ICRC Opinion paper, March 2008 1

How is the Term "Armed Conflict" Defined in

International Humanitarian Law?
International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC)
Opinion Paper, March 2008
The States parties to the 1949 Geneva Conventions have entrusted the ICRC, through the
Statutes of the International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement, "to work for the
understanding and dissemination of knowledge of international humanitarian law applicable
in armed conflicts and to prepare any development thereof"
1
. It is on this basis that the ICRC
takes this opportunity to present the prevailing legal opinion on the definition of "international
armed conflict" and "non-international armed conflict" under International Humanitarian Law,
the branch of international law which governs armed conflict.
International humanitarian law distinguishes two types of armed conflicts, namely:
international armed conflicts, opposing two or more States, and
non-international armed conflicts, between governmental forces and non-
governmental armed groups, or between such groups only. IHL treaty law also
establishes a distinction between non-international armed conflicts in the meaning of
common Article 3 of the Geneva Conventions of 1949 and non-international armed
conflicts falling within the definition provided in Art. 1 of Additional Protocol II.
Legally speaking, no other type of armed conflict exists. It is nevertheless important to
underline that a situation can evolve from one type of armed conflict to another, depending
on the facts prevailing at a certain moment.
I. International Armed Conflict (IAC)
1) IHL Treaties
Common Article 2 to the Geneva Conventions of 1949 states that:
"In addition to the provisions which shall be implemented in peacetime, the present
Convention shall apply to all cases of declared war or of any other armed conflict which may
arise between two or more of the High Contracting Parties, even if the state of war is not
recognized by one of them.
The Convention shall also apply to all cases of partial or total occupation of the territory of a
High Contracting Party, even if the said occupation meets with no armed resistance".
According to this provision, IACs are those which oppose "High Contracting Parties",
meaning States. An IAC occurs when one or more States have recourse to armed force
against another State, regardless of the reasons or the intensity of this confrontation.
Relevant rules of IHL may be applicable even in the absence of open hostilities. Moreover,
no formal declaration of war or recognition of the situation is required. The existence of an
IAC, and as a consequence, the possibility to apply International Humanitarian Law to this
situation, depends on what actually happens on the ground. It is based on factual conditions.
For example, there may be an IAC, even though one of the belligerents does not recognize
the government of the adverse party
2
. The Commentary of the Geneva Conventions of 1949

1
Statutes of the International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement, art. 5, para. 2(g).
2
"It is irrelevant to the validity of international humanitarian law whether the States and Governments
involved in the conflict recognize each other as States": Joint Services Regulations (ZDv) 15/2, in: D.
ICRC Opinion paper, March 2008 2
confirms that "any difference arising between two States and leading to the intervention of
armed forces is an armed conflict within the meaning of Article 2, even if one of the Parties
denies the existence of a state of war. It makes no difference how long the conflict lasts, or
how much slaughter takes place"
3
.
Apart from regular, inter-state armed conflicts, Additional Protocol I extends the definition of
IAC to include armed conflicts in which peoples are fighting against colonial domination, alien
occupation or racist regimes in the exercise of their right to self-determination (wars of
national liberation).
4
2) Jurisprudence
The International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia (ICTY) proposed a general
definition of international armed conflict. In the Tadic case, the Tribunal stated that "an armed
conflict exists whenever there is a resort to armed force between States".
5
This definition has
been adopted by other international bodies since then.
3) Doctrine
The doctrine gives useful comments concerning the definition of an international armed
conflict.
According to D. Schindler, "the existence of an armed conflict within the meaning of Article 2
common to the Geneva Conventions can always be assumed when parts of the armed
forces of two States clash with each other. [] Any kind of use of arms between two States
brings the Conventions into effect"
6
.
H.-P. Gasser explains that "any use of armed force by one State against the territory of
another, triggers the applicability of the Geneva Conventions between the two States. [] It
is also of no concern whether or not the party attacked resists. [] As soon as the armed
forces of one State find themselves with wounded or surrendering members of the armed
forces or civilians of another State on their hands, as soon as they detain prisoners or have
actual control over a part of the territory of the enemy State, then they must comply with the
relevant convention"
7
.

