Ketidakseimbangan Cu Dan ZN

J Clinic Toxicol Heavy Metal Toxicity ISSN: 2161-0495 JCT, an open access journal
Research Article Open Access

Osredkar and Sustar, J Clinic Toxicol 2011, S:3
http://dx.doi.org/10.4172/2161-0495.S3-001
Review Article Open Access
Clinical Toxicology
Copper and Zinc, Biological Role and Significance of Copper/Zinc
Imbalance
Josko Osredkar*
1
and Natasa Sustar
2
1
University Medical Centre Ljubljana, Zaloska cesta 2, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia
2
General Hospital Izola, Polje 40, 6310 Izola, Slovenia
Introduction
Te human body has an elaborate system for managing and
regulating the amount of key trace metals circulating in blood and
stored in cells. Nutrient metals from our diet are incorporated into
blood if blood levels are depleted, transported into cells if cellular
levels are inadequate, or excreted if blood and cell levels are sufcient
or overloaded. When this system fails to function properly, abnormal
levels and ratios of trace metals can develop. One of the most common
trace-metal imbalances is elevated copper and depressed zinc. Te ratio
of copper to zinc is clinically more important than the concentration of
either of these trace metals [1].
Tere are 2-4 grams of Zn distributed throughout the human body
[2]. Most zinc is in the brain, muscle, bones, kidney and liver, with the
highest concentrations in the prostate and parts of the eye [3]. It is the
second most abundant transition metal in organisms afer iron and it is
the only metal which appears in all enzyme classes [2,4].
Copper is also a vital dietary nutrient, although only small amounts
of the metal are needed for well-being [5]. Although copper is the third
most abundant trace metal in the body [behind iron and zinc], the total
amount of copper in the body is only 75-100 milligrams [6]. Copper is
present in every tissue of the body, but is stored primarily in the liver,
with fewer amounts found in the brain, heart, kidney, and muscles [7].
Te Path and the Role of Zinc [Zn] in Organisms
Biological role of Zn
Zinc is involved in numerous aspects of cellular metabolism [8].
It was estimated that about 10% of human proteins potentially bind
zinc, in addition to hundreds which transport and trafc zinc. It is
required for the catalytic activity of more than 200 enzymes [9,10] and
it plays a role in immune function [10,11], wound healing [10], protein
synthesis, DNA synthesis and cell division [12]. Zinc is required for
proper sense of taste and smell [13,14] and supports normal growth
and development during pregnancy, childhood, and adolescence [15-
18]. It is believed to possess antioxidant properties, which may protect
against accelerated aging and helps speed up the healing process afer
an injury; however, studies difer as to its efectiveness [16,19]. Zinc
ions are efective antimicrobial agents even at low concentrations.
Gastroenteritis is strongly attenuated by ingestion of zinc and this
efect could be due to direct antimicrobial action of the zinc ions in
the gastrointestinal tract, or to the absorption of the zinc and re-release
from immune cells [all granulocytes secrete zinc], or both [20,21,22].
Cells in the salivary gland, prostate, immune system and intestine
use Zn signaling as one way to communicate with other cells [23]. In
the brain, zinc is stored in specifc synaptic vesicles by glutamatergic
neurons and can modulate brain excitability [24]. It plays a key role
in synaptic plasticity and so in learning [24-26]. It also can be a
neurotoxin, suggesting zinc homeostasis plays a critical role in normal
functioning of the brain and central nervous system [24].
*Corresponding author: Josko Osredkar, University Medical Centre Ljubljana,
Zaloska cesta 2, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia, E-mail: [email protected]
Received October 19, 2011; Accepted December 06, 2011; Published December
10, 2011
Citation: Osredkar J, Sustar N (2011) Copper and Zinc, Biological Role and
Signifcance of Copper/Zinc Imbalance. J Clinic Toxicol S3:001. doi:10.4172/2161-
0495.S3-001
Copyright: 2011 Osredkar J, et al. This is an open-access article distributed
under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits
unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the
original author and source are credited.
Zn metabolism
In blood plasma, Zn is bound to and transported by albumin
(60%, low-afnity) and transferrin (10%) [27]. Since transferrin
also transports iron, excessive iron can reduce zinc absorption, and
vice-versa [28]. Te concentration of zinc in blood plasma stays
relatively constant regardless of zinc intake [29]. Zinc may be held in
metallothionein reserves and also transferred in metal transporters
of ZIP and ZnT family transporter proteins [30]. Metallothioneins
in intestinal cells are capable of adjusting absorption of zinc by 15
40% [31]. Excess zinc particularly impairs copper absorption because
metallothioneins absorb both metals [32].
Zn enzymes
Two examples of zinc-containing enzymes are carbonic anhydrase
and carboxypeptidase, which are vital to the processes of carbon
dioxide (CO
2
)regulation and digestion of proteins, respectively
[33,34]. In vertebrate blood, carbonic anhydrase (Figure 1) converts
CO
2
into bicarbonate and the same enzyme transforms the bicarbonate
back into CO
2
for exhalation through the lungs [35]. Without this
enzyme, this conversion would occur about one million times slower
at the normal blood pH of 7 or would require a pH of 10 or more [36].
Carboxypeptidase cleaves peptide linkages during digestion of proteins.
A coordinate covalent bond is formed between the terminal peptide
and a C=O group attached to zinc, which gives the carbon a positive
charge. Tis helps to create a hydrophobic pocket on the enzyme near
the Zn, which attracts the non-polar part of the protein being digested
[34].
Zn serves a purely structural role in zinc fngers (Figure 2) [37].
Zinc fngers form parts of some transcription factors, which are
proteins that recognize DNA base sequences during the replication and
transcription of DNA. Each of the nine or ten Zn
2+
ions in a zinc fnger
helps maintain the fngers structure by coordinately binding to four
amino acids in the transcription factor [38]. Te transcription factor
wraps around the DNA helix and uses its fngers to accurately bind
to the DNA sequence [39,40]. Zn ions are coordinated to the amino
acid side chains of aspartic acid, glutamic acid, cysteine and histidine
[41]. Te metal also has a fexible coordination geometry, which allows
proteins using it to rapidly shif conformations to perform biological
reactions [42].
Page 2 of 18
Citation: Osredkar J, Sustar N (2011) Copper and Zinc, Biological Role and Signifcance of Copper/Zinc Imbalance. J Clinic Toxicol S3:001.
doi:10.4172/2161-0495.S3-001
Zn transport system
Zinc functions in biology are numerous, but can be separated
into three main categories: catalytic, regulatory, and structural
roles [42]. Greater than ten percent of the human genome codes for
zinc-containing proteins [43]. Zn homeostasis is controlled by the
coordinated actions of Zn transporters, which are responsible for Zn
infux and efux, and regulate the intracellular and extracellular Zn
concentration and distribution. Zn transporters contribute to cellular
events at the molecular, biochemical, and genetic level, with recent
progress uncovering the roles of Zn transporters in physiology and
pathogenesis [42,43].
Tight-control of cellular zinc homeostasis is maintained by proteins
that can afect the amount of available zinc. Metal transporters of ZIP
family and zinc transporters of ZnT family, as well as zinc-binding
by metallothioneins; maintain control of intracellular zinc levels.
Currently, 10 ZnT and 14 ZIP transporters have been identifed. Te
ZnT proteins function in cellular zinc efux or vesicular storage. ZnT1
was the frst zinc transporter to be characterized, and is expressed in
all tissues, localizing to the plasma membrane of cells [43]. Subsequent
studies revealed zinc-regulated expression of ZnT1, and that zinc
regulates expression of ZnT1 through activation of the metal response
element metal binding transcription factor MTF-1. Already known
metal-inducible genes regulated by MTF-1 include the metallothioneins,
glutamatecysteine ligase heavy chain (which codes for an oxidative
stress-related protein), and already mentioned ZnT1. MTF-1 responds
to changes in intracellular zinc and other heavy-metals (cadmium and
copper), where upon metal-occupancy there is translocation of MTF-1
from the cytosol to the nucleus. Subsequently this transcription factor
binds to metal response elements located in the proximal promoters of
metal responsive genes, resulting in an increased rate of transcription
[43]. Te importance of MTF-1 to zinc homeostasis and mammalian
physiology is accentuated by the fact that ablation of the gene leads to
severe liver degeneration and embryonic lethality in mice. Subsequent
investigation of a liver-specifc conditional knockout of the MTF-1
gene in mice revealed another MTF-1 regulated zinc transporter gene
ZIP10: Te experiment on isolated mice hepatocytes showed that MTF-
1 is an integral part of ZIP10 related cellular zinc homeostasis in the
liver both during zinc restriction and zinc excess. Te results showed
that MTF-1 has physiologic signifcance and can act as a repressor of
ZIP10 under normal cellular levels of zinc. Upon reducing cellular
zinc, repression is lost and MTF-1 is not translocated to the nucleus,
allowing enhanced ZIP10 transcriptional activation. Te results also
show that ZIP10 is a new target to investigate dietary infuences on zinc
metabolism by the liver and within specifc regions of the brain. Zinc
is believed to have second messenger functions in brain and the ZIP
transporters are believed to be a key to cellular Zn homeostasis [43].
Te Path and the Role of Copper [Cu] in Organisms
Biological role of Cu
Copper plays an important role in our metabolism, largely because
it allows many critical enzymes to function properly [44]. Copper
is essential for maintaining the strength of the skin, blood vessels,
epithelial and connective tissue throughout the body. Cu plays a role
in the production of hemoglobin, myelin, melanin and it also keeps
thyroid gland functioning normally [7,44,45]. Copper can act as both
an antioxidant and a pro-oxidant. Free radicals occur naturally in the
body and can damage cell walls, interact with genetic material, and
contribute to the development of a number of health problems and
diseases. As an antioxidant, Cu scavenges or neutralize free radicals and
may reduce or help prevent some of the damage they cause [5,46-48].
When copper acts as a pro-oxidant at times, it promotes free radical
damage and may contribute to the development of Alzheimers disease
[49,50]. Maintaining the proper dietary balance of Cu, along with other
minerals such as zinc and manganese, is important [5].
