor respectivdy
( Vatnsdab saga, ch. 10 and Hallfredar saga, ch. 6;
cf. Turville-Petre, 1964, p. 248). There is little
foundation for such theories, however, and the
function of the statuettes remains uncertain.
Those of bone may have been gaming pices
(Roesdahl, 1982, p. 163).
Beads have at times been interpreted as pos-
Fomvannen4(l)
20 S. Horn Fuglesang
^ Sf r \ ^ \ ^
Fig. 7. Plaques of gold from Eketorp, land, Sweden. Migration period. Museum of National Antiquities,
Stockholm. (Photo ATA, Stockholm.) "Gullgubber" fra Eketorp, land. Folkevandringstid.
sible amulets, with special emphasis on those
made of jet, amber and rock crystal (Meaney,
1981). There are some Viking finds which
might support this view. For instance, jet beads
recorded from Norwegian graves seem to oc-
cur singly (Petersen, 1940, pp. 207 f), and in a
woman' s grave at Sunnmre, Norway, a jet
bead was associated with a snake of jet, a
woman-shaped bead of amber, and 66 glass
beads (Blindheim, 1958-59, p. 82). In Sweden,
amber is frequently the material when a bead is
found singly in a grave, and even on large neck-
laces there are examples of amber being used
for only one bead (Grslund, 1972-73, pp. 173
f). Against this must be held the great number
of finds where amber beads are clearly orna-
mental, however. Moreover the i ndusi on ofall
types of beads in jewellery hoards indicates a
pecuniary rather than amuletic value (Stenber-
ger, 1958, pp. 222 f.). Rock crystal seems to have
been used mainly for ornament al beads, several
occurring together with other types of beads on
necklaces. Pendants of rock crystal are very
rare, and have been found mainly on Gotland
and in Finland (Stenberger, 1958, pp. 200-
203). Most of them date from the second half of
the llth century. The most impressive example,
the necklace from Lilla Rone, Gotland, con-
tains 14 crystal balls set in silver filigree and is
clearly a very valuable ornament. Since rock-
crystal pendant s are r ar dy found singly and
were apparently imported ver a short period
only, they seem like the beads to have been
ornaments rather than amulets. Pendants made
from other imported precious and semi-pre-
cious stones, e.g. an amethyst found at Hedeby
(Arrhenius, 1978), may have been attributed
with magic power, but such interpretations rest
Fornvnnen 4 ( I )
Viking and medieval amulets 21
Fig. 8. Plaques of gold from Hauge, Rogaland, Norway. Viking period, probably lOth century. Historisk
Museum, Bergen. (Photo Historisk Museum, Bergen.) "Gullgubber" fra Hauge, Rogaland. Vikingtid,
sannsynligvis 900-tallet.
on the European lapidaries and not on the
circumstances of the Scandinavian finds.
In addition to being used for beads, jet has
been carved into finger- and arm-rings recov-
ered from a few 9th century graves along the
Norwegian coast (Petersen, 1940; Shetelig,
1944). Apart from an arm ring found at Birka,
jet does not seem to be recorded in other Scan-
dinavian areas, and there is nothing to suggest
that the material was regarded as inherently
amuletic. Three animal-shaped figures of jet
and another three of amber, all likewise of the
9th century and from coastal Norway, are at
times interpreted as amulets (Shetelig, 1944).
However, their very rarity and regional distri-
bution caution against this view.
Amber seems also to have been used mainly
for ornament s, but there is some evidence that
it could be used for amulets. At Birka, for in-
stance, a couple of men' s graves contained a
piece of amber together with a coin, a bead or
such like in a purse (Grslund, 1972-73, p.
174). There are also some indications from Got-
land that amber could be used for grave amulets
(Trotzig, 1983, Fig. 10). Some men' s graves
yielded small axe- and adze-heads, some wo-
men' s squarish pices with a groove (probably a
vulva, cf. Bronsted, 1944; Meaney, 1981, Fig.
VLww). They were lying at the feet of the de-
ceased, and are consequently unlikely to have
been worn. Some of them have been carved
from beads.
