First Edition, 2011

ISBN 978-93-81157-23-7




















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Published by:
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Table of Contents

Chapter 1- Introduction to Microwaves
Chapter 2 - Cosmic Microwave Background Radiation
Chapter 3 - Microwave Transmission

Chapter 4 - Microwave Frequency Bands

Chapter 5 - Other Microwave Frequency Bands
Chapter 6 - Waveguide
Chapter 7 - Klystron
Chapter 8 - Microstrip
Chapter 9 - Waveguide Flange
Chapter 10 - Cavity Magnetron
Chapter 11 - Diverse Microwave Technologies



Chapter- 1

Introduction to Microwaves










A microwave telecommunications tower on Wrights Hill in Wellington, New Zealand
Microwaves are electromagnetic waves with wavelengths ranging from as long as one
meter to as short as one millimeter, or equivalently, with frequencies between 300 MHz
(0.3 GHz) and 300 GHz. This broad definition includes both UHF and EHF (millimeter
waves), and various sources use different boundaries. In all cases, microwave includes
the entire SHF band (3 to 30 GHz, or 10 to 1 cm) at minimum, with RF engineering often
putting the lower boundary at 1 GHz (30 cm), and the upper around 100 GHz (3mm).
Apparatus and techniques may be described qualitatively as "microwave" when the
wavelengths of signals are roughly the same as the dimensions of the equipment, so that
lumped-element circuit theory is inaccurate. As a consequence, practical microwave
technique tends to move away from the discrete resistors, capacitors, and inductors used
with lower frequency radio waves. Instead, distributed circuit elements and transmission-
line theory are more useful methods for design and analysis. Open-wire and coaxial
transmission lines give way to waveguides and stripline, and lumped-element tuned
circuits are replaced by cavity resonators or resonant lines. Effects of reflection,
polarization, scattering, diffraction and atmospheric absorption usually associated with
visible light are of practical significance in the study of microwave propagation. The
same equations of electromagnetic theory apply at all frequencies.
While the name may suggest a micrometer wavelength, it is better understood as
indicating wavelengths much shorter than those used in radio broadcasting. The
boundaries between far infrared light, terahertz radiation, microwaves, and ultra-high-
frequency radio waves are fairly arbitrary and are used variously between different fields
of study.


Stripline techniques become increasingly necessary at higher frequencies
Electromagnetic waves longer (lower frequency) than microwaves are called "radio
waves". Electromagnetic radiation with shorter wavelengths may be called "millimeter
waves", terahertz radiation or even T-rays. Definitions differ for millimeter wave band,
which the IEEE defines as 110 GHz to 300 GHz.
Above 300 GHz, the absorption of electromagnetic radiation by Earth's atmosphere is so
great that it is effectively opaque, until the atmosphere becomes transparent again in the
so-called infrared and optical window frequency ranges.
Microwave sources
Vacuum tube devices operate on the ballistic motion of electrons in a vacuum under the
influence of controlling electric or magnetic fields, and include the magnetron, klystron,
traveling-wave tube (TWT), and gyrotron. These devices work in the density modulated
mode, rather than the current modulated mode. This means that they work on the basis of
clumps of electrons flying ballistically through them, rather than using a continuous
stream.


Cutaway view inside a cavity magnetron as used in a microwave oven
Low power microwave sources use solid-state devices such as the field-effect transistor
(at least at lower frequencies), tunnel diodes, Gunn diodes, and IMPATT diodes.
A maser is a device similar to a laser, which amplifies light energy by stimulating the
emitted radiation. The maser, rather than amplifying light energy, amplifies the lower
frequency, longer wavelength microwaves.
The sun also emits microwave radiation, and most of it is blocked by Earth's atmosphere.
The Cosmic Microwave Background Radiation (CMBR) is a source of microwaves that
supports the science of cosmology's Big Bang theory of the origin of the Universe.
Uses
Communication
Before the advent of fiber-optic transmission, most long distance telephone calls were
carried via networks of microwave radio relay links run by carriers such as AT&T Long
Lines. Starting in the early 1950s, frequency division multiplex was used to send up to
5,400 telephone channels on each microwave radio channel, with as many as ten radio
channels combined into one antenna for the hop to the next site, up to 70 km away.
Wireless LAN protocols, such as Bluetooth and the IEEE 802.11 specifications, also use
microwaves in the 2.4 GHz ISM band, although 802.11a uses ISM band and U-NII
frequencies in the 5 GHz range. Licensed long-range (up to about 25 km) Wireless
Internet Access services have been used for almost a decade in many countries in the 3.5
4.0 GHz range. The FCC recently carved out spectrum for carriers that wish to offer
services in this range in the U.S. with emphasis on 3.65 GHz. Dozens of service
providers across the country are securing or have already received licenses from the FCC
to operate in this band. The WIMAX service offerings that can be carried on the
3.65 GHz band will give business customers another option for connectivity.
Metropolitan area networks: MAN protocols, such as WiMAX (Worldwide
Interoperability for Microwave Access) based in the IEEE 802.16 specification. The
IEEE 802.16 specification was designed to operate between 2 to 11 GHz. The
commercial implementations are in the 2.3 GHz, 2.5 GHz, 3.5 GHz and 5.8 GHz ranges.
Wide Area Mobile Broadband Wireless Access: MBWA protocols based on standards
specifications such as IEEE 802.20 or ATIS/ANSI HC-SDMA (e.g. iBurst) are designed
to operate between 1.6 and 2.3 GHz to give mobility and in-building penetration
characteristics similar to mobile phones but with vastly greater spectral efficiency.
Some mobile phone networks, like GSM, use the low-microwave/high-UHF frequencies
around 1.8 and 1.9 GHz in the Americas and elsewhere, respectively. DVB-SH and S-
DMB use 1.452 to 1.492 GHz, while proprietary/incompatible satellite radio in the U.S.
uses around 2.3 GHz for DARS.
Microwave radio is used in broadcasting and telecommunication transmissions because,
due to their short wavelength, highly directional antennas are smaller and therefore more
practical than they would be at longer wavelengths (lower frequencies). There is also
more bandwidth in the microwave spectrum than in the rest of the radio spectrum; the
usable bandwidth below 300 MHz is less than 300 MHz while many GHz can be used
above 300 MHz. Typically, microwaves are used in television news to transmit a signal
from a remote location to a television station from a specially equipped van.
Most satellite communications systems operate in the C, X, Ka, or Ku bands of the
microwave spectrum. These frequencies allow large bandwidth while avoiding the
crowded UHF frequencies and staying below the atmospheric absorption of EHF
frequencies. Satellite TV either operates in the C band for the traditional large dish fixed
satellite service or Ku band for direct-broadcast satellite. Military communications run
primarily over X or Ku-band links, with Ka band being used for Milstar.
Radar
Radar uses microwave radiation to detect the range, speed, and other characteristics of
remote objects. Development of radar was accelerated during World War II due to its
great military utility. Now radar is widely used for applications such as air traffic control,
weather forecasting, navigation of ships, and speed limit enforcement.
A Gunn diode oscillator and waveguide are used as a motion detector for automatic door
openers.
Radio astronomy
Most radio astronomy uses microwaves. Usually the naturally-occurring microwave
radiation is observed, but active radar experiments have also been done with objects in
the solar system, such as determining the distance to the Moon or mapping the invisible
surface of Venus through cloud cover.


Galactic background radiation of the Big Bang mapped with increasing resolution
Navigation
Global Navigation Satellite Systems (GNSS) including the Chinese Beidou, the
American Global Positioning System (GPS) and the Russian GLONASS broadcast
navigational signals in various bands between about 1.2 GHz and 1.6 GHz.
Power
A microwave oven passes (non-ionizing) microwave radiation (at a frequency near
2.45 GHz) through food, causing dielectric heating by absorption of energy in the water,
fats and sugar contained in the food. Microwave ovens became common kitchen
appliances in Western countries in the late 1970s, following development of inexpensive
cavity magnetrons. Water in the liquid state possesses many molecular interactions which
broaden the absorption peak. In the vapor phase, isolated water molecules absorb at
around 22 GHz, almost ten times the frequency of the microwave oven.
Microwave heating is used in industrial processes for drying and curing products.
Many semiconductor processing techniques use microwaves to generate plasma for such
purposes as reactive ion etching and plasma-enhanced chemical vapor deposition
(PECVD).
Microwave frequencies typically ranging from 110 140 GHz are used in stellarators and
more notably in tokamak experimental fusion reactors to help heat the fuel into a plasma
state. The upcoming ITER Thermonuclear Reactor is expected to range from 110
170 GHz and will employ Electron Cyclotron Resonance Heating (ECRH).
Microwaves can be used to transmit power over long distances, and post-World War II
research was done to examine possibilities. NASA worked in the 1970s and early 1980s
to research the possibilities of using Solar power satellite (SPS) systems with large solar
arrays that would beam power down to the Earth's surface via microwaves.
Less-than-lethal weaponry exists that uses millimeter waves to heat a thin layer of human
skin to an intolerable temperature so as to make the targeted person move away. A two-
second burst of the 95 GHz focused beam heats the skin to a temperature of 130 F (54
C) at a depth of 1/64th of an inch (0.4 mm). The United States Air Force and Marines
are currently using this type of Active Denial System.
Spectroscopy
Microwave radiation is used in electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR or ESR)
spectroscopy, typically in the X-band region (~9 GHz) in conjunction typically with
magnetic fields of 0.3 T. This technique provides information on unpaired electrons in
chemical systems, such as free radicals or transition metal ions such as Cu(II). The
microwave radiation can also be combined with electrochemistry, microwave enhanced
electrochemistry.
Microwave frequency bands
The microwave spectrum is usually defined as electromagnetic energy ranging from
approximately 1 GHz to 100 GHz in frequency, but older usage includes lower
frequencies. Most common applications are within the 1 to 40 GHz range. Microwave
frequency bands, as defined by the Radio Society of Great Britain (RSGB), are shown in
the table below:

ITU Radio Band Numbers
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
ITU Radio Band Symbols
ELF SLF ULF VLF LF MF HF VHF UHF SHF EHF
NATO Radio bands
A B C D E F G H I J K L M
IEEE Radar bands
HF VHF UHF L S C X K
u
K K
a
Q V W

Microwave frequency bands
Letter Designation Frequency range
L band 1 to 2 GHz
S band 2 to 4 GHz
C band 4 to 8 GHz
X band 8 to 12 GHz
K
u
band 12 to 18 GHz
K band 18 to 26.5 GHz
K
a
band 26.5 to 40 GHz
Q band 33 to 50 GHz
U band 40 to 60 GHz
V band 50 to 75 GHz
E band 60 to 90 GHz
W band 75 to 110 GHz
F band 90 to 140 GHz
D band 110 to 170 GHz
Footnote: P band is sometimes incorrectly used for Ku Band. "P" for "previous" was a
radar band used in the UK ranging from 250 to 500 MHz and now obsolete per IEEE Std
521.
Microwave frequency measurement
Microwave frequency can be measured by either electronic or mechanical techniques.
Frequency counters or high frequency heterodyne systems can be used. Here the
unknown frequency is compared with harmonics of a known lower frequency by use of a
low frequency generator, a harmonic generator and a mixer. Accuracy of the
measurement is limited by the accuracy and stability of the reference source.
Mechanical methods require a tunable resonator such as an absorption wavemeter, which
has a known relation between a physical dimension and frequency.


Wavemeter for measuring in the Ku band
In a laboratory setting, Lecher lines can be used to directly measure the wavelength on a
transmission line made of parallel wires, the frequency can then be calculated. A similar
technique is to use a slotted waveguide or slotted coaxial line to directly measure the
wavelength. These devices consist of a probe introduced into the line through a
longitudinal slot, so that the probe is free to travel up and down the line. Slotted lines are
primarily intended for measurement of the voltage standing wave ratio on the line.
However, provided a standing wave is present, they may also be used to measure the
distance between the nodes, which is equal to half the wavelength. Precision of this
method is limited by the determination of the nodal locations.
Health effects
Microwaves do not contain sufficient energy to chemically change substances by
ionization, and so are an example of nonionizing radiation. The word "radiation" refers to
the fact that energy can radiate. The term in this context is not to be confused with
radioactivity. It has not been shown conclusively that microwaves (or other nonionizing
electromagnetic radiation) have significant adverse biological effects at low levels. Some
but not all studies suggest that long-term exposure may have a carcinogenic effect. This
is separate from the risks associated with very high intensity exposure, which can cause
heating and burns like any heat source, and not a unique property of microwaves
specifically.
During World War II, it was observed that individuals in the radiation path of radar
installations experienced clicks and buzzing sounds in response to microwave radiation.
This microwave auditory effect was thought to be caused by the microwaves inducing an
electric current in the hearing centers of the brain. Research by NASA in the 1970s has
shown this to be caused by thermal expansion in parts of the inner ear.
When injury from exposure to microwaves occurs, it usually results from dielectric
heating induced in the body. Exposure to microwave radiation can produce cataracts by
this mechanism, because the microwave heating denatures proteins in the crystalline lens
of the eye (in the same way that heat turns egg whites white and opaque) faster than the
lens can be cooled by surrounding structures. The lens and cornea of the eye are
especially vulnerable because they contain no blood vessels that can carry away heat.
Exposure to heavy doses of microwave radiation (as from an oven that has been tampered
with to allow operation even with the door open) can produce heat damage in other
tissues as well, up to and including serious burns which may not be immediately evident
because of the tendency for microwaves to heat deeper tissues with higher moisture
content.
History and research
The existence of electromagnetic waves was predicted by James Clerk Maxwell in 1864
from his equations. In 1888, Heinrich Hertz was the first to demonstrate the existence of
electromagnetic waves by building an apparatus that produced and detected microwaves
in the UHF region. The design necessarily used horse-and-buggy materials, including a
horse trough, a wrought iron point spark, Leyden jars, and a length of zinc gutter whose
parabolic cross-section worked as a reflection antenna. In 1894 J. C. Bose publicly
demonstrated radio control of a bell using millimeter wavelengths, and conducted
research into the propagation of microwaves.
Perhaps the first, documented, formal use of the term microwave occurred in 1931:
"When trials with wavelengths as low as 18 cm were made known, there was
undisguised surprise that the problem of the micro-wave had been solved so
soon." Telegraph & Telephone Journal XVII. 179/1
In 1943: the Hungarian engineer Zoltn Bay sent ultra-short radio waves to the moon,
which, reflected from there worked as a radar, and could be used to measure distance, as
well as to study the moon.
Perhaps the first use of the word microwave in an astronomical context occurred in 1946
in an article "Microwave Radiation from the Sun and Moon" by Robert Dicke and Robert
Beringer. This same article also made a showing in the New York Times issued in 1951.
In the history of electromagnetic theory, significant work specifically in the area of
microwaves and their applications was carried out by researchers including:
Specific work on microwaves
Work carried out by Area of work
Barkhausen and Kurz Positive grid oscillators
Hull Smooth bore magnetron
Varian Brothers Velocity modulated electron beam klystron tube
Randall and Boot Cavity magnetron
















Chapter- 2
Cosmic Microwave Background Radiation





In cosmology, cosmic microwave background (CMB) radiation (also CMBR, CBR,
MBR, and relic radiation) is a form of electromagnetic radiation filling the universe.
With a traditional optical telescope, the space between stars and galaxies (the
background) is pitch black. But with a radio telescope, there is a faint background glow,
almost exactly the same in all directions, that is not associated with any star, galaxy, or
other object. This glow is strongest in the microwave region of the radio spectrum, hence
the name cosmic microwave background radiation. The CMB's serendipitous discovery
in 1964 by American radio astronomers Arno Penzias and Robert Wilson was the
culmination of work initiated in the 1940s, and earned them the 1978 Nobel Prize.
The CMBR is well explained as radiation left over from an early stage in the
development of the universe, and its discovery is considered a landmark test of the Big
Bang model of the universe. When the universe was young, before the formation of stars
and planets, it was smaller, much hotter, and filled with a uniform glow from its white-
hot fog of hydrogen plasma. As the universe expanded, both the plasma and the radiation
filling it grew cooler. When the universe cooled enough, stable atoms could form. These
atoms could no longer absorb the thermal radiation, and the universe became transparent
instead of being an opaque fog. The photons that existed at that time have been
propagating ever since, though growing fainter and less energetic, since exactly the same
photons fill a larger and larger universe. This is the source for the term relic radiation,
another name for the CMBR.
Precise measurements of cosmic background radiation are critical to cosmology, since
any proposed model of the universe must explain this radiation. The CMBR has a thermal
black body spectrum at a temperature of 2.725 K, thus the spectrum peaks in the
microwave range frequency of 160.2 GHz, corresponding to a 1.9 mm wavelength. This
holds if you measure the intensity per unit frequency, as in Planck's law. If instead you
measure it per unit wavelength, using Wien's law, the peak will be at 1.06 mm
corresponding to a frequency of 283 GHz.
The glow is almost but not quite uniform in all directions, and shows a very specific
pattern equal to that expected if a fairly uniformly distributed hot gas is expanded to the
current size of the universe. In particular, the spatial power spectrum (how much
difference is observed versus how far apart the regions are on the sky) contains small
anisotropies, or irregularities, which vary with the size of the region examined. They have
been measured in detail, and match what would be expected if small thermal variations,
generated by quantum fluctuations of matter in a very tiny space, had expanded to the
size of the observable universe we see today. This is still a very active field of study, with
scientists seeking both better data (for example, the Planck spacecraft ) and better
interpretations of the initial conditions of expansion.
Although many different processes might produce the general form of a black body
spectrum, no model other than the Big Bang has yet explained the fluctuations. As a
result, most cosmologists consider the Big Bang model of the universe to be the best
explanation for the CMBR.
Features


The cosmic microwave background spectrum measured by the FIRAS instrument on the
COBE satellite is the most-precisely measured black body spectrum in nature. The data
points and error bars on this graph are obscured by the theoretical curve.
The cosmic microwave background is isotropic to roughly one part in 100,000: the root
mean square variations are only 18 K, after the dipole anisotropy, which is due to the
Doppler shift of the microwave background radiation due to our peculiar velocity relative
to the comoving cosmic rest frame, has been subtracted out. This feature is consistent
with the Earth moving at some 627 km/s towards the constellation Virgo. The Far-
Infrared Absolute Spectrophotometer (FIRAS) instrument on the NASA Cosmic
Background Explorer (COBE) satellite has carefully measured the spectrum of the
cosmic microwave background. The FIRAS project members compared the CMB with an
internal reference black body and the spectra agreed to within the experimental error.
They concluded that any deviations from the black body form that might still remain
undetected in the CMB spectrum over the wavelength range from 0.5 to 5 mm must have
a weighted rms value of at most 50 parts per million (0.005%) of the CMB peak
brightness. This made the CMB spectrum the most precisely measured black body
spectrum in nature.
The cosmic microwave background is perhaps the main prediction of the Big Bang
model. In addition, Inflationary Cosmology predicts that after about 10
37
seconds the
nascent universe underwent exponential growth that smoothed out nearly all
inhomogeneities. The exception is inhomogeneities caused by quantum fluctuations in
the inflaton field. This was followed by symmetry breaking; a type of phase transition
that set the fundamental forces and elementary particles in their present form. After 10
6

seconds, the early universe was made up of a hot plasma of photons, electrons, and
baryons. The photons were constantly interacting with the plasma through Thomson
scattering. As the universe expanded, adiabatic cooling caused the plasma to cool until it
became favorable for electrons to combine with protons and form hydrogen atoms. This
recombination event happened at around 3000 K or when the universe was approximately
379,000 years old. This is equivalent to a redshift of z = 1,088. At this point, the photons
no longer interacted with the now electrically neutral atoms and began to travel freely
through space, resulting in the decoupling of matter and radiation.
The color temperature of the photons has continued to diminish ever since; now down to
2.725 K, their temperature will continue to drop as the universe expands. According to
the Big Bang model, the radiation from the sky we measure today comes from a spherical
surface called the surface of last scattering. This represents the collection of spots in
space at which the decoupling event is believed to have occurred, less than 400,000 years
after the Big Bang, and at a point in time such that the photons from that distance have
just reached observers. The estimated age of the Universe is 13.75 billion years.
However, because the Universe has continued expanding since that time, the comoving
distance from the Earth to the edge of the observable universe is now at least 46.5 billion
light years.
The Big Bang theory suggests that the cosmic microwave background fills all of
observable space, and that most of the radiation energy in the universe is in the cosmic
microwave background, which makes up a fraction of roughly 610
5
of the total density
of the universe (the photon density is 4.710
31
kg/m
3
, while the critical density is
7.910
27
kg/m
3
).
Two of the greatest successes of the big bang theory are its prediction of its almost
perfect black body spectrum and its detailed prediction of the anisotropies in the cosmic
microwave background. The recent Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe has
precisely measured these anisotropies over the whole sky down to angular scales of 0.2
degrees. These can be used to estimate the parameters of the standard Lambda-CDM
model of the big bang. Some information, such as the shape of the Universe, can be
obtained straightforwardly from the cosmic microwave background, while others, such as
the Hubble constant, are not constrained and must be inferred from other measurements.
The latter value gives the redshift of galaxies (interpreted as the recessional velocity) as a
proportion of their distance.
Timeline of the CMB
Important people and dates
1941 Andrew McKellar was
attempting to measure the
average temperature of the
intestellar medium, and
reported the observation of
an average bolometric
temperature of 2.3 K based
on the study of interstellar
absorption lines.
1946 Robert Dicke predicts "..
radiation from cosmic
matter" at <20 K but did not
refer to background radiation
1948 George Gamow calculates a
temperature of 50 K
(assuming a 3-billion-year
old Universe), commenting
it ".. is in reasonable
agreement with the actual
temperature of interstellar
space", but does not mention
background radiation.
1948 Ralph Alpher and Robert
Herman estimate "the
temperature in the Universe"
at 5 K. Although they do not
specifically mention
microwave background
radiation, it may be inferred.
1950 Ralph Alpher and Robert
Herman re-estimate the
temperature at 28 K.
1953 George Gamow estimates 7
K.
1955 mile Le Roux of the
Nanay Radio Observatory,
in a sky survey at =33 cm,
reported a near-isotropic
background radiation of 3
kelvins, plus or minus 2.
1956 George Gamow estimates 6
K.
1957 Tigran Shmaonov reports
that "the absolute effective
temperature of the
radioemission background ...
is 43K". It is noted that the
"measurements showed that
radiation intensity was
independent of either time or
direction of observation... it
is now clear that Shmaonov
did observe the cosmic
microwave background at a
wavelength of 3.2 cm"
1960s Robert Dicke re-estimates a
MBR (microwave
background radiation)
temperature of 40 K
1964 A. G. Doroshkevich and Igor
Novikov publish a brief
paper, where they name the
CMB radiation phenomenon
as detectable.
1964
65
Arno Penzias and Robert
Woodrow Wilson measure
the temperature to be
approximately 3 K. Robert
Dicke, P. J. E. Peebles, P. G.
Roll, and D. T. Wilkinson
interpret this radiation as a
signature of the big bang.
1983 RELIKT-1 Soviet CMB
anisotropy experiment was
launched.
1990 FIRAS on COBE measures
the black body form of the
CMB spectrum with
exquisite precision.
Apr
1992
Scientists who analyzed data
from COBE DMR announce
the discovery of the primary
temperature anisotropy.
1999 First measurements of
acoustic oscillations in the
CMB anisotropy angular
power spectrum from the
TOCO, BOOMERANG, and
Maxima Experiments.
2002 Polarization discovered by
DASI.
2004 E-mode polarization
spectrum obtained by the
CBI.
2005 Ralph A. Alpher is awarded
the National Medal of
Science for his
groundbreaking work in
nucleosynthesis and
prediction that the universe
expansion leaves behind