Fleck, The Handbook of Humanitarian Law in Armed Conflicts, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 1995,
p. 45.
3
J. Pictet, Commentary on the Geneva Convention for the Amelioration of the Condition of the
Wounded and Sick in Armed Forces in the Field, ICRC, Geneva, 1952, p. 32.
4
Additional Protocol I, art. 1, para. 4: "armed conflicts in which peoples are fighting against colonial
domination and alien occupation and against racist regimes in the exercise of their right of self-
determination, as enshrined in the Charter of the United Nations and the Declaration on Principles of
International Law concerning Friendly Relations and Co-operation among States in accordance with
the Charter of the United Nations".
5
ICTY, The Prosecutor v. Dusko Tadic, Decision on the Defence Motion for Interlocutory Appeal on
Jurisdiction, IT-94-1-A, 2 October 1995, para. 70.
6
D. Schindler, The different Types of Armed Conflicts According to the Geneva Conventions and
Protocols, RCADI, Vol. 163, 1979-II, p. 131.
7
H.P. Gasser, International Humanitarian Law: an Introduction, in: Humanity for All: the International
Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement, H. Haug (ed.), Paul Haupt Publishers, Berne, 1993, p. 510-
511.
ICRC Opinion paper, March 2008 3
The German Joint Services Regulations (ZDv) 15/2 says that "an international armed conflict
exists if one party uses force of arms against another party. [] The use of military force by
individual persons or groups of persons will not suffice"
8
.
Finally, according to E. David, "tout affrontement arm entre forces des Etats parties aux CG
de 1949 (et ventuellement au 1
er
PA de 1977) relve de ces instruments, quelle que soit
l'ampleur de cet affrontement: une escarmouche, un incident de frontire entre les forces
armes des Parties suffisent provoquer l'application des Conventions (et du 1
er
Protocole,
s'il lie les Etats) cette situation"
9
.
II. Non-International Armed Conflict (NIAC)
1) IHL Treaties
Two main legal sources must be examined in order to determine what a NIAC under
international humanitarian law is: a) common Article 3 to the Geneva Conventions of 1949; b)
Article 1 of Additional Protocol II:
a) Non-International Armed Conflicts within the Meaning of Common Article 3
Common Article 3 applies to "armed conflicts not of an international character occurring in
the territory of one of the High Contracting Parties". These include armed conflicts in which
one or more non-governmental armed groups are involved. Depending on the situation,
hostilities may occur between governmental armed forces and non-governmental armed
groups or between such groups only. As the four Geneva Conventions have universally been
ratified now, the requirement that the armed conflict must occur "in the territory of one of the
High Contracting Parties" has lost its importance in practice. Indeed, any armed conflict
between governmental armed forces and armed groups or between such groups cannot but
take place on the territory of one of the Parties to the Convention.
In order to distinguish an armed conflict, in the meaning of common Article 3, from less
serious forms of violence, such as internal disturbances and tensions, riots or acts of
banditry, the situation must reach a certain threshold of confrontation. It has been generally
accepted that the lower threshold found in Article 1(2) of APII, which excludes internal
disturbances and tensions from the definition of NIAC, also applies to common Article 3.
Two criteria are usually used in this regard:
10
First, the hostilities must reach a minimum level of intensity. This may be the case, for
example, when the hostilities are of a collective character or when the government is
obliged to use military force against the insurgents, instead of mere police forces.
11
Second, non-governmental groups involved in the conflict must be considered as
"parties to the conflict", meaning that they possess organized armed forces. This
means for example that these forces have to be under a certain command structure
and have the capacity to sustain military operations.
12

8
D. Fleck, The Handbook of Humanitarian Law in Armed Conflicts, Oxford University Press, Oxford,
1995, p. 40.
9
E. David, Principes de droit des conflits arms, ULB, Bruxelles, 2002, p. 109.
10
ICTY, The Prosecutor v. Dusko Tadic, Judgment, IT-94-1-T, 7 May 1997, para. 561-568; see also
ICTY, The Prosecutor v. Fatmir Limaj, Judgment, IT-03-66-T, 30 November 2005, para. 84.
11
For a detailed analysis of this criteria, see ICTY, The Prosecutor v. Fatmir Limaj, Judgment, IT-03-
66-T, 30 November 2005, para. 135-170.
12
See D. Schindler, The Different Types of Armed Conflicts According to the Geneva Conventions and
Protocols, RCADI, Vol. 163, 1979-II, p. 147. For a detailed analysis of this criteria, see ICTY, The
Prosecutor v. Fatmir Limaj, Judgment, IT-03-66-T, 30 November 2005, para. 94-134.
ICRC Opinion paper, March 2008 4
b) Non-International Armed Conflicts in the Meaning of Art. 1 of Additional Protocol II
A more restrictive definition of NIAC was adopted for the specific purpose of Additional
Protocol II. This instrument applies to armed conflicts "which take place in the territory of a
High Contracting Party between its armed forces and dissident armed forces or other
organized armed groups which, under responsible command, exercise such control over a
part of its territory as to enable them to carry out sustained and concerted military operations
and to implement this Protocol".
13
This definition is narrower than the notion of NIAC under common Article 3 in two aspects.
Firstly, it introduces a requirement of territorial control, by providing that non-governmental
parties must exercise such territorial control "as to enable them to carry out sustained and
concerted military operations and to implement this Protocol". Secondly, Additional Protocol
II expressly applies only to armed conflicts between State armed forces and dissident armed
forces or other organised armed groups. Contrary to common Article 3, the Protocol does not
apply to armed conflicts occurring only between non-State armed groups.
In this context, it must be reminded that Additional Protocol II "develops and supplements"
common Article 3 "without modifying its existing conditions of application".
14
This means that
this restrictive definition is relevant for the application of Protocol II only, but does not extend
to the law of NIAC in general. The Statute of the International Criminal Court, in its article 8,
para. 2 (f), confirms the existence of a definition of a non-international armed conflict not
fulfilling the criteria of Protocol II
15
.
2) Jurisprudence
Case law has brought important elements for a definition of an armed conflict, in particular
regarding the non-international armed conflicts in the meaning of common Article 3 which are
not expressly defined in the Conventions concerned.
Judgments and decisions of the ICTY throw also some light on the definition of NIAC. As
mentioned above, the ICTY went on to determine the existence of a NIAC "whenever there is
[] protracted armed violence between governmental authorities and organised armed
groups or between such groups within a State".
16
The ICTY thus confirmed that the definition
of NIAC in the sense of common Article 3 encompasses situations where "several factions
[confront] each other without involvement of the government's armed forces"
17
. Since that
first ruling, each judgment of the ICTY has taken this definition as a starting point.
3) Doctrine
Several recognized authors also commented very clearly on what should be considered as a
non-international armed conflict. Their comments are relevant in first place to the conflicts
which do not fulfil the strict criteria foreseen in Additional Protocol II and provide useful
elements to ensure the application of the guarantees provided in common article 3 to the
Geneva Conventions of 1949.

