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title:
Methanol Production and Use Chemical Industries ; V.
57
author: Kung, Harold H.
publisher: CRC Press
isbn10 | asin: 0824792238
print isbn13: 9780824792237
ebook isbn13: 9780585360522
language: English
subject Methanol.
publication date: 1994
lcc: TP594.M46 1994eb
ddc: 661/.824
subject: Methanol.
Methanol Production and Use

CHEMICAL INDUSTRIES
A Series of Reference Books and Textbooks
Consulting Editor
HEINZ HEINEMANN
Berkeley, California
1.
Fluid Catalytic Cracking with Zeolite Catalysts,
Paul B. Venuto and E. Thomas Habib, Jr.
2.
Ethylene: Keystone to the Petrochemical Industry,
Ludwig Kniel, Olaf Winter, and Karl Stork
3.
The Chemistry and Technology of Petroleum,
James G. Speight
4.
The Desulfurization of Heavy Oils and Residua,
James G. Speight
5.
Catalysis of Organic Reactions,
edited by William R. Moser
6.
Acetylene-Based Chemicals from Coal and Other Natural Resources,
Robert J. Tedeschi
7.
Chemically Resistant Masonry,
Walter Lee Sheppard, Jr.
8.
Compressors and Expanders: Selection and Application for the Process Industry,
Heinz P. Bloch, Joseph A. Cameron, Frank M. Danowski, Jr., Ralph James, Jr., Judson S.
Swearingen, and Marilyn E. Weightman
9.
Metering Pumps: Selection and Application,
James P. Poynton
10.
Hydrocarbons from Methanol,
Clarence D. Chang
11.
Form Flotation: Theory and Applications,
Ann N. Clarke and David J. Wilson
12.
The Chemistry and Technology of Coal,
James G. Speight
13.
Pneumatic and Hydraulic Conveying of Solids,
O. A. Williams
14.
Catalyst Manufacture: Laboratory and Commercial Preparations,
Alvin B. Stiles
15.
Characterization of Heterogeneous Catalysts,
edited by Francis Delannay
16.
BASIC Programs for Chemical Engineering Design,
James H. Weber
17.
Catalyst Poisoning,
L. Louis Hegedus and Robert W. McCabe
18.
edited by John R. Kosak
19.
Adsorption Technology: A Step-by-Step Approach to Process Evaluation and Application,
edited by Frank L. Slejko
20.
Deactivation and Poisoning of Catalysts,
edited by Jacques Oudar and Henry Wise

21.
Catalysis and Surface Science: Developments in Chemicals from Methanol, Hydrotreating
of Hydrocarbons, Catalyst Preparation, Monomers and Polymers, Photocatalysis and
Photovoltaics,
edited by Heinz Heinemann and Gabor A. Somorjai
22.
edited by Robert L. Augustine
23.
Modern Control Techniques for the Processing Industries,
T. H. Tsai, J. W. Lane, and C. S. Lin
24.
Temperature-Programmed Reduction for Solid Materials Characterization,
Alan Jones and Brian McNichol
25.
Catalytic Cracking: Catalysts, Chemistry, and Kinetics,
Bohdan W. Wojciechowski and Avelino Corma
26.
Chemical Reaction and Reactor Engineering,
edited by J. J. Carberry and A. Varma
27.
Filtration: Principles and Practices: Second Edition,
edited by Michael J. Matteson and Clyde Orr
28.
Corrosion Mechanisms,
edited by Florian Mansfeld
29.
Catalysis and Surface Properties of Liquid Metals and Alloys,
Yoshisada Ogino
30.
Catalyst Deactivation,
edited by Eugene E. Petersen and Alexis T. Bell
31.
Hydrogen Effects in Catalysis: Fundamentals and Practical Applications,
edited by Zoltn Pal and P. G. Menon
32.
Flow Management for Engineers and Scientists,
Nicholas P. Cheremisinoff and Paul N. Cheremisinoff
33.
edited by Paul N. Rylander, Harold Greenfield, and Robert L. Augustine
34.
Powder and Bulk Solids Handling Processes: Instrumentation and Control,
Koichi linoya, Hiroaki Masuda, and Kinnosuke Watanabe
35.
Reverse Osmosis Technology: Applications for High-Purity-Water Production,
edited by Bipin S. Parekh
36.
Shape Selective Catalysis in Industrial Applications,
N. Y. Chen, William E. Garwood, and Frank G. Dwyer
37.
Alpha Olefins Applications Handbook,
edited by George R. Lappin and Joseph L. Sauer
38.
Process Modeling and Control in Chemical Industries,
edited by Kaddour Najim
39.
Clathrate Hydrates of Natural Gases,
E. Dendy Sloan, Jr.
40.
edited by Dale W. Blackburn
41.
Fuel Science and Technology Handbook,
edited by James G. Speight
42.
Octane-Enhancing Zeolitic FCC Catalysts,
Julius Scherzer
43.
Oxygen in Catalysis,
Adam Bielanski * and Jerzy Haber
44.
The Chemistry and Technology of Petroleum:
Second Edition, Revised and Expanded,
James G. Speight