History
The cosmic microwave background was predicted in 1948 by George Gamow, Ralph
Alpher, and Robert Herman. Alpher and Herman were able to estimate the temperature of
the cosmic microwave background to be 5 K, though two years later they re-estimated it
at 28 K. This high estimate was due to an mis-estimate of the Hubble constant by Alfred
Behr, which could not be replicated and was later abandoned for the earlier estimate.
Although there were several previous estimates of the temperature of space, these
suffered from two flaws. First, they were measurements of the effective temperature of
space and did not suggest that space was filled with a thermal Planck spectrum. Next,
they depend on our being at a special spot at the edge of the Milky Way galaxy and they
did not suggest the radiation is isotropic. The estimates would yield very different
predictions if Earth happened to be located elsewhere in the Universe.
The 1948 results of Alpher and Herman were discussed in many physics settings through
about 1955, when each left the Applied Physics Laboratory at Johns Hopkins University.
The mainstream astronomical community, however, was not intrigued at the time by
cosmology. Alpher and Herman's prediction was rediscovered by Yakov Zel'dovich in
the early 1960s, and independently predicted by Robert Dicke at the same time. The first
published recognition of the CMB radiation as a detectable phenomenon appeared in a
brief paper by Soviet astrophysicists A. G. Doroshkevich and Igor Novikov, in the spring
of 1964. In 1964, David Todd Wilkinson and Peter Roll, Dicke's colleagues at Princeton
University, began constructing a Dicke radiometer to measure the cosmic microwave
background. In 1965, Arno Penzias and Robert Woodrow Wilson at the Crawford Hill
location of Bell Telephone Laboratories in nearby Holmdel Township, New Jersey had
built a Dicke radiometer that they intended to use for radio astronomy and satellite
communication experiments. Their instrument had an excess 3.5 K antenna temperature
which they could not account for. After receiving a telephone call from Crawford Hill,
Dicke famously quipped: "Boys, we've been scooped." A meeting between the Princeton
and Crawford Hill groups determined that the antenna temperature was indeed due to the
microwave background. Penzias and Wilson received the 1978 Nobel Prize in Physics for
their discovery.
background radiation, thus
providing a model for the
Big Bang theory.
2006 Two of COBE's principal
investigators, George Smoot
and John Mather, received
the Nobel Prize in Physics in
2006 for their work on
precision measurement of
the CMBR.
The interpretation of the cosmic microwave background was a controversial issue in the
1960s with some proponents of the steady state theory arguing that the microwave
background was the result of scattered starlight from distant galaxies. Using this model,
and based on the study of narrow absorption line features in the spectra of stars, the
astronomer Andrew McKellar wrote in 1941: "It can be calculated that the 'rotational
temperature' of interstellar space is 2 K." However, during the 1970s the consensus was
established that the cosmic microwave background is a remnant of the big bang. This was
largely because new measurements at a range of frequencies showed that the spectrum
was a thermal, black body spectrum, a result that the steady state model was unable to
reproduce.


The Holmdel Horn Antenna on which Penzias and Wilson discovered the cosmic
microwave background.
Harrison, Peebles, Yu and Zel'dovich realized that the early universe would have to have
inhomogeneities at the level of 10
4
or 10
5
. Rashid Sunyaev later calculated the
observable imprint that these inhomogeneities would have on the cosmic microwave
background. Increasingly stringent limits on the anisotropy of the cosmic microwave
background were set by ground based experiments during the 1980s. The NASA COBE
mission clearly detected the primary anisotropy with the Differential Microwave
Radiometer instrument, publishing their findings in 1992. The team received the Nobel
Prize in physics for 2006 for this discovery.
Inspired by the COBE results, a series of ground and balloon-based experiments
measured cosmic microwave background anisotropies on smaller angular scales over the
next decade. The primary goal of these experiments was to measure the scale of the first
acoustic peak, which COBE did not have sufficient resolution to resolve. This peak
corresponds to large scale density variations in the early universe that are created by
gravitational instabilities, resulting in acoustical oscillations in the plasma. The first peak
in the anisotropy was tentatively detected by the Toco experiment and the result was
confirmed by the BOOMERanG and MAXIMA experiments. These measurements
demonstrated that the geometry of the Universe is approximately flat, rather than curved.
They ruled out cosmic strings as a major component of cosmic structure formation and
suggested cosmic inflation was the right theory of structure formation.
The second peak was tentatively detected by several experiments before being
definitively detected by WMAP, which has also tentatively detected the third peak. As of
2010, several experiments to improve measurements of the polarization and the
microwave background on small angular scales are ongoing. These include DASI,
WMAP, BOOMERanG, QUaD, Planck spacecraft, Atacama Cosmology Telescope,
South Pole Telescope and the QUIET telescope.


WMAP image of the CMB temperature anisotropy.
Relationship to the Big Bang
The cosmic microwave background radiation and the cosmological red shift are together
regarded as the best available evidence for the Big Bang theory. Measurements of the
CMB have made the inflationary Big Bang theory the standard model of the earliest eras
of the universe. The discovery of the CMB in the mid-1960s curtailed interest in
alternatives such as the steady state theory.
The Big Bang theory predicts that the initial conditions for the universe are originally
random in nature, and inhomogeneities follow a roughly Gaussian probability
distribution, which, when graphed in cross-section, form bell-shaped curves. By
analyzing this distribution at different frequencies, a spectral density or power spectrum
is generated. The power spectrum of these fluctuations has been calculated, and agrees
with the observations. The resulting standard model of the Big Bang uses a Gaussian
random field with a nearly scale invariant or Harrison-Zel'dovich spectrum to represent
the primeval inhomogeneities.
Certain observables, for example the overall amplitude of the fluctuations, are more or
less free parameters of the cosmic inflation model. Therefore, meaningful statements
about the inhomogeneities in the universe need to be statistical in nature. This leads to
cosmic variance in which the uncertainties in the variance of fluctuations at the largest
scale observed are difficult to accurately compare to theory.
Temperature
The CMB gives a snapshot of the Universe when, according to standard cosmology, the
temperature dropped enough to allow electrons and protons to form hydrogen atoms, thus
making the universe transparent to radiation. When it originated some 380,000 years after
the Big Bangthis time is generally known as the "time of last scattering" or the period
of recombination or decouplingthe temperature of the Universe was about 3000 K.
This corresponds to an energy of about 0.25 eV, which is much less than the 13.6 eV
ionization energy of hydrogen.
Since decoupling, the temperature of the background radiation has dropped by a factor of
roughly 1,100 due to the expansion of the Universe. As the Universe expands, the CMB
photons are redshifted, making the radiation's temperature inversely proportional to a
parameter called the Universe's scale length. The temperature T
r
of the CMB as a
function of redshift, z, can be shown to be proportional to the temperature of the CMB as
observed in the present day (2.725 K or 0.235 meV):
T
r
= 2.725(1 + z)
Primary anisotropy


The power spectrum of the cosmic microwave background radiation temperature
anisotropy in terms of the angular scale (or multipole moment). The data shown come
from the WMAP (2006), Acbar (2004) Boomerang (2005), CBI (2004), and VSA (2004)
instruments. Also shown is a theoretical model (solid line).
The anisotropy of the cosmic microwave background is divided into two sorts: primary
anisotropy, due to effects which occur at the last scattering surface and before; and
secondary anisotropy, due to effects such as interactions of the background radiation with
hot gas or gravitational potentials, which occur between the last scattering surface and the
observer.
The structure of the cosmic microwave background anisotropies is principally determined
by two effects: acoustic oscillations and diffusion damping (also called collisionless
damping or Silk damping). The acoustic oscillations arise because of a competition in the
photon-baryon plasma in the early universe. The pressure of the photons tends to erase
anisotropies, whereas the gravitational attraction of the baryonsmoving at speeds much
slower than lightmakes them tend to collapse to form dense haloes. These two effects
compete to create acoustic oscillations which give the microwave background its
characteristic peak structure. The peaks correspond, roughly, to resonances in which the
photons decouple when a particular mode is at its peak amplitude.
The peaks contain interesting physical signatures. The angular scale of the first peak
determines the curvature of the Universe (but not the topology of the Universe). The next
peakratio of the odd peaks to the even peaksdetermines the reduced baryon density.
The third peak can be used to pull information about the dark matter density.
The locations of the peaks also give important information about the nature of the
primordial density perturbations. There are two fundamental brands of density
perturbationscalled adiabatic and isocurvature. A general density perturbation is a
mixture of both, and different theories that purport to explain the primordial density
perturbation spectrum predict different mixtures.
Adiabatic density perturbations
the fractional overdensity in each matter component (baryons, photons ...) is the
same. That is, if there is 1% more energy in baryons than average in one spot,
then with a pure adiabatic density perturbations there is also 1% more energy in
photons, and 1% more energy in neutrinos, than average. Cosmic inflation
predicts that the primordial perturbations are adiabatic.
Isocurvature density perturbations
the sum of the fractional overdensities is zero. That is, a perturbation where at
some spot there is 1% more energy in baryons than average, 1% more energy in
photons than average, and 2% less energy in neutrinos than average, would be a
pure isocurvature perturbation. Cosmic strings would produce mostly isocurvature
primordial perturbations.
The CMB spectrum is able to distinguish these two because these two brands of
perturbations produce different peak locations. Isocurvature density perturbations
produce a series of peaks whose angular scales (l-values of the peaks) are roughly in the
ratio 1:3:5:..., while adiabatic density perturbations produce peaks whose locations are in
the ratio 1:2:3:... Observations are consistent with the primordial density perturbations
being entirely adiabatic, providing key support for inflation, and ruling out many models
of structure formation involving, for example, cosmic strings.
Collisionless damping is caused by two effects, when the treatment of the primordial
plasma as fluid begins to break down:
the increasing mean free path of the photons as the primordial plasma becomes
increasingly rarefied in an expanding universe
the finite depth of the last scattering surface (LSS), which causes the mean free
path to increase rapidly during decoupling, even while some Compton scattering
is still occurring.
These effects contribute about equally to the suppression of anisotropies on small scales,
and give rise to the characteristic exponential damping tail seen in the very small angular
scale anisotropies.
The depth of the LSS refers to the fact that the decoupling of the photons and baryons
does not happen instantaneously, but instead requires an appreciable fraction of the age of
the Universe up to that era. One method to quantify exactly how long this process took
uses the photon visibility function (PVF). This function is defined so that, denoting the
PVF by P(t), the probability that a CMB photon last scattered between time t and t+dt is
given by P(t)dt.
The maximum of the PVF (the time where it is most likely that a given CMB photon last
scattered) is known quite precisely. The first-year WMAP results put the time at which
P(t) is maximum as 37214 ka. This is often taken as the "time" at which the CMB
formed. However, to figure out how long it took the photons and baryons to decouple, we
need a measure of the width of the PVF. The WMAP team finds that the PVF is greater
than half of its maximum value (the "full width at half maximum", or FWHM) over an
interval of 1155 ka. By this measure, decoupling took place over roughly 115,000 years,
and when it was complete, the universe was roughly 487,000 years old.
Late time anisotropy
Since the CMB came into existence, it has apparently been modified by several
subsequent physical processes, which are collectively referred to as late-time anisotropy,
or secondary anisotropy. When the CMB photons became free to travel unimpeded,
ordinary matter in the universe was mostly in the form of neutral hydrogen and helium
atoms. However, observations of galaxies today seem to indicate that most of the volume
of the intergalactic medium (IGM) consists of ionized material (since there are few
absorption lines due to hydrogen atoms). This implies a period of reionization during
which some of the material of the universe was broken into hydrogen ions.
The CMB photons scatter off free charges such as electrons that are not bound in atoms.
In an ionized universe, such charged particles have been liberated from neutral atoms by
ionizing (ultraviolet) radiation. Today these free charges are at sufficiently low density in
most of the volume of the Universe that they do not measurably affect the CMB.
However, if the IGM was ionized at very early times when the universe was still denser,
then there are two main effects on the CMB:
1. Small scale anisotropies are erased. (Just as when looking at an object through
fog, details of the object appear fuzzy.)
2. The physics of how photons scatter off from free electrons (Thomson scattering)
induces polarization anisotropies on large angular scales. This broad angle
polarization is correlated with the broad angle temperature perturbation.
Both of these effects have been observed by the WMAP spacecraft, providing evidence
that the universe was ionized at very early times, at a redshift more than 17. The detailed
provenance of this early ionizing radiation is still a matter of scientific debate. It may
have included starlight from the very first population of stars (population III stars),
supernovae when these first stars reached the end of their lives, or the ionizing radiation
produced by the accretion disks of massive black holes.
The time following the emission of the Cosmic Microwave Backgroundand before the
observation of the first starsis semi-humorously referred to by cosmologists as the dark
age, and is a period which is under intense study by astronomers.
Two other effects which occurred between reionization and our observations of the
Cosmic Microwave Background, and which appear to cause anisotropies, include the
Sunyaev-Zel'dovich effect, where a cloud of high energy electrons scatters the radiation,
transferring some of its energy to the CMB photons, and the Sachs-Wolfe effect, which
causes photons from the Cosmic Microwave Background to be gravitationally redshifted
or blueshifted due to changing gravitational fields.


E polarization measurements as of March 2008 in terms of angular scale (or multipole
moment). The polarization is much more poorly measured than the temperature
anisotropy.
Polarization
The cosmic microwave background is polarized at the level of a few microkelvins. There
are two types of polarization, called E-modes and B-modes. This is in analogy to
electrostatics, in which the electric field (E-field) has a vanishing curl and the magnetic
field (B-field) has a vanishing divergence. The E-modes arise naturally from Thomson
scattering in a heterogeneous plasma. The B-modes, which have not been measured and
are thought to have an amplitude of at most a 0.1 K, are not produced from the plasma
physics alone. They are a signal from cosmic inflation and are determined by the density
of primordial gravitational waves. Detecting the B-modes will be extremely difficult,
particularly given that the degree of foreground contamination is unknown, and the weak
gravitational lensing signal mixes the relatively strong E-mode signal with the B-mode
signal.
Microwave background observations
Subsequent to the discovery of the CMB, hundreds of cosmic microwave background
experiments have been conducted to measure and characterize the signatures of the
radiation. The most famous experiment is probably the NASA Cosmic Background
Explorer (COBE) satellite that orbited in 19891996 and which detected and quantified
the large scale anisotropies at the limit of its detection capabilities. Inspired by the initial
COBE results of an extremely isotropic and homogeneous background, a series of
ground- and balloon-based experiments quantified CMB anisotropies on smaller angular
scales over the next decade. The primary goal of these experiments was to measure the
angular scale of the first acoustic peak, for which COBE did not have sufficient
resolution. These measurements were able to rule out cosmic strings as the leading theory
of cosmic structure formation, and suggested cosmic inflation was the right theory.
During the 1990s, the first peak was measured with increasing sensitivity and by 2000 the
BOOMERanG experiment reported that the highest power fluctuations occur at scales of
approximately one degree. Together with other cosmological data, these results implied
that the geometry of the Universe is flat. A number of ground-based interferometers
provided measurements of the fluctuations with higher accuracy over the next three
years, including the Very Small Array, Degree Angular Scale Interferometer (DASI), and
the Cosmic Background Imager (CBI). DASI made the first detection of the polarization
of the CMB and the CBI provided the first E-mode polarization spectrum with
compelling evidence that it is out of phase with the T-mode spectrum.
In June 2001, NASA launched a second CMB space mission, WMAP, to make much
more precise measurements of the great scale anisotropies over the full sky. WMAP used
symmetric, rapid-multi-modulated scanning, rapid switching radiometers to minimize
non-sky signal noise. The first results from this mission, disclosed in 2003, were detailed
measurements of the angular power spectrum to below degree scales, tightly constraining
various cosmological parameters. The results are broadly consistent with those expected
from cosmic inflation as well as various other competing theories, and are available in
detail at NASA's data bank for Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB). Although
WMAP provided very accurate measurements of the great angular-scale fluctuations in
the CMB (structures about as broad in the sky as the moon), it did not have the angular
resolution to measure the smaller scale fluctuations which had been observed by former
ground-based interferometers.
A third space mission, the Planck Surveyor, launched in May, 2009. Planck employs both
HEMT radiometers as well as bolometer technology and will measure the CMB on
smaller scales than WMAP. Unlike the previous two space missions, Planck is run by the
ESA (the European Space Agency). Its detectors got a trial run at the Antarctic Viper
telescope as ACBAR (Arcminute Cosmology Bolometer Array Receiver) experiment
which has produced the most precise measurements at small angular scales to dateand
at the Archeops balloon telescope.
Additional ground-based instruments such as the South Pole Telescope in Antarctica and
the proposed Clover Project, Atacama Cosmology Telescope and the QUIET telescope in
Chile will provide additional data not available from satellite observations, possibly
including the B-mode polarization.
Data reduction and analysis
Raw CMBR data coming down from the space vehicle (i.e., WMAP) contain foreground
effects that completely obscure the fine-scale structure of the Cosmic Microwave
background. The fine-scale structure is superimposed on the raw CMBR data but is too
small to be seen at the scale of the raw data. The most prominent of the foreground
effects is the dipole anisotropy caused by the Sun's motion relative to the CMBR
background. The dipole anisotropy and others due to Earth's annual motion relative to the
Sun and numerous microwave sources in the galactic plane and elsewhere must be
subtracted out to reveal the extremely tiny variations characterizing the fine-scale
structure of the CMBR background.
The detail analysis of CMBR data to produce maps, an angular power spectrum, and
ultimately cosmological parameters is a complicated, computationally difficult problem.
Although computing a power spectrum from a map is in principle a simple Fourier
transform, decomposing the map of the sky into spherical harmonics, in practice it is hard
to take the effects of noise and foreground sources into account. In particular, these
foregrounds are dominated by galactic emissions such free-free, synchrotron, and dust
that emit in the microwave band; in practice, the galaxy has to be removed resulting in a
CMB map that is not a full-sky map. In addition, point sources like galaxies and clusters
represent another source of foreground which must be removed lest they distort the short
scale structure of the CMB power spectrum.
Constraints on many cosmological parameters can be obtained from their effects on the
power spectrum, and results are often calculated using Markov Chain Monte Carlo
sampling techniques.
CMBR dipole anisotropy
From the CMB data it is seen that our local group of galaxies (the galactic cluster that
includes the Solar System's Milky Way Galaxy) appears to be moving at 62722 km/s
relative to the reference frame of the CMB (also called the CMB rest frame, or the
frame of reference in which there is no motion through the CMB) in the direction of
galactic longitude l = 2763, b = 303. This motion results in an anisotropy of the data
(CMB appearing slightly warmer in the direction of movement than in the opposite
direction). The standard interpretation of this temperature variation is a simple velocity
redshift and blueshift due to motion relative to the CMB, but alternative cosmological
models can explain some fraction of the observed dipole temperature distribution in the
CMB.
Low multipoles and other anomalies
With the increasingly precise data provided by WMAP, there have been a number of
claims that the CMB suffers from anomalies, such as very great-scale anisotropies,
anomalous alignments, and non-Gaussian distributions. The most longstanding of these is
the low-l multipole controversy. Even in the COBE map, it was observed that the
quadrupole (l=2 spherical harmonic) has a low amplitude compared to the predictions of
the big bang. Some observers have pointed out that the anisotropies in the WMAP data
did not appear to be consistent with the big bang picture. In particular, the quadrupole
and octupole (l=3) modes appear to have an unexplained alignment with each other and
with the ecliptic plane, an alignment sometimes referred to as the axis of evil. A number
of groups have suggested that this could be the signature of new physics at the greatest
observable scales. Ultimately, due to the foregrounds and the cosmic variance problem,
the greatest modes will never be as well measured as the small angular scale modes. The
analyses were performed on two maps that have had the foregrounds removed as best as
is possible: the "internal linear combination" map of the WMAP collaboration and a
similar map prepared by Max Tegmark and others. Later analyses have pointed out that
these are the modes most susceptible to foreground contamination from synchrotron,
dust, and free-free emission, and from experimental uncertainty in the monopole and
dipole. A full Bayesian analysis of the WMAP power spectrum demonstrates that the
quadrupole prediction of Lambda-CDM cosmology is consistent with the data at the 10%
level and that the observed octupole is not remarkable. Carefully accounting for the
procedure used to remove the foregrounds from the full sky map further reduces the
significance of the alignment by ~5%.