Charons obol is sporadically documented in
Scandinavian graves from the Roman Iron Age
and the Migration period (Schetelig, 1907). A
critical study shows that the best evidence for
the custom in the Viking period comes from
eastern Sweden, while it seems to have been
4(1)
22 S. Horn Fuglesang
rare in Denmark and the evidence from Nor-
way and Finland is incondusive (Grslund,
1965-1966; Skaarup, 1976, pp. 192 f; Muller-
Wille, 1976, pp. 42 f). Graves of the 13th and
14th centuries have documented Charon' s obol
from Sweden, Scania and Norway. In Swedish
folklore, the custom can be followed again from
the 18th to the 20th century, and a continuity
from the Middle Ages seems likely (Grslund,
1965-66).
A different category of grave amulet is the
Stone-Age axe-heads which have at times been
found in medieval Danish and Swedish graves
(Moltke, 1938, pp. 144-147 with refs.; Alm-
qvist, 1974). Many of them bear runic inscrip-
tions, mostly unintelligible, and their amuletic
function is probably similar to that of fossils and
"snake st ones" (Almqvist, 1974).
Possible amulets of natural origin are r ar dy re-
corded from Viking graves, but one at Ramme,
Jut l and, contained an echinite and two small
stones together with an amber ring and eight
beads of glass and amber (Brndsted, 1936, p.
111), while a more definitdy amuletic purpose
may be ascribed to the assemblage of owl
pdl et s, henbane seeds and fragmentary pig' s
jaw found in a woman' s grave at Fyrkat, Jut -
land (Roesdahl, 1977, pp. 143, 150 and 1982,
p. 162). An amulet bag occurs in Birka grave 97
(Arbman, 1940, p. 64), and further amulet bags
with inter alb human hair and "snake st ones"
have occasionally come to light in Finnish
graves of the Viking period (Kivikoski, 1965,
p. 31). On the other hand, fossils have been
found spread ver most of the town site at
Hedeby, and there is nothing to indicate that
they were used as amulets. This evidence cau-
tions against general interpretations of fossils as
amulets in Viking Seandinavia (Metzger-
Krah, 1978), It is also uncertain whether the
stones listed from Icelandic pagan graves can be
interpreted as amulets (Steffensen, 1966-69,
pp. 192-194; Meaney, 1981, pp. 102 f.) Bear
daws in Scandinavian graves come generally
from the pelts on which the deceased had been
placed; only a very few examples from Sweden
can be shown to have served as amulets (Petr,
1980). A bear tooth was found in a child' s grave,
Birka no. 890 (Grslund, 1972-73, p. 170).
Bronze miniatures of bear teeth form a group of
amulets peculiar to Viking-Age Finland, while
graves on the island of land from the 7th cen-
tury onwards often contain a clay mi ni at ure of
an ani maPs paw, a type of amulet which has
parallels in Russia (Kivikoski, 1965). The bear
tooth miniature may have had a general apotro-
paic function, while that of the ani maf s paw is
uncertain (Kivikoski, 1965). Evidence for
herbs, animal parts and gems as amulets is on
the whole mostly literary and from lter in the
Middle Ages. King Magnus Eriksson (1316-
1374), for instance, owned a " s t one" taken
from a t oad' s head. It was bdieved to sweat in
the vicinity of poison. Snake' s tongues were
charms against black magic and disease. In
1272, Ki ng Magnus Lagaboter of Norway sent
two snake' s tongues to Bishop Ami on Iceland,
and part of a snake' s tongue is listed in the royal
inventory at Bohus Castle in 1340. Sapphire
was likewise bdieved to cure illness, as eviden-
ced by the inscription on a medieval finger ring
from Visby: "my power works against the poi-
son of disease". The plants which seem to have
been amuletic, as opposed to medical, include
garlic, grains of barley, Ckuta and Daphne (Bo,
Swartling and Kivikoski, 1956). The oldest
Scandinavian law texts contain brief passages
on sorcery, but the Icelandic Grgs seems to be
alone in specifying an implement: a " s t one"
which in medieval Norse terminology could
mean either mineral or animal origin for the
magic piece (Steffensen, 1966-69, pp. 192-
194).
An apotropaic function of the allium species is
suggested by inter alb the runic bukaR inscrip-
tions on some bracteates of the Migration
period from Denmark (Baeksted, 1952, p. 126;
Hei zmann, 1986, with refs.). A magical func-
tion of leek and/or onion would be i nt i mat dy
related to, and probably derived from, the
plants' use in Classical and Medieval medicine
(Hei zmann, 1986). However, critical modem
studies contradict interpretations of allium as
an ingredient in a phallic cult, since the only
reference for such usage is the very late and
novdistic story of the vlsa, a horse phallus, in-
cluded in the Flateyjar Book written in the late
14th century (Hei zmann, 1986; Klaus Diiwel,
Habilschrift, Universitt Gttingen, unpub-
lished MS. , esp. pp. 200-209, with refs.)