45.
Industrial Drying Equipment: Selection and Application,
C. M. van't Land
46.
Novel Production Methods for Ethylene, Light Hydrocarbons, and Aromatics,
edited by Lyle F. Albright, Billy L. Crynes, and Siegfried Nowak
47.
edited by William E. Pascoe
48.
Synthetic Lubricants and High-Performance Functional Fluids,
edited by Ronald L. Shubkin
49.
Acetic Acid and Its Derivatives,
edited by Victor H. Agreda and Joseph R. Zoeller
50.
Properties and Applications of Perovskite-Type Oxides,
edited by L. G. Tejuca and J. L. G. Fierro
51. Computer-Aided Design of Catalysts,
edited by E. Robert Becker and Carmo J. Pereira
52.
Models for Thermodynamic and Phase Equilibria Calculations,
edited by Stanley I. Sandler
53.
edited by John R. Kosak and Thomas A. Johnson
54.
Composition and Analysis of Heavy Petroleum Fractions,
Klaus H. Altgelt and Mieczyslaw M. Boduszynski
55.
NMR Techniques in Catalysis,
edited by Alexis T. Bell and Alexander Pines
56.
Upgrading Petroleum Residues and Heavy Oils,
Murray R. Gray
57.
Methanol Production and Use,
edited by Wu-Hsun Cheng and Harold H. Kung
58.
Catalytic Hydroprocessing of Petroleum and Distillates,
edited by Michael C. Oballa and Stuart S. Shih
59.
The Chemistry and Technology of Coal:
Second Edition, Revised and Expanded,
James G. Speight
ADDITIONAL VOLUMES IN PREPARATION
Lubricant Base Oil and Wax Processing,
Avilino Sequeira, Jr.
Catalytic Naphtha Reforming: Science and Technology,
edited by George J. Antos, A. M. Aitani, and J. M. Parera

Page i
Methanol Production and Use
Edited by
Wu-Hsun Cheng
Chang Gung College of Medicine and Technology
Taiwan, Republic of China
Harold H. Kung
Northwestern University
Evanston, Illinois

Page ii
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Methanol production and use / [edited by] Wu-Hsun Cheng, Harold H.
Kung.
p. cm. (Chemical industries : v. 57)
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN: 0824792238 (acid-free)
1. Methanol. I. Cheng, Wu-Hsun. II. Kung, Harold H.
III. Series.
TP594.M46 1994 9414916
661'.824-dc20 CIP
The publisher offers discounts on this book when ordered in bulk quantities. For more
information, write to Special Sales/Professional Marketing at the address below.
This book is printed on acid-free paper.
Copyright 1994 by MARCEL DEKKER, INC. All Rights Reserved.
Neither this book nor any part may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any
means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, microfilming, and recording, or
by any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the
publisher.
MARCEL DEKKER, INC.
270 Madison Avenue, New York, New York 10016
Current printing (last digit):
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA

Page iii
Preface
Methanol is perhaps the simplest organic molecule that can be used as a building block
for larger, more complicated organic molecules. For many years, technology has been
developed to produce methanol from various sources, the most recent being from
conversion of natural gas or coal. Traditionally, the primary uses of methanol have been
for chemical production, as either a feedstock or a solvent or cosolvent. In the late 1980s,
the estimated consumption of methanol was about 15,000 metric tons per year.
However, two recent developments could significantly change the demand for methanol.
One is the requirement of oxygenates in transportation fuel. The potential of using
methanol as fuel has led to the California Fuel Methanol Study by Bechtel, Inc., sponsored
by various industries. Their report, issued in January 1989, stated that, although
substantial use of methanol as fuel is unlikely in the immediate future, the required
incorporation of oxygenates in gasoline has added a significant demand for methanol in
the form of ethers, particularly methyl tert-butyl ether (MTBE).
The second development is the recent discovery that agricultural plants treated with
methanol grow faster and bigger. Research is still going on to map out the exact
conditions under which application of methanol is beneficial. This area provides another
huge potential market for the compound.

Page iv
The preparation of this book was conceived in late 1990 when one of us (W.-H. C.) was
with the Central Research and Development Department of the DuPont Co., Wilmington,
Delaware. At that time, the editors and Marcel Dekker, Inc., perceived a need for a
comprehensive treatise on methanol that would cover the technical and business aspects
of the compound. This book covers various topics to satisfy the needs of research
managers, research and development scientists and engineers, and planning and design
engineers interested in market analysis, safety in handling, chemical and physical
properties, and technical aspects dealing with production and industrial uses of methanol.
After the general introductory chapter, the book starts with a compilation of the
properties of methanol. Then the technical aspects of production of methanol are
described, which include discussions of the chemistry, engineering, and economics of the
current production processes. This is followed by technical discussions of processes that
use methanol, such as the processes to convert methanol to gasoline and olefins and the
production of acetic acid, formaldehyde, acetaldehyde, ether, formate, and higher
alcohols. The book then turns to the topic of large potential uses of methanol for
transportation fuels and for agriculture. A description of applications not covered follows.
The book ends with a chapter on the global picture of supply, demand, and marketing of
methanol.
The book is written for readers with a general technical background. In the discussion of
the future of methanol, technical objectivity was encouraged. We hope that this has been
accomplished. The completion of this book would not have been possible without
assistance from a large number of people. Most important are the contributors, who
prepared their work in a timely and professional manner. Special thanks are given to Dr.
Glyn Short of ICI-America for suggesting various contributors for this project. Thanks
should also be given to the publishers and authors who granted us permission to use their
figures.
WU-HSUN CHENG
HAROLD H. KUNG

Page v
Contents
Preface iii
Contributors ix
1. Overview
Wu-Hsun Cheng and Harold H. Kung
1
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Historical Development of Methanol 1
1.3 Production of Methanol 3
1.4 Reactions and Applications of Methanol 7
1.5 Future Opportunities and Challenges 13
References 18
2. Physical and Chemical Properties and Handling Aspects
Barry L. Yang
23
2.1 Pure Methanol 23
2.2 Methanol-Containing Systems 29
2.3 Chemical Reactivity 32

Page vi
2.4 Specification and Analysis 38
2.5 Handling Aspects: Fire Hazards, Storage and
Transportation, and Spillage
41
2.6 Toxicity, Occupational Health, and Environmental
Concerns
43
References 46
3. Production of Methanol
J. R. LeBlanc, Robert V. Schneider, III, and Richard B. Strait
51
3.1 History 51
3.2 Thermodynamics and Kinetics of Methanol Synthesis 53
3.3 Syngas Preparation Processes 73
3.4 Steam Reforming of Natural Gas to Methanol 99
3.5 Environmental Considerations for a Natural Gas Plant 116
3.6 Project Economics 122
References 131
4. Methanol to Gasoline and Olefins
Clarence D. Chang
133
4.1 Conversion of Methanol to Gasoline 133
4.2 Conversion of Methanol to Olefins 159
References 171
5. Methanol to Chemicals
Harold H. Kung and Kevin J. Smith
175
5.1 Acetic Acid 175
5.2 Formaldehyde 180
5.3 Acetic Anhydride 186
5.4 Methylated Products and Homologation to Higher
Alcohols
190
5.5 Synthesis of Ethers 204
References 207
6. Fuel Methanol
Glyn D. Short
215
6.1 Foreword 215
6.2 Introduction 218
6.3 General Considerations 220
6.4 Fuel Supply Conundrum 221
6.5 Acceptability 222