Chapter- 3
Microwave Transmission








The atmospheric attenuation of microwaves in dry air with a precipitable water vapor
level of 0.001 mm. The downward spikes in the graph correspond to frequencies at which
microwaves are absorbed more strongly, such as by oxygen molecules
Microwave transmission refers to the technology of transmitting information by the use
of the radio waves whose wavelengths are conveniently measured in small numbers of
centimeters, by using various electronic technologies. These are called microwaves. This
part of the radio spectrum ranges across frequencies of roughly 1.0 gigahertz (GHz) to
30 GHz. Also by using the formula = c/f , these correspond to wavelengths from
30 centimeters down to 1.0 cm. [In the above equation, the Greek letter ( lambda ) is
the wavelength in meters; c is the speed of light in meters per second; and f is the
frequency in hertz (Hz).]
In the microwave frequency band, antennas are usually of convenient sizes and shapes,
and also the use of metal waveguides for carrying the radio power works well.
Furthermore, with the use of the modern solid-state electronics and traveling wave tube
technologies that have been developed since the early 1960s, the electronics used by
microwave radio transmission have been readily used by expert electronics engineers.
Microwave radio transmission is commonly used by communication systems on the
surface of the Earth, in satellite communications, and in deep space radio
communications. Other parts of the microwave radio band are used for radars, radio
navigation systems, sensor systems, and radio astronomy.
The next higher part of the radio electromagnetic spectrum, where the frequencies are
above 30 GHz and below 100 GHz, are called "millimeter waves" because their
wavelengths are conveniently measured in millimeters, and their wavelengths range from
10 mm down to 3.0 mm. Radio waves in this band are usually strongly attenuated by the
Earthly atmosphere and particles contained in it, especially during wet weather. Also, in
wide band of frequencies around 60 GHz, the radio waves are strongly attenuated by
molecular oxygen in the atmosphere. The electronic technologies needed in the
millimeter wave band are also much more difficult to utilize than those of the microwave
band.
Properties
Suitable over line-of-sight transmission links without obstacles
Provides good bandwidth
Affected by rain, vapor, dust, snow, cloud, mist and fog, heavy moisture,
depending on chosen frequency
Uses
Backbone or backhaul carriers in cellular networks. Used to link BTS-BSC and
BSC-MSC.
Communication with satellites
Microwave radio relay links for television and telephone service providers


A parabolic antenna for Erdfunkstelle Raisting, based in Raisting, Bavaria, Germany.




Military microwave set in Switzerland
Parabolic (microwave) antenna
A parabolic antenna is a high-gain reflector antenna used for radio, television and data
communications, and also for radiolocation (radar), on the UHF and SHF parts of the
electromagnetic spectrum. The relatively short wavelength of electromagnetic radiation at
these frequencies allows reasonably sized reflectors to exhibit the desired highly
directional response for both receiving and transmitting.
Microwave power transmission
Microwave power transmission (MPT) is the use of microwaves to transmit power
through outer space or the atmosphere without the need for wires. It is a sub-type of the
more general wireless energy transfer methods.
History
Following World War II, which saw the development of high-power microwave emitters
known as cavity magnetrons, the idea of using microwaves to transmit power was
researched. In 1964, William C. Brown demonstrated a miniature helicopter equipped
with a combination antenna and rectifier device called a rectenna. The rectenna converted
microwave power into electricity, allowing the helicopter to fly. In principle, the rectenna
is capable of very high conversion efficiencies - over 90% in optimal circumstances.
Most proposed MPT systems now usually include a phased array microwave transmitter.
While these have lower efficiency levels they have the advantage of being electrically
steered using no moving parts, and are easier to scale to the necessary levels that a
practical MPT system requires.
Using microwave power transmission to deliver electricity to communities without
having to build cable-based infrastructure is being studied at Grand Bassin on Reunion
Island in the Indian Ocean.
Common safety concerns
The common reaction to microwave transmission is one of concern, as microwaves are
generally perceived by the public as dangerous forms of radiation - stemming from the
fact that they are used in microwave ovens. While high power microwaves can be painful
and dangerous as in the United States Military's Active Denial System, MPT systems are
generally proposed to have only low intensity at the rectenna.
Though this would be extremely safe as the power levels would be about equal to the
leakage from a microwave oven, and only slightly more than a cell phone, the relatively
diffuse microwave beam necessitates a large rectenna area for a significant amount of
energy to be transmitted.
Research has involved exposing multiple generations of animals to microwave radiation
of this or higher intensity, and no health issues have been found.
Proposed uses
MPT is the most commonly proposed method for transferring energy to the surface of the
Earth from solar power satellites or other in-orbit power sources. MPT is occasionally
proposed for the power supply in [beam-powered propulsion] for orbital lift space ships.
Even though lasers are more commonly proposed, their low efficiency in light generation
and reception has led some designers to opt for microwave based systems.
Current status
Wireless Power Transmission (using microwaves) is well proven. Experiments in the tens
of kilowatts have been performed at Goldstone in California in 1975 and more recently
(1997) at Grand Bassin on Reunion Island. In 2008 a long range transmission experiment
successfully transmitted 20 watts 92 miles from a mountain on Maui to the main island of
Hawaii.
Microwave radio relay


Heinrich-Hertz-Turm in Germany
Microwave radio relay is a technology for transmitting digital and analog signals, such
as long-distance telephone calls and the relay of television programs to transmitters,
between two locations on a line of sight radio path. In microwave radio relay, radio
waves are transmitted between the two locations with directional antennas, forming a
fixed radio connection between the two points. Long daisy-chained series of such links
form transcontinental telephone and/or television communication systems.
How microwave radio relay links are formed


Relay towers on Frazier Mountain, Southern California
Because a line of sight radio link is made, the radio frequencies used occupy only a
narrow path between stations (with the exception of a certain radius of each station).
Antennas used must have a high directive effect; these antennas are installed in elevated
locations such as large radio towers in order to be able to transmit across long distances.
Typical types of antenna used in radio relay link installations are parabolic reflectors,
shell antennas and horn radiators, which have a diameter of up to 4 meters. Highly
directive antennas permit an economical use of the available frequency spectrum, despite
long transmission distances.


Danish military radio relay node
Planning considerations
Because of the high frequencies used, a quasi-optical line of sight between the stations is
generally required. Additionally, in order to form the line of sight connection between the
two stations, the first Fresnel zone must be free from obstacles so the radio waves can
propagate across a nearly uninterrupted path. Obstacles in the signal field cause unwanted
attenuation, and are as a result only acceptable in exceptional cases. High mountain peak
or ridge positions are often ideal: Europe's highest radio relay station, the
Richtfunkstation Jungfraujoch, is situated atop the Jungfraujoch ridge at an altitude of
3,705 meters (12,156 ft) above sea level.


Multiple antennas provide space diversity
Obstacles, the curvature of the Earth, the geography of the area and reception issues
arising from the use of nearby land (such as in manufacturing and forestry) are important
issues to consider when planning radio links. In the planning process, it is essential that
"path profiles" are produced, which provide information about the terrain and Fresnel
zones affecting the transmission path. The presence of a water surface, such as a lake or
river, in the mid-path region also must be taken into consideration as it can result in a
near-perfect reflection (even modulated by wave or tide motions), creating multipath
distortion as the two received signals ("wanted" and "unwanted") swing in and out of
phase. Multipath fades are usually deep only in a small spot and a narrow frequency
band, so space and frequency diversity schemes were usually applied in the third quarter
of the 20th century.
The effects of atmospheric stratification cause the radio path to bend downward in a
typical situation so a major distance is possible as the earth equivalent curvature increases
from 6370 km to about 8500 km (a 4/3 equivalent radius effect). Rare events of
temperature, humidity and pressure profile versus height, may produce large deviations
and distortion of the propagation and affect transmission quality. High intensity rain and
snow must also be considered as an impairment factor, especially at frequencies above
10 GHz. All previous factors, collectively known as path loss, make it necessary to
compute suitable power margins, in order to maintain the link operative for a high
percentage of time, like the standard 99.99% or 99.999% used in 'carrier class' services of
most telecommunication operators.


Portable microwave rig for television news
Over-horizon microwave radio relay
In over-horizon, or tropospheric scatter, microwave radio relay, unlike a standard
microwave radio relay link, the sending and receiving antennas do not use a line of sight
transmission path. Instead, the stray signal transmission, known as "tropo - scatter" or
simply "scatter," from the sent signal is picked up by the receiving station. Signal clarity
obtained by this method depends on the weather and other factors, and as a result a high
level of technical difficulty is involved in the creation of a reliable over horizon radio
relay link. Over horizon radio relay links are therefore only used where standard radio
relay links are unsuitable (for example, in providing a microwave link to an island).
Usage of microwave radio relay systems
During the 1950s the AT&T Communications system of microwave radio grew to carry
the majority of US Long Distance telephone traffic, as well as intercontinental television
network signals. The prototype was called TDX and was tested with a connection
between New York City and Murray Hill, the location of Bell Laboratories in 1946. The
TDX system was set up between New York and Boston in 1947. The TDX was improved
to the TD2, which still used klystrons, and then later to the TD3 that used solid state
electronics. The main motivation in 1946 to use microwave radio instead of cable was
that a large capacity could be installed quickly and at less cost. It was expected at that
time that the annual operating costs for microwave radio would be greater than for cable.
There were two main reasons that a large capacity had to be introduced suddenly: Pent up
demand for long distance telephone service, because of the hiatus during the war years,
and the new medium of television, which needed more bandwidth than radio.
Similar systems were soon built in many countries, until the 1980s when the technology
lost its share of fixed operation to newer technologies such as fiber-optic cable and
optical radio relay links, both of which offer larger data capacities at lower cost per bit.
Communication satellites, which are also microwave radio relays, better retained their
market share, especially for television.
At the turn of the century, microwave radio relay systems are being used increasingly in
portable radio applications. The technology is particularly suited to this application
because of lower operating costs, a more efficient infrastructure, and provision of direct
hardware access to the portable radio operator.
Microwave link
A microwave link is a communications system that uses a beam of radio waves in the
microwave frequency range to transmit video, audio, or data between two locations,
which can be from just a few feet or meters to several miles or kilometers apart.
Microwave links are commonly used by television broadcasters to transmit programmes
across a country, for instance, or from an outside broadcast back to a studio.
Mobile units can be camera mounted, allowing cameras the freedom to move around
without trailing cables. These are often seen on the touchlines of sports fields on
Steadicam systems.
Properties of microwave links
Involve line of sight (LOS) communication technology
Affected greatly by environmental constraints, including rain fade
Have limited penetration capabilities
Sensitive to high pollen count
Signals can be degraded during Solar proton events
Uses of microwave links
In communications between satellites and base stations
As backbone carriers for cellular systems
In short range indoor communications
Tunable microwave device
A tunable microwave device is a device that works at radio frequency range with the
dynamic tunable capabilities, especially an electric field. The material systems for such a
device usually have multilayer structure. Usually, magnetic or ferroelectric film on ferrite
or superconducting film is adopted. The former two are used as the property tunable
component to control the working frequency of the whole system. Devices of this type
include tunable varators, tunable microwave filters, tunable phase shifters, and tunable
resonators. The main application of them is re-configurable microwave networks, for
example, reconfigurable wireless communication, wireless network, and reconfigurable
phase array antenna.














Chapter- 4

Microwave Frequency Bands









L band


L band
Frequency range
IEEE: ~1 2 GHz
NATO: 40 60 GHz

ITU Radio Band Numbers
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
ITU Radio Band Symbols
ELF SLF ULF VLF LF MF HF VHF UHF SHF EHF
NATO Radio bands
A B C D E F G H I J K L M
IEEE Radar bands
HF VHF UHF L S C X K
u
K K
a
Q V W

L band refers to four different bands of the electromagnetic spectrum: 40 to 60 GHz
(NATO), 1 to 2 GHz (IEEE), 1565 nm to 1625 nm (optical), and around 3.5 micrometres
(infrared astronomy).
NATO L band
The NATO L band is defined as the frequency band between 40 and 60 GHz (5
7.5 mm).
IEEE L band
The IEEE L band (20-cm radar long-band) is a portion of the microwave band of the
electromagnetic spectrum ranging roughly from 1 to 2 GHz. It is used by some
communications satellites, and for some terrestrial Eureka 147 digital audio broadcasting
(DAB). The amateur radio service also has an allocation between 1240 and 1300 MHz
(23-centimeter band). The L band refers to the frequency range of 950 MHz to
1450 MHz. Satellite modems and television receivers work in this range, and the signal is
translated to and from the band the satellite uses by either dedicated
upconverters/downconverters or a solid-state Low-noise block converter and Block
upconverter.
Military use
In the United States and overseas territories, the L band is held by the military for
telemetry, thereby forcing digital radio to in-band on-channel (IBOC) solutions. DAB is
typically done in the 14521492-MHz range as in most of the world, but other countries
also use VHF and UHF bands.
GNSS
The Global Positioning System carriers are in the L band, centered at 1176.45 MHz (L5),
1227.60 MHz (L2), 1381.05 MHz (L3), and 1575.42 MHz (L1) frequencies.
The Galileo Navigation System uses the L-band similarly to GPS.
The GLONASS System uses the L-band similarly to GPS.
Telecommunications use
GSM mobile phones operate at 800900 and 18001900 MHz. Iridium Satellite LLC
phones use frequencies between 1616 and 1626.5 MHz to communicate with the
satellites
Digital Audio Broadcasting (Earth Orbital)
WorldSpace satellite radio broadcasts in the 14671492 MHz L sub-band.
Amateur radio
The Radio Regulations of the International Telecommunication Union allow
amateur radio operations in the frequency range from 1240 to 1300 MHz.
DAB L band usage
The following blocks are used for T-DAB (terrestrial) broadcasts:
Block Center Frequency
LA 1452.960 MHz
LB 1454.672 MHz
LC 1456.384 MHz
LD 1458.096 MHz
LE 1459.808 MHz
LF 1461.520 MHz
LG 1463.232 MHz
LH 1464.944 MHz
LI 1466.656 MHz
LJ 1468.368 MHz
LK 1470.080 MHz
LL 1471.792 MHz
LM 1473.504 MHz
LN 1475.216 MHz
LO 1476.928 MHz
LP 1478.640 MHz
The following blocks are used for S-DAB (satellite) broadcasts:
Block Center Frequency
LQ 1480.352 MHz
LR 1482.064 MHz
LS 1483.776 MHz
LT 1485.488 MHz
LU 1487.200 MHz
LV 1488.912 MHz
LW 1490.624 MHz
Note: Canada uses slightly different central frequencies for L-band DAB while in many
European countries DAB is limited part of Band III due to television and mobile two way
radio using the rest.
Physics issues relating to band use
The band also contains the hyperfine transition of neutral hydrogen (the hydrogen line,
1420 MHz), which is of great astronomical interest as a means of imaging the normally
invisible neutral atomic hydrogen in interstellar space. Consequently parts of the L-band
are protected radio astronomy allocations worldwide.
Optical communications L band
L band is also used in optical communications to refer to the wavelength range 1565 nm
to 1625 nm.
Infrared astronomy


Atmospheric windows in the infrared. The L band is the transmission window centred on
3.5 micrometres
In infrared astronomy, the L band refers to an atmospheric transmission window centred
on 3.5 micrometres (in the mid-infrared).
Other microwave bands
The microwave spectrum is usually defined as electromagnetic energy ranging from
approximately 1 GHz to 100 GHz in frequency, but older usage includes lower
frequencies. Most common applications are within the 1 to 40 GHz range. Microwave
frequency bands, as defined by the Radio Society of Great Britain (RSGB), are shown in
the table below:
L band 1 to 2 GHz
S band 2 to 4 GHz
C band 4 to 8 GHz
X band 8 to 12 GHz
K
u
band 12 to 18 GHz
K band 18 to 26.5 GHz
K
a
band 26.5 to 40 GHz
Q band 30 to 50 GHz
U band 40 to 60 GHz
V band 50 to 75 GHz
E band 60 to 90 GHz
W band 75 to 110 GHz
F band 90 to 140 GHz
D band 110 to 170 GHz
Footnote: P band is sometimes incorrectly used for Ku Band. "P" for "previous" was a
radar band used in the UK ranging from 250 to 500 MHz and now obsolete per IEEE Std
521.
S band

S band
Frequency range 2 4 GHz

ITU Radio Band Numbers
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
ITU Radio Band Symbols
ELF SLF ULF VLF LF MF HF VHF UHF SHF EHF
NATO Radio bands
A B C D E F G H I J K L M
IEEE Radar bands
HF VHF UHF L S C X K
u
K K
a
Q V W

The S band (named for Short wave) is defined by an IEEE standard for radio waves with
frequencies that range from 2 to 4 GHz, crossing the conventional boundary between
UHF and SHF at 3.0 GHz. It is part of the microwave band of the electromagnetic
spectrum. The S band is used by weather radar, surface ship radar, and some
communications satellites, especially those used by NASA to communicate with the
Space Shuttle and the International Space Station. The 10-cm radar short-band ranges
roughly from 1.55 to 5.2 GHz.
Amateur radio and amateur television operators use 2300-2310 MHz and 2390-
2450 MHz also 3300-3500 MHz.
In the U.S., the FCC approved Digital Audio Radio Satellite (DARS) broadcasts in the S
band from 2.31 to 2.36 GHz, currently used by Sirius XM Radio. More recently, it has
approved for portions of the S band between 2.0 and 2.2 GHz the creation of Mobile
Satellite Service (MSS) networks in connection with Ancillary Terrestrial Components
(ATC). There are presently a number of companies attempting to deploy such networks,
including ICO Satellite Management and TerreStar.
The 2.6 GHz range is used for China Multimedia Mobile Broadcasting, a satellite radio
and mobile TV standard which, as with proprietary systems in the U.S., is incompatible
with the open standards used in the rest of the world.
In May 2009, Inmarsat and Solaris mobile (a joint venture between Eutelsat and Astra)
were awarded each a 215 MHz portion of the S band by the European Commission. The
two companies are allowed two years to start providing pan-European MSS services for
18 years. Allocated frequencies are 1.98 to 2.01 GHz for Earth to space communications,
and from 2.17 to 2.2 GHz for space to Earth communications.
In some countries, S band is used for Direct-to-Home satellite television (unlike similar
services in most countries, which use K
u
band). The frequency typically allocated for this
service is 2.5 to 2.7 GHz (LOF 1.570 GHz).
Wireless network equipment compatible with IEEE 802.11b and 802.11g standards use
the 2.4 GHz section of the S band. Digital cordless telephones operate in this band too.
Microwave ovens operate at 2495 or 2450 MHz. IEEE 802.16a and 802.16e standards
utilize a part of the frequency range of S band, under WiMAX standards most vendors
are now manufacturing equipment in the range of 3.5 GHz. The exact frequency range
allocated for this type of use varies between countries.
In North America, 2.4 - 2.483 GHz is an ISM band used for unlicensed spectrum devices
such as cordless phones, wireless headphones, and video senders, among other consumer
electronics uses, including Bluetooth which operates between 2.402 GHz and 2.480 GHz.
Optical communications S band
S band is also used in optical communications to refer to the wavelength range 1460 nm
to 1530 nm.
C band
C band
Frequency range
NATO: 500 1000 MHz
IEEE: 4 8 GHz

ITU Radio Band Numbers
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
ITU Radio Band Symbols
ELF SLF ULF VLF LF MF HF VHF UHF SHF EHF
NATO Radio bands
A B C D E F G H I J K L M
IEEE Radar bands
HF VHF UHF L S C X K
u
K K
a
Q V W