Cu metabolism
Copper is absorbed in the gut and transported to the liver bound
to albumin. It enters the bloodstream via the plasma protein called
ceruloplasmin, where its metabolism is controlled, and is excreted
in bile [51]. A transporter protein on the cells of the small bowel,
copper membrane transporter 1 - CMT1, carries copper inside the
cells, where some is bound to metallothioneins and part is carried by
copper transport protein - ATOX1 (copper chaperone for ATP7A
and ATP7B) to the trans-Golgi network. Here, in response to rising
concentrations of copper, an enzyme called ATP7A releases copper
into the portal vein to the liver. Liver cells also carry the CMT1 protein,
and metallothioneins and ATOX1 bind Cu inside the liver cells, but
here it is ATP7B that links copper to ceruloplasmin and releases it into
the bloodstream, as well as removing excess copper by secreting it into
bile [52]. Approximately 90% of the copper in the blood is incorporated
into ceruloplasmin, which is responsible for carrying copper to tissues
that need the mineral [44,45]. Since excretion of copper is so slow (10%
in 72 hours) an excessive dose of Cu is a lingering problem [51]. Proper
absorption and metabolism of copper requires an appropriate balance
with the minerals zinc and manganese. Because zinc can compete with
Figure 1: Diagram of human carbonic anhydrase, with Zn atom visible in
the center.
Figure 2: The Zn ion (green), coordinated by two histidine side chains in
Zn fngers.
Page 3 of 18
doi:10.4172/2161-0495.S3-001
copper in the small intestine and interfere with its absorption, persons
who supplement with inappropriately high levels of zinc and lower
levels of copper may increase their risk of copper defciency [44,45].
In addition to the role of ceruloplasmin as a transport protein, it also
acts as an enzyme; catalyzing the oxidation of minerals, most notably
iron [51]. Te oxidation of iron by ceruloplasmin is necessary for iron
to be bound to its transport protein- transferrin, so iron defciency
anemias may be a symptom of copper defciency [5,45]. Mutations
in copper transport proteins, ATP7B and ATP7A, can disable these
transport systems and leading to Wilsons disease and Menkes disease,
respectively [53,54].
Cu enzymes
Copper proteins have diverse roles in biological electron
transport and oxygen transportation, processes that exploit the easy
interconversion of Cu(I) and Cu(II) [55]. In cytochrome c oxidase,
which is required for aerobic respiration, copper and iron cooperate
in the reduction of oxygen. Copper is also found in Cu/Zn superoxide
dismutase, an enzyme that detoxify superoxides, by converting it to
oxygen and hydrogen peroxide: 2 HO
2
H
2
O
2
+ O
2
[7,55]. Copper is
also a component of lysyl oxidase, an enzyme that participates in the
synthesis of collagen and elastin, two important structural proteins
found in bone and connective tissue. As a part of the enzymes
cytochrome c oxidase copper plays a role in energy production, as
part of dopamine -hydroxylase a role in conversion of dopamine to
norepinephrine, and with Factor IV helps in blood clotting. Copper is
also important for the production of the thyroid hormone thyroxine.
A copper- containing enzyme tyrosinase, converts tyrosine to melanin.
Cu is also necessary for the synthesis of phospholipids found in myelin
sheaths in peripheral nerves [5,7,44,45]. Several Cu protein do not
interact directly with substrates, hence they are not enzymes. Tese
proteins relay electrons by the process called electron transfer [55].
Cu/Zn Superoxide dismutase1 [Cu/ZnSOD1]
Cu/ZnSOD1

is one of the three human superoxide dismutases
identifed and characterized in mammals (SOD2-manganese
superoxide dismutase and SOD3-extracellular superoxide dismutase)
[56,57,58]. Cu/ZnSOD1 is a homodimeric detoxifying metalloenzyme
localized mostly in the cytosol and also in nucleus, peroxisomes, and
mitochondria [56]. When SOD1 was isolated for the frst time, it was
thought to be a copper storage protein; the catalytic function of SOD1
was discovered in 1969 and it was clear that SOD1 acts as a scavenger
of superoxide, through a two-step reaction involving reduction and
reoxidation of the copper ion in its active site (Figure 3) [59]. Primarily,
this reaction occurs in the cytoplasm where SOD1 is highly expressed. In
the 1990s, the scientifc community focused their studies on the genetic
and biochemical characterization of SOD1, demonstrating that SOD1
is linked to diseases as infammatory bowel disease [60], cancer [61],
hypertension and cardiovascular diseases [62,63], Downs syndrome
[64] and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis [65,66,67]. In 1993, the frst
SOD1 gene mutations associated with ALS were described [56]. Te
human SOD1 gene is located on chromosome 21q22.11, and it codes
for the monomeric SOD1 polypeptide (153 amino acids, molecular
weight 16 kDa). Te coding region consists of fve exons interrupted
by four introns. Several polymorphisms have been identifed in SOD1
gene, mainly distributed in the regulatory regions, including promoter
and introns [68].
Superoxide radicals are generated during normal metabolism, as
well as when white blood cells attack invading bacteria and viruses
(phagocytosis). If not eliminated quickly, superoxide radicals cause
damage to cell membranes [5,48]. When copper is not present in
sufcient quantities, the activity of superoxide dismutase is diminished,
and the damage to cell membranes caused by superoxide radicals is
increased. When functioning in this enzyme, copper works together
with the mineral zinc, and it is actually the ratio of copper to zinc,
rather than the absolute amount of copper or zinc alone, that helps the
enzyme function properly (Figure 4) [44,45].
How coordination of metal ions modulates protein structures is not
only important for elucidating biological function but has also emerged
as a key determinant in protein turnover and protein-misfolding
diseases [69]. Te study of folding catalysis by transient coordination
of Zn to the Cu ligands of the Cu/Zn superoxide dismutase showed that
the coordination of Zn to the enzyme Cu/Zn superoxide dismutase is
directly controlled by the proteins folding pathway. Zn frst catalyzes
the folding reaction by coordinating transiently to the Cu ligands of
SOD1. Ten, afer the global folding transition has commenced, the
Zn
2+
ion transfers to the higher afnity Zn site, which structures only
very late in the process. Te relatively rapid equilibration of metals in
and out of the SOD1 structure [10
-5
s
-1
] provided an explanation: if a
dissociated Zn
2+
ion is prevented from rebinding to the SOD1 structure
then the lifetime of the encyme is reduced to a just a few hours [69].
Te maturation and activation of the Cu/Zn superoxide dismutase
(SOD1) are highly regulated processes that require several post-
translational modifcations. Te maturation of SOD1 is initiated by
incorporation of zinc and copper ions followed by disulfde oxidation
leading to the formation of enzymatically active homodimers [70,71].
Present data indicate that homodimer formation is a regulated fnal step
in SOD1 maturation and implicate the recently characterized copper
homeostasis protein COMMD1 in this process. COMMD1 interacts
with SOD1, and this interaction requires copper incorporation into
SOD1. COMMD1 does not regulate disulfde oxidation of SOD1 but
reduces the level of enzymatically active SOD1 homodimers. RNAi-
His 46
Cu Zn
His 78
His 118
His44
Asp81
His61
His69
Figure 3: Active site of Cu/Zn Superoxide dismutase1.
0
2 co
2
NADPH
NAD+
H20
ATP
NDPH
NADP+
GR
GR
FAD
H
2
0
2
Se
Zn
Cu
2GSH
-0
2
-
Figure 4: Cu/Zn SOD mostly presented in the cytoplasm.
Page 4 of 18
doi:10.4172/2161-0495.S3-001
mediated knockdown of COMMD1 expression results in a signifcant
induction of SOD1 activity and a consequent decrease in superoxide
anion concentrations, whereas overexpression of COMMD1 exerts
exactly the opposite efects. COMMD1 is a novel protein regulating
SOD1 activation and associate COMMD1 function with the production
of free radicals [70,71].
Cu chaperones
Te intracellular trafcking of Cu to copper-dependent proteins is
fundamental to normal cellular metabolism. Te copper chaperones
perform the dual functions of trafcking and the prevention of
cytoplasmic exposure to copper ions in transit. Only a small number
of copper chaperones have been identifed at this time but their
conservation across plant, bacterial and animal species suggests that
the majority of living systems utilise these proteins for copper routing
[72]. Te available data suggest that each copper-dependent protein in
the cell is served by a specifc copper chaperone. Specifcity for a given
copper-dependent protein appears to be mediated by the residues
surrounding the copper-binding motif [73].
Copper is needed within mitochondria to supply the Cu proteins
and intramembrane Cu sites of cytochrome oxidase, within the trans-
Golgi network to supply secreted cuproproteins and within the cytosol
to supply Cu/Zn superoxide dismutase1 (SOD1). Subpopulations of
copper-zinc superoxide dismutase also localize to mitochondria, the
secretory system and the nucleus [74]. Copper metallochaperones
assist copper in reaching vital destinations without inficting damage or
becoming trapped in adventitious binding sites [72]. Copper ions are
specifcally released from copper metallochaperones upon contact with
their cognate cuproproteins, so metal transfer is thought to proceed by
ligand substitution [73].
Copper chaperone for SOD1 specifcally delivers copper to SOD1
in cytoplasm of mammalian cells. In the present study, small interfering
RNA targeting copper chaperone for SOD1 (CCS) was introduced into
metallothionein-knockout mouse fbroblasts (MT-KO cells) and their
wild type cells (MT-WT cells) to reveal the interactive role of CCS with
other Cu-regulating proteins. CCS knockdown signifcantly decreased
the level of Cu infux transporter (Ctr1). On the other hand, mRNA
expression for a Cu efux transporter (ATP7A) was increased and
was 3.0 - 2.5 times higher than those of the control. Te experiment
also showed that the ATP7A knockdown signifcantly increased the
intracellular Cu concentration. Te activity of SOD1 were maintained
in both MT-WT and MT-KO cells even when copper chaperone for
SOD1 protein expression was reduced to 0.30-0.35 of control. Tis
suggests that the amount of CCS protein exceeds that required to
supply Cu to SOD1 in the cells. Further, the CCS knockdown induces
Cu accumulation in cells. Te results showed that Cu accumulation
is ameliorated by the metallothionein induction, the decrease of Ctr1
expression and the increase of ATP7A expression to maintain Cu
homeostasis [76].