Page vii
6.6 Methanol as a Fuel 237
6.7 Methanol Vehicle Exhaust Emissions 244
6.8 Future Methanol Engines and Vehicles 245
6.9 Methanol in Heavy-Duty Engines 247
6.10 Outlook for Fuel Methanol 249
References 250
7. Agriculture and Methanol
Arthur M. Nonomura, Andrew A. Benson, and Deepak Nair
253
7.2 Mechanism 256
7.3 Field Observations 257
7.4 Conclusion 258
References 259
8. Other Applications
Chauchyun Chang and Wu-Hsun Cheng
261
8.2 Single-Cell Protein 261
8.3 Sewage Treatment 266
8.4 Solvent/Cosolvent 270
8.5 Antifreeze 273
8.6 Miscellaneous 275
References 276
9. Global Outlook: Supply, Demand, and Marketing
James R. Crocco
283
9.2 Regional Outlook 284
9.3 Major Traditional Methanol Derivatives 297
9.4 Methanol Future Potential Chemical Applications 303
9.5 Single-Cell Protein Manufacture 305
9.6 Sewage Treatment 306
9.7 Summary 306
References 317
Index 319

Page ix
Contributors
Andrew A. Benson
Marine Biology Research Division, Scripps Institution of Oceanography, La Jolla, California
Chauchyun Chang
Union Chemical Laboratories/Industrial Technology Research Institute, Hsinchu, Taiwan,
Republic of China
Clarence D. Chang
Central Research Division, Mobil Research and Development Corporation, Princeton, New
Jersey
Wu-Hsun Cheng
Department of Chemical Engineering, Chang Gung College of Medicine and Technology,
Kweishan, Taoyuan, Taiwan, Republic of China
James R. Crocco
Crocco & Associates, Inc., Houston, Texas
Harold H. Kung
Department of Chemical Engineering, McCormick School of Engineering and Applied
Sciences, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois
J. R. LeBlanc
Fertilizers and Synthesis Gas Based Chemicals, The M. W. Kellogg Company, Houston,
Texas

Page x
Deepak Nair
Methanex Inc., Houston, Texas
Arthur M. Nonomura
Center for the Study of Early Events in Photosynthesis, Arizona State University, Tempe,
Arizona
Robert V. Schneider, III
Texas
Glyn D. Short
ICI Americas, Wilmington, Delaware
Kevin J. Smith
Department of Chemical Engineering, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British
Columbia, Canada
Richard B. Strait
Texas
Barry L. Yang
Department of Chemical Engineering, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois

Page 1
1
Overview
Wu-Hsun Cheng
Chang Gung College of Medicine and Technology, Kweishan, Taoyuan, Taiwan, Republic
of China
Harold H. Kung
Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois
1.1
Introduction
Methanol is one of the largest volume commodity chemicals produced in the world. World
methanol capacity has grown from 15.9 million t in 1983 to 22.1 million t in January 1991.
Methanol consumption is increasing at a rate of about 11% per year during 19901995 [1].
This is largely attributed to increasing demand for methyl tert-butyl ether (MTBE), which
is one of the fastest growing chemicals in the world.
Methanol has drawn keen attention a number of times in the chemical and energy
industry. It plays an important role in C1 chemistry. It is also regarded as one of the most
promising alternative automobile fuel not based on petroleum.
This chapter briefly describes the historical development of methanol-related events and
technologies and gives an overview of state-of-the-art methanol production technologies,
the reactions and applications of methanol, and future opportunities.
1.2
Historical Development of Methanol
Table 1 summarizes the historical development of methanol-related events and
technologies. Methanol was first commercially produced by destructive distil-