The C band is a name given to certain portions of the electromagnetic spectrum, as well
as a range of wavelengths of microwaves that are used for long-distance radio
telecommunications. The IEEE C-band - and its slight variations - contains frequency
ranges that are used for many satellite communications transmissions; by some Wi-Fi
devices; by some cordless telephones; and by some weather radar systems. For satellite
communications, the microwave frequencies of the C-band perform better in comparison
with K
u
band (11.2 GHz to 14.5 GHz) microwave frequencies, under adverse weather
conditions, which are used by another large set of communication satellites. The adverse
weather conditions all have to do with moisture in the air, such as during rainfalls,
thunderstorms, sleet storms, and snowstorms.
The NATO C-band
The NATO C-band is that portion of the radio spectrum between 500 megahertz (MHz)
and 1000 MHz, but this terminology is rarely used in the two very large NATO members
that are located in North America.
The IEEE C-band
The IEEE C-band is a portion of the electromagnetic spectrum in the microwave range
of frequencies ranging from 4.0 to 8.0 gigahertz (GHz)., but this definition is the one that
is followed by radar manufacturers and users, but not necessarily by microwave radio
telecommunications users.
The communications C-band was the first frequency band that was allocated for
commercial telecommunications via satellites. Nearly all C-band communication
satellites use the band of frequencies from 3.7 to 4.2 GHz for their downlinks, and the
band of frequencies from 5.925 GHz to 6.425 GHz for their uplinks. Note that by using
the band from 3.7 to 4.0 GHz, this C-band overlaps somewhat into the IEEE S-band for
radars.
The C-band communication satellites typically have 24 radio transponders spaced
20 MHz apart, but with the adjacent transponders on opposite polarizations. Hence, the
transponders on the same polarization are always 40 MHz apart. Of this 40 MHz, each
transponder utilizes about 36 MHz. (The unused 8.0 MHz between the pairs of
transponders acts as "guard bands" for the likely case of imperfections in the microwave
electronics.)
The C-band is primarily used for open satellite communications, whether for full-time
satellite TV networks or raw satellite feeds, although subscription programming also
exists. This use contrasts with direct broadcast satellite, which is a completely closed
system used to deliver subscription programming to small satellite dishes that are
connected with proprietary receiving equipment.
The satellite communications portion of the C-band is highly associated with television
receive-only satellite reception systems, commonly called "big dish" systems, since small
receiving antennas are not optimal for C-band systems. Typical antenna sizes on C-band
capable systems ranges from 7.5 to 12 feet (2.5 to 3.5 meters) on consumer satellite
dishes, although larger ones also can be used.
The C-band frequencies of 5.4 GHz band [5.15 to 5.35 GHz, or 5.47 to 5.725 GHz, or
5.725 to 5.875 GHz, depending on the region of the world] is used for IEEE 802.11a Wi-
Fi and cordless telephone applications, leading to occasional interference with some
weather radars that are also allocated to the C-band.
C-band variations
Slight variations in the assignments of C-band frequencies have been approved for use in
various parts of the world, depending on their locations in the three International
Telecommunications Union radio regions. Note that one region includes all of the
Americas; a second includes all of Europe and Africa, plus all of Russia, and the third
region includes all of Asia outside of Russia, plus Australia and New Zealand. This latter
region is the most populous one, since it includes the People's Republic of China, India,
Pakistan, Japan, and Southeast Asia.
C-Band Variations Around The World
Band
Transmit Frequency
(GHz)
Receive Frequency
(GHz)
Standard C-Band 5.8506.425 3.6254.200
Extended C-Band 5.8506.725 3.4004.200
INSAT / Super-Extended C-Band 6.7257.025 4.5004.800
Russian C-Band 5.9756.475 3.6504.150
LMI C-Band 5.72506.025 3.7004.000
Amateur radio
The Radio Regulations of the International Telecommunication Union allow
amateur radio operations in the frequency range from 5.650 to 5.925 GHz.
Other Microwave bands
The microwave spectrum is usually defined as the electromagnetic spectrum that ranges
from 1.0 GHz to 30 GHz in frequency, but some antiquated usages includes lower
frequencies. Most common applications are within the 1.0 to 30 GHz range. Microwave
frequency bands, as defined by the Radio Society of Great Britain (RSGB), are shown in
the table below. Note that frequencies above 30 GHz are typically said to be in the
"millimeter wave". because their wavelengths can be conveniently measured in
millimeters (mm). The frequency of 30 GHz corresponds quite closely to a wavelength of
10 mm, or 1.0 centimeter.
L band 1 to 2 GHz
S band 2 to 4 GHz
C band 4 to 8 GHz
X band 8 to 12 GHz
K
u
band 12 to 18 GHz
K band 18 to 26.5 GHz
K
a
band 26.5 to 40 GHz
Q band 30 to 50 GHz
U band 40 to 60 GHz
V band 50 to 75 GHz
E band 60 to 90 GHz
W band 75 to 110 GHz
F band 90 to 140 GHz
D band 110 to 170 GHz
Footnote: "P-band" is sometimes incorrectly used for the Ku-band. "P" for "previous"
was a radar band used in the United Kingdom that ranged from 250 to 500 MHz, which is
now completely obsolete by the IEEE Standard 521.
Fiberoptic Communications
In infrared optical communications, C-band refers to the wavelength range 1530 - 1565
nm, which corresponds to the amplification range of erbium doped fiber amplifiers
(EDFAs) .
X band
X band
Frequency range
8.0 12.0 GHz
(IEEE radar)

ITU Radio Band Numbers
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
ITU Radio Band Symbols
ELF SLF ULF VLF LF MF HF VHF UHF SHF EHF
NATO Radio bands
A B C D E F G H I J K L M
IEEE Radar bands
HF VHF UHF L S C X K
u
K K
a
Q V W

The X-band is a segment of the microwave radio region of the electromagnetic spectrum.
In some cases, such as in communication engineering, the frequency range of X-band is
rather indefinitely set at approximately 7.0 to 11.2 gigahertz (GHz). In radar engineering,
the frequency range is specified by the IEEE at 8.0 to 12.0 GHz.
The term "X-band" is also used informally and inaccurately to refer to the extended AM
broadcast band, where the "X" stands for "extended".
Satellite communications
For military communications satellites, the International Telecommunications Union
(ITU) has assigned the X-band uplink frequency band (for sending modulated signals) as
from 7.9 to 8.4 GHz. The ITU-assigned downlink frequency band (for receiving signals)
is from 7.25 to 7.75 GHz. The typical local oscillator frequency of an X-band low-noise
block converter (LNB) is 6300 MHz. Both of these frequency bands are 500 megahertz
wide.
In engineering, this pair of frequency bands may be referred to as the 8 / 7 GHz X-band
satellite communications system.
Radar
X-band is used in radar applications including continuous-wave, pulsed, single-
polarization, dual-polarization, synthetic aperture radar, and phased arrays. X-band radar
frequency sub-bands are used in civil, military, and government institutions for weather
monitoring, air traffic control, maritime vessel traffic control, defense tracking, and
vehicle speed detection for law enforcement.
X-band is often used in modern radars. The shorter wavelengths of the X-band allow for
higher resolution imagery from high-resolution imaging radars for target identification
and discrimination.
Terrestrial communications and networking
In Ireland, Libya, Saudi Arabia and Canada, the X-band 10.15 to 10.7 segment is used for
terrestrial broadband. Alvarion, Cambridge, and Ogier make systems for this, though
these are all incompatible. The Ogier system is a full duplex Transverter used for
DOCSIS over microwave. The home / Business CPE has a single coaxial cable with a
power adapter connecting to an ordinary cable modem. The local oscillator is usually
9750 MHz, the same as for K
u
-band satellite TV LNB. Two way applications such as
broadband typically use a 350 MHz TX offset.
Space communications
Portions of the X-band are assigned by the International Telecommunications Union
(ITU) exclusively for deep space telecommunications. The primary user of this allocation
is the American NASA Deep Space Network (DSN). DSN facilities are located in
Goldstone, California (in the Mojave Desert), near Canberra, Australia, and near Madrid,
Spain.
These three stations, located approximately 120 degrees apart in longitude, provide
continual communications from the Earth to almost any point in the Solar System
independent of Earth rotation. DSN stations are capable of using the older and lower S-
band deep-space radio communications allocations, and some higher frequencies on a
more-or-less experimental basis, such as in the K-band.
Notable deep space probe programs that have employed X-band communications include
the Viking Mars landers; the Voyager missions to Jupiter, Saturn, and beyond; the
Galileo Jupiter orbiter; and the Cassini-Huygens Saturn orbiter.
An important use of the X-band communications came with the two Viking program
landers. When the planet Mars was passing near or behind the Sun, as seen from the
Earth, a Viking lander would transmit two simultaneous continuous-wave carriers, one in
the S-band and one in the X-band in the direction of the Earth, where they were picked up
by DSN ground stations. By making simultaneous measurements at the two different
frequencies, the resulting data enabled theoretical physicists to verify the mathematical
predictions of Albert Einstein's General Theory of Relativity. These results are some of
the best confirmations of the General Theory of Relativity.
Amateur radio
The Radio Regulations of the International Telecommunication Union allow amateur
radio operations in the frequency range from 10.000 to 10.500 GHz.
Motion detection
Motion detectors often use 10.525 GHz. 10.4 GHz is proposed for traffic light crossing
detectors.
Other microwave bands
The microwave spectrum is usually defined as electromagnetic energy ranging from
approximately 1 GHz to 100 GHz in frequency, but older usage includes lower
frequencies. Most common applications are within the 1 to 40 GHz range. Microwave
frequency bands, as defined by the Radio Society of Great Britain (RSGB), are shown in
the table below:
L band 1 to 2 GHz
S band 2 to 4 GHz
C band 4 to 8 GHz
X band 8 to 12 GHz
K
u
band 12 to 18 GHz
K band 18 to 26.5 GHz
K
a
band 26.5 to 40 GHz
Q band 30 to 50 GHz
U band 40 to 60 GHz
V band 50 to 75 GHz
E band 60 to 90 GHz
W band 75 to 110 GHz
F band 90 to 140 GHz
D band 110 to 170 GHz
Footnote: P band is sometimes incorrectly used for Ku Band. "P" for "previous" was a
radar band used in the UK ranging from 250 to 500 MHz and now obsolete per IEEE Std
521.













Chapter- 5

Other Microwave Frequency Bands




K
u
band


K
u
band
Frequency range 12 to 18 GHz
Related bands K-band

ITU Radio Band Numbers
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
ITU Radio Band Symbols
ELF SLF ULF VLF LF MF HF VHF UHF SHF EHF
NATO Radio bands
A B C D E F G H I J K L M
IEEE Radar bands
HF VHF UHF L S C X K
u
K K
a
Q V W

The K
u
band is a portion of the electromagnetic spectrum in the microwave range of
frequencies. This symbol refers to "K-under" (originally German: Kurz-unten)in other
words, the band directly below the K-band. In radar applications, it ranges from 12 to
18 GHz according to the formal definition of radar frequency band nomenclature in IEEE
Standard 521-2002.
K
u
band is primarily used for satellite communications, most notably for fixed and
broadcast services, and for specific applications such as NASA's Tracking Data Relay
Satellite used for both space shuttle and ISS communications. K
u
band satellites are also
used for backhauls and particularly for satellite from remote locations back to a television
network's studio for editing and broadcasting. The band is split into multiple segments
that vary by geographical region by the International Telecommunication Union (ITU).
NBC was the first television network to uplink a majority of its affiliate feeds via K
u
band
in 1983.
Some frequencies in this radio band are used for vehicle speed detection by law
enforcement, especially in Europe.
Segments and regions
The Americas
Segments in most of The Americas are represented by ITU Region 2 from 11.7 to
12.2 GHz (Local Oscillator Frequency (LOF) 10.750 GHz), allocated to the FSS (fixed
service satellite), uplink from 14.0 to 14.5 GHz. There are more than 22 FSS K
u
band
satellites orbiting over North America, each carrying 12 to 48 transponders, 20 to 120
watts per transponder, and requiring a 0.8-m to 1.5-m antenna for clear reception.
The 12.2 to 12.7 GHz (LOF 11.250 GHz) segment is allocated to the BSS (broadcasting
satellite service). BSS (DBS direct broadcast satellites) normally carry 16 to 32
transponders of 27 MHz bandwidth running at 100 to 240 watts of power, allowing the
use of receiver antennas as small as 18 inches (450 mm).
Europe and Africa
Segments in those regions are represented by ITU Region 1 and they are, the 11.45 to
11.7 and 12.5 to 12.75 GHz bands are allocated to the FSS (fixed satellite service, uplink
14.0 to 14.5 GHz). In Europe K
u
band is used from 10.7 to 12.75 GHz (LOF Low
9.750 GHz, LOF High 10.600 GHz) for direct broadcast satellite services such as those
carried by the Astra satellites. The 11.7 to 12.5 GHz segment is allocated to the BSS
(broadcasting satellite service).
Australia
Australia is part of ITU Region 3 and the Australian regulatory environment provides a
class license that covers downlinking from 12.25 GHz to 12.75 GHz and uplinking from
14.0 GHz to 14.5 GHz.
Indonesia
The ITU has categorized Indonesia as Region P, countries with very high rain
precipitation. This statement has made many people unsure about using Ku-band (11
18 GHz) in Indonesia. If frequencies higher than 10 GHz are used in a heavy rain area, a
decrease in communication availability results. This problem can be solved by using an
appropriate link budget when designing the wireless communication link. Higher power
can overcome the loss to rain fade.
Measurements of rain attenuation in Indonesia have been done for satellite
communication links in Padang, Cibinong, Surabaya and Bandung. The DAH Model for
rain attenuation prediction is valid for Indonesia, in addition to the ITU model. The DAH
model has become an ITU recommendation since 2001 (Recommendation No. ITU-R
P.618-7). This model can create a 99.7% available link so that Ku-band can be applied in
Indonesia.
The use of the Ku-band for satellite communications in tropical regions like Indonesia is
becoming more frequent. Several satellites above Indonesia have Ku-band transponders,
and even Ka-band transponders. Newskies (NSS 6), launched in December 2002 and
positioned at 95 East, contains only Ku-band transponders with a footprint on Indonesia
(Sumatra, Java, Borneo, Celebes, Bali, Nusa Tenggara, Moluccas). The iPSTAR satellite,
launched in 2004 also uses Ku band footprints. MEASAT has named the Ku-band
footprint directed towards Indonesia Ku-band for Indonesi. MEASAT-3 plans to cover
the whole of Indonesia from West to East. This satellite was launched by Malaysia in
December 2006.
Others
Other ITU allocations have been made within the K
u
band to the fixed service
(microwave towers), radio astronomy service, space research service, mobile service,
mobile satellite service, radiolocation service (radar), amateur radio service, and
radionavigation. However, not all of these services are actually operating in this band and
others are only minor users.
Advantages
Compared with C-band, K
u
band is not similarly restricted in power to avoid interference
with terrestrial microwave systems, and the power of its uplinks and downlinks can be
increased. This higher power also translates into smaller receiving dishes and points out a
generalization between a satellites transmission and a dishs size. As the power
increases, the dishs size can decrease. This is because the purpose of the dish element of
the antenna is to collect the incident waves over an area and focus them all onto the
antenna's actual receiving element, mounted in front of the dish (and pointed back
towards its face); if the waves are more intense, less of them need to be collected to
achieve the same intensity at the receiving element.
The K
u
band also offers a user more flexibility. A smaller dish size and a K
u
band
systems freedom from terrestrial operations simplifies finding a suitable dish site. For
the End users K
u
band is generally cheaper and enables smaller antennas (both because of
the higher frequency and a more focused beam). K
u
band is also less vulnerable to rain
fade than the K
a
band frequency spectrum.
The satellite operator's Earth Station antenna do require more accurate position control
when operating at K
u
band than compared to C band. Position feedback accuracies are
higher and the antenna may require a closed loop control system to maintain position
under wind loading of the dish surface.
Disadvantages
There are, however, some disadvantages of K
u
band system. Especially at frequencies
higher than 10 GHz in heavy rain fall areas, a noticeable degradation occurs, due to the
problems caused by and proportional to the amount of rainfall (commonly known as "rain
fade"). This problem can be mitigated, however, by deploying an appropriate link budget
strategy when designing the satellite network, and allocating a higher power consumption
to compensate rain fade loss. The K
u
band is not only used for television transmission,
which some sources imply, but also very much for digital data transmission via satellites,
and for voice/audio transmissions.
The higher frequency spectrum of the K
u
band is particularly susceptible to signal
degradation, considerably more so than C-band satellite frequency spectrum. A similar
phenomenon, called "snow fade" (where snow or ice accumulation significantly alters the
focal point of a dish) can also occur during winter precipitation. Also, the K
u
band
satellites typically require considerably more power to transmit than the C-band satellites.
Under both "rain fade" and "snow fade" conditions, Ka and Ku band losses can be
marginally (but significantly) reduced using super-hydrophobic Lotus effect coatings.
Other Microwave Bands
The microwave spectrum is usually defined as electromagnetic energy ranging from
approximately 1 GHz to 100 GHz in frequency, but older usage includes lower
frequencies. Most common applications are within the 1 to 40 GHz range. Microwave
frequency bands, as defined by the Radio Society of Great Britain (RSGB), are shown in
the table below:
L band 1 to 2 GHz
S band 2 to 4 GHz
C band 4 to 8 GHz
X band 8 to 12 GHz
K
u
band 12 to 18 GHz
K band 18 to 26.5 GHz
K
a
band 26.5 to 40 GHz
Q band 30 to 50 GHz
U band 40 to 60 GHz
V band 50 to 75 GHz
D band 110 to 170 GHz
Footnote: P band is sometimes incorrectly used for Ku Band. "P" for "previous" was a
radar band used in the UK ranging from 250 to 500 MHz and now obsolete per IEEE Std
521.
K band


K band
Frequency range
NATO: 20 40 GHz
IEEE: 18 27 GHz

ITU Radio Band Numbers
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
ITU Radio Band Symbols
ELF SLF ULF VLF LF MF HF VHF UHF SHF EHF
NATO Radio bands
A B C D E F G H I J K L M
IEEE Radar bands
HF VHF UHF L S C X K
u
K K
a
Q V W

NATO K band
The NATO K band is defined as a frequency band between 20 and 40 GHz (7,500
15,000 nanometer wavelength).
IEEE K band
The IEEE K band is a portion of the electromagnetic spectrum in the microwave range
of frequencies ranging between 18 and 27 GHz. K band between 18 and 26.5 GHz is
absorbed easily by water vapor (H
2
O resonance peak at 22.24 GHz, 1.35 cm).
Amateur radio
The Radio Regulations of the International Telecommunication Union allow
amateur radio operations in the frequency range from 24.500 to 24.250 GHz.
Subdivisions
The IEEE K band is conventionally divided into three sub-bands:
K
a
band: K-above band, 26.540 GHz, mainly used for radar and experimental
communications.
K-band 18-27 GHz
K
u
band: K-under band, 1218 GHz, mainly used for satellite communications,
terrestrial microwave communications, and radar, especially police traffic-speed
detectors.
Infrared astronomy
In infrared astronomy, the K band refers to a different frequency range atmospheric
transmission window centered on 2.2 microns (in the near-infrared 136 THz range).
Other Microwave bands
The microwave spectrum is usually defined as electromagnetic energy ranging from
approximately 1 GHz to 100 GHz in frequency, but older usage includes lower
frequencies. Most common applications are within the 1 to 40 GHz range. Microwave
frequency bands, as defined by the Radio Society of Great Britain (RSGB), are shown in
the table below:
L band 1 to 2 GHz
S band 2 to 4 GHz
C band 4 to 8 GHz
X band 8 to 12 GHz
K
u
band 12 to 18 GHz
K band 18 to 26.5 GHz
K
a
band 26.5 to 40 GHz
Q band 30 to 50 GHz
U band 40 to 60 GHz
V band 50 to 75 GHz
E band 60 to 90 GHz
W band 75 to 110 GHz
F band 90 to 140 GHz
D band 110 to 170 GHz
Footnote: P band is sometimes incorrectly used for Ku Band. "P" for "previous" was a
radar band used in the UK ranging from 250 to 500 MHz and now obsolete per IEEE Std
521.



K
a
band


Ka band
Frequency range 26.5 40 GHz
Related bands K band Ku band

ITU Radio Band Numbers
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
ITU Radio Band Symbols
ELF SLF ULF VLF LF MF HF VHF UHF SHF EHF
NATO Radio bands
A B C D E F G H I J K L M
IEEE Radar bands
HF VHF UHF L S C X K
u
K K
a
Q V W

The K
a
band (Pronounced: "Kay-A Band") covers the frequencies of 26.5-40 GHz. The
K
a
band is part of the K band of the microwave band of the electromagnetic spectrum.
This symbol refers to "K-above" in other words, the band directly above the K-band.
The so-called 30/20 GHz band is used in communications satellites, uplink in either the
27.5 GHz and 31 GHz bands, and high-resolution, close-range targeting radars aboard
military airplanes. Some frequencies in this radio band are used for vehicle speed
detection by law enforcement. Kepler Mission uses this frequency range to downlink the
scientific data collected by the space telescope.
The designation "K
a
-band" is from Kurz-above, which stems from the German word
"kurz" meaning short.
Other Microwave bands
The microwave spectrum is usually defined as electromagnetic energy ranging from
approximately 1 GHz to 100 GHz in frequency, but older usage includes lower
frequencies. Most common applications are within the 1 to 40 GHz range. Microwave
frequency bands, as defined by the Radio Society of Great Britain (RSGB), are shown in
the table below:
L band 1 to 2 GHz
S band 2 to 4 GHz
C band 4 to 8 GHz
X band 8 to 12 GHz
K
u
band 12 to 18 GHz
K band 18 to 26.5 GHz
K
a
band 26.5 to 40 GHz
Q band 30 to 50 GHz
U band 40 to 60 GHz
V band 50 to 75 GHz
E band 60 to 90 GHz
W band 75 to 110 GHz
F band 90 to 140 GHz
D band 110 to 170 GHz
Footnote: P band is sometimes incorrectly used for Ku Band. "P" for "previous" was a
radar band used in the UK ranging from 250 to 500 MHz and now obsolete per IEEE Std
521.
Q band


Q band
Frequency range 33 to 50 GHz
Related bands K
a
band

ITU Radio Band Numbers
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
ITU Radio Band Symbols
ELF SLF ULF VLF LF MF HF VHF UHF SHF EHF
NATO Radio bands
A B C D E F G H I J K L M
IEEE Radar bands
HF VHF UHF L S C X K
u
K K
a
Q V W

The Q band of the microwave part of the electromagnetic spectrum and ranges from 33
to 50 GHz. It sits above, and partly overlaps with, the U.S. IEEE designated K
a
band
(26.5 to 40 GHz). It sits below the U.S. IEEE designated V band (5075 GHz) in
frequency.
The Q band is mainly used for satellite communications, terrestrial microwave
communications and for radio astronomy studies such as the QUIET telescope. It is also
used in automotive radar, and radar investigating the properties of the Earth's surface
Other Microwave bands
The microwave spectrum is usually defined as electromagnetic energy ranging from
approximately 1 GHz to 100 GHz in frequency, but older usage includes lower
frequencies. Most common applications are within the 1 to 40 GHz range. Microwave
frequency bands, as defined by the Radio Society of Great Britain (RSGB), are shown in
the table below:
L band 1 to 2 GHz
S band 2 to 4 GHz
C band 4 to 8 GHz
X band 8 to 12 GHz
K
u
band 12 to 18 GHz
K band 18 to 26.5 GHz
K
a
band 26.5 to 40 GHz
Q band 33 to 50 GHz
U band 40 to 60 GHz
V band 50 to 75 GHz
E band 60 to 90 GHz
W band 75 to 110 GHz
F band 90 to 140 GHz
D band 110 to 170 GHz
Footnote: P band is sometimes incorrectly used for Ku Band. "P" for "previous" was a
radar band used in the UK ranging from 250 to 500 MHz and now obsolete per IEEE Std
521.
V band

V band
Frequency range 50 to 75 GHz

ITU Radio Band Numbers
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
ITU Radio Band Symbols
ELF SLF ULF VLF LF MF HF VHF UHF SHF EHF
NATO Radio bands
A B C D E F G H I J K L M
IEEE Radar bands
HF VHF UHF L S C X K
u
K K
a
Q V W

The V band (vee-band) of the electromagnetic spectrum ranges from 50 to 75 GHz. The
V band is not heavily used, except for millimeter wave radar research and other kinds of
scientific research. It should not be confused with the 6001000 MHz range of Band-V
(band-five) of the UHF frequency range.
The V band is also used for high capacity terrestrial millimeter wave communications
systems. In the United States, the Federal Communications Commission has allocated the
frequency band from 57 to 64 GHz for unlicensed wireless systems. These systems are
primarily used for high capacity, short distance (less than 1 mile) communications. In
addition, frequencies at 70, 80, and 90 GHz have been allocated as "lightly licensed"
bands for multi-gigabit wireless communications. All communications links in the V
band require unobstructed line of sight between the transmit and receive point, and rain
fade must be taken into account when performing link budget analysis.
Notable Uses
On Dec. 15, 1995 the V band at 60 GHz was used by the world's first crosslink
communication between satellites in a constellation. This communication was between
the U.S. Milstar 1 and Milstar 2 military satellites.
Other Microwave bands
The microwave spectrum is usually defined as electromagnetic energy ranging from
approximately 1 GHz to 100 GHz in frequency, but older usage includes lower
frequencies. Most common applications are within the 1 to 40 GHz range. Microwave
frequency bands, as defined by the Radio Society of Great Britain (RSGB), are shown in
the table below:
L band 1 to 2 GHz
S band 2 to 4 GHz
C band 4 to 8 GHz
X band 8 to 12 GHz
K
u
band 12 to 18 GHz
K band 18 to 26.5 GHz
K
a
band 26.5 to 40 GHz
Q band 30 to 50 GHz
U band 40 to 60 GHz
V band 50 to 75 GHz
E band 60 to 90 GHz
W band 75 to 110 GHz
F band 90 to 140 GHz
D band 110 to 170 GHz
Footnote: P band is sometimes incorrectly used for Ku Band. "P" for "previous" was a
radar band used in the UK ranging from 250 to 500 MHz and now obsolete per IEEE Std
521.