Sources of Copper and Zinc and Dietary Intakes
Food sources
A daily intakes of Cu and Zn is required to maintain a steady
state because the body has no specialized storage system of these two
elements [5,12,77]. A wide variety of foods contain zinc [18]. Oysters
contain more zinc per serving than any other food, but red meat,
especially beef, lamb and liver have some of the highest concentrations
of zinc in food [78]. Other good food sources include beans, nuts,
other types of seafood (such as crab and lobster), whole grains, cereals,
almonds, pumpkin seeds, sunfower seeds [18,78]. Rich sources of
copper include oysters and other sea food, beef and organ meats
(especially liver), dark green leafy vegetables, enriched cereals, nuts
and sunfower seeds, green olives, avocados, dried legumes, chocolate,
cocoa, and black pepper [5,45].
Dietary supplements
Supplements contain several forms of zinc, including zinc gluconate,
zinc sulfate, and zinc acetate. Te percentage of elemental zinc varies
by form of supplement [79].Scientists has not determined whether
diferences exist among forms of zinc in absorption, bioavailability, or
tolerability [17].
Multivitamins that include minerals generally provide copper. It is
also available as an individual oral supplement. Cu supplements should
not be given to children, at children it should be obtained from food
[5,7].
Recommended intakes for Zn
Intake recommendations for Zn are provided in the Dietary
Reference Intakes developed by the Food and Nutrition Board (FNB)
at the Institute of Medicine of the National Academies. Te current
Recommended Dietary Allowances [RDA] for zinc is listed in Table
1 [18]. For infants aged 0-6 months, the FNB established an Adequate
Intake * for Zn (= intake of Zn in breastfed infants) [80,81]. U.S.
National Research Council set a Tolerable Upper Intake for adults of
40mg/day [82,83].
Recommended intakes for Cu
Te 10th edition of Recommended Dietary Allowances (RDA) did
not include an RDA for copper; rather a safe and adequate daily intake
was suggested. Some nutritionists think, committees that establish
RDAs should return to the traditions of the frst nine editions and
make recommendations that meet functional needs, because lack of
a recommended dietary allowance for copper may be hazardous to
health [81,84]. Te following Table 2 provide the Recommended daily
dietary intake (RDI) of copper for children and adults and Tolerable
upper intake levels for copper [83,85].
Interactions of Cu and Zn with micronutrients
Fortifcation of foods with iron in iron-defciency anemia does not
signifcantly afect zinc absorption. But large amounts of supplemental
iron, greater than 25 mg, might decrease zinc absorption [86,87].
Taking iron supplements between meals helps decrease its efect on
zinc absorption [87]. Several laboratory and human studies have found
that high levels of supplemental zinc taken over extended periods of
time may result in decreased copper absorption in the intestine, and
copper defciency with associated anemia [88]. But some studies
in humans suggest that high dietary Zn may not interfere with the
actual tissue or plasma concentrations of Cu [7]. Some experts believe
that elevated copper levels, especially when zinc levels are also low,
Age Male [mg] Female [mg] Pregnancy [mg] Lactation [mg]
06 months 2 * 2 *
712 months 3 3
13 years 3 3
48 years 5 5
913 years 8 8
1418 years 11 9 12 13
19+ years 11 8 11 12
Table 1: Recommended Dietary Allowances [RDAs] for Zn /per day.
Page 5 of 18
doi:10.4172/2161-0495.S3-001
may be a contributing factor in many medical conditions including
schizophrenia, hypertension, autism, fatigue, muscle and joint pain,
headaches, childhood hyperactivity, depression, insomnia, senility,
and premenstrual syndrome [1]. Adults taking copper supplements
should also take zinc supplements (8 - 15 mg of zinc for every 1 mg of
copper), because of an imbalance of these two minerals [89,90]. Copper
is known to react with a variety of nutrients, including iron, zinc,
molybdenum, sulfur, selenium and vitamin C [5]. Teres also some
evidence, not conclusive, that high supplemental doses of vitamin C
in a range approaching 1 gram or more-may decrease Cu availability
[91]. Tere is also some evidence that in the formula feeding of infants,
too much iron in a formula can lower absorption of copper from that
formula [45,92].
Zinc defciency
Nearly two billion people in the developing world are defcient
in zinc [93]. Zinc defciency is characterized by growth retardation,
loss of appetite, and impaired immune function [94,95,96]. In more
severe cases, zinc defciency causes hair loss, diarrhea, delayed sexual
maturation, impotence, hypogonadism in males, and eye and skin
lesions. Weight loss and impaired appetite, delayed healing of wounds,
taste abnormalities, and altered cognition can also occur [13,17,94,97-
99]. When zinc defciency does occur, it is usually due to inadequate
zinc intake or absorption, increased losses of zinc from the body, or
increased requirements for zinc [94,98]. It can be associated with
malabsorption, acrodermatitis enteropathica, chronic liver disease,
chronic renal disease, sickle cell disease, diabetes, malignancy, and
other chronic illnesses [97-102]. In children it causes an increase in
infection and diarrhea, contributing to the death of about 800,000
children worldwide per year [94,101]. Te WHO advocates zinc
supplementation for severe malnutrition and diarrhea [103].
Severe Zn defciency depresses immune function [104], and even
mild to moderate degrees of zinc defciency can impair macrophage
and neutrophil functions, natural killer cell activity, and complement
activity [105,106]. Te body requires zinc to develop and activate
T-lymphocytes [107]. Individuals with low zinc levels have shown
reduced lymphocyte proliferation response to mitogens and other
adverse alterations in immunity that can be corrected by zinc
supplementation [104,108]. Tese alterations in immune function
might explain why low zinc status has been associated with increased
susceptibility to pneumonia and other infections in children in
developing countries and the elderly [94, 109-111]. However, zinc
supplements should not be administered alone, since many in the
developing world have several defciencies, and zinc also interacts with
other micronutrients [112].
Groups at risk of Zn inadequacy
Pregnant and lactating women: Pregnant women, particularly
those starting their pregnancy with marginal zinc status, are at
increased risk of becoming zinc insufcient due, in part, to high fetal
requirements for zinc [113]. Lactation can also deplete maternal zinc
stores [114]. For these reasons, the RDA for zinc is higher for pregnant
and lactating women than for other women [80]. Te following study
was performed, to analyse the inter-relationship among trace elements:
iron, copper and zinc of blood sample in pregnant women. Te level
of copper was found to be signifcantly higher in iron defciency
anaemia, when compared to non-iron defciency anaemia [p<0.05],
and it was also higher in non-anaemic pregnant women, compared
to non-anaemic non-pregnant women [controls]. Te level of zinc
was signifcantly lower in iron defciency anaemic pregnancy, when
compared to the other groups. Tere is evidence of infuence of
pregnancy on the level of trace elements in blood. Tis could be a result
of competitive inhibition in the absorption of trace elements in the
intestine, or an efect of hormonal changes [insulin, estrogen], during
pregnancy [115].
Breast-fed infants: Zinc defciency in breast-fed infants is a rare
disease caused by a low level of zinc in their mothers milk [116].
Premature infants are more vulnerable to develop zinc defciency than
full-term infants because, despite their high zinc requirements, they
have insufcient body stores of zinc and a poor capability to absorb
zinc from the gut. Breast milk provides sufcient zinc [2 mg/day]
for the frst 46 months of life but does not provide recommended
amounts of zinc for infants aged 712 months, who need 3 mg/day.
In addition to breast milk, infants aged 712 months should consume
age-appropriate foods or formula containing zinc [80,116,117]. Zinc
supplementation has improved the growth rate in some children who
demonstrate mild-to-moderate growth failure and who have a zinc
defciency [94,117].
People with gastrointestinal diseases: Gastrointestinal surgery
and digestive disorders, such as ulcerative colitis, Crohns disease,
and short bowel syndrome can decrease zinc absorption and increase
endogenous zinc losses primarily from the gastrointestinal tract
[100,102,118].
Vegetarians: Phytates, which are present in whole-grain breads,
cereals, legumes, and other foods, bind Zn and inhibit its absorption.
Tus, the bioavailability of zinc from grains and plant foods is lower
than that from animal foods, although many grain- and plant-based
foods are still good sources of zinc [119-121].
People with sickle cell disease: Results from a large cross-sectional
survey suggest that 44% of children with sickle cell disease have a low
plasma zinc concentration [122], possibly due to increased nutrient
requirements and/or poor nutritional status [123]. Zinc defciency also
afects approximately 60%70% of adults with sickle cell disease [124].
Zinc supplementation has been shown to improve growth in children
with sickle cell disease [123].
Diarrhea: Chronic diarrhea also leads to excessive loss of zinc [94].
Pooled analysis of randomized controlled trials show that malnourished
children in India, Africa, South America, and Southeast Asia experience
shorter and less severe courses of infectious diarrhea afer taking zinc
supplements [112]. Te children in these studies received 440 mg of
zinc a day in the form of zinc acetate, zinc gluconate, or zinc sulfate
[109,112]. Similar fndings were reported in a meta-analysis published
in 2008 and a 2007 review of zinc supplementation for preventing and
treating diarrhea [125,126]. But the efects of zinc supplementation on
Age
Male
[mcg]
Female
[mcg]
Tolerable Upper Intake Levels [mcg]
06 months 200 200
Not possible to establish a TUL, sources of Cu
must be from food and formula only.
712 months 220 220
13 years 340 340 1000
48 years 440 440 1000
913 years 700 700 5000
1418 years 890 890 8000
19+ years 900 900 10000
Pregnancy 1000 8000 [14-18 years], 10000 [19 + years]
Lactation 1300 8000 [14-18 years], 10000 [19 + years]
Table 2: Recommended Daily Intakes [RDIs] and Tolerable Intake Levels [TULs]
for Cu.
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diarrhea in children with adequate zinc status, such as most children,
are not clear. Te WHO and UNICEF now recommend short-term zinc
supplementation (20 mg of zinc per day, or 10 mg for infants under 6
months, for 1014 days) to treat acute childhood diarrhea [103].
Alcoholics: Approximately 30%50% of alcoholics have low zinc
status because ethanol consumption decreases intestinal absorption of
zinc and increases urinary zinc excretion [127]. In addition, the variety
and amount of food consumed by many alcoholics is limited, leading
to inadequate zinc intake [128,129].
Acrodermatitis enteropathica
Zinc supplementation is an efective treatment for acrodermatitis
enteropathica, an inborn error of zinc metabolism that is inherited
as an autosomal recessive disorder. Te lack of zinc presents,
characteristically, as: pustular dermatitis, diarrhea, and nail dystrophy.
Irritability and emotional disturbances are due to atrophy of the brain
cortex. Te severity of the disease is proportional to the zinc level.
Before zinc supplementations acrodermatitis enteropathica was fatal to
babies born with it [97,98].