Page 2
Table 1 Historical Development of Methanol
Year Events
1830 First commercial methanol process by destructive distillation of wood
1905 Synthetic methanol route suggested by French chemist Paul Sabatier
1923 First synthetic methanol plant commericalized by BASF
1927 Synthetic methanol process introduced in United States
Late
1940s
Conversion from water gas to natural gas as source of synthetic gas for feed to methanol
reactors
1966 Low-pressure methanol process announced by ICI
1970 Acetic acid process by methanol carbonylation introduced by Monsanto
1973 Arab oil embargoreassessment of alternative fuels
1970s Methanol-to-gasoline process introduced by Mobil
1989 Clain air regulations proposed by Bush administration
1990 Passage of the amended Clean Air Act in United States
Early
1990s
Discovery of enhanced crop yields with methanol treatment
lation of wood in 1830. This process prevailed for about a century until the first synthetic
methanol plant was introduced by Badische Anilin-und-Soda-Fabrik (BASF) in 1923.
DuPont introduced the synthetic methanol plant in the United States in 1927. In late
1940, natural gas replaced water gas as a source of syngas (i.e., CO and H2). ICI
announced a low-pressure methanol process in 1966 using a copper-based catalyst. This
operates at 510 MPa (50100 atm) compared with 35 MPa (35 atm) for the older high-
pressure process. The Arab oil embargo in 1973 first generated much interest in methanol
as an alternative automobile fuel. In 1989, the Bush administration proposed clean air
regulations that would mandate the use of cleaner alternative automobile fuels. Methanol
was favored by the administration. The amended Clean Air Act, passed in 1990, requires
a reduction in ozone and carbon monoxide emissions, although it does not mandate use
of an alternative fuel. The first phase of the amended act requires that gasoline marketed
in 41 CO nonattainment areas must contain 2.7 wt% oxygen during the
NovemberFebruary control season starting 1992. In addition, ozone nonattainment areas
will require the use of reformulated gasoline containing 2 wt% oxygen by January 1, 1995
[2]. Currently, methyl tert-butyl ether derived from isobutene and methanol is the most
widely used oxygenate in reformulated gasoline, and automakers and local government
authorities have announced plans to introduce methanol-fueled vehicles [36]. Thus,
interest in methanol in fuel applications has shifted from economic considerations in the
1970s to environmental considerations in the 1990s. This environmental impact will
continue into the next century and could have a strong effect on the demand for
methanol. Furthermore, it was recently discovered that some crops

Page 3
treated with methanol or nutrient-supplemented methanol showed significant increases in
crop yields [7]. This has opened up another area of research and development for
methanol and provides another opportunity for future methanol growth.
1.3
Production of Methanol
Methanol can be produced from a variety of sources, such as natural gas, coal, biomass,
and petroleum. Table 2 summarizes the various processes, feedstocks,
Table 2 Feedstocks, Processes, and Catalysts for Production of Syngas and
Methanol