Fomvannn 4 (!)
Viking and medieval amulets 23
Rings can be interpreted as amuletic only by
association or inscription. No Scandinavian
amulet ring known so far seems to be earlier
than the 13th century (Moltke, 1938; Liestl,
1980, pp. 68 f).
Runes were not inherently magical first and
foremost they were the practical script of a pre-
parchment society. But they were also used to
write magical formulae, from the Migration
period into the late Middle Ages. The Scandi-
navian examples of runic amulets (as opposed
to magic inscriptions on inter alm runestones,
bracteates etc.) are sporadic. The earliest re-
covered so far is a copper sheet with what is
interpreted as an invocation against disease,
found on Gotland in a grave from c. A. U 700
(Gustavson and Brink, 1981). A few, similar in-
vocations on metal sheets come from Viking
graves in Sweden (Norden, 1943). But the great
number of runic amulets are post-Viking.
Many of the inscriptions are corrupt or pure
gibberish. But when they can be read, they nor-
mally use Christian formulae and invocations,
mostly in Latin (i. a. Pater Noster, Christus regnat,
the names of the evangdists or archangds, et c) .
Some of them include pan-European magical
phrases, frequently agb (for the Hebraic Allah
Gibbor Leobm Adonaj, i.e. " Thou art strong in
eternity, Lor d") . The majority of amulets have
similarly generalized prophylactic inscriptions,
in some cases specifying the person to be pro-
tected, notably on the lead sheets from Odense,
Denmark and Boge, Gotland (Moltke, 1938,
pp. 120-122; Gustavson, 1984). But some in-
scriptions were directed against specific illness-
es, notably the invocation of the Seven Sleepers
of Ephesus known from a lead sheet found at
Alvastra, Sweden, and a small piece of wood
from the wharf in Bergen, Norway. The Seven
Sleepers of Ephesus were assumed to protect
against fever, particularly malaria (Gustavson,
1984, p. 67; Moller-Christensen, 1959 with
refs; Liest!, 1980, pp. 73-77.). Runic amulets
occur normally as lead, sometimes copper,
sheets which have been folded or cut into the
shape of a cross (Fig. 9), but they were also
made as runic sticks or from bone. Thei r func-
tion varied. Some have been interred with the
dead, presumably to protect them. Uni n-
scribed crosses must have had the same func-
Fig. 9. Runic amulet of lead sheet from Osen, Sogn
og Fjordane, Norway. I3th century (?). Historisk
Museum, Bergen. (Photo Historisk Museum, Ber-
gen.) Runeamulett, blyblikk fra Osen, Sogn og
Fjordane. 1200-tallet (?). Hoyde ca. 6 cm.
tion, e. g. the more than fifty wooden crosses
from the Norse graves at Herjolfsnes, Green-
land (Nrlund, 1924). Others, such as the
Odense sheet, were deposited in churchyard
soil or a grave, possibly to transfer illness from
the living to the dead (Moltke, 1938 with refs.;
Gustavson, 1984). Some have come to light un-
der church floors, inserted between the planks,
probably to protect the living (e. g. Liestl,
1978; Olsen ed., 1940 ff, vol. 4, No. 348, pp.
140-143). Others again have been found in
towns under circumstances which indicate that
they had been accidentally lst and hence pre-
sumably worn by their owners (e. g. Liestl,
1980, No. 637, pp. 73-77, from Bergen; Gus-
turnftinnrn 84(1989)
24 S. Horn Fuglesang
t avson a n d Br i nk, 1980, pp. 199-201 from
St ockhol m) .
Fi nal l y, a r uni c l ead cross from Sunnf j or d,
Nor way, ma y have been pl aced u n d e r t he floor
of a dwel l i ng, agai n pr e s uma bl y for gener al
pr ot ect i on ( Kn u d s e n a nd Dyvi k, 1980).