E band

ITU Radio Band Numbers
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
ITU Radio Band Symbols
ELF SLF ULF VLF LF MF HF VHF UHF SHF EHF
NATO Radio bands
A B C D E F G H I J K L M
IEEE Radar bands
HF VHF UHF L S C X K
u
K K
a
Q V W

The NATO E band is the range of radio frequencies from 2 GHz to 3 GHz in the
electromagnetic spectrum. This is equal to wave lengths between 15 cm and 10 cm. The
E band is in the upper UHF range of the radio spectrum. The NATO E band lies in the S
band (24 GHz) of the older IEEE classification system.
The newer designation of "E-Band" lies in the extremely high frequency bands from 71
to 76 gigahertz (GHz), 81 to 86 GHz and 92 to 95 GHz. It is being used for short range,
high bandwidth communications.
Atmospheric Effects
At these high frequencies the short wavelengths give the radiation a very directional
quality, similar to visible light. Many molecules possess rotational and vibrational states
excited by very specific wavelengths in this band, thus the atmospheric gasses such as
Oxygen, Water Vapor, Carbon Dioxide and Nitrogen can absorb, and be excited causing
variable beam attenuation effects dependent on meteorological and atmospheric
conditions.
Other Microwave bands
The microwave spectrum is usually defined as electromagnetic energy ranging from
approximately 1 GHz to 100 GHz in frequency, but older usage includes lower
frequencies. Most common applications are within the 1 to 40 GHz range. Microwave
frequency bands, as defined by the Radio Society of Great Britain (RSGB), are shown in
the table below:
Amateur radio
The Radio Regulations of the International Telecommunication Union allow
amateur radio operations in the frequency range from 76.000 to 81.000 GHz.
L band 1 to 2 GHz
S band 2 to 4 GHz
C band 4 to 8 GHz
X band 8 to 12 GHz
K
u
band 12 to 18 GHz
K band 18 to 26.5 GHz
K
a
band 26.5 to 40 GHz
Q band 30 to 50 GHz
U band 40 to 60 GHz
V band 50 to 75 GHz
E band 60 to 90 GHz
W band 75 to 110 GHz
F band 90 to 140 GHz
D band 110 to 170 GHz
Footnote: P band is sometimes incorrectly used for Ku Band. "P" for "previous" was a
radar band used in the UK ranging from 250 to 500 MHz and now obsolete per IEEE Std
521.
W band

W band
Frequency range 75 to 110 GHz
Related bands V band M band

ITU Radio Band Numbers
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
ITU Radio Band Symbols
ELF SLF ULF VLF LF MF HF VHF UHF SHF EHF
NATO Radio bands
A B C D E F G H I J K L M
IEEE Radar bands
HF VHF UHF L S C X K
u
K K
a
Q V W

The W band of the microwave part of the electromagnetic spectrum ranges from 75 to
110 GHz. It sits above the U.S. IEEE designated V band (5075 GHz) in frequency, yet
overlaps the NATO designated M band (60100 GHz). The W band is used for satellite
communications, millimeter wave radar research, military radar targeting and tracking
applications, and some non-military applications.
A number of passive millimetre-wave cameras for concealed weapons detection operate
at 94 GHz. A frequency around 77 GHz is used for automotive cruise control radar. The
atmospheric radio window at 94 GHz is used for imaging millimetre-wave radar
applications in astronomy, defense, and security applications.
Less-than-lethal weaponry exists that uses millimeter waves to heat a thin layer of human
skin to an intolerable temperature so as to make the targeted person move away. A two-
second burst of the 95 GHz focused beam heats the skin to a temperature of 130 F
(54 C) at a depth of 1/64th of an inch (0.4 mm). The United States Air Force and
Marines are currently using this type of Active Denial System.
In terms of communications capability, W-band offers high data rate throughput when
used at high altitudes and in space. (The 71 - 76 GHz / 81 - 86 GHz segment of the W-
band is allocated by the International Telecommunication Union to satellite services.)
Because of increasing spectrum and orbit congestion at lower frequencies, W-band
satellite allocations are of increasing interest to commercial satellite operators, although
no commercial project has yet been implemented in these bands.
Other Microwave bands
The microwave spectrum is usually defined as electromagnetic energy ranging from
approximately 1 GHz to 100 GHz in frequency, but older usage includes lower
frequencies. Most common applications are within the 1 to 40 GHz range. Microwave
frequency bands, as defined by the Radio Society of Great Britain (RSGB), are shown in
the table below:
L band 1 to 2 GHz
S band 2 to 4 GHz
C band 4 to 8 GHz
X band 8 to 12 GHz
K
u
band 12 to 18 GHz
K band 18 to 26.5 GHz
K
a
band 26.5 to 40 GHz
Q band 30 to 50 GHz
U band 40 to 60 GHz
V band 50 to 75 GHz
E band 60 to 90 GHz
W band 75 to 110 GHz
F band 90 to 140 GHz
D band 110 to 170 GHz
Footnote: P band is sometimes incorrectly used for Ku Band. "P" for "previous" was a
radar band used in the UK ranging from 250 to 500 MHz and now obsolete per IEEE Std
521.
F band


F band
Frequency range 90 140 GHz

ITU Radio Band Numbers
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
ITU Radio Band Symbols
ELF SLF ULF VLF LF MF HF VHF UHF SHF EHF
NATO Radio bands
A B C D E F G H I J K L M
IEEE Radar bands
HF VHF UHF L S C X K
u
K K
a
Q V W


The F band is the range of radio frequencies from 90 GHz to 140 GHz in the
electromagnetic spectrum. This is equal to wave lengths between 2.1 mm and 3.3 mm.
The F band is in the lower parts of the SHF range of the radio spectrum.
The F band lies in the S band of the older classification system.

A new F Band lies up between 90 and 140 GHz.
Other Microwave bands
The microwave spectrum is usually defined as electromagnetic energy ranging from
approximately 1 GHz to 100 GHz in frequency, but older usage includes lower
frequencies. Most common applications are within the 1 to 40 GHz range. Microwave
frequency bands, as defined by the Radio Society of Great Britain (RSGB), are shown in
the table below:
L band 1 to 2 GHz
S band 2 to 4 GHz
C band 4 to 8 GHz
X band 8 to 12 GHz
K
u
band 12 to 18 GHz
K band 18 to 26.5 GHz
K
a
band 26.5 to 40 GHz
Q band 30 to 50 GHz
U band 40 to 60 GHz
V band 50 to 75 GHz
E band 60 to 90 GHz
W band 75 to 110 GHz
F band 90 to 140 GHz
D band 110 to 170 GHz
Footnote: P band is sometimes incorrectly used for Ku Band. "P" for "previous" was a
radar band used in the UK ranging from 250 to 500 MHz and now obsolete per IEEE Std
521.
D band


D band
Frequency range 110 170 GHz

ITU Radio Band Numbers
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
ITU Radio Band Symbols
ELF SLF ULF VLF LF MF HF VHF UHF SHF EHF
NATO Radio bands
A B C D E F G H I J K L M
IEEE Radar bands
HF VHF UHF L S C X K
u
K K
a
Q V W

D band is the range of radio frequencies from 110 GHz to 170 GHz in the
electromagnetic spectrum. This is equal to wave lengths between 1.8 mm and 2.7 mm.
The D band is in the EHF range of the radio spectrum.
The modern D band intersects with the L band (0.51.55 GHz) of the older IEEE
classification system.
A newer D-Band lies at the approach to upper frequency limit of contemporary electronic
oscillator technology, between 110 and 170 GHz.
Other Microwave bands
The microwave spectrum is usually defined as electromagnetic energy ranging from
approximately 1 GHz to 100 GHz in frequency, but older usage includes lower
frequencies. Most common applications are within the 1 to 40 GHz range. Microwave
frequency bands, as defined by the Radio Society of Great Britain (RSGB), are shown in
the table below:
L band 1 to 2 GHz
S band 2 to 4 GHz
C band 4 to 8 GHz
X band 8 to 12 GHz
K
u
band 12 to 18 GHz
K band 18 to 26.5 GHz
K
a
band 26.5 to 40 GHz
Q band 30 to 50 GHz
U band 40 to 60 GHz
V band 50 to 75 GHz
E band 60 to 90 GHz
W band 75 to 110 GHz
F band 90 to 140 GHz
D band 110 to 170 GHz
Footnote: P band is sometimes incorrectly used for Ku Band. "P" for "previous" was a
radar band used in the UK ranging from 250 to 500 MHz and now obsolete per IEEE Std
521.


Chapter- 6
Waveguide











A section of flexible waveguide with a pressurizable flange




Electric field inside an x-band hollow metal waveguide.
A waveguide is a structure which guides waves, such as electromagnetic waves or sound
waves. There are different types of waveguide for each type of wave. The original and
most common meaning is a hollow conductive metal pipe used to carry high frequency
radio waves, particularly microwaves.
Waveguides differ in their geometry which can confine energy in one dimension such as
in slab waveguides or two dimensions as in fiber or channel waveguides. In addition,
different waveguides are needed to guide different frequencies: an optical fiber guiding
light (high frequency) will not guide microwaves (which have a much lower frequency).
As a rule of thumb, the width of a waveguide needs to be of the same order of magnitude
as the wavelength of the guided wave.
There are structures in nature which act as waveguides: for example, a layer in the ocean
can guide whale song to enormous distances.
Principle of operation
Waves in open space propagate in all directions, as spherical waves. In this way they lose
their power proportionally to the square of the distance; that is, at a distance R from the
source, the power is the source power divided by R
2
. The waveguide confines the wave to
propagation in one dimension, so that (under ideal conditions) the wave loses no power
while propagating.
Waves are confined inside the waveguide due to total reflection from the waveguide wall,
so that the propagation inside the waveguide can be described approximately as a
"zigzag" between the walls. This description is exact for electromagnetic waves in a
rectangular or circular hollow metal tube.
History
The first structure for guiding waves was proposed by J. J. Thomson in 1893, and was
first experimentally tested by O. J. Lodge in 1894. The first mathematical analysis of
electromagnetic waves in a metal cylinder was performed by Lord Rayleigh in 1897. For
sound waves, Lord Rayleigh published a full mathematical analysis of propagation modes
in his seminal work, The Theory of Sound.
The study of dielectric waveguides (such as optical fibers, see below) began as early as
the 1920s, by several people, most famous of which are Rayleigh, Sommerfeld and
Debye. Optical fiber began to receive special attention in the 1960s due to its importance
to the communications industry.
Uses
The uses of waveguides for transmitting signals were known even before the term was
coined. The phenomenon of sound waves guided through a taut wire have been known
for a long time, as well as sound through a hollow pipe such as a cave or medical
stethoscope. Other uses of waveguides are in transmitting power between the components
of a system such as radio, radar or optical devices. Waveguides are the fundamental
principle of guided wave testing (GWT), one of the many methods of non-destructive
evaluation.
Specific examples:
Optical fibers transmit light and signals for long distances and with a high signal
rate.
In a microwave oven a waveguide leads power from the magnetron where waves
are formed to the cooking chamber.
In a radar, a waveguide leads waves to the antenna, where their impedance needs
to be matched for efficient power transmission (see below).
A waveguide called stripline can be created on a printed circuit board, and is used
to transmit microwave signals on the board. This type of waveguide is very cheap
to manufacture and has small dimensions which fit inside printed circuit boards.
Waveguides are used in scientific instruments to measure optical, acoustic and
elastic properties of materials and objects. The waveguide can be put in contact
with the specimen (as in a Medical ultrasonography), in which case the
waveguide ensures that the power of the testing wave is conserved, or the
specimen may be put inside the waveguide (as in a dielectric constant
measurement), so that smaller objects can be tested and the accuracy is better.
A sketch of the theoretical analysis
Electromagnetic wave propagation along the axis of the waveguide is described by the
wave equation, which is derived from Maxwell's equations, and where the wavelength
depends upon the structure of the waveguide, and the material within it (air, plastic,
vacuum, etc.), as well as on the frequency of the wave.
The spatial distribution of the time-varying electric fields and magnetic fields within the
waveguide depends on boundary conditions imposed by the shape and materials of the
waveguide. Let us assume that the waveguide is made of a metal that is such a good
conductor that we can consider it to be a perfect conductor. Nearly all waveguides have
copper interiors, but some of them are even plated with silver or gold on the inside -
excellent conductors, and also resistant to corrosion. Now, the boundary conditions are
these:
1). Electromagnetic waves do not pass through conductors, but rather, they are reflected.
2). Any electric field that touches a conductor must be perpendicular to it.
3). Any magnetic field close to a conductor must be parallel to it.
These boundary conditions eliminate an infinite number of solutions to the wave
equation, and the ones that remain are the possible solutions to the wave equation inside
the waveguide. The rest of the analysis of the solutions of the electromagnetic waves
inside a waveguide gets very mathematical.
All that remains that can be said without getting very mathematical is that commonly-
used waveguides are only of a few categories. The most common kind of waveguide is
one that has a rectangular cross-section, one that is usually not square. It is common for
the long side of this cross-section to be twice a long as its short side. These are useful for
carrying electromagnetic waves that have a horizontal or vertical polarization to them.
The second most commonly used kind of waveguide has a circular cross-section. These
turn out to be quite useful when carrying electromagnetic waves with a rotating, circular
polarization to them. Then, its electrical field traces out a helical pattern as a function of
time.
The third kind of a waveguide - actually a seldom-used one - has an elliptical cross-
section.
Propagation modes and cutoff frequencies
A propagation mode in a waveguide is one solution of the wave equations, or, in other
words, the form of the wave. Due to the constraints of the boundary conditions, there are
only limited frequencies and forms for the wave function which can propagate in the
waveguide. The lowest frequency in which a certain mode can propagate is the cutoff
frequency of that mode. The mode with the lowest cutoff frequency is the basic mode of
the waveguide, and its cutoff frequency is the waveguide cutoff frequency.
Impedance matching
In circuit theory, the impedance is a generalization of electrical resistivity in the case of
alternating current, and is measured in ohms (). A waveguide in circuit theory is
described by a transmission line having a length and self impedance. In other words the
impedance is the resistance of the circuit component (in this case a waveguide) to the
propagation of the wave. This description of the waveguide was originally intended for
alternating current, but is also suitable for electromagnetic and sound waves, once the
wave and material properties (such as pressure, density, dielectric constant) are properly
converted into electrical terms (current and impedance for example).
Impedance matching is important when components of an electric circuit are connected
(waveguide to antenna for example): The impedance ratio determines how much of the
wave is transmitted forward and how much is reflected. In connecting a waveguide to an
antenna a complete transmission is usually required, so that their impedances are
matched.
The reflection coefficient can be calculated using: , where is the
reflection coefficient (0 denotes full transmission, 1 full reflection, and 0.5 is a reflection
of half the incoming voltage), Z
1
and Z
2
are the impedance of the first component (from
which the wave enters) and the second component, respectively.
An impedance mismatch creates a reflected wave, which added to the incoming waves
creates a standing wave. An impedance mismatch can be also quantified with the
standing wave ratio (SWR or VSWR for voltage), which is connected to the impedance
ratio and reflection coefficient by: , where
are the minimum and maximum values of the voltage absolute value, and the
VSWR is the voltage standing wave ratio, which value of 1 denotes full transmission,
without reflection and thus no standing wave, while very large values mean high
reflection and standing wave pattern.
Electromagnetic waveguides
Waveguides can be constructed to carry waves over a wide portion of the electromagnetic
spectrum, but are especially useful in the microwave and optical frequency ranges.
Depending on the frequency, they can be constructed from either conductive or dielectric
materials. Waveguides are used for transferring both power and communication signals.
Optical waveguides
Waveguides used at optical frequencies are typically dielectric waveguides, structures in
which a dielectric material with high permittivity, and thus high index of refraction, is
surrounded by a material with lower permittivity. The structure guides optical waves by
total internal reflection. The most common optical waveguide is optical fiber.
Other types of optical waveguide are also used, including photonic-crystal fiber, which
guides waves by any of several distinct mechanisms. Guides in the form of a hollow tube
with a highly reflective inner surface have also been used as light pipes for illumination
applications. The inner surfaces may be polished metal, or may be covered with a
multilayer film that guides light by Bragg reflection (this is a special case of a photonic-
crystal fiber). One can also use small prisms around the pipe which reflect light via total
internal reflection such confinement is necessarily imperfect, however, since total
internal reflection can never truly guide light within a lower-index core (in the prism
case, some light leaks out at the prism corners).
Acoustic waveguides
An acoustic waveguide is a physical structure for guiding sound waves. A duct for sound
propagation also behaves like a transmission line. The duct contains some medium, such
as air, that supports sound propagation.
Sound synthesis
Uses digital delay lines as computational elements to simulate wave propagation in tubes
of wind instruments and the vibrating strings of string instruments.





