Page 4
and catalysts for the production of methanol and its precursor, syngas. Methanol is
synthesized industrially via syngas. Alternative processes considered but not
commercialized include synthesis from syngas in two steps via methyl formate [8], direct
oxidation of methane over a heterogeneous catalyst, and bioprocessing [9].
Natural gas will continue to be an important source of energy and chemical feedstocks.
However, much of the natural gas reserve is situated in remote locations. Liquefying
natural gas for shipping requires huge capital investment at the source and expensive,
specially constructed transport fleets and receiving terminals. The evaporative loss of
cryogenic LNG (liquified natural gas) must be controlled. Conversion of natural gas to
methanol appears to be one of the most promising alternatives in utilizing abundant
remote natural gas. This can be accomplished by direct and indirect routes.
1.3.1
Indirect Route via Syngas
The conversion of natural gas to methanol via syngas is a widely used industrial process.
A typical conventional process includes desulfurization of natural gas, steam reforming,
methanol synthesis and purification by distillation. Steam reforming of natural gas is an
endothermic reaction and operates at high temperatures (reformed gas effluent at about
800880C). Methanol synthesis from syngas is an exothermic reaction and operates at
200300C. Heat integration and recovery is an important feature of the process. The
trend in methanol production has been toward larger capacity and improved energy
efficiency.
Production of syngas is traditionally performed in one step by steam reforming. Many of
the modern processes adopt two-step reforming: primary steam reforming followed by
autothermal reforming (Table 2). The primary reformer is simplified and reduced in size
and can be operated at a reduced temperature. Oxygen is blown to the autothermal
reformer first to produce CO and H2O with heat generation. The secondary reforming
operates at higher temperatures to ensure low leakage of methane. The combined
process is integrated to produce stoichiometric syngas for methanol synthesis. The
process reduces energy consumption and investment and is particularly suitable for larger
capacities. The two-step reforming process has been used by Topse, Lrgi, Mitsubishi,
and others.
Syngas can also be produced by partial oxidation of methane. It is a mildly exothermic
and selective process. It yields an H2/CO ratio lower than that by steam reforming.
Traditionally, it operates at very high temperatures. Catalytic partial oxidation holds
promise to reduce the operation temperature drastically. This could be an ideal process
for the production of methanol syngas.

Page 5
Methanol synthesis is another important step in the integrated process. Current low-
pressure processes operate at 510 MPa (50100 atm) in vapor phase using quench (ICI),
tubular (Lrgi), or double-tube heat-exchange (Mitsubishi) reactors. Single-pass
conversion of syngas is low and is limited by equilibrium conversion. A high rate of gas
recycling is needed. Cu/ZnO-based catalysts are industrial low-pressure methanol
synthesis catalysts. In general, the selectivity of the catalysts decreases when operating
at high pressures, high temperatures, high CO/H2 or CO/CO2 ratios, and low space
velocities [10]. Improved catalyst activity would allow a change in operation conditions in
favor of high selectivity. Fundamental studies on reaction mechanisms and kinetics, active
sites, and effects of process conditions have been the subject of many research programs
and have been discussed in several review papers [1113]. New types of effective
catalysts and reactors are receiving significant attention.
Catalysts
Recent advancements in catalyst development have led to some promising catalysts not
based on Cu/ZnO. These may be classified into five types: intermetallic Cu/Th,
Cu/lanthanides, Pt group on silica, Raney Cu, and homogeneous catalysts. It should be
pointed out here that some of these potential catalysts are active at 100C or lower. This
would permit high conversions of syngas in a single pass and therefore reduce or
eliminate costly gas recycling. For example, an ICI group has shown that Cu/lanthanides
catalysts, when properly treated, can be active at temperatures as low as 70C [14].
Brookhaven National Laboratory has developed a liquid-phase system that would permit
the reaction to proceed at fully isothermal conditions around 100C [15].
Even the industrial copper/zinc/alumina-based catalysts have been modified to achieve
higher productivity or longer catalyst life. ICI recently announced its third-generation
copper/zinc/alumina catalyst, described as a ''step change" over the previous catalysts
[16, 17]. This development was made through optimized formulation and particle and
pellet size. Researchers at the University of New South Wales, Australia claimed another
new breakthrough on this type of the catalyst [16]. A 100% improvement in performance
over the previous catalysts was claimed.
Reactors
In parallel with the development of high-activity catalysts, researchers are studying other
types of reactors that would prevent the hot-spot phenomenon associated with the
current fixed-bed reactor and/or increase the single-pass conversion. These include
fluidized-bed, recirculating fluidized-bed, slurry, trickle-bed, gas-solid-solid trickle-flow,
and liquid-phase reactors. Complete single-pass conversion has been demonstrated using
continuous methanol removal by liquid or solid absorbents [18,19].