Conclusbn
T h e above sur vey suggest s t hat despi t e cer t ai n
over l aps, t her e is a fairly cl ear de ma r ka t i on as
r egar ds t he use of a mul e t s bet ween t he Vi ki ng
per i od a nd t he l at e Mi ddl e Ages. I n t he Vi ki ng
per i od, t he e mpha s i s is on mi ni a t ur e s whi l e
a mul e t s of na t ur a l or i gi n a nd r uni c a mul e t s ar e
rel at i vel y few a nd oft en of ques t i onabl e i nt er -
pr et at i on. Anot he r pecul i ar i t y of t he Vi ki ng
a mul e t s is t he abs ence of close connect i ons wi t h
pa ga n gods; apar t from t he Th o r ' s h a mme r ,
t her e is no veri fi abl e i ns t ance of di vne at t r i -
but es used as amul et s . Conve r s dy, in t he l t er
Mi ddl e Ages a mul e t s of nat ur al or i gi n domi -
nat e bot h t he written and t he archaeological sour-
ces, whi l e t he n u me r o u s r uni c aul et s f r equent l y
d e mo n s t r a t e ties wi t h t he Chr i s t i a n cul t t he
cross be i ng t he onl y mi ni a t ur e . Even al l owi ng
for losses a nd over l aps, t he t endency s eems
ma r k e d e nough t o be cul t ur al l y si gni fi cant , a nd
i ndi cat es i nt er al i a t hat onl y wi t h t he ut mos t
caut i on s houl d l t er, wr i t t en sour ces be us ed t o
i nt er pr et Vi ki ng obj ect s as amul et i c.
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,4(1)
26 S. Horn Fuglesang
Sammandrag
Identifikasjonen av skandinaviske amuletter
byr p en rekke kildekritiske problem: i arkeolo-
gisk materiale kan organiske gjenstander vaere
formullet eller versett; alle teksterom medisin,
magi etc. er sene (eldste: 1200-tallet) og bygget
p europeiske forbilder; diktning kan vaere di-
rekte misvisende, som Sigrdrifuml om "seierru-
ner ' ' p vapen (c. 5 000 vapen bevart, 20 av dem
har runeinnskrifter, ingen innskrift kan tolkes
magisk, cf. Diiwel, 1981); skillet mellom amu-
lett, kultobjekt og ornament er vanskelig pre-
sisere; Tors hammer er det eneste gudeattributt
som kan identiiiseres.
Minbtyrer av vapen, redskap o. lign. er identi-
fisert som amuletter dels p.g.a. overcnsstem-
mdser med europeiske paralleller, dels fordi
smykkefunksjonen kan ut dukkes siden det f-
rekommer eksemplarer ogs i jern (fig. 1).
Gjenstandsgruppene omfatter vapen, skjold,
spade, sigd, stav, ildstl, silskje, stol. Symbol-
funksjon er ukjent. Dateringene dekker mero-
vingertid og vikingtid.
Votivringer av jern er spesielle forOstskandina-
via, 95 % av de bevarte c. 450 eksemplarene er
funnet i Mlaromrdet (fig. 2). Nr de er in-
takte, har de fleste phengt hammer-, spatula-
og L-formete miniatyrer. Sammenheng med
Torskult er sannsynlig.
Minbtyrhamre kjennes for vikingtid i bde
England og Skandinavia, men de fleste er fra
vikingtid (fig. 3). Materialet er j ern, bronse,
f.o.m. 900-tallet solv, i noen tilfelle rav. De fleste
av j ern og bronse er funnet i kvinnegraver, solv-
eksemplarene vesentlig i skattefunn nedlagt
sent 900- og 1000-tall. Hammer en tolkes nor-
malt som Torssymbol, og amulettfunksjonen
som generell profylaktisk. kningen av solv-
hamre p 900- og 1000-tallet antas vasre reak-
sjon p bruk av kors (fig. 4).
Hengekors er funnet i alle deler av Skandinavia
(fig. 5). Noen, vesentlig av bronse, er funnet i
grver, de fleste av solv er fra skattefunn. Vn-
ligvis er hverken hamre eller kors i skattefunn
hakket.
Dyrefigurer er normalt ikke brukt som amulet-
ter, og det er ikke bevart ekscmpler p guders
attributdyr. En sannsynlig amulett (ved fod-
selshjelp?) er derimot en halvnaturalistisk frosk
sammenkropet bak en vulva (?) (fig. 6).
Figurfremstillinger er normalt ikke amuletiske.