Cooper Defciency
Because copper is involved in many functions of the body,
copper defciency can produce an extensive range of symptoms [130].
Defciencies of copper can result in hernias, aneurysms, blood vessel
breakage manifesting as bruising or nosebleeds [5], iron defciency
anemia [45], osteoporosis and joint problems [131], brain disturbances
[54], abnormalities in glucose and cholesterol metabolism [132],
increased susceptibility to infections due to poor immune function
[neutropenia] [133], loss of pigment, weakness, fatigue, skin sores,
poor thyroid function [5], irregular heart beat [134] and low body
temperature [46]. If copper is important in cellular membrane
structure, then a copper defciency could seriously alter the movement
of nutrients through cell walls [5].
Groups at risk of Cu inadequacy
Despite the fact that most people consume less than recommended
amounts of copper in their diet, these symptoms of copper defciency
are relatively rare [5]. However, certain medical conditions including
chronic diarrhea, celiac sprue, Crohns disease and GIT surgery result in
decreased absorption of copper and may increase the risk of developing
a copper defciency. Infammatory bowel disease (IBD) may be related
to oxidation or damage caused by free radicals. In fact, copper levels may
be low in the infamed tissue of those with IBD, particularly Crohns
disease. When treating IBD, clinicians ofen recommend multivitamin
containing essential minerals [135]. In addition, copper requires
sufcient stomach acid for absorption, so people who consume antacids
regularly may increase the risk of developing a copper defciency [7].
Inadequate copper status is also observed in children with low protein
intake and in infants fed only cows milk without supplemental copper
(they might have poor feeding habits and lack of proper gowth) [5,45].
Menkes disease
Menkes disease is an X-linked recessive disorder characterized
by copper defciency resulting in a diminished function of copper-
dependent enzymes. A diversity of mutations in the gene encoding
of the copper-transporting ATPase, ATP7A (located on chromosome
Xq12-q13), underlies Menkes disease [68]. Signs and symptoms of this
disorder include weak muscle tone, sagging facial features, seizures,
mental retardation, developmental delay and kinky, colorless hair.
Tere can be an extensive neurodegeneration in the gray matter of the
brain. Arteries in the brain can also be twisted with split inner walls.
Tis can lead to rupture or blockage of the arteries. Osteoporosis may
result in fractures. Most patients die in early childhood, although mild
forms have also been described [53,54].
Diagnosis of Copper and Zinc Defciency
Te diagnosis of Cu and Zn defciency is based on four main
criteria, namely anamnesis, symptomatology, belonging to well-defned
risk groups and the determination of biomarkers [5,7,8]. Te optimal
plasma or serum ratio between these two elements is 0.70 - 1.00 [1].
Diagnosing zinc defciency is a persistent challenge. Zinc
nutritional status is difcult to measure adequately using laboratory
tests due to its distribution throughout the body as a component of
various proteins and nucleic acids [18,136]. Plasma or serum zinc levels
are the most commonly used indices for evaluating zinc defciency, but
plasma zinc, has poor sensitivity and specifcity - these levels do not
necessarily refect cellular zinc status due to tight homeostatic control
mechanisms. So clinical efects of zinc defciency can be present in the
absence of abnormal laboratory indices [17,25,47].
Severe Cu defciency can be found by testing for low plasma
or serum copper levels, low ceruloplasmin, and low red blood cell
superoxide dismutase levels; but these are not sensitive at a state of
marginal copper status [46,137]. Te cytochrome c oxidase activity of
leucocytes and platelets has been stated as another factor in defciency,
but in the studies this hypotesis has not been confrmed yet [138].
Copper and Zinc Toxicity
Health risks from excessive zinc
Although zinc is an essential requirement for good health, excess
zinc can be harmful [9]. Excessive absorption of zinc suppresses copper
and iron absorption [32]. Acute adverse efects of high zinc intake
include nausea, vomiting, loss of appetite, abdominal cramps, diarrhea,
and headaches [9]. One case report cited severe nausea and vomiting
within 30 minutes of ingesting 4 g of zinc gluconate [139]. Intakes of
150450 mg of zinc per day have been associated with such chronic
efects as low copper status, altered iron function, reduced immune
function, and reduced levels of high-density lipoproteins. Reductions
in the superoxide dismutase levels, a marker of copper status, have
been reported with even moderately high zinc intakes of approximately
60 mg/day for up to 10 weeks [140,141].
Zn poisoning
In 1982, pennies were made primarily of zinc covered with copper.
With the new zinc pennies, there was the potential for zinc toxicosis,
which can be fatal. One reported case of ingestion of 425 pennies (over
1 kg of zinc) resulted in death due to gastrointestinal bacterial and
fungal sepsis, while another patient, who ingested 12 grams of zinc,
showed lethargy and ataxia [142,143].
Copper toxicity
Excessive copper intake can cause nausea, vomiting, abdominal
pain and cramps, headache, dizziness, weakness, diarrhea, and a
metallic taste in the mouth (assosiated with water containing copper
concentrations greater than 6 mg/L) [5]. Chronic copper toxicity
does not normally occur in humans because of transport systems that
regulate absorption and excretion [144]. Since excess copper is excreted
through bile, copper toxicity is most likely to occur in individuals with
liver disease or other medical conditions in which the excretion of bile
is compromised [5]. Whether copper is carcinogenic has not been
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determined yet [145-147]. Postpartum depression has also been linked
to high levels of copper. Tis is because copper concentrations increase
throughout pregnancy to approximately twice normal values, and it
may take up to three months afer delivery for copper concentrations to
normalize [148]. Tere are scientifc articles that indicate a link between
long-term exposure to high concentrations of copper and a decline in
intelligence with young adolescents [149]. Whether this should be of
concern is a topic for further investigation.
Cu poisoning
In recent years, nutritionists have been more concerned about
copper toxicity than copper defciency. One explanation for this was
the increase in the amount of copper found in drinking water due to
the switch in some areas from galvanized water pipes to copper water
pipes. Cooking with copper cookware can also increase the copper
content of foods. Industrial exposure to copper fumes, dusts or mists
may result in metal fume fever with atrophic changes in nasal mucous
membranes [5]. Intentionally high uptakes of copper may cause liver
and kidney damage and even death. Gram quantities of various copper
salts have been taken in suicide attempts and produced copper toxicity
in humans, possibly due to redox cycling and the generation of reactive
oxygen species that damage DNA [150]. Corresponding amounts of
copper salts (30 mg/kg) are toxic in animals [151].
Wilsons disease or hepatolenticular degeneration
Wilsons disease is a rare, progressive, autosomal recessive disorder
characterised by impaired transport and excessive accumulation of
copper in the liver, brain, and other tissues [152]. Te condition is due
to mutations in the Wilson disease protein of ATP7B gene (located
on chromosome 13q14.3) [68], by impaired copper incorporation to
ceruloplasmin and biliary copper excretion. It is characterisied by a
hepatic cirrhosis, neurological manifestations (dystonia, dysarthria,
muscle weakness, vertigo), psychiatric manifestations, renal disease,
and copper deposition in the cornea Kayser-Fleischer ring (Figure
5) [53,54,152]. Te treatment of Wilsons disease involves avoidance of
foods rich in copper and any supplements containing copper and drug
treatment with chelating agents that remove the excess copper from the
body (D-penicillamine, Zn acetate)[153].
In the study of copper toxicosic in humans, lipid peroxidation
and copper content were signifcantly increased (P < 0.05) in hepatic
mitochondria from patients with Wilsons disease. More modest
increases in lipid peroxidation were present in microsomes from
patients with Wilsons disease. Mitochondrial copper concentrations
correlated strongly with the severity of mitochondrial lipid
peroxidation. Tese data suggest that the hepatic mitochondria are an
important target in hepatic copper toxicity and that oxidant damage to
the liver may be involved in the pathogenesis of copper-induced injury.
A signifcant decrease (37%) in the vitamin E/lipid ratio was also
detectable in patients with Wilsons disease showing high free serum
copper (>10 micrograms/dl). Te data support a role for free radicals in
the pathogenesis of active liver diseases [154].Another study revealed
that impaired conversion of 25(OH)D to 1,25(OH)2D occurs in copper
intoxication and suggests that altered vitamin D metabolism is a
potential factor in the development of bone and mineral abnormalities
in Wilsons disease [155].
Te Studies about the Role of Copper and Zinc in
Diseases
Immunological disorders
Te common cold: Researchers have hypothesized that zinc
could reduce the severity and duration of cold symptoms by directly
inhibiting rhinovirus binding and replication in the nasal mucosa
and suppressing infammation [156]. Although studies examining
the efect of zinc treatment on cold symptoms have had somewhat
conficting results, overall zinc appears to be benefcial under certain
circumstances. In a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled
clinical trial, 50 subjects (within 24 hours of developing the common
cold) took a zinc acetate lozenge (13.3 mg zinc) or placebo every 23
wakeful hours. Compared with placebo, zinc lozenges signifcantly
reduced the duration of cold symptoms (cough, nasal discharge, and
muscle aches) [157]. In another clinical trial involving 273 participants
with experimentally induced colds, zinc gluconate lozenges signifcantly
reduced the duration of illness compared with placebo but had no efect
on symptom severity [158]. In 2007, Caruso and colleagues published a
structured review of the efects of zinc lozenges, nasal sprays, and nasal
gels on the common cold. Of the 14 randomized, placebo-controlled
studies included, 7 showed that the zinc treatment had a benefcial
efect and 7 showed no efect [159]. A Cochrane review concluded
that zinc (lozenges or syrup) is benefcial in reducing the duration and
severity of the common cold in healthy people, when taken within 24
hours of onset of symptoms [160]. Recently (in August 2011), in the
meta-analysis all of the identifed placebo-controlled trials, included
in MEDLINE, Scopus, and Cochrane Central Register of Controlled
Trials (CENTRAL) databases, were analysed together. Te study shows
strong evidence that the zinc lozenge efect on common cold duration
is heterogeneous so that beneft is observed with high doses of zinc but
not with low doses: a total daily zinc dose of less than 75 mg found no
efect on common cold duration, whereas using zinc acetate in daily
doses exceeding 75 mg showed a 42% reduction in the duration of colds
and using zinc salts other than acetate in daily doses exceeding 75 mg
showed a 20% reduction in the duration of colds. Te efects of zinc
lozenges should be further studied to determine the optimal lozenge
compositions and treatment strategies [161]. Numerous case reports of
anosmia, in some cases long-lasting or permanent, from the use of zinc-
containing nasal gels or sprays (but only in these forms) raise questions
about the safety of intranasal zinc [162, 163]. In June 2009, the FDA
warned consumers to stop using three zinc-containing intranasal
products because they might cause anosmia [164]. On the basis of the
long-term studies with high zinc doses, mentioned before, there does
not seem to be any basis for assuming that treating the common cold
for a week with high doses of zinc in the form of lozenges would cause
unanticipated harm. A patient sufering from acute adverse efects such
as bad taste can simply stop taking the lozenges [161].