Chapter- 7
Klystron








High-power klystron used at the Canberra Deep Space Communications Complex.
(Klystrons used for generating heterodyne reference frequencies in radar receivers are
about the size of a whiteboard pen.)
A klystron is a specialized linear-beam vacuum tube (evacuated electron tube). Klystrons
are used as amplifiers at microwave and radio frequencies to produce both low-power
reference signals for superheterodyne radar receivers and to produce high-power carrier
waves for communications and the driving force for modern particle accelerators.
Klystron amplifiers have the advantage (over the magnetron) of coherently amplifying a
reference signal so its output may be precisely controlled in amplitude, frequency and
phase. Many klystrons have a waveguide for coupling microwave energy into and out of
the device, although it is also quite common for lower power and lower frequency
klystrons to use coaxial couplings instead. In some cases a coupling probe is used to
couple the microwave energy from a klystron into a separate external waveguide.
All modern klystrons are amplifiers, since reflex klystrons, which were used as oscillators
in the past, have been surpassed by alternative technologies.
The name klystron comes from the stem form - (klys) of a Greek verb referring to
the action of waves breaking against a shore, and the end of the word electron.
History
The brothers Russell and Sigurd Varian of Stanford University are the inventors of the
klystron. Their prototype was completed in August 1937. Upon publication in 1939, news
of the klystron immediately influenced the work of US and UK researchers working on
radar equipment. The Varians went on to found Varian Associates to commercialize the
technology (for example to make small linear accelerators to generate photons for
external beam radiation therapy). In their 1939 paper, they acknowledged the
contribution of A. Arsenjewa-Heil and Oskar Heil (wife and husband) for their velocity
modulation theory in 1935.
The work of physicist W.W. Hansen was instrumental in the development of klystron and
was cited by the Varian brothers in their 1939 paper. His resonator analysis, which dealt
with the problem of accelerating electrons toward a target, could be used just as well to
decelerate electrons (i.e., transfer their kinetic energy to RF energy in a resonator).
During the second World War, Hansen lectured at the MIT Radiation labs two days a
week, commuting to Boston from Sperry gyroscope company on Long Island. His
resonator, called a "hohlraum" by nuclear physicists and coined "rhumbatron" by the
Varian brothers, is used in 2009 in the National Ignition Facility investigating nuclear
fusion. Hansen died in 1949 as a result of exposure to beryllium oxide (BeO).
During the second World War, the Axis powers relied mostly on (then low-powered)
klystron technology for their radar system microwave generation, while the Allies used
the far more powerful but frequency-drifting technology of the cavity magnetron for
microwave generation. Klystron tube technologies for very high-power applications, such
as synchrotrons and radar systems, have since been developed.
Explanation
Klystrons amplify RF signals by converting the kinetic energy in a DC electron beam into
radio frequency power. A beam of electrons is produced by a thermionic cathode (a
heated pellet of low work function material), and accelerated by high-voltage electrodes
(typically in the tens of kilovolts). This beam is then passed through an input cavity. RF
energy is fed into the input cavity at, or near, its natural frequency to produce a voltage
which acts on the electron beam. The electric field causes the electrons to bunch:
electrons that pass through during an opposing electric field are accelerated and later
electrons are slowed, causing the previously continuous electron beam to form bunches at
the input frequency. To reinforce the bunching, a klystron may contain additional
"buncher" cavities. The RF current carried by the beam will produce an RF magnetic
field, and this will in turn excite a voltage across the gap of subsequent resonant cavities.
In the output cavity, the developed RF energy is coupled out. The spent electron beam,
with reduced energy, is captured in a collector.
Two-cavity klystron amplifier

In the two-chamber klystron, the electron beam is injected into a resonant cavity. The
electron beam, accelerated by a positive potential, is constrained to travel through a
cylindrical drift tube in a straight path by an axial magnetic field. While passing through
the first cavity, the electron beam is velocity modulated by the weak RF signal. In the
moving frame of the electron beam, the velocity modulation is equivalent to a plasma
oscillation. Plasma oscillations are rapid oscillations of the electron density in
conducting media such as plasmas or metals.(The frequency only depends weakly on the
wavelength). So in a quarter of one period of the plasma frequency, the velocity
modulation is converted to density modulation, i.e. bunches of electrons. As the bunched
electrons enter the second chamber they induce standing waves at the same frequency as
the input signal. The signal induced in the second chamber is much stronger than that in
the first.
Two-cavity klystron oscillator
The two-cavity amplifier klystron is readily turned into an oscillator klystron by
providing a feedback loop between the input and output cavities. Two-cavity oscillator
klystrons have the advantage of being among the lowest-noise microwave sources
available, and for that reason have often been used in the illuminator systems of missile
targeting radars. The two-cavity oscillator klystron normally generates more power than
the reflex klystrontypically watts of output rather than milliwatts. Since there is no
reflector, only one high-voltage supply is necessary to cause the tube to oscillate, the
voltage must be adjusted to a particular value. This is because the electron beam must
produce the bunched electrons in the second cavity in order to generate output power.
Voltage must be adjusted to vary the velocity of the electron beam (and thus the
frequency) to a suitable level due to the fixed physical separation between the two
cavities. Often several "modes" of oscillation can be observed in a given klystron.
Reflex klystron

In the reflex klystron (also known as a 'Sutton' klystron after its inventor), the electron
beam passes through a single resonant cavity. The electrons are fired into one end of the
tube by an electron gun. After passing through the resonant cavity they are reflected by a
negatively charged reflector electrode for another pass through the cavity, where they are
then collected. The electron beam is velocity modulated when it first passes through the
cavity. The formation of electron bunches takes place in the drift space between the
reflector and the cavity. The voltage on the reflector must be adjusted so that the
bunching is at a maximum as the electron beam re-enters the resonant cavity, thus
ensuring a maximum of energy is transferred from the electron beam to the RF
oscillations in the cavity. The voltage should always be switched on before providing the
input to the reflex klystron as the whole function of the reflex klystron would be
destroyed if the supply is provided after the input. The reflector voltage may be varied
slightly from the optimum value, which results in some loss of output power, but also in a
variation in frequency. This effect is used to good advantage for automatic frequency
control in receivers, and in frequency modulation for transmitters. The level of
modulation applied for transmission is small enough that the power output essentially
remains constant. At regions far from the optimum voltage, no oscillations are obtained at
all. This tube is called a reflex klystron because it repels the input supply or performs the
opposite function of a klystron.
There are often several regions of reflector voltage where the reflex klystron will
oscillate; these are referred to as modes. The electronic tuning range of the reflex klystron
is usually referred to as the variation in frequency between half power pointsthe points
in the oscillating mode where the power output is half the maximum output in the mode.
The frequency of oscillation is dependent on the reflector voltage, and varying this
provides a crude method of frequency modulating the oscillation frequency, albeit with
accompanying amplitude modulation as well.
Modern semiconductor technology has effectively replaced the reflex klystron in most
applications.
Multicavity klystron


Large klystrons as used in the storage ring of the Australian Synchrotron to maintain the
energy of the electron beam
In all modern klystrons, the number of cavities exceeds two. A larger number of cavities
may be used to increase the gain of the klystron, or to increase the bandwidth.
Tuning a klystron
Some klystrons have cavities that are tunable. Tuning a klystron is delicate work which,
if not done properly, can cause damage to equipment or injury to the technician. By
adjusting the frequency of individual cavities, the technician can change the operating
frequency, gain, output power, or bandwidth of the amplifier. The technician must be
careful not to exceed the limits of the graduations, or damage to the klystron can result.
Manufacturers generally send a card with the unique calibrations for a klystron's
performance characteristics, that lists the graduations to be set to attain any of a set of
listed frequencies. No two klystrons are exactly identical (even when comparing like
part/model number klystrons), and so every card is specific to the individual unit.
Klystrons have serial numbers on each of them to uniquely identify each unit, and for
which manufacturers may (hopefully) have the performance characteristics in a database.
If not, loss of the calibration card may be an economically insoluble problem, making the
klystron unusable or perform marginally un-tuned.
Other precautions taken when tuning a klystron include using nonferrous tools. Some
klystrons employ permanent magnets. If a technician uses ferrous tools, (which are
ferromagnetic), and comes too close to the intense magnetic fields that contain the
electron beam, such a tool can be pulled into the unit by the intense magnetic force,
smashing fingers, injuring the technician, or damaging the unit. Special lightweight
nonmagnetic (aka diamagnetic) tools made of beryllium alloy have been used for tuning
U.S. Air Force klystrons.
Precautions are routinely taken when transporting klystron devices in aircraft, as the
intense magnetic field can interfere with magnetic navigation equipment. Special
overpacks are designed to help limit this field "in the field," and thus allow such devices
to be transported safely.
Optical klystron
In an optical klystron the cavities are replaced with undulators. Very high voltages are
needed. The electron gun, the drift tube and the collector are still used.
Floating drift tube klystron
The floating drift tube klystron has a single cylindrical chamber containing an electrically
isolated central tube. Electrically, this is similar to the two cavity oscillator klystron with
a lot of feedback between the two cavities. Electrons exiting the source cavity are
velocity modulated by the electric field as they travel through the drift tube and emerge at
the destination chamber in bunches, delivering power to the oscillation in the cavity. This
type of oscillator klystron has an advantage over the two-cavity klystron on which it is
based. It only needs one tuning element to effect changes in frequency. The drift tube is
electrically insulated from the cavity walls, and DC bias is applied separately. The DC
bias on the drift tube may be adjusted to alter the transit time through it, thus allowing
some electronic tuning of the oscillating frequency. The amount of tuning in this manner
is not large and is normally used for frequency modulation when transmitting.
Collector
After the RF energy has been extracted from the electron beam, the beam is destroyed in
a collector. Some klystrons include depressed collectors, which recover energy from the
beam before collecting the electrons, increasing efficiency. Multistage depressed
collectors enhance the energy recovery by "sorting" the electrons in energy bins.
Applications
Klystrons produce microwave power far in excess of that developed by solid state. In
modern systems, they are used from UHF (hundreds of MHz) up through hundreds of
gigahertz (as in the Extended Interaction Klystrons in the CloudSat satellite). Klystrons
can be found at work in radar, satellite and wideband high-power communication (very
common in television broadcasting and EHF satellite terminals), medicine (radiation
oncology), and high-energy physics (particle accelerators and experimental reactors). At
SLAC, for example, klystrons are routinely employed which have outputs in the range of
50 megawatts (pulse) and 50 kilowatts (time-averaged) at frequencies nearing 3 GHz
Popular Science's "Best of What's New 2007" included a company Global Resource
Corporation using a klystron to convert the hydrocarbons in everyday materials,
automotive waste, coal, oil shale, and oil sands into natural gas and diesel fuel.























Chapter- 8
Microstrip










Cross-section of microstrip geometry. Conductor (A) is separated from ground plane (D)
by dielectric substrate (C). Upper dielectric (B) is typically air.
Microstrip is a type of electrical transmission line which can be fabricated using printed
circuit board [PCB] technology, and is used to convey microwave-frequency signals. It
consists of a conducting strip separated from a ground plane by a dielectric layer known
as the substrate. Microwave components such as antennas, couplers, filters, power
dividers etc. can be formed from microstrip, the entire device existing as the pattern of
metallization on the substrate. Microstrip is thus much less expensive than traditional
waveguide technology, as well as being far lighter and more compact.
The disadvantages of microstrip compared with waveguide are the generally lower power
handling capacity, and higher losses. Also, unlike waveguide, microstrip is not enclosed,
and is therefore susceptible to cross-talk and unintentional radiation.
For lowest cost, microstrip devices may be built on an ordinary FR-4 (standard PCB)
substrate. However it is often found that the dielectric losses in FR4 are too high at
microwave frequencies, and that the dielectric constant is not sufficiently tightly
controlled. For these reasons, an alumina substrate is commonly used.
On a smaller scale, microstrip transmission lines are also built into monolithic microwave
integrated circuits [MMIC]s.
Microstrip lines are also used in high-speed digital PCB designs, where signals need to be
routed from one part of the assembly to another with minimal distortion, and avoiding
high cross-talk and radiation.
Microstrip is very similar to stripline and coplanar waveguide [CPW], and it is possible
to integrate all three on the same substrate.
Inhomogeneity
The electromagnetic wave carried by a microstrip line exists partly in the dielectric
substrate, and partly in the air above it. In general, the dielectric constant of the substrate
will be different (and greater) than that of the air, so that the wave is travelling in an
inhomogeneous medium. In consequence, the propagation velocity is somewhere
between the speed of radio waves in the substrate, and the speed of radio waves in air.
This behaviour is commonly described by stating the effective dielectric constant (or
effective relative permittivity) of the microstrip; this being the dielectric constant of an
equivalent homogeneous medium (i.e. one resulting in the same propagation velocity).
Further consequences of an inhomogeneous medium include:
The line will not support a true TEM wave; at non-zero frequencies, both the E
and H fields will have longitudinal components (a hybrid mode). The longitudinal
components are small however, and so the dominant mode is referred to as quasi-
TEM.
The line is dispersive. With increasing frequency, the effective dielectric constant
gradually climbs towards that of the substrate, so that the phase velocity gradually
decreases. This is true even with a non-dispersive substrate material (the substrate
dielectric constant will usually fall with increasing frequency).
The characteristic impedance of the line changes slightly with frequency (again,
even with a non-dispersive substrate material). The characteristic impedance of
non-TEM modes is not uniquely defined, and depending on the precise definition
used, the impedance of microstrip either rises, falls, or falls then rises with
increasing frequency. The low-frequency limit of the characteristic impedance is
referred to as the quasi-static characteristic impedance, and is the same for all
definitions of characteristic impedance.
The wave impedance varies over the cross-section of the line.
Characteristic Impedance
A closed-form approximate expression for the quasi-static characteristic impedance of a
microstrip line was developed by Wheeler:

where w
eff
is the effective width, which is the actual width of the strip, plus a correction to
account for the non-zero thickness of the metallization. The effective width is given by

with
Z
0
= impedance of free space,
dielectric constant of substrate,
w = width of strip,
h = thickness ('height') of substrate and
t = thickness of strip metallization.
This formula is asymptotic to an exact solution in three different cases
1. , any (parallel plate transmission line),
2. , (wire above a ground-plane) and
3. ,
It is claimed that for most other cases, the error in impedance is less than 1%, and is
always less than 2%. By covering all aspect-ratios in one formula, Wheeler 1977
improves on Wheeler 1965 which gives one formula for w / h > 3.3 and another for
(thus introducing a discontinuity in the result at w / h = 3.3). Nevertheless,
the 1965 paper is perhaps the more often cited. A number of other approximate formulae
for the characteristic impedance have been advanced by other authors. However, most of
these are applicable to only a limited range of aspect-ratios, or else cover the entire range
piecewise.
Curiously, Harold Wheeler disliked both the terms 'microstrip' and 'characteristic
impedance', and avoided using them in his papers.
Bends
In order to build a complete circuit in microstrip, it is often necessary for the path of a
strip to turn through a large angle. An abrupt 90 bend in a microstrip will cause a
significant portion of the signal on the strip to be reflected back towards its source, with
only part of the signal transmitted on around the bend. One means of effecting a low-
reflection bend, is to curve the path of the strip in an arc of radius at least 3 times the
strip-width. However, a far more common technique, and one which consumes a smaller
area of substrate, is to use a mitred bend.


Microstrip 90 mitred bend. The percentage mitre is 100x/d
To a first approximation, an abrupt un-mitred bend behaves as a shunt capacitance placed
between the ground plane and the bend in the strip. Mitring the bend reduces the area of
metallization, and so removes the excess capacitance. The percentage mitre is the cut-
away fraction of the diagonal between the inner and outer corners of the un-mitred bend.
The optimum mitre for a wide range of microstrip geometries has been determined
experimentally by Douville and James. They find that a good fit for the optimum
percentage mitre is given by,

subject to and the with the substrate dielectric constant . This
formula is entirely independent of . The actual range of parameters for which Douville
and James present evidence is and . They
report a VSWR of better than 1.1 (i.e. a return better than -26dB) for any percentage
mitre within 4% (of the original d) of that given by the formula. Note that for the
minimum w / h of 0.25, the percentage mitre is 96%, so that the strip is very nearly cut
through.
For both the curved and mitred bends, the electrical length is somewhat shorter than the
physical path-length of the strip.





Chapter- 9
Waveguide Flange












Figure 1. A UBR320 flange on R320 (WG22, WR28) guide. This type of flange has no
choke or gasket grooves. The through-mounted assembly is made evident by the distinct
colours of the copper waveguide-tube and brass flange.
A waveguide flange is a connector for joining sections of waveguide, and is essentially
the same as a pipe flangea waveguide, in the context of this article, being a hollow
metal conduit for microwave energy. The connecting face of the flange is either square,
circular or (particularly for large or reduce-height rectangular waveguides), rectangular.
The connection between a pair of flanges is usually made with four or more bolts, though
alternative mechanisms, such as a threaded collar, may be used where there is a need for
rapid assembly and disassembly. Dowel pins are sometimes used in addition to bolts, to
ensure accurate alignment, particularly for very small waveguides.
Key features of a waveguide join are; whether or not it is air-tight, allowing the
waveguide to be pressurized, and whether it is a contact or a choke connection. This leads
to three sorts of flange for each size of rectangular waveguide.
For rectangular waveguides there exist a number of competing standard flanges which are
not entirely mutually compatible. Standard flange designs also exist for double-ridge,
reduced-height, square and circular waveguides.
Pressurization
The atmosphere within waveguide assemblies is often pressurized to raise its breakdown
voltage and so increase the power that may be carried by the guide. This requires that all
joins in the waveguide be airtight, something which is usually achieved by means of a
rubber O-ring recessed into a groove in the face of at least one of flanges forming each
join. Gasket, gasket/cover or pressurizable flanges (such as that on the right of figure 2),
are identifiable by the single circular groove which accommodates the O-ring. It is only
necessary for one of the flanges in each pressurizable connection to be of this type; the
other may have a plain flat face (like that in figure 1). This ungrooved type is known as a
cover, plain or unpressurizable flange.
It is also possible to form air-tight seal between a pair of otherwise unpressurizable
flanges using a flat gasket made out of a special electrically conductive elastomer. Two
plain cover flanges may be mated without such a gasket, but the connection is then not
pressurizable.
Electrical continuity


Figure 2. A UG-1666/U (MIL-standard) choke flange (left), and matching gasket/cover
flange (right). These flanges are aluminium and are socket-mounted onto aluminium
WG18 (WR62) waveguide.
Electric current flows on the inside surface of the waveguides, and must cross the join
between them if microwave power is to pass through the connection without reflection or
loss.
Contact connection
A contact connection is formed by the union of any combination of gasket and cover
flanges, and ideally creates a continuous inner surface from one waveguide to the other,
with no crack at the join to interrupt the surface currents. The difficulty with this sort of
connection is that any manufacturing imperfections or dirt or damage on the faces of the
flanges will result in a crack. Arcing of the current across the crack will cause further
damage, loss of power, and may give rise to arcing from one side of the guide to the
other, thereby short circuiting it.
Choke connection


Figure 3. E-plane cross-section of connected choke and gasket/cover waveguide flanges
from figure 2. The gap between the flange faces has been exaggerated by a factor of four
to make it clearly visible.
Legend:
a. waveguide tubing socket-mounted into...
b. choke flange and...
c. gasket/cover flange
d. gap between flange faces (width exaggerated by factor of 4)
e. point of contact of flange faces
f. short at bottom of choke ditch
g. O-ring gaskets to allow pressurization
The choke flange can be also be mated with a plain cover flange and still form a
pressurizable join
A choke connection is formed by mating one choke flange and one cover (or
gasket/cover) flange (but never two choke flanges). The central region of the choke
flange face is very slightly recessed so that it does not touch the face of the cover flange,
but is separated from it by a narrow gap. The recessed region is bounded by a deep choke
trench (or ditch or groove) cut into the face of the flange. Choke flanges are only used
with rectangular waveguide, and are invariably pressurizable, having a gasket groove
encircling the choke ditch. The presence of these two concentric circular grooves makes
choke flanges easily recognizable. The left-hand flange in figure 2 is a choke flange.
In the absence of unpressurizable choke flanges, all flanges fall into one of three
categories: choke, gasket/cover and cover.
An E-plane cross section of an assembled choke connection is shown in figure 3. This is
the plane cutting each of the broad walls of the waveguide along its centre-line, which is
where the longitudinal surface currentsthose that must cross the joinare at their
strongest. The choke ditch and the gap between the flange faces together form a
somewhat convoluted side-branch to the path of the main guide. This side branch is
designed to present a low input impedance where it meets the broad walls of the
waveguide, so that the surface currents there are not obstructed by the gap, but instead
flow onto and off of the separated faces of the flanges. Conversely, on the outer edge of
the choke ditch, at the point where the two flanges come into physical contact, the ditch
presents a high series impedance. The current through the contact point is thus reduced to
a small value, and the danger of arcing across any crack between the flanges is likewise
reduced.
Theory
At the operational frequency of the choke flange, the depth of the ditch is approximately
one quarter of a wavelength. This is somewhat longer than a quarter of the free-space
wavelength, since the electric field also varies in going around the ditch, having two
changes of polarity, or one complete wave in the circumference. The ditch thus
constitutes a quarter-wave resonant short-circuit stub, and has a high (ideally infinite)
input impedance at its mouth. This high impedance is in series with the metal-to-metal
connection between the flanges, and minimizes the current across it. The distance from
the main waveguide through the gap to the ditch is likewise one quarter of a wavelength
in the E-plane. The gap thus forms a quarter-wave transformer, transforming the high
impedance at the top of the ditch to a low (ideally zero) impedance at the broad wall of
the waveguide.


Figure 4. Plastic caps over disconnected flanges prevent dirt and moisture entering the
waveguide, in addition to protecting the face of the flange from damage.
Frequency dependence
Because the working of a choke connection depends on the wavelength, its impedance
can be zero at at most one frequency within the operating band of the waveguide.
However, by making the gap extremely narrow, and the choke ditch relatively wide, the
input impedance can be kept small over a broad frequency band. For gap and ditch widths
in a fixed proportion, the connection input impedance is approximately proportional to
either width (doubling both widths is like having two connections in series). Increasing
just the ditch width, increases its input impedance proportionately, and to a some extent
decreases the transformed impedance, though the effect is limited when the gap-length is
not exactly one quarter wavelength. The MIL-spec choke flanges have a gap width of
between 2% and 3% of the waveguide height (the smaller inner dimension of the guide),
which for WR28 waveguide (WG22) amounts to a gap of just 3 thousandths of an inch.
The choke ditch in these flanges is some 8 times wider (around 20% of the waveguide
height), although the proportions vary considerably, as the width-to-height ratio of the
standard mid-size guides deviates from 2:1. MIL-Spec choke flanges are intended for use
over the full recommended operational frequency band of the waveguide (that is roughly
from 1.3 to 1.9 time the guide cutoff).
History
Claimants to the invention of the choke connection include Norman Ramsey with the
assistance of Shep Roberts while the two were working at the MIT Radiation Lab during
World War II. Winfield Salisbury also claims to have made the invention while leader of
the Radio Frequency Group at the MIT Radiation Lab between 1941 and 1942. The
invention was not patented.
Performance
Choke connections can achieve a VSWR of 1.01 (a return of -46 dB) over a useful
bandwidth, and eliminate the danger of arcing at the join. Nevertheless, better
performance is possible with a carefully made contact-connection between undamaged
plain flanges.
Attachment to waveguide


Figure 5. RCSC 5985-99-083-0003 choke flange through-mounted on WG16 (WR90)
waveguide. Machining down the end of the waveguide tube has left a clear pattern across
the recessed face and the end of the tube. The O-ring for pressurization is in place.
Flanges are either through-mounted or socket-mounted on the end of the waveguide tube.
Through-mounting
In through-mounting, the waveguide tube passes all the way through to the front face of
the flange. Initially the tube is allowed to protrude slightly beyond the face of the flange,
then after the two pieces have been soldered or brazed together, the end of the tube is
machined down so that it is perfectly level with the face. This type of construction can be
seen in figures 1, 4 and 5.
Socket-mounting
In socket-mounting, the aperture in the front face of the flange matches the inside
dimensions of the waveguide. At the back, the aperture is rabbeted to form a socket
which fits onto the end of the waveguide tubing. The two pieces are soldered or brazed
together to ensure an uninterrupted conducting path between the inside surface of the
waveguide tube and the mouth of the flange. This type of construction can be seen in
figure 2, and is shown diagramatically in figure 3. A variation on this is butt-mounting, in
which the waveguide tube abuts the back face of the flange. The back of the flange has a
number of protrusions, sufficient to align the tube, but without forming an unbroken
socket-wall around it.
Socket mounting avoids the need to machine the face of the flange during attachment.
For choke flanges this means that the depth to which the face is recessed, and the width
of the resulting gap is fixed when the flange is manufactured and will not change when it
is attached. MIL-spec choke flanges are socket-mounted.