13
Additional Protocol II, art. 1, para. 1.
14
Additional Protocol II, art. 1, para. 1.
15
Statute of the ICC, art. 8 para. 2 (f): "It applies to armed conflicts that take place in the territory of a
State when there is protracted armed conflict between governmental authorities and organized armed
groups or between such groups"
16
ICTY, The Prosecutor v. Dusko Tadic, Decision on the Defence Motion for Interlocutory Appeal on
Jurisdiction, IT-94-1-A, 2 October 1995, para.70.
17
Y. Sandoz/C.Swinarski/B. Zimmermann, Commentary on the Additional Protocols of 8 June 1977 to
the Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949, ICRC, Geneva, 1987, para. 4461.
ICRC Opinion paper, March 2008 5
According to H.-P. Gasser, it is generally admitted that "non-international armed conflicts are
armed confrontations that take place within the territory of a State between the government
on the one hand and armed insurgent groups on the other hand. [] Another case is the
crumbling of all government authority in the country, as a result of which various groups fight
each other in the struggle for power"
18
.
D. Schindler also proposes a detailed definition: "The hostilities have to be conducted by
force of arms and exhibit such intensity that, as a rule, the government is compelled to
employ its armed forces against the insurgents instead of mere police forces. Secondly, as to
the insurgents, the hostilities are meant to be of a collective character, [i.e] they have to be
carried out not only by single groups. In addition, the insurgents have to exhibit a minimum
amount of organisation. Their armed forces should be under a responsible command and be
capable of meeting minimal humanitarian requirements".
19
M. Sassoli,
20
writes "common Article 3 refers to conflicts 'occurring in the territory of one of
the High Contracting Parties,' whereas Article 1 of Protocol II refers to those 'which take
place in the territory of a High Contracting Party.' According to the aim and purpose of IHL,
this must be understood as simply recalling that treaties apply only to their state parties. If
such wording meant that conflicts opposing states and organized armed groups and
spreading over the territory of several states were not non international armed conflicts,
there would be a gap in protection, which could not be explained by states concerns about
their sovereignty. Those concerns made the law of non international armed conflicts more
rudimentary. Yet concerns about state sovereignty could not explain why victims of conflicts
spilling over the territory of several states should benefit from less protection than those
affected by conflicts limited to the territory of only one state.
Additionally, Articles 1 and 7 of the Statute of the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda
extend the jurisdiction of that tribunal called to enforce, inter alia, the law of
non international armed conflicts, to the neighbouring countries. This confirms that even a
conflict spreading across borders remains a non international armed conflict. In conclusion,
'internal conflicts are distinguished from international armed conflicts by the parties involved
rather than by the territorial scope of the conflict.'
21
"
III. Conclusion
On the basis of the analysis set out above, the ICRC proposes the following definitions,
which reflect the strong prevailing legal opinion:
1. International armed conflicts exist whenever there is resort to armed force between
two or more States.
2. Non-international armed conflicts are protracted armed confrontations occurring
between governmental armed forces and the forces of one or more armed groups, or
between such groups arising on the territory of a State [party to the Geneva
Conventions]. The armed confrontation must reach a minimum level of intensity and
the parties involved in the conflict must show a minimum of organisation.

18
H.P. Gasser, International Humanitarian Law: an Introduction, in: Humanity for All: the International
Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement, H. Haug (ed.), Paul Haupt Publishers, Berne, 1993, p. 555.
19
D. Schindler, The Different Types of Armed Conflicts According to the Geneva Conventions and
Protocols, RCADI, Vol. 163, 1979-II, p. 147.
20
Sassoli M., "Transnational Armed Groups and International Humanitarian Law", Program on
Humanitarian Policy and Conflict Research, Harvard University, Occasional Paper Series, Winter
2006, Number 6, p. 8,9.
21
Liesbeth Zegveld, Accountability of Armed Opposition Groups in International Law, Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press, 2002, p. 136.