Arterial and venous leg ulcers: Zinc helps maintain the integrity
of skin and mucosal membranes [105]. Patients with chronic leg ulcers
have abnormal zinc metabolism and low serum zinc levels [165].
Clinicians frequently treat skin ulcers with zinc supplements [166].
Te authors of a systematic review concluded that zinc sulfate might
be efective for treating leg ulcers in some patients who have low serum
Figure 5: Kayser-Fleischers ring (the deposition of copper on Descemets
membrane and the anterior and posterior lens capsule).
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zinc level, but it is not efective in the general use in patients with
chronic leg ulcers, arterial or venous ulcers [167,168].
Wound healing: Copper plays a major role in wound healing.
Scientists think that introducing copper into wound dressings would
not only reduce the risk of wound and dressing contamination, but also
stimulate faster healing. Releasing copper from the dressings directly
onto the wound promotes skin regeneration [169].
Burns: When skin is burned, a substantial percentage of
micronutrients, such as copper, selenium, and zinc may be lost. Tis
increases the risk for infection, slows the healing process, prolongs the
hospital stay, and even increases the risk of death. However, people
with major burns tend to lose copper more rapidly than other minerals.
Although it is unclear which micronutrients are most benefcial for
people with burns, many clinical studies suggest that a multivitamin
including copper and other minerals may aid in the recovery process
[170].
Immunological disorders on animal models: Another study
shows that copper defciency in mice impairs immune system function.
Dietary copper was restricted in mice during fve discrete intervals
over a 9 week period of perinatal development: gestation only (G),
lactation only (L), 3 week postlactation (PL), 1 week afer birth through
postlactation (2/3L + PL), and lactation plus postlactation (L + PL).
Signs of severe copper defciency, such as low liver copper levels,
and signifcant reductions in activity of plasma ceruloplasmin and
splenocyte Cu/Zn superoxide dismutase were most evident in 6-week-
old mice from two groups, -Cu 2/3L + PL and -Cu L + PL. Mice in
these groups were anemic and had small thymuses and enlarged
spleens compared to controls receiving +Cu treatment. Te -Cu mice
demonstrated impaired antibody - plaque-forming cells response (PFC)
to sheep erythrocytes, and the attenuation was proportional to copper
defciency, as judged by liver copper levels. Total plasma IgM levels
were not greatly altered by -Cu treatment except in model L + PL. Total
IgG levels were markedly reduced in this group and in the Cu 2/3L +
PL group. Te PFC response of mice in the -Cu PL group was normal
even though signs of copper defciency were evident; however, the PFC
response was reduced when -Cu treatment was extended to 5 weeks,
and was reversible by switching to +Cu treatment. It is evident that
severity of copper defciency in mice is related to degree of impaired
immunity. Furthermore, severity of copper defciency is dependent on
duration and time of initiation of dietary copper restriction [171].
In the next study, the efects of severe, moderate, and mild copper
defciencies on cellular and humoral immunity of ffy male rats were
studied. All rats were immunized once with sheep red blood cells.
Mean plasma-copper concentration refected the dietary levels of
copper, and ceruloplasmin activity correlated highly to plasma copper.
Rats consuming suboptimal levels of copper responded diferently to
the defciencies, so copper status varied among those animals. Afer
8 weeks, cell proliferation, when stimulated by phytohemagglutinin,
was dependent on the copper status of the animal. Severely defcient
rats had consistently lower lymphocyte stimulation indexes for
phytohemagglutinin, but specifc antibody response was not reduced.
ImmunoglobulinG concentrations were variable for all rats, and
immunoglobulin M concentrations were lower for the severely
defcient rats [172].
Te role of Cu/ZnSOD1 in oxidative stress
Detailed studies in the past two decades have shown that redox
active metals like iron, copper, chromium, cobalt and other metals
undergo redox cycling reactions and possess the ability to produce
reactive radicals such as superoxide anion radical and nitric oxide in
biological systems. Disruption of metal ion homeostasis may lead to
oxidative stress, a state where increased formation of reactive oxygen
species overwhelms body antioxidant protection and subsequently
induces DNA damage, lipid peroxidation, protein modifcation and
other efects, all symptomatic for numerous diseases, involving cancer,
cardiovascular disease, diabetes, atherosclerosis, neurological disorders,
chronic infammation and others. A special position among metals is
occupied by the redox inert metal zinc. Zn is an essential component
of numerous proteins involved in the defense against oxidative stress.
It has been shown, that depletion of Zn may enhance DNA damage via
impairments of DNA repair mechanisms. In addition, Zn has an impact
on the immune system and possesses neuroprotective properties. Te
mechanism of metal-induced formation of free radicals is tightly
infuenced by the action of cellular antioxidants. Besides the encymes
(SOD, catalase), many low-molecular weight antioxidants (ascorbic
acid, alpha-tocopherol, glutathione, carotenoids, favonoids, and
other antioxidants) are capable of chelating metal ions reducing their
catalytic activity to form reactive oxygen species [173]. In the study
designed to assess the antioxidant status and erythrocyte oxidative
injuries in Iranian fat-tailed sheep that sufered from malignant
theileriosis, blood samples were taken and hematological parameters,
the activities of antioxidant enzymes including superoxide dismutase
(SOD), glutathione peroxidase (GPX) and catalase, erythrocyte
osmotic fragility, and serum concentrations of some trace elements
(copper, iron, zinc, manganese, and selenium), were measured. As an
index of lipid peroxidation, the level of malondialdehyde (MDA) was
also determined. According to the results, a signifcant decrease in red
blood cell count, packed cell volume, the activities of SOD, GPX, and
catalase (p<0.001), and also serum concentrations of Cu, Zn, Mn, and
Se (p<0.05) were evident in the infected sheep. Signifcantly increased
levels of MDA and erythrocyte osmotic fragility (p<0.001) as well as
serum concentration of iron (p<0.05) were recorded in the infected
animals. Te signifcant decrease in antioxidant enzyme activities
and substantial elevated levels of lipid peroxidation and erythrocyte
osmotic fragility associated with the increase in parasitemia indicate
increased exposure of red blood cells to oxidative stress. It appeared
that disturbed antioxidant defense mechanisms can promote the
development of anemia in ovine theileriosis [174].
In another study, of Cu/Zn imbalance in rats, the scientists
determined the content of copper in blood, the activity of superoxide
dismutase (SOD), and the content of malondialdehyde (MDA) to
analyse the relations among the copper concentration, the copper-zinc
ratio (Cu/Zn) and the biomarkers of lipid peroxidation (MDA), by
controlling the level of copper intake in copper defciency rats. In the
status of copper defciency, the SOD activity was lower than the normal
level, and then presented a rise trend with the increased of copper
intake that is, the ratio of copper-zinc (Cu/Zn). Te content of MDA
was higher than the normal level in Cu defciency rats and the content
of MDA decreased with the increasing of copper intake and the Cu/Zn
ratio, and maintained at a relatively low level [175].
Developmental disorders
Te studies show that zinc defciency during early development can
result in multiple brain abnormalities and altered neuronal functions
[25,96]. In rats, a gestational defcit of Zn can afect the rat fetal brain
cytoskeleton and signaling cascades involved in cellular processes that
are central to brain development. Scientists tested the hypothesis that
oxidative stress is involved in Zn defciency-induced altered tubulin
dynamics and the associated dysregulation of transcription factor
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[NF-B] in rat cortical neurons in animal model of Zn defciency.
A low rate of in vitro tubulin polymerization, an increase in tubulin
oligomers, and a higher protein cysteine oxidation were observed in
the Zn-defcient neuronal cells. In this animal model of Zn defciency
the conclusion was that a defcit in Zn viability could afect early
brain development through: an induction of oxidative stress, tubulin
oxidation, altered tubulin dynamics and deregulation of signals
(NF-B) involved in critical developmental events [176]. In another
study, rat embryos were fed with Cu-adequate (8 micrograms Cu/g)
or Cu-defcient (< 0.5 micrograms Cu/g) diet and were cultured in
Cu-adequate (16.2 microM) or Cu-defcient (1.0 microM) rat serum.
Control embryos cultured in control serum were morphologically
normal. Cu-defcient embryos developed abnormally when cultured
in Cu-defcient serum; the abnormalities included distended hind
brains, blisters, blood pooling, and cardiac defects. Control embryos
cultured in Cu-defcient serum and Cu-defcient embryos cultured
in control serum also showed abnormal development, but to a lesser
degree than that of the Cu-defcient embryos cultured in Cu-defcient
serum. To test the idea that the above abnormalities were due in part
to free radical induced damage occurring secondary to an impaired
oxidant defense system, a chemiluminescence assay was used to detect
superoxide dismutase (SOD) activity in the cultured embryos. SOD
activity was lowest in embryos cultured in Cu-defcient serum. When
the Cu-defcient serum was supplemented with antioxidants (Cu/
ZnSOD or glutathione peroxidase), its teratogenicity was reduced.
Tese data support the idea that an impaired oxidant defense system
contributes to the dysmorphology associated with Cu defciency.
However, the Cu-defcient embryos also had low cytochrome c oxidase
activity compared to control embryos - thus, multiple factors are likely
contributing to Cu defciency induced abnormalities [177].
Te Studies of Cu/Zn imbalance in neurological disorders
Te highest levels of zinc are found in the hippocampus in
synaptic vesicles, boutons, and mossy fbers. Zinc is also found in
large concentrations in the choroid layer of the retina. Zinc plays an
important role in axonal and synaptic transmission and is necessary for
nucleic acid metabolism and brain tubulin growth and phosphorylation.