Standards


Figure 5. Non-standard quick-disconnect (threaded collar) flanges on WR102 guide
MIL-Spec
MIL-DTL-3922 is a United States Military Standard giving detailed descriptions of
choke, gasket/cover and cover flanges for rectangular waveguide. MIL_DTL-39000/3
describes flanges for double-ridge waveguide, and formerly also for single-ridge guide.
MIL-Spec flanges have designations of the form UG-xxxx/U where the x's represent a
variable-length catalogue number, not in itself containing any information about the
flange.
These standards are works of the U.S. government, and are freely available online from
the U.S. Defense Logistics Agency.
IEC
International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) standard IEC 60154 describes flanges
for square and circular waveguides, as well as for what it refers to as flat, medium-flat,
and ordinary rectangular guides.
IEC flanges are identified by an alphanumeric code consisting of; the letter U, P or C for
Unpressurizable (plain cover), Pressurizable (with a gasket groove) and Choke (also with
a gasket groove); a second letter, indicating the shape and other details of the flange and
finally the IEC identifier for the waveguide. For standard rectangular waveguide the
second letter is A to E, where A and C are round flanges, B is square and D and E are
rectangular. So for example UBR220 is a square plain cover flange for R220 waveguide
(that is, for WG20, WR42), PDR84 is a rectangular gasket flange for R84 waveguide
(WG15, WR112) and CAR70 is a round choke flange for R70 waveguide (WG14,
WR137).
The IEC standard is endorsed by a number of European standards organizations, such as
the British Standards Institution.
EIA
The Electronic Industries Alliance (EIA) is the body that defined the WR designations for
standard rectangular waveguides. EIA flanges are designated CMR (for Connector,
Miniature, Rectangular waveguide) or CPR (Connector, Pressurizable, Rectangular
waveguide) followed by the EIA number (WR number) for the relevant waveguide. So
for example, CPR112 is a gasket flange for waveguide WR112 (WG15).
RCSC
The Radio Components Standardization Committee (RCSC) is the body that originated
the WG designations for standard rectangular waveguides. It also defined standard choke
and cover flanges with identifiers of the form 5985-99-xxx-xxxx where the x's represent a
catalogue number, not in itself containing any information about the flange.












Chapter- 10
Cavity Magnetron






The cavity magnetron is a high-powered vacuum tube that generates microwaves using
the interaction of a stream of electrons with a magnetic field. The 'resonant' cavity
magnetron variant of the earlier magnetron tube was invented by Randall and Boot in
1940. The high power of pulses from the cavity magnetron made centimetre-band radar
practical. Shorter wavelength radars allowed detection of smaller objects. The compact
cavity magnetron tube drastically reduced the size of radar sets so that they could be
installed in anti-submarine aircraft and escort ships. At present, cavity magnetrons are
commonly used in microwave ovens and in various radar applications.
Construction and operation


Magnetron with section removed (magnet is not shown)


A similar magnetron with a different section removed (magnet is not shown).
All cavity magnetrons consist of a hot cathode with a high (continuous or pulsed)
negative potential by a high-voltage, direct-current power supply. The cathode is built
into the center of an evacuated, lobed, circular chamber. A magnetic field parallel to the
filament is imposed by a permanent magnet. The magnetic field causes the electrons,
attracted to the (relatively) positive outer part of the chamber, to spiral outward in a
circular path rather than moving directly to this anode. Spaced around the rim of the
chamber are cylindrical cavities. The cavities are open along their length and connect the
common cavity space. As electrons sweep past these openings, they induce a resonant,
high-frequency radio field in the cavity, which in turn causes the electrons to bunch into
groups. A portion of this field is extracted with a short antenna that is connected to a
waveguide (a metal tube usually of rectangular cross section). The waveguide directs the
extracted RF energy to the load, which may be a cooking chamber in a microwave oven
or a high-gain antenna in the case of radar.


A cross-sectional diagram of a resonant cavity magnetron. Magnetic lines of force are
parallel to the geometric axis of this structure.
The sizes of the cavities determine the resonant frequency, and thereby the frequency of
emitted microwaves. However, the frequency is not precisely controllable. The operating
frequency varies with changes in load impedance, with changes in the supply current, and
with the temperature of the tube. This is not a problem in uses such as heating, or in some
forms of radar where the receiver can be synchronized with an imprecise magnetron
frequency. Where precise frequencies are needed, other devices such as the klystron are
used.
The magnetron is a self-oscillating device requiring no external elements other than a
power supply. A well-defined threshold anode voltage must be applied before oscillation
will build up; this voltage is a function of the dimensions of the resonant cavity, and the
applied magnetic field. In pulsed applications there is a delay of several cycles before the
oscillator achieves full peak power, and the build-up of anode voltage must be
coordinated with the build-up of oscillator output.
The magnetron is a fairly efficient device. In a microwave oven, for instance, a 1.1
kilowatt input will generally create about 700 watt of microwave power, an efficiency of
around 65%. (The high-voltage and the properties of the cathode determine the power of
a magnetron.) Large S-band magnetrons can produce up to 2.5 megawatts peak power
with an average power of 3.75 kW. Large magnetrons can be water cooled. The
magnetron remains in widespread use in roles which require high power, but where
precise frequency control is unimportant.
Applications


Magnetron from a microwave oven with magnet in its mounting box. The horizontal
plates form a heat sink, cooled by airflow from a fan
Radar
In radar devices the waveguide is connected to an antenna. The magnetron is operated
with very short pulses of applied voltage, resulting in a short pulse of high power
microwave energy being radiated. As in all radar systems, the radiation reflected off a
target is analyzed to produce a radar map on a screen.
Several characteristics of the magnetron's power output conspire to make radar use of the
device somewhat problematic. The first of these factors is the magnetron's inherent
instability in its transmitter frequency. This instability is noted not only as a frequency
shift from one pulse to the next, but also a frequency shift within an individual transmitter
pulse. The second factor is that the energy of the transmitted pulse is spread over a wide
frequency spectrum, which makes necessary its receiver to have a corresponding wide
selectivity. This wide selectivity permits ambient electrical noise to be accepted into the
receiver, thus obscuring somewhat the received radar echoes, thereby reducing overall
radar performance. The third factor, depending on application, is the radiation hazard
caused by the use of high power electromagnetic radiation. In some applications, for
example a marine radar mounted on a recreational vessel, a radar with a magnetron
output of 2 to 4 kilowatts is often found mounted very near an area occupied by crew or
passengers. In practical use, these factors have been overcome, or merely accepted, and
there are today thousands of magnetron aviation and marine radar units in service. Recent
advances in aviation weather avoidance radar and in marine radar have successfully
implemented semiconductor transmitters that eliminate the magnetron entirely.
Heating
In microwave ovens the waveguide leads to a radio frequency-transparent port into the
cooking chamber.
Lighting
In microwave-excited lighting systems, such as a sulfur lamp, a magnetron provides the
microwave field that is passed through a waveguide to the lighting cavity containing the
light-emitting substance (e.g., sulfur, metal halides, etc.)
History
The first simple, two-pole magnetron was developed in 1920 by Albert Hull at General
Electric's Research Laboratories (Schenectady, New York), as an outgrowth of his work
on the magnetic control of vacuum tubes in an attempt to work around the patents held by
Lee De Forest on electrostatic control.
Hull's magnetron was not originally intended to generate VHF (very-high-frequency)
electromagnetic waves. However, in 1924, Czech physicist August ek (1886-1961)
and German physicist Erich Habann (1892-1968) independently discovered that the
magnetron could generate waves of 100 megahertz to 1 gigahertz. ek, a professor at
Prague's Charles University, published first; however, he published in a journal with a
small circulation and thus attracted little attention. Habann, a student at the University of
Jena, investigated the magnetron for his doctoral dissertation of 1924. Throughout the
1920s, Hull and other researchers around the world worked to develop the magnetron.
Most of these early magnetrons were glass vacuum tubes with multiple anodes. However,
the two-pole magnetron, also known as a split-anode magnetron, had relatively low
efficiency. The cavity version (properly referred to as a resonant-cavity magnetron)
proved to be far more useful.
While radar was being developed during World War II, there arose an urgent need for a
high-power microwave generator that worked at shorter wavelengths (around 10 cm
(3 GHz)) rather than the 150 cm (200 MHz) that was available from tube-based
generators of the time. It was known that a multi-cavity resonant magnetron had been
developed and patented in 1935 by Hans Hollmann in Berlin. However, the German
military considered its frequency drift to be undesirable and based their radar systems on
the klystron instead. But klystrons could not achieve the high power output that
magnetrons eventually reached. This was one reason that German night fighter radars
were not a match for their British counterparts.
In 1940, at the University of Birmingham in the United Kingdom, John Randall and
Harry Boot produced a working prototype similar to Hollman's cavity magnetron, but
added liquid cooling and a stronger cavity. Randall and Boot soon managed to increase
its power output 100 fold. Instead of abandoning the magnetron due to its frequency
instability, they sampled the output signal and synchronized their receiver to whatever
frequency was actually being generated. In 1941, the problem of frequency instability
was solved by coupling alternate cavities within the magnetron.
Because France had just fallen to the Nazis and Britain had no money to develop the
magnetron on a massive scale, Churchill agreed that Sir Henry Tizard should offer the
magnetron to the Americans in exchange for their financial and industrial help (the
Tizard Mission). An early 6 kW version, built in England by the General Electric
Company Research Laboratories, Wembley, London (not to be confused with the
similarly named American company General Electric), was given to the US government
in September 1940. At the time the most powerful equivalent microwave producer
available in the US (a klystron) had a power of only ten watts. The cavity magnetron was
widely used during World War II in microwave radar equipment and is often credited
with giving Allied radar a considerable performance advantage over German and
Japanese radars, thus directly influencing the outcome of the war. It was later described
as "the most valuable cargo ever brought to our shores".
The Bell Telephone Laboratories made a producible version from the magnetron
delivered to America by the Tizard Mission, and before the end of 1940, the Radiation
Laboratory had been set up on the campus of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology
to develop various types of radar using the magnetron. By early 1941, portable
centimetric airborne radars were being tested in American and British planes. In late
1941, the Telecommunications Research Establishment in Great Britain used the
magnetron to develop a revolutionary airborne, ground-mapping radar codenamed H2S.
The H2S radar was in part developed by Alan Blumlein and Bernard Lovell.
Centimetric radar, made possible by the cavity magnetron, allowed for the detection of
much smaller objects and the use of much smaller antennas. The combination of small-
cavity magnetrons, small antennas, and high resolution allowed small, high quality radars
to be installed in aircraft. They could be used by maritime patrol aircraft to detect objects
as small as a submarine periscope, which allowed aircraft to attack and destroy
submerged submarines which had previously been undetectable from the air. Centimetric
contour mapping radars like H2S improved the accuracy of Allied bombers used in the
strategic bombing campaign. Centimetric gun-laying radars were likewise far more
accurate than the older technology. They made the big-gunned Allied battleships more
deadly and, along with the newly developed proximity fuze, made anti-aircraft guns
much more dangerous to attacking aircraft. The two coupled together and used by anti-
aircraft batteries, placed along the flight path of German V-1 flying bombs on their way
to London, are credited with destroying many of the flying bombs before they reached
their target.
Since then, many millions of cavity magnetrons have been manufactured; while some
have been for radar the vast majority have been for microwave ovens. The use in radar
itself has dwindled to some extent, as more accurate signals have generally been needed
and developers have moved to klystron and traveling-wave tube systems for these needs.
Health hazards

Caution: radiowaves hazard
Among more speculative hazards, at least one in particular is well known and
documented. As the lens of the eye has no cooling blood flow, it is particularly prone to
overheating when exposed to microwave radiation. This heating can in turn lead to a
higher incidence of cataracts in later life. A microwave oven with a warped door or poor
microwave sealing can be hazardous.
There is also a considerable electrical hazard around magnetrons, as they require a high
voltage power supply.
Some magnetrons have beryllium oxide (beryllia) ceramic insulators, which are
dangerous if crushed and inhaled, or otherwise ingested. Single or chronic exposure can
lead to berylliosis, an incurable lung condition. In addition, beryllia is listed as a
confirmed human carcinogen by the IARC; therefore, broken ceramic insulators or
magnetrons should not be directly handled.

























Chapter- 11

Diverse Microwave Technologies





Isolator (microwave)





Resonance absorption isolator consisting of WG16 waveguide containing two strips of
ferrite (black rectangle near right edge of each broad wall), which are biased by a
horseshoe permanent magnet external to the guide. Transmission direction is indicated by
arrow on label on right
An isolator is a two-port device that transmits microwave or radio frequency power in
one direction only. It is used to shield equipment on its input side, from the effects of
conditions on its output side; for example, to prevent a microwave source being detuned
by a mismatched load.
Non-reciprocity
An isolator in a non-reciprocal device, with a non-symmetric scattering matrix. An ideal
isolator transmits all the power entering port 1 to port 2, while absorbing all the power
entering port 2, so that to within a phase-factor its S-matrix is

To achieve non-reciprocity, an isolator must necessarily incorporate a non-reciprocal
material. At microwave frequencies this material is invariably a ferrite which is biased by
a static magnetic field. The ferrite is positioned within the isolator such that the
microwave signal presents it with a rotating magnetic field, with the rotation axis aligned
with the direction of the static bias field. The behaviour of the ferrite depends on the
sense of rotation with respect to the bias field, and hence is different for microwave
signals travelling in opposite directions. Depending on the exact operating conditions, the
signal travelling in one direction may either be phase-shifted, displaced from the ferrite or
absorbed.
Types


An X band isolator consisting of a waveguide circulator with an external matched load on
one port




Two isolators each consisting of a coax circulator and a matched load
Resonance absorption
In this type the ferrite absorbs energy from the microwave signal travelling in one
direction. A suitable rotating magnetic field is found in the TE
10
mode of rectangular
waveguide. The rotating field exists away from the centre-line of the broad wall, over the
full height of the guide. However, to allow heat from the absorbed power to be conducted
away, the ferrite does not usually extend from one broad-wall to the other, but is limited
to a shallow strip on each face. For a given bias field, resonance absorption occurs over a
fairly narrow frequency band, but since in practice the bias field is not perfectly uniform
throughout the ferrite, the isolator functions over a somewhat wider band.
Using a circulator
A circulator is a non-reciprocal three- or four-port device, in which power entering any
port is transmitted to the next port in rotation (only). So to within a phase-factor, the
scattering matrix for a three-port circulator is

A two-port isolator is obtained simply by terminating one of the three ports with a
matched load, which absorbs all the power entering it. The biassed ferrite is part of the
circulator. The bias field is lower than that needed for resonance absorption, and so this
type of isolator does not require such a heavy permanent magnet. Because the power is
absorbed in an external load, cooling is less of a problem than with a resonance
absorption isolator.
Microwave Power Module
A Microwave Power Module (MPM) is a microwave device used to amplify radio
frequency signals to high power levels. It is a hybrid combination of solid-state and
vacuum tube electronics, which encloses a solid-state driver amplifier (SSPA), traveling
wave tube amplifier (TWTA) and electronic power conditioning (EPC) modules into a
single unit . Their average output power capability falls between that of solid-state power
amplifiers (SSPAs) and dedicated Traveling Wave Tube (TWT) amplifiers. They may be
applied wherever high power microwave amplification is required, and space is at a
premium. They are available in various frequency ranges, from S band up to W band.
Typical output power at Ku band ranges from 20W to 1kW.
History
The microwave power module concept was designed for use in active phased array
antennas, where their compact size permits packing a large number of modules into the
radiating face of the antenna. The concept was explored in detail by the 1989 Microwave
Power Module Panel, supported by the US Naval Research Laboratory. While the
eventual goal was to design a power module with a cross section as small as a half square
inch, most MPMs today are larger, and suitable only for line arrays, partially distributed
arrays and single-module applications.
Typical Specifications
Microwave power modules are available at various frequencies, from S band up to W
band . Both CW and pulsed MPMs are available, the pulsed MPMs having a wide duty
cycle range. Power levels range from less than 20W to over 1 kW. MPMs are light-
weight compared to traditional TWTAs, and the power supply requirements are typically
low-voltage DC (28 - 270V DC).
Construction

Block diagram of an MPM
A microwave power module consists of a solid state power amplifier, which drives a
vacuum power booster, typically a traveling wave tube. The high voltage power supply
required by the TWT is provided by an electronic power conditioner. In pulsed-mode
MPMs, the power conditioner provides a pulsed high voltage that is triggered by a trigger
input. MPMs also include a microcontroller, which is responsible for controlling the
operation of the module, such as making sure the various power supply voltages come up
in the appropriate sequence to prevent damage to the TWT. It also reports the module
status, including the various voltages, currents and temperatures.
Applications
Microwave power modules are used in
Active phased array antennas
Radar transmitters where relatively low power, but long pulse widths are needed
(such as Synthetic Aperture Radars)
Commercial and military satellite communications
Microwave cavity
A microwave cavity is a closed metal structure that confines electromagnetic fields in
the microwave region of the spectrum. Such cavities act as resonant circuits with
extremely low loss at their frequency of operation. Their Q factor may reach several
hundred thousand compared to a few hundred for resonant circuits made with inductors
and capacitors at the same frequency.
For frequencies over a few hundred megahertz in the VHF range, conventional inductors
and capacitors present difficult problems. The losses of both increase with frequency.
This type of inductor is usually wound from wire in the shape of a helix with no core.
Skin effect causes the high frequency resistance of inductors to be many times their direct
current resistance. In addition, capacitance between turns causes dielectric losses in the
insulation which coats the wires. These effects make the high frequency resistance
greater and decrease the "Q".
This type of capacitor will use air, mica, ceramic or perhaps teflon for a dielectric. Even
with a low loss dielectric, capacitors are also subject to skin effect losses in their leads
and plates. Both effects increase their equivalent series resistance and reduce their Q.
Even if the Q of VHF inductors and capacitors is high enough to be useful, each suffers
from the problem of being composed of some of the other. The shunt capacitance of an
inductor may be more significant than its desirable series inductance. The series
inductance of a capacitor may be more significant than its desirable shunt capacitance. As
a result, in the VHF or microwave regions, a capacititor may appear to be an inductor and
an inductor may appear to be a capacitor.
The energy of an air core inductor should be almost totally in its magnetic field. Some
energy is stored in the electric field due to the capacitance between its turns. The latter
energy is an unwanted feature. The energy of a capacitor should be almost totally in the
electric field of its dielectric. Some is stored in the magnetic field from the current in its
leads. This is unwanted as well.
Air is almost loss free for high frequency electric or magnetic fields. Microwave cavities
confine electric and magnetic fields almost exclusively to the air spaces between their
walls. The currents in the cavity walls are small because they are at a high impedance
point. While losses are small from these currents, cavities are frequently plated with
silver to increase their electrical conductivity and reduce the losses even further. Copper
cavities frequently oxidize, which increases their loss. Silver or gold plating will prevent
this. Even though gold is not quite as good a conductor as copper, it prevents oxidation
and the resulting deterioration of Q with aging. Because of its much higher cost, it is used
only in the most demanding applications.
Comment: I disagree with the note about oxides destroying the Q of the resonator. The
currents will flow under the oxide layer. The problem is if the oxide layer becomes
resistive. Silver will oxidize and this does not destroy the Q. I do not know how copper
oxide behaves.
Some satellite resonators are silver plated, that are covered with a gold flash layer. The
current will then mostly flow in the silver, while the gold protects the silver layer from
oxidizing.
Monolithic microwave integrated circuit




Photograph of a GaAs MMIC (a 2-18GHz upconverter)




MMIC MSA-0686.
A Monolithic Microwave Integrated Circuit, or MMIC (sometimes pronounced
"mimic"), is a type of integrated circuit (IC) device that operates at microwave
frequencies (300 MHz to 300 GHz). These devices typically perform functions such as
microwave mixing, power amplification, low noise amplification, and high frequency
switching. Inputs and outputs on MMIC devices are frequently matched to a
characteristic impedance of 50 ohms. This makes them easier to use, as cascading of
MMICs does not then require an external matching network. Additionally most
microwave test equipment is designed to operate in a 50 ohm environment.
MMICs are dimensionally small (from around 1 mm to 10 mm) and can be mass
produced, which has allowed the proliferation of high frequency devices such as cellular
phones. MMICs were originally fabricated using gallium arsenide (GaAs), a III-V
compound semiconductor. It has two fundamental advantages over Silicon (Si), the
traditional material for IC realisation: device (transistor) speed and a semi-insulating
substrate. Both factors help with the design of high frequency circuit functions. However,
the speed of Si-based technologies has gradually increased as transistor feature sizes have
reduced and MMICs can now also be fabricated in Si technology. The primary advantage
of Si technology is its lower fabrication cost compared with GaAs. Silicon wafer
diameters are larger (typically 8" or 12" compared with 4" or 6" for GaAs) and the wafer
costs are lower, contributing to a less expensive IC.
Other III-V technologies, such as Indium Phosphide (InP), have been shown to offer
superior performance to GaAs in terms of gain, higher cutoff frequency, and low noise.
However they also tend to be more expensive due to smaller wafer sizes and increased
material fragility.
Silicon Germanium (SiGe) is a Si-based compound semiconductor technology offering
higher speed transistors than conventional Si devices but with similar cost advantages.
Gallium Nitride (GaN) is also an option for MMICs. Because GaN transistors can operate
at much higher temperatures and work at much higher voltages than GaAs transistors,
they make ideal power amplifiers at microwave frequencies.
Rat-race coupler




Rat-race coupler
A rat-race coupler (also known as a hybrid ring coupler) is a type of coupler used in
RF and Microwave systems. In its simplest form it is a 3dB coupler and is thus an
alternative to a magic tee. Compared to the magic tee, it has the advantage of being easy
to realize in planar technologies such as microstrip and stripline, although waveguide rat
races are also practical. Unlike magic tees, a rat-race needs no matching structure to
achieve correct operation.
The rat-race coupler has four ports, each placed one quarter wavelength away from each
other around the top half of the ring. The bottom half of the ring is three quarter
wavelengths in length.
A signal input on port 1, will be split between ports 2 and 4, and port 3 will be isolated.
The full scattering matrix for an ideal 3dB rat-race is



Arithmetics with rat-race coupler
Rat-race couplers are used to sum two in-phase combined signals with essentially no loss
or to equally split an input signal with no resultant phase difference between out and
inputs. It is also possible to configure the coupler as a 180 degree phase-shifted output
divider or to sum two 180 degree phase-shifted combined signals with almost no loss.
RF switch matrix
RF Switch Matrix or Microwave Switch Matrix or Switch Matrix

An RF/Microwave Switch Matrix is used in test systems, in both design verification and
manufacturing test, to route high frequency signals between the device under test (DUT)
and the test and measurement equipment. Besides signal routing, the RF/Microwave
Switch Matrix may also contain signal conditioning including passive signal conditioning
devices, such as attenuators, filters, and directional couplers, as well as active signal
conditioning, such as amplification and frequency converters. Since the signal routing
and signal conditioning needs of a test system differ from design to design,
RF/Microwave Switch Matrices typically have to be custom designed by the test system
engineer or a hired contractor for each new test system. The Switch Matrix is made up of
switches and signal conditioners that are mounted together in a mechanical infrastructure
or housing. Cables are employed to interconnect the switches and signal conditioners.
The switch matrix then employs some type of driver circuit and power supply to power
and drive the switches and signal conditioners. The switch matrix uses connectors or
fixtures to route the signal paths of the sourcing and measurement equipment to the DUT.
The switch matrix is typically located close to DUT in the test system to shorten the
signal paths to the DUT thus reducing insertion loss and signal degradation.
Benefits of an RF/Microwave Switch Matrix
The purpose of a switch matrix is to move the signal routing and signal conditioning to
one central location in the test system versus having it all distributed at various places in
the test system. Moving the signal routing and signal conditioning to a single location in
the test system has the following advantages:
Calibration plane between the DUT and test equipment becomes smaller and
centralized making it easier to characterize.