"Gul l gubbene" som er spesielle for Skandina-
via, er sannsynligvis votivgaver (fig. 7, 8). Sm
statuetter av bein eller bronse er tidvis tolket
som amuletter og kopier etter gudebilder. Det
er ingen bevis for slike teorier.
Perkr, spesielt av rav, jet og bergkrystall, tol-
kes tidvis som amuletter og noen funn bestyrker
dette synet. Men i lngt de fleste funn er perle-
ne smykker. Det samme gjelder sannsynligvis
henger av bergkrystall. Henger av andre im-
porterte halveddsteiner kan ha vasrt tillagt
amulettfunksjon, men slik tolkning er basert p
de europeiske lapidariene, ikke de skandinavis-
ke funnomstendigheter.
Charons mynt er sporadisk belagt i skandinavis-
ke grver. De fleste funn fra vikingtid er fra Sve-
rige, fra 12- og 1300-tall ogs i Skne og Norge.
Steinalders ekser er funnet i noen svenske og
danske grver fra mi dddal der. Mange av dem
har ulesdig runeinnskrift, og amulettfunksjo-
nen tilsvarer sannsynligvis fossiler og "orm-
steiner".
Naluramuletter er meget sjeldne i vikingtid,
men det er ekscmpler i kvinnegraver p Jyl-
land, og "pj ot reposer" er belagt i Birka og i
Finland. Bjornekfor i grver st mmer oftest fra
fellen p likleiet, men et par ekscmpler fra Sve-
rige er sannsynlige amuletter. Bronseminiaty-
rer av bjornetenner er spesielle for Finland i vi-
kingtid, mens grver p land ofte har leirmi-
niatyr av en dyrepote. Bjornetannminiatyren
kan ha vaert alment apotropaisk, dyrepotens
betydning er ukjent. Belegg for amuletter av ur-
ter, dyr edder og steiner er ievrig vesentlig litte-
raere og fra hoymi dddal deren. Kong Magnus
Eriksson (1316-1374) eiet en "st ei n" fra et
paddehode, den svettet nr den kom naer gift.
Or met unge vernet mot sykdom og svart magi;
kong Magnus Lagaboter sendte to av dem til
biskop Ami p Island i 1272, ogener nevnt i in-
ventariet fra Bhus i 1340. De eldste skandina-
viske lover har korte best emmdser om straff for
trolldom, men bare Grgs spesifiserer et trylle-
middel, nemlig en "st ei n", som finnes brukt
Fornvnnen 4 ( VI '
Viking and medieval amulets 27
som term for amuletter av bde mineralsk og
animalsk oppri nndse. En apotropaisk funksjon
for allium er sannsynlig bl. a. utfra bukaR-mn-
skriften p danske gullbrakteater fra folkevand-
ringstid; trolig er amulettfunksjonen avledet av
plantens bruk i klassisk og middelaldersk medi-
sin. Derimot gr mderne kritiske studier mot
tolkninger av allium som ledd i en fallisk kult,
siden det eneste belegget er den sene og fantasi-
fulle historien om valsa i Fbteyjarbk.
Runer var ikke i seg selv magiske, de var forst
og fremst en skrift til praktisk bruk. Men de ble
ogs brukt til magiske formler, fra folkevand-
ringstid til sen mi dddal der. Ekscmpler p ru-
neamuletter (i motsetning til magiske rune-
innskrifter) er sporadiske. Det eldste funnet til
n er et kopperblikk fra ca. 700 e. Kr., fra en
grav p Gotland; innskriften er tolket som en
formel mot sykdom. I Sverige er funnet noen f,
lignende stykker fra vikingtid. Men hoved-
mengden av runeamuletter er fra senere i mid-
delalderen. Mange av innskriftene er imitasjo-
ner av runer. Men nr de er lesdige, inneholder
de normalt kristne formler og pkalldser, oftest
p latin. De fleste innskriftene er alment profy-
laktiske, men noen er rettet mot spesielle syk-
dommer, oftest feber. Runeamul et t er er oftest
av blyblikk, tidvis av kopper, som er sammen-
foldet eller skret til et kors (fig. 9), men rune-
pinner av tre eller bein frekommer ogs. Bru-
ken varierte, og m tolkes utfra de enkelte funn-
omstendigheter: i grav, under kirkegulv, under
husgulv, i byhus.
Fornvannrn 4 ( I ' I)