Lack of zinc has been implicated in impaired DNA, RNA, and protein
synthesis during brain development. For these reasons, defciency of
zinc during pregnancy and lactation has been shown to be related to
many congenital abnormalities of the nervous system. Furthermore, in
children insufcient levels of zinc have been associated with lowered
learning ability, apathy, lethargy, and mental retardation. Children
with attention defcit disorder may be defcient in zinc and vitamin
B-6 and have an excess of lead and copper. Alcoholism, schizophrenia,
Wilsons disease, and Picks disease are brain disorders dynamically
related to zinc levels. Zinc has been employed with success to treat
Wilsons disease, achrodermatitis enteropathica, and specifc types of
schizophrenia [3].
Also, copper and zinc are regarded as neurotransmitters and are
in high concentrations in brain hippocampus. As a result elevated
copper and depressed zinc have been associated with hyperactivity,
attention defcit disorders, behavior disorders, and depression. Also,
many of those labeled with autism and paranoid schizophrenia
have elevated blood copper levels in addition to other biochemical
imbalances [1]. Elevated copper/zinc ratios can be especially serious
for persons with low blood histamine. Tis combination of imbalances
has been associated with anxiety, panic disorders, paranoia, and, in
severe cases, hallucinations [1]. Low histamine patients are typically
overstimulated with thoughts racing through their minds making
normal ideation difcult. Low histamine children are hyperactive while
ofen healthy in other respects. Serum Cu levels in these patients are
abnormally high. Since Cu is a brain stimulant and destroys histamine
(over-methylation), the elevated serum (and presumably brain) Cu
level probably accounts for many symptoms, including the low blood
histamine level. If the laboratory tests showed a high copper: low zinc
ratio and low histamine levels, the treatment should consist of the
administration of zinc, manganese, vitamin C, niacin, vitamin B-12,
and folic acid. Folic acid in conjunction with B-12 injections raises
blood histamine while lowering the degree of symptomatology. Zn
allows for the normal storage of histamine in both the blood cells and
the brain. Zn and Mn increase the urinary excretion of Cu [178].
On the other hand in the research of Efect of a defciency of
ceruloplasmin copper in blood plasma on copper metabolism in the
adult rat brain, the copper defciency in adult rats was induced by
addition of silver chloride to the feed [179]. Te concentrations of
silver, copper, iron, and zinc and relative activity of genes for copper
transporting proteins and copper enzymes were measured in the
cortex, cerebellum, hippocampus, amygdala, pituitary gland, and
hypothalamus. Silver was accumulated only in the hypothalamic-
pituitary system. Tese changes were accompanied by a decrease in
the concentration of copper and increase in the contents of iron and
zinc. Activity of genes for copper transport enzymes (high-afnity
copper transporter; and two copper transport ATPases, ATP7A and
ATP7B) and copper enzymes that were formed in the intracellular
secretory pathway did not decrease in the brain of rats with copper
defciency. Relative activity of genes for intracellular copper enzymes
(Cu/Zn superoxide dismutase and subunit IV of cytochrome c
oxidase), concentration of immunoreactive polypeptides of superoxide
dismutase, and enzymatic activity of superoxide dismutase remained
unchanged under these conditions [179].
Hippocampal neuronal injury: An experiment was conducted to
investigate whether intracellular zinc depletion can actually change
expression of voltage-dependent anion channel VDAC1 and VDAC2
in cultured hippocampal neurons of rats. Hippocampal neurons were
obtained by primary culture from hippocampus of newborn rats.
Cultured hippocampal neurons were exposed to a cell membrane
permeable zinc chelator ethylenediamine. Te results demonstrated
that exposure of hippocampal neurons to chelator for 24 hours
induced notably neuronal injury, signifcantly increased the number of
apoptotic nuclei, up-regulated the expression of VDAC1 protein level
and down-regulated the expression of VDAC2 protein level. Signifcant
down-regulation of mRNA levels for both, VDAC1 and VDAC2 were
observed. Co-addition of zinc almost completely reversed chelator
induced neuronal injury and above alterations in VDAC1 and VDAC2
protein levels and mRNA levels. Present results implicate a possibility
that up-regulation of VDAC1 and down-regulation of VDAC2 may
participate in hippocampal neuron injury induced by zinc defciency
[180].
Traumatic brain injury: Depression, anxiety, and impairments
in learning and memory are all associated with traumatic brain
injury (TBI). Because of the strong link between zinc defciency,
depression, and anxiety, in both humans and rodent models, scientists
hypothesized that dietary zinc supplementation prior to injury could
provide behavioral resiliency to lessen the severity of these outcomes
afer TBI. Rats were fed with marginal zinc defcient, zinc adequate,
or zinc supplemented diet for 4weeks followed by a moderately-
severe TBI. While moderate zinc defciency did not worsen outcomes
following TBI, rats that were fed with the zinc supplemented diet for
4weeks showed signifcantly attenuated increases in adrenal weight
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(p<0.05) as well as reduced depression-like behaviors (p<0.001).
Supplementation prior to injury improved resilience such that there
was signifcant improvements in cognitive behavior compared to
injured rats fed an adequate diet (p<0.01). Tese data suggest a role
for supplemental zinc in preventing cognitive and behavioral defcits
associated with TBI [181].
Brain ischemia : To determine whether the mitochondria or
cytoplasm produces superoxides during ischemia - reperfusion of
the brain, experts analyzed lucigenine-enhanced chemiluminescence
emission in slices of mouse brain tissue prepared from manganese-
superoxide dismutase (MnSOD2)-defcient and copper/zinc-
superoxide dismutase [Cu/ZnSOD1]-defcient mice during
oxygenation and hypoxia-reoxygenation. Te steady-state level of
chemiluminescence under oxygenated conditions was signifcantly
enhanced by a lack of either SOD. Tey hypothesized that the enhanced
chemiluminescence produced by SOD2 and SOD1 defciency refects
in situ superoxide generation in the mitochondria and cytoplasm,
respectively. Te study also indicated that the major site of intracellular
superoxide generation in the brain during oxygenation is the cytoplasm,
whereas it is the mitochondria during reoxygenation [182].
Autism: Autism is a severe developmental disorder with poorly
understood etiology. Oxidative stress in autism has been studied at the
membrane level and also by measuring products of lipid peroxidation,
detoxifying agents, such as glutathione, and other antioxidants
involved in the defense system against reactive oxygen species. Lipid
peroxidation markers are elevated in autism, indicating that oxidative
stress is increased in this disease. Levels of major antioxidant serum
proteins, namely transferrin and ceruloplasmin are also decreased in
children with autism. Tere is a positive correlation between reduced
levels of these proteins and loss of previously acquired language skills
[183,184]. Te alterations in ceruloplasmin and transferrin levels may
lead to abnormal iron and copper metabolism [185]. Te membrane
phospholipids, the prime target of reactive oxygen species, are also
altered [186]. Several studies have suggested alterations in the Cu/
Zn ratio, the activities of antioxidant enzymes such as superoxide
dismutase, glutathione peroxidase, and catalase, altered glutathione
levels and homocysteine/methionine metabolism in autism [183-187].
One study has hypothesised that there is a signifcant diference in
the copper/zinc ratio between young children who have autism and
their typically developing peers and trying to test the hypothesis could
correction of elevated copper to zinc ratios in children with autism
be accomplished by oral supplementation with zinc and vitamin C,
and if these children show measurable changes in improvement in
receptive or expressive language or behavioral parameters associated
with autism afer supplementations with some of trace elements.
Anyway, the results about this research topic have not yet been revealed
[188]. Additionally, increased infammation, excitotoxicity, as well
as mitochondrial and immune dysfunction have been suggested in
autism. Furthermore, environmental and genetic factors may increase
vulnerability to oxidative stress in autism [188].
Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis: Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis
disease (ALS) is a multifactor and multigenic disorder with still
unknown aetiology and pathogenesis. Te pathological characteristics
of ALS include protein aggregation, proteasome inhibition, impaired
axonal transport, mitochondria damage and apoptosis, oxidative
stress, glutamate induced excitotoxicity, neuroinfammation and
transcriptional dysfunction. Many compounds targeted to one or
more of these mechanisms have been tested in multiple clinical trials.
Nonetheless, nowadays only one drug, riluzole, has demonstrated
a positive efect in the disease progression, but a number of recent
compounds are promising in ALS therapy [189]. Te discovery that
in approximately 10% of ALS patients mutations in SOD1 gene
cause a subset of familial amyotrophic lateral sclerosis has attracted
great attention, and studies have been mainly focused on discovering
mutations in the coding region and investigation at protein level.
Considering that changes in SOD1 mRNA levels have been associated
with sporadic ALS, a molecular understanding of the processes
involved in the regulation of SOD1 gene expression could unravel
novel regulatory pathways that may govern cellular phenotypes and
changes in diseases. Te progress in understanding the mechanisms
of transcriptional and post-transcriptional control could ofer hope
for the development of new-generation drugs or medical treatment
strategies [190].
Because alteration of the activity of SOD1 leads to an oxidative
stress imbalance, which damages the structure of lipids and proteins
in the CNS, the membrane fuidity was monitored in the spinal cord
and the brain in a widely used animal model of ALS, the SOD)(G93A)
mouse, which develops symptoms similar to ALS with an accelerated
course. Te results show that the membrane fuidity of the spinal
cord in this animal model signifcantly decreased in symptomatic
animals compared with age-matched controls. Changes in membrane
fuidity likely contribute substantially to alterations in cell membrane
functions in the nervous tissue from SOD(G93A) mice [191]. Also,
the spinal cord and brain of SOD(G93A) mice showed increased lipid
peroxidation afer 100 or 130 days compared to age-matched controls.
Te CNS was most afected, but lipid peroxidation was also detected
in the skeletal muscle and liver on day 130. Tus, oxidative stress
represents a potential biomarker that might be useful in developing
new therapeutic strategies for ALS [192]. When replete with zinc and
copper, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS)-associated mutant SOD
proteins can protect motor neurons in culture from trophic factor
deprivation as efciently as wild-type SOD. However, the removal of
zinc from either mutant or wild-type SOD results in apoptosis of motor
neurons through a copper- and peroxynitrite-dependent mechanism. It
has also been shown that motor neurons isolated from transgenic mice
expressing mutant SODs survive well in culture but undergo apoptosis
when exposed to nitric oxide via a Fas-dependent mechanism. It
was found that zinc-defcient SOD-induced motor neuron death
required Fas activation, whereas the nitric oxide-dependent death of
SOD(G93A)-expressing motor neurons required copper and involved
peroxynitrite formation. Surprisingly, motor neuron death doubled
when Cu/Zn-SOD protein was either delivered intracellularly to
SOD(G93A)-expressing motor neurons or co-delivered with zinc-
defcient SOD to nontransgenic motor neurons. Tese results could be
rationalized by biophysical data showing that heterodimer formation of
Cu/Zn-SOD with zinc-defcient SOD prevented the monomerization
(the active form of the enzyme) and subsequent aggregation of zinc-
defcient SOD. Taken together, these results are consistent with copper-
containing zinc-defcient SOD being responsible for the toxic gain of
function conferred by mutant SOD [193].