Switches and signal conditioners have similar power, mounting, and driver
requirements so moving them to a single location means you will only need a
single power supply and driver circuit to power and control them.
Short signal paths reduce insertion loss and increase signal integrity.
Exact length signal paths are possible to control phase issues.
Simplifies service and support.
Making It vs Buying It
Switch matrices present a unique problem to test system designers because the signal
conditioning needs, the frequency range, the bandwidth, and power aspects change from
application to application. So test and measurement companies cannot provide a one size
fits all solution. This leaves test system designers with two choices for their switch matrix
design: Create an in-house solution or contract it out. Advantages of creating your
switch matrix in-house:
Proprietary concerns can be a big issue especially in the Aerospace Defense
industry. Creating a switch matrix in-house makes proprietary concerns a non-
issue.
Using spare human resources may be less costly.
Being the first to develop an emerging technology into a finished product can be
very profitable for a company. When building a switch matrix in-house the timely
process of shopping around for the right contractor is bypassed. A company is in
control of the amount of daily man hours spent developing a switch matrix.
Successive switch matrix designs can be highly leveragable from design to
design. The switch driver hardware and software, the mechanical designs, the
power supply, etc. can all be leveraged from design to design with little or no
modification.
Contracting out advantages:
Company lacks spare human resources.
System integrators (contractors) tend to have more experience and expertise. They
can design within tight specs and can handle complicated designs.
System integrators can provide guaranteed work as well as product support.
Signal routing


A PIN Diode RF Microwave Switch. Picture courtesy of Herley
There are two types of switches typically used in switch matrices: Coaxial
Electromechanical Switches and Solid State Switches, also known as electronic switches.
Coaxial electromechanical switches can be further divided into two categories based on
their architecture, latching relay and non-latching relay. Solid state switches come in
three types: PIN diode, FET, and hybrid. The advantages of solid state switches over EM
switches include they have much faster switching speed (at least 10,000 times faster),
they have an almost infinite life, and they are very stable and repeatable. On the other
hand, since solid state switches have non-linear portions over their frequency range their
bandwidth is limited. Also, EM switches provide better insertion loss, VSWR, power
handling, and isolation specifications. For these reasons EM switches are used much
more often in switch matrix designs.
Example applications
Custom Switch Matrices are used extensively throughout test systems in the wireless and
aerospace defense sectors for design verification and manufacturing test. They can range
from the simple to the complex. An example of a simple design switch matrix application
would be a 1:16 MUX configuration that routes 12 satellite TV feeds to a single spectrum
analyzer input that is used to perform signal integrity checks on the satellite feeds. Such a
design would require 5 SP4T coaxial EM switches as well as interconnecting coax cable
for the signal routing along with a mechanical infrastructure, power supply, and switch
driver circuit to mount, power, and operate the switches.
An example of a more complex switch matrix is an application that is measuring jitter on
multiple high speed serial data buses. The switch matrix inputs the data bus signals then
provides the proper switching and signal conditioning for the signals before feeding the
signals to test and measurement instruments. This custom switch matrix employed 14 EM
switches and a number of different signal conditioners including: power splitters,
amplifiers, mixers, filters, and attenuators.
Design challenges
There are six main challenges when designing a custom RF/Microwave Switch Matrix
from beginning to end:
1. Mechanical Design: design of an electrically shielded enclosure or box, internal
component mounting brackets, as well as component and cabling layout.
2. RF/Microwave Design: RF/Microwave signal routing and signal conditioning
design and testing. A calibration plan for the switch matrix would need to be
developed to properly characterize the signal paths.
3. Power and Control Hardware: The power supply and switch driver circuitry will
need to be designed and developed.
4. Software Control: A software driver will need to be developed to provide an
interface between the control hardware and test system program.
5. Documentation: The whole switch matrix design will have to be documented to
support maintenance and possible future design leveraging.
6. Servicing Plan: A servicing plan will need to be developed to ensure the life of
the switch matrix lasts as long as the life of the test system.
Test equipment manufacturers offer instruments that provide a power supply, driver
circuitry, and software drivers that essentially saves a test system designer time and cost
by eliminating two of the six switch matrix design challenges: power and control
hardware design as well as software driver development. Many companies have
introduced new product concepts that aid in custom switch matrix design. These new
products offers test system designers a power supply, driver circuitry, and software
drivers all wrapped together in a mainframe. The mainframe provides flexible mounting
for switches and other components as well as blank front and rear panel that can be easily
modified to fit a design need. These new products eliminates 3 of the 6 design challenges:
mechanical design, power and control hardware design, and software driver development


Vircator
A vircator (VIRtual CAthode oscillaTOR) is a microwave generator that is capable of
generating brief pulses of tunable, narrow band microwaves at very high power levels.

A typical vircator is built inside an evacuated resonant cavity or waveguide. An electrode
at one end injects an intense electron beam, such as from a Marx generator or a flux
compression generator. The electrons are attracted to a thin anode, such as an aluminized
PET film, that is connected to the grounded waveguide body. The unit is surrounded by a
magnet. Due to the intensity of the electron beam, many electrons pass through the anode
into the region beyond it, forming a virtual cathode. The electron beam must be so
intense as to exceed the space charge limiting current in that region, causing oscillations
that generate microwaves. The frequency, efficiency and other characteristics of the
emitted beam depend on the precise physical configuration and operating parameters.
Vircators have been used as electromagnetic pulse generators and for generating X-rays.
Power levels on the order of 10
10
to 10
12
watts are possible.
Backward wave oscillator
A backward wave oscillator (BWO), also called carcinotron (a trade name for tubes
manufactured by CSF, now Thales) or backward wave tube, is a vacuum tube that is
used to generate microwaves up to the terahertz range. It belongs to the traveling-wave
tube family. It is an oscillator with a wide electronic tuning range.
An electron gun generates an electron beam that is interacting with a slow-wave
structure. It sustains the oscillations by propagating a traveling wave backwards against
the beam. The generated electromagnetic wave power has its group velocity directed
oppositely to the direction of motion of the electrons. The output power is coupled out
near the electron gun.
It has two main subtypes, the M-type, the most powerful, (M-BWO) and the O-type (O-
BWO). The O-type delivers typically power in the range of 1 mW at 1000 GHz to
50 mW at 200 GHz. Carcinotrons are used as powerful and stable microwave sources.
Due to the good quality wavefront they produce, they find use as illuminators in terahertz
imaging.
The backward wave oscillators were demonstrated in 1951, M-type by Bernard Epsztein,
(French patent 1,035,379; British patent 699,893; US patent 2,880,355) and O-type by
Rudolf Kompfner. The M-type BWO is a voltage-controlled non-resonant extrapolation
of magnetron interaction, both types are tunable over a wide range of frequencies by
varying the accelerating voltage. They can be swept through the band fast enough to be
appearing to radiate over all the band at once, which makes them suitable for effective
radar jamming, quickly tuning into the radar frequency. Carcinotrons allowed airborne
radar jammers to be highly effective. However, frequency-agile radars can hop
frequencies fast enough to force the jammer to use barrage jamming, diluting its output
power over a wide band and significantly impairing its efficiency.
Carcinotrons are used in research, civilian and military applications. For example, the
Kopac passive sensor and Ramona passive sensor employed carcinotrons in their receiver
systems.
The Slow-wave structure


(a) Forward fundamental space harmonic (n=0), (b) Backward fundamental
The needed slow-wave structures must support a Radio Frequency (RF) electric field
with a longitudinal component; the structures are periodic in the direction of the beam
and behave like microwave filters with passbands and stopbands. Due to the periodicity
of the geometry, the fields are identical from cell to cell except for a constant phase shift
. This phase shift, a purely real number in a passband of a lossless structure, varies with
frequency. According to Floquet's theorem, the RF electric field E(z,t) can be described at
an angular frequency , by a sum of an infinity of "spatial or space harmonics" E
n

E(z,t)=
where the wave number or propagation constant k
n
of each harmonic is expressed as:
k
n
=(+2n)/p (-<<+)
z being the direction of propagation, p the pitch of the circuit and n an integer.
Two examples of slow-wave circuit characteristics are shown, in the -k or Brillouin
diagram:
on figure (a), the fundamental n=0 is a forward space harmonic (the phase
velocity v
n
=/k
n
has the same sign as the group velocity v
g
=d/dk
n
), synchronism
condition for backward interaction is at point B, intersection of the line of slope v
e

- the beam velocity - with the first backward (n = -1) space harmonic,
on figure (b) the fundamental (n=0) is backward
A periodic structure can support both forward and backward space harmonics, which are
not modes of the field, and cannot exist independently, even if a beam can be coupled to
only one of them.
As the magnitude of the space harmonics decreases rapidly when the value of n is large,
the interaction can be significant only with the fundamental or the first space harmonic.
M-type BWO


Schematic of an M-BWO
The M-type carcinotron, or M-type backward wave oscillator, uses crossed static
electric field E and magnetic field B, similar to the magnetron, for focussing an electron
sheet beam drifting perpendicularly to E and B, along a slow-wave circuit, with a velocity
E/B. Strong interaction occurs when the phase velocity of one space harmonic of the
wave is equal to the electron velocity. Both E
z
and E
y
components of the RF field are
involved in the interaction (E
y
parallel to the static E field). Electrons which are in a
decelerating E
z
electric field of the slow-wave, lose the potential energy they have in the
static electric field E and reach the circuit. The sole electrode is more negative than the
cathode, in order to avoid collecting those electrons having gained energy while
interacting with the slow-wave space harmonic.
O-type BWO
The O-type carcinotron, or O-type backward wave oscillator, uses an electron beam
longitudinally focused by a magnetic field, and a slow-wave circuit interacting with the
beam. A collector collects the beam at the end of the tube.
Spurline
The spurline is a type of radio-frequency and microwave distributed element filter with
band-stop (notch) characteristics, most commonly used with microstrip transmission
lines. Spurlines usually exhibit moderate to narrow-band rejection, at about 10% around
the central frequency.
Spurline filters are very convenient for dense integrated circuits because of their
inherently compact design and ease of integration: they occupy surface that corresponds
only to a quarter-wavelength transmission line.
Structure Description
It consists of a normal microstrip line breaking into a pair of smaller coupled lines that
rejoin after a quarter-wavelength distance. Only one of the input ports of the coupled
lines is connected to the feed microstrip, as shown in the figure below. The orange area of
the illustration is the microstrip transmission line conductor and the gray color the
exposed dielectric.
Figure : Microstrip Spurline Notch Filter (Top View)
Where
g
is the wavelength corresponding to the central rejection frequency of the
bandstop filter, measured - of course - in the microstrip line material. This is the most
important parameter of the filter that sets the rejection band.
The distance between the two coupled lines can be selected appropriately to fine-tune the
filter. The smaller the distance, the narrower the stop-band in terms of rejection. Of
course that is limited by the circuit-board printing resolution, and it is usually considered
at about 10% of the input microstrip width.
The gap between the input microstrip line and the one open-circuited line of the coupler
has a negligible effect on the frequency response of the filter. Therefore it is considered
approximately equal to the distance of the two coupled lines.

Circulator



A waveguide circulator used as an isolator by placing a matched load on port 3. The label
on the permanent magnet indicates the direction of circulation
A circulator is a passive non-reciprocal three- or four-port device, in which microwave
or radio frequency power entering any port is transmitted to the next port in rotation
(only). Thus, to within a phase-factor, the scattering matrix for an ideal three-port
circulator is

When one port of a three-port circulator is terminated in a matched load, it can be used as
an isolator, since a signal can travel in only one direction between the remaining ports.
There are circulators for LF, VHF, UHF, microwave frequencies and for light, the latter
being used in optical fiber networks. Circulators fall into two main classes: 4-port
waveguide circulators based on Faraday rotation of waves propagating in a magnetised
material, and 3-port "Y-junction" circulators based on cancellation of waves propagating
over two different paths near a magnetised material. Waveguide circulators may be of
either type, while more compact devices based on striplines are of the 3-port type.
Sometimes two or more Y-junctions are combined in a single component to give four or
more ports, but these differ in behaviour from a true 4-port circulator.
In radar, circulators are used to route outgoing and incoming signals between the antenna,
the transmitter and the receiver. In a simple system, this function could be performed by a
switch that alternates between connecting the antenna to the transmitter and to the
receiver. The use of chirped pulses and a high dynamic range may lead to temporal
overlap of the sent and received pulses, however, requiring a circulator for this function.
Radio frequency circulators are composed of magnetised ferrite materials. A permanent
magnet produces the magnetic flux through the waveguide. Ferrimagnetic garnet crystal
is used in optical circulators.
There have also been investigations into making "active circulators" which are based on
electronics rather than passive materials. However, the power handling capability and
linearity and signal to noise ratio of transistors is not as high as those made from ferrites.
It seems that transistors are the only (space efficient) solution for low frequencies.
British Telecom microwave network
The British Telecom microwave network was a network of point-to-point microwave
radio links in the United Kingdom, operated at first by the General Post Office, and
subsequently by its successor BT plc. From the late 1950s to the 1980s it provided a large
part of BT's trunk communications capacity, and carried telephone, television and radar
signals and digital data, both civil and military. Its use of line-of-sight microwave
transmission was particularly important during the Cold War for its resilience against
nuclear attack. It was rendered obsolete, at least for normal civilian purposes, by the
installation of a national fibre optic communication network with considerably higher
reliability and vastly greater capacity.
BT remains one of the largest owners of transmission and microwave towers in the UK.
The most famous of these is the BT Tower in London, which was the tallest building in
the UK from its construction in the 1960s until the early 1980s, and a major node in the
BT microwave network.
Television links
The earliest operational GPO microwave links were provided for 405-line BBC
television.
Experimental systems
London to Birmingham pre-war
In 1939 the Post Office placed a contract with EMI for an experiment in the relaying of
television signals to Birmingham. In this case, the signals from Alexandra Palace were to
be received at Dunstable and transmitted over a radio link to Sharmans Hill, Charwelton,
some 40 miles distant towards Birmingham; thus carrying the signal two-thirds of the
way from London to Birmingham. World War II intervened and this early experiment
had to be abandoned.
London to Castleton 195 MHz
The GPO built in an experimental chain of radio relay stations for television, which used
the relatively low VHF frequency of 195 MHz and frequency modulation with a
deviation of 6 MHz per volt. Each relay station consisted essentially of back-to-back
rhombic antennas on opposite sides of a hilltop, connected via an amplifier. The
frequency was not changed. The system was first tested on March 24, 1949. The stations
were located at:
Rowley Lodge, near Barnet
Green Hailey
Widley
Hook
Wotton-under-Edge
Post Office Radio Laboratory at Castleton, near Cardiff
London to Castleton 4 GHz
The GPO built an experimental 4 GHz system. This was used operationally to feed TV
pictures to the Wenvoe transmitter during the latter's first four months on air in late 1952,
until a coaxial feed became available. Some of this equipment from this link was
recovered, refurbished, modified and used to provide a permanent link from London to
Rowridge in 1954.
London to Birmingham 900 MHz
A chain of stations was built between telephone exchanges in London and Birmingham to
connect the Sutton Coldfield transmitting station to Alexandra Palace. The contract for
this was placed with GEC in mid-1947. The stations were located at:
London Museum exchange
Harrow Weald
Zouches Farm
Charwelton
Turner's Hill
Birmingham Telephone House
Manchester to Kirk o'Shotts
The GPO placed a contract in July 1950 for a chain of microwave links to feed BBC
television from Manchester to the Kirk o'Shotts transmitting station. This was the first
permanent GPO system to use the 4 GHz band. The chain was routed near the east coast
in order to be close to Leeds, Newcastle and Edinburgh. The stations were located at:
Manchester Telephone House
Windy Hill
Tinshill
Arncliffe Wood
Pontop Pike
Corby's Crags
Blackcastle Hill
Blackford Hill
Kirk o'Shotts
Backbone


Backbone as proposed in 1956
The term 'backbone' is often applied to the core of a communications network, i.e. the
part that provides high-capacity links over long distances between major nodes. In the
early 1950s, the term was used by the General Post Office (BT's predecessor) to describe
a chain of microwave links designed to provide resilient communications in the event of
nuclear war. It was originally designed as a chain of stations between south-east England
and Scotland.
The exact location of the Backbone sites changed as the project was developed, but in
July 1956 there were 14 planned sites at (from south to north):
Tring (Herts.)
Charwelton, Northants.
Coalville, Leics.
Pye Green BT Tower
Sutton Common
Saddleworth
Hunters Stones (Nr. Skipton, Yorks.)
Azerley, Yorks.
Richmond, Yorks.
Muggleswick, Co. Durham
Cold Fell, Cumberland
Lockerbie, Dumfries
Green Lowther, Dumfries
Kirk o'Shotts (GPO site near BBC site)
Two additional 'Backbone spur' sites were planned for Shrewsbury and Grantham, which
connected to the main Backbone spine at Pye Green and Coalville respectively.
Radio standby to line
The 1956 GPO paper referred to under 'Backbone' above also described a series of links
called 'radio standby to line'. These were spur links between the GPO Backbone sites and
defence 'customer' sites. They were designed to carry between 25 and 150 'private wire'
(a.k.a. leased line) circuits each, by radio. The paper contains a list of sites and a network
map, showing the following radio standby to line links:
Kirk o'Shotts to Gailes GCI radar station near Ayr
Muggleswick to Boulmer GCI station, ROC and regional communications, Seaton
Snook GCI station
Hunters Stones to Forest Moor Admiralty radio receiving station, Shipton RAF
'Sector Operations Centre' (SOC), Preston SOC, Regional Commissioner's HQ
and Admiralty radio transmitting station
Grantham to RAF bomber bases and US Air Force bases
Norwich to RAF SOC (Bawburgh), US Air Force bases, GCI stations, naval
headquarters, Continental communications
Kelvedon Hatch to RAF SOC, RAF bomber stations, RAF radar stations
West Malling to naval headquarters at Chatham and Dover, RAF radar and
Fighter Command headquarters, Continental communications
Upavon to Army establishments on Salisbury Plain
Sopley and Portsmouth to naval headquarters at Portsmouth and naval radio
stations at Horsea and Flowerdown
Box to Admiralty establishment at Bath, RAF SOC and Signals centre, Army
signals centres at Cheltenham and Droitwich and Army radio stations, Foreign
Office GCHQ and radio stations, important radio stations and miscellaneous radar
stations in south-west England, South Wales and the Border Counties.
Antennas and towers
Various types of antenna have been used in the network's history. At first, prime-focus
parabolic reflectors were used. In about 1960, dual-band horn antennas started to be used
widely, and a few of these survive to the present day. They began to go out of fashion at
the end of the 1960s, when types of parabolic antenna with an improved performance
became available.
Many of the towers were designed with particular types of antenna in mind. Many towers
were designed to carry horn antennas but no longer do so, and look rather odd as a result.