Alzheimers disease: Alzheimers disease (AD) is a highly
heterogeneous and progressive dementia which is characterised by
a progressive decline in cognitive functioning, selective neuronal
atrophy, and loss of cortical volume in areas involved in learning and
memory. Recent study has indicated that the AD-afected brain is also
besieged by increases in oxidative stress as well as perturbations to the
homeostasis of biometals, such as copper and iron. Tese metals are
known to interact with the neuropathological hallmark of AD, the
-amyloid peptide (A), in a manner which increases As neurotoxic
efects. Te reported results suggest that zinc competes with copper for
A binding and inhibits copper-mediated A redox chemistry [194].
Page 11 of 18
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In another study dyshomeostasis of extracellular zinc and copper
has been implicated in -amyloid aggregation, the major pathology
associated with Alzheimer disease. Presenilin mediates the proteolytic
cleavage of the -amyloid precursor protein to release -amyloid,
and mutations in presenilin can cause familial Alzheimer disease.
In the recent study there was tested, whether presenilin expression
afects copper and zinc transport in murine embryonic fbroblasts
from presenilin knock-out mice. Tey observed a marked decrease
in saturable uptake of radiolabeled copper and zinc in several tissues,
including brain. Copper/zinc superoxide dismutase activity was
signifcantly decreased and copper chaperone of SOD1 levels was also
decreased. Tese data indicate that presenilins are important for cellular
copper and zinc turnover, infuencing SOD1 activity, and having the
potential to indirectly impact -amyloid aggregation through metal ion
clearance [195].
Despite the crucial role of redox active metals like copper and iron
in central biological reactions, their elevated levels are involved in the
pathogenesis of Alzheimers disease. Similarly reactive oxygen/nitrogen
species (ROS/RNS) produced during normal metabolic activities,
specifcally oxidative phosphorylation of the cell, are scavenged by
superoxide dismutase, catalase, but impaired metabolic pathways
tend to generate elevated levels of these ROS/RNS. Alterations in
trace elements as iron, copper, and zinc may intensify this process and
contribute for the pathogenesis of Alzheimers disease [196].
Te aim of the present study was to evaluate the status of plasma
essential trace elements magnesium, copper, zinc, iron and selenium
concentrations and their some related antioxidant enzyme activities,
erythrocyte glutathione peroxidase (GPX), superoxide dismutase, and
catalase activities in patients with Alzheimers disease. Fify patients
with AD and ffy healthy control subjects were included in this study.
Plasma Cu and Zn concentrations by atomic absorption spectrometry
(AAS), plasma Mg and Fe concentrations by spectrophotometric
methods and plasma Se concentrations by graphite furnace AAS
were determined. Erythrocyte GPX, SOD and catalase activities were
measured by spectrophotometric methods. Plasma Mg, Cu, Zn, Fe and
Se levels and erythrocyte GPX, SOD and catalase activities were found
to be signifcantly lower in patients with AD compared with controls.
Tese results suggest that alterations in essential trace elements and
their related enzymes may play a role in the etiopathogenesis of AD.
Also, there is a defect in the antioxidant defense system, which may lead
to oxidative damage in patients with AD. Te changes in antioxidant
enzyme activities may be secondary to the alterations in their cofactor
concentrations [197].
Parkinsonism: Te biometals iron, manganese and copper have
been associated to Parkinsons disease and Parkinsonism. In recent
work, it was reported for the frst time that acute or chronic Fe, Mn
and Cu exposure signifcantly reduced life span and locomotor activity
in Drosophila melanogaster. It was shown that the concentration of
those biometals dramatically increase in Drosophilas brain acutely or
chronically fed with metal, and that the metal accumulation in the fys
head is associated with the neurodegeneration of several dopaminergic
neuronal clusters. Furthermore, they found that the chelator
desferoxamine, ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid, and D-penicillamine
were able to protect but not rescue D. melanogaster against metal
intoxication. Taken together these data suggest that iron, manganese
and copper are capable to destroy dopaminergic neurons in the fys
brain, thereby impairing their movement capabilities [198].
Malignant glioma: Te scientists assessed relevance of mineral
trace element and heavy metal levels in patients with malignant
gliomas. In the study, erythrocyte catalase, and carbonic anhydrase,
serum copper, zinc, lead, iron, cadmium, cobalt, manganese, and
magnesium levels were measured in plasma of 22 healthy humans and
22 malignant glioma patients. Te Cd, Fe, Mg, Mn, Pb and Zn levels
were signifcantly elevated in the patients as a whole compared to
controls (P<0.05), while copper was decreased and cobalt demonstrated
no change. Although mean erythrocyte activity were signifcantly
lowered, carbonic anhydrase exhibited signifcant increase. Te results
of the current study indicate that antioxidant enzymes may have a
role in the genesis of considerable oxidative stress in patients with
malignant glioma [199].
Serum copper and zinc concentrations and copper/zinc ratios have
been shown to be increased in several types of human malignancies,
including human brain tumors. In this study, copper and zinc levels
and copper/zinc ratios were determined by atomic absorption analysis
in tissue and serum from 29 primary and metastatic brain tumor
patients. Metastatic carcinomas and malignant gliomas revealed
signifcantly higher tissue copper concentrations than control tissues
and meningiomas. Malignant gliomas demonstrated signifcantly
higher tissue copper/zinc ratios. Also in serum, both serum copper and
copper/zinc ratio were signifcantly higher in the metastatic carcinoma
group than control. Tere were no diferences both in the serum and
the tissue concentrations of these trace elements in meningiomas and
controls. Tese data suggested that copper, an important angiogenic
factors, is accumulated within the malignant tissues of metastatic
carcinoma and malignant glioma, but not meningiomas. Tese fndings
may have implications regarding Cu in angiogenesis in these tumors
[200].
Age-related macular degeneration: Some studies have suggested
that both zinc and antioxidants delay the progression of age-related
macular degeneration (AMD) and vision loss, possibly by preventing
cellular damage in the retina [89,90]. In a population-based cohort
study in the Netherlands, high dietary intake of zinc as well as beta
carotene, vitamin C, and vitamin E was associated with reduced risk of
AMD [201]. Participants also received 2 mg of copper to prevent the
copper defciency associated with high zinc intakes. Afer an average
follow-up period of 6.3 years, supplementation with antioxidants
plus zinc (but not antioxidants alone) signifcantly reduced the risk
of developing advanced AMD and reduced visual acuity loss. Zinc
supplementation alone signifcantly reduced the risk of developing
advanced AMD in subjects at higher risk but not in the total study
population [201,202]. However, the authors of a systematic review and
meta-analysis published in 2007 concluded that zinc is not efective for
the primary prevention of early AMD, although zinc might reduce the
risk of progression to advanced AMD [203].
Auditory system disorders: Copper is a trace element known
to be critical for normal brain function, and abnormal copper
metabolism in rats has been associated with some disorders involving
the auditory system. Te scientists examined efects of copper
defciency on metabolism in major structures of the auditory system.
Cochlea, cochlear nucleus and inferior colliculus of rats, as well as
whole brain, were assayed for activities of enzymes of oxidative and
glycolytic energy metabolism - malate and lactate dehydrogenase,
enzymes of acetylcholine metabolism -choline acetyltransferase and
acetylcholinesterase, and concentrations of amino acids. Whole
brain was also assayed for activity of superoxide dismutase, and
concentrations of minerals. Te signifcant diferences between
copper-defcient and copper-adequate rats were: decreased copper and
magnesium and increased potassium concentrations in whole brain
of copper-defcient rats and an elevation of glutamine concentration
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in inferior colliculus and whole brain of copper-defcient rats. Te
elevated glutamine could not be related to any change in activity of
glutamine synthetase or glutaminase, major enzymes of glutamine
metabolism. It is speculated that the increase in glutamine might result
from a net increase in ammonia accumulation in the brains of copper-
defcient rats [204].
Metabolic and endocrinological disorders
Disorders of thyroid gland: Te aim of the present study was
to investigate the efect of copper defciency on thyroid hormone
metabolism in rats. Terefore, an experiment with growing male rats
was carried out, consisting of two groups of rats fed either a copper-
defcient (0.06 mg Cu/kg) or a copper-adequate diet (16 mg Cu/kg).
Copper defciency decreased the fnal body weight of the rats by 5%
compared to copper-adequate control rats. A severe copper-defcient
state in the rats fed the copper-defcient diet was proved by a large
decrease of ceruloplasmin activity in serum (by 97%) and hematological
changes. Copper-defcient rats had an increased concentration of T3 in
serum, whereas the concentrations of total and free thyroxine were not
diferent compared with copper-adequate control rats [205].
In the subsequent study the intracellular localization of Cu/
Zn- and Mn-superoxide dismutase was studied in the thyroid tissue
of various thyroid disorders by an immunohistochemical technique.
Te concentrations of both SODs in those tissues were measured also
by a sandwich enzyme immunoassay technique. Copper/zinc-SOD
in thyroid tissues was identifed by immunocytochemical staining in
most cases of papillary carcinoma and in some cases of other thyroid
disorders. In normal follicular cells this enzyme is localized in the
perinuclear cytoplasm, whereas in thyroid tumor or hyperplastic
follicular cells it exists homogeneously in cytoplasm. Manganese-
SOD stained strongly in papillary carcinoma and papillary-growing
cells in the thyroid tissue of adenoma and Graves disease. Te
concentrations of Cu/Zn-and Mn-SOD in thyroid tumor tissues and
hyperplastic follicular disorders were signifcantly higher than those
in normal thyroid tissue. In conclusion, SOD seems to be related to
cell proliferation and diferentiation in the thyroid follicular cell
because Cu/Zn-SOD changes its localization in tumor and hyperplastic
follicular cells and because the Mn-SOD concentration is increased in
papillary carcinoma or papillary-growing cells [206].
Diabetes: A laboratory animal study found that copper-defcient
rats tend to have elevated blood sugar levels over time, indicating a
possible connection between low copper and diabetes [132]. But a
clinical study including people with diabetes, however, found very
diferent results. Copper levels were higher in people with diabetes
compared to those without. In fact, the higher the copper level, the
more likely the person was to have complications from diabetes,
including retinopathy, high blood pressure, or vascular disease [207].
Digestive system: In the next study, a growing rat model of zinc
defciency was established to investigate the efect of zinc defciency
on intestinal mucosal morphology and digestive enzyme activity.
Symptoms of zinc defciency, such as anorexia, diarrhea, dermatitis,
and growth retardation, were observed. Zinc defciency can cause loss
of appetite, weight loss, and decreased activity of peptidase in the jejunal
mucosal brush border. Zinc defciency has little efect on the height
ratio of the villus and crypt and lactase activity, thereby indicating that
zinc defciency may frst afect protein digestion and absorption [208].
Osteoporosis: Trace elements are essential for normal growth and
development of skeletons in humans and animals. Although they are
minor building components in teeth and bone, they play important
functional roles in bone metabolism and bone turnover. Zinc regulates
secretion of calcitonin from thyroid grand and infuences on bone
turnover. Copper induces low bone turnover by both suppressions of
osteoblastic and osteoclastic functions. Among the trace elements in
bone and hair, signifcant diferences were found in the contents of
zinc, copper and manganese between normal subjects and osteoporotic
patients. However, exact involvements of the trace elements in
osteoporosis have not yet been clarifed [209].
Zinc is implicated as an activator for bone formation. Te following
study examined how zinc regulates the bone matrix calcifcation
in osteoblasts. Te fndings suggest that zinc deprivation inhibits
extracellular matrix calcifcation in osteoblasts by decreasing the
synthesis and activity of matrix proteins, type I collagen and alkaline
phosphatase, and decreasing Ca and P accumulation. Terefore zinc
defciency can be considered as risk factor for poor extracellular matrix
calcifcation [210].
Testosterone defciency: Testosterone defciency is associated
with late-onset hypogonadism. Micronutrients including copper and
zinc have infuence on testosterone synthesis. Te association between
micronutrient concentrations in hair tissue and serum testosterone
was studied in Korean men. Subjects with normal testosterone group
had a signifcantly higher Zn level compared to low testosterone group
(P=0.003). Signifcant negative correlations were evident between total
testosterone and Cu level (P=0.022), and the Cu/Zn ratio (P=0.008).
Normal testosterone is associated with a higher Zn level. Decreased
serum testosterone is signifcantly associated with a high level of Cu
and elevated Cu/Zn ratio in hair tissue [211].
Te role of Zn in fertility: Semen is particulary rich in Zn, which is
a key factor in prostate gland function and reproductive organ growth
[78]. In the present study on rats, scientists observed changes in the
testes afer dietary zinc defciency. Ultrastructural studies revealed
several apoptotic features such as wavy basement membrane, displaced
nuclei, chromatin condensation, plasma membrane blebbing, nuclear
membrane dissolution, loss of inter-Sertoli cell junctional complexes,
and intercellular bridges and deformed mitochondria. Increased
apoptotic degeneration in testes may cause irreversible changes in the
germ cells associated with decreased epididymal sperm concentration,
motility, and fertility index which contributes to the low efciency of
spermatogenesis thereby indicating a possible role of zinc in fertility
[212].
Cardiovascular system disorders
Little is known about the selective toxicity to the heart. Terefore,
the following study demonstrated the relationship between the
severity of copper defciency-induced oxidative damage and the
capacity of antioxidant defense in heart and liver to investigate a
possible mechanism for the selective cardiotoxicity in rats. Copper
defciency induced a 2-fold increase in lipid peroxidation in the heart
(thiobarbituric assay) but did not alter peroxidation in the liver. Te
antioxidant enzymatic activities of superoxide dismutase, catalase, and
glutathione peroxidase were, respectively, 3-, 50- and 1.5-fold lower
in the heart than in the liver, although these enzymatic activities were
depressed in both organs by copper defciency. In addition, the activity
of glutathione reductase was 4 times lower in the heart than in the liver.
Te data suggest that a weak antioxidant defense system in the heart
is responsible for the relatively high degree of oxidative damage in
copper-defcient hearts [213].
Several research groups have demonstrated that essential trace
elements play important roles in states of cardiovascular diseases. Te
Page 13 of 18
doi:10.4172/2161-0495.S3-001
aim was to investigate whether there is a relationship between trace
elements, Zn and Cu and the degree of atherosclerosis. Te serum
levels of zinc and copper were found to be signifcantly lower in
patients with atherosclerosis than in the control group, but there were
no signifcant diferences in the serum levels of Cu and Zn between
severe atherosclerosis and mild atherosclerosis. Te present study
revealed a relationship between the serum levels of zinc and copper
and atherosclerosis, but not between these levels and the severity of the
disease [214].
To understand the role of Cu and Zn in human blood both in
controls as well as in cardiovascular (CVD) patients, whole blood
samples of 181 CVD patients and 185 controls between the ages of
20-66 years were investigated. Te mean blood-Cu levels (1.50 mg/l)
were found as enhanced, whereas Zn levels (5.88 mg/l) were reduced
in cardiovascular patients group. Cu/Zn ratios for CVD patients are
also higher than in control subjects. However, when the CVD patients
were checked for their systolic and diastolic pressure it was found that
copper concentrations in these patients was signifcantly increased (p <
0.001) with the rise of blood systolic pressure, so a positive correlation
was observed between copper and systolic pressure. Zn on the other
hand has an inverse relation with systolic as well as diastolic pressure
(p < 0.001). Total cholesterol (TC), low-density lipoprotein cholesterol
(LDL-C), high-density lipoprotein cholesterol, and triglyceride (TG)
in blood samples have also been determined and their probable role
in the CVD complication has been observed. A positive correlation of
blood Cu with TC, TG, and LDL-C indicates that rise in blood Cu levels
may initiate the development of CVD. An increase in Cu/Zn ratio can
instigate the cardiovascular risk factor. Te fndings from this study
can defnitely update our knowledge of the role of Cu and Zn in the
development of CVD risk in humans [215,216].
Cu and Zn Interactions with Medications
Zn/Antibiotics
Both quinolone antibiotics and tetracycline antibiotics interact
with zinc in the gastrointestinal tract, inhibiting the absorption of both
zinc and the antibiotic. Taking the antibiotic at least 2 hours before or
46 hours afer taking a zinc supplement minimizes this interaction
[217,218].
Zn/Penicillamine
Zinc can reduce the absorption and action of penicillamine. To
minimize this interaction, individuals should take zinc supplements at
least 2 hours before or afer taking penicillamine [86].
Zn/Diuretics
Tiazide diuretics such as chlorthalidone and hydrochlorothiazide
increase urinary zinc excretion by as much as 60 %. Prolonged use of
thiazide diuretics could deplete zinc tissue levels, so clinicians should
monitor zinc status in patients taking these medications [219].
Cu/Nonsteroidal anti-infammatory drugs [NSAIDs]
Copper binds to NSAIDs and appears to enhance their anti-
infammatory activity [220].
Cu/Penicillamine
Penicillamine reduces copper levels that may be the intended use -
as a helating agent in the case of Wilsons disease to reduce toxic copper
deposits [153].
Cu/Antacids
Antacids may reduce copper absorption by decreasing the amount
of hydrochloric acid in the stomach [221].
Cu/Allopurinol
Te studies suggest that allopurinol may reduce copper levels [222].
Cu/Oral contraceptives
Oral contraceptives increase the absorption of copper. Estrogen
replacement for post-menopausal women can increase blood levels of
copper. Estrogen enhances the absorption and half-life of copper which
in turn inhibits the absorption of zinc [223].
Superoxide Dismutase/Valproic acid
Te recent study evaluated changes in antioxidant status in
blood during valproate monotherapy of adult patients with epilepsy.
Signifcant diferences between the study group and controls were
found. Te activity of erythrocyte SOD was higher in patients treated
with valproate for a longer period (7-14 years) in comparison to
controls (p=0.001) and patients with a short period of VPA treatment
(p<0.001). Patients with uncontrolled epilepsy exhibited higher
serum Zn than seizure-free patients (p=0.041). Te antioxidant status
of epileptic patients was modifed by valproate monotherapy. Te
frequency of seizures and duration of VPA therapy were associated
with changes of oxidative/antioxidative balance [224].
Conclusion/Summary
Te human body has an elaborate system for managing and
regulating the amount of key trace metals circulating in blood and
stored in cells. When this system fails to function properly, abnormal
levels and ratios of trace metals can develop. One of the most common
trace-metal imbalances is elevated copper and depressed zinc. Te ratio
of copper to zinc is clinically more important than the concentration of
either of these trace metals. Zn is the second most abundant transition
metal in organisms afer iron and it is the only metal which appears in
all enzyme classes, while copper is present in every tissue of the body,
but is stored primarily in the liver, with fewer amounts found in the
brain, heart, kidney, and muscles.
Zinc is involved in numerous aspects of cellular metabolism. It
is required for the catalytic activity of more than 200 enzymes and it
plays a role in immune function, wound healing, protein synthesis,
DNA synthesis and cell division. Zinc possesses antioxidant properties,
which may protect against accelerated aging and helps speed up the
healing process afer an injury.
Copper plays an important role in our metabolism, largely because
it allows many critical enzymes to function properly. Copper is essential
for maintaining the strength of the skin, blood vessels, epithelial
and connective tissue throughout the body. Cu plays a role in the
production of hemoglobin, myelin, melanin and it also keeps thyroid
gland functioning normally. Copper can act as both an antioxidant
and a pro-oxidant. As an antioxidant, Cu scavenges or neutralize free
radicals and may reduce or help prevent some of the damage they
cause. When copper acts as a pro-oxidant at times, it promotes free
radical damage.
More than the concentration of Zn or Cu in blood serum, it is
important the balance between them. If the balance is changed several
organic systems can be afected. Diferent diseases can be prevented
when supplements are taken, and diferent drugs afect Cu and Zn
concentrations what can cause the onset of diferent diseases.
Page 14 of 18
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This article was originally published in a special issue, Heavy Metal Toxicity
handled by Editor(s). Dr. Noreen Khan-Mayberry, National Aeronautics &
Space Administration at Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center in Houston, USA

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