Page 6
1.3.2
Direct Oxidation
In the past few years, there have been many active research programs around the world
on the direct conversion of methane to methanol and/or formaldehyde, C2 hydrocarbons,
and others. Methanol and formaldehyde can be produced by partial oxidation of methane
under controlled conditions in a homogeneous or catalytic reaction process. Many
catalysts, such as Mo-based oxides, aluminosilicates, promoted superacids, and
silicoferrate, have been used for the reaction. Since the activation energy for the
subsequent oxidation of methanol and formaldehyde to carbon oxides is usually smaller
than that for partial oxidation, high selectivities for methanol and formaldehyde have
been demonstrated only at low methane conversions. Reaction conditions (e.g., O2 or
N2O to CH4 ratio, temperature, and resistance time) and surface area of supports play
important roles in methanol and formaldehyde yield. In general, low pressure favors the
formation of formaldehyde. High pressure and low O2/methane ratios favor the formation
of methanol. The low yields achieved to data are a major obstacle to economical
commercialization of this route.
1.3.3
Economics
Conversion of remote natural gas to methanol even by conventional methanol technology
is economically competitive compared with shipping LNG. Delivered fuel cost based on a
323 billion Btu/day project and 6800 mile shipping distance was estimated to be about
$4.6/million Btu (calculation of capital was based on U.S. Gulf Coast, 1986) using
conventional methanol technology and about $4.8/million Btu for LNG [15]. Advanced and
potential methanol technologies would make the methanol route even more attractive.
Delivered fuel cost based on Brookhaven's low-temperature methanol process was
claimed to be only $3.6/million Btu under the same conditions [15]. The capital cost for
production facilities, shipping tankers, and receiving terminals would be about 50% lower
than the LNG investment.
Economics of the methanol technologies for remote natural gas has also been studied by
Catalytica [20]. They described improved methanol technologies, such as advanced
syngas generation using oxygen followed by improved ICI technology or including,
CO2/H2O removal in the syngas production step, followed by low-temperature methanol
synthesis. These improved technologies have a $0.060.08/gal advantage over
conventional methanol technology. Additional several cents/gal savings can be realized if
a high-yield process of direct oxidation of methane to methanol can be successfully
developed.
Methanol production is the most profitable way to add values to natural gas [21].
Methanol production is shifting from developed countries to developing

Page 7
countries. New plants will be located in increasingly varied and remote locations to utilize
abundant remote natural gas.
1.4
Reactions and Applications of Methanol
Methanol has been used in a variety of applications, which can be divided into three
categories: feedstock for other chemicals, fuel use, and other direct uses as a solvent,
antifreeze, inhibitor, or substrate. Primary and secondary derivatives or applications of
methanol are summarized in Table 3. Chemical feedstock accounted for 62% of the total
U.S. methanol consumption of 5.16 million t in 1990; fuel use for 27%, and other direct
uses for 11% [1]. Growth in methanol consumption in the next few years will come
largely from fuel use, especially MTBE [22, 23]. The demand pattern will change. SRI
(Stanford Research Institute) International forecasted that the fuel industry will become
the largest sector for U.S. methanol consumption in 1995. It will account for 54% of
about 8.6 million ton methanol demand, followed by 39% as a chemical feedstock and
7% in other uses [1].
1.4.1
Reactions
Methanol is the simplest aliphatic alcohol. It contains only one carbon atom. Unlike higher
alcohols, it cannot form an olefin through dehydration. However, it can undergo other
typical reactions of aliphatic alcohols involving cleavage of a C-H bond or O-H bond and
displacement of the -OH group [24]. Table 4 summarizes the reactions of methanol,
which are classified in terms of their mechanisms. Examples of the reactions and products
are given.
Homolytic dissociation energies of the C-O and O-H bonds in methanol are relatively high.
Catalysts are often used to activate the bonds and to increase the selectivity to desired
products.
1.4.2
Applications in the Energy Industry
Applications of methanol in the energy industry may be via four approaches: methanol-to-
gasoline conversion, methanol to MTBE for reformulated gasoline, neat methanol or
methanol blends as automobile and other fuels, and dissociation or reforming of
methanol to syngas or H2 for a variety of fuel uses. The need for these approaches is
progressive. Mobil's methanol-to-gasoline process received wide interest in the 1970s and
early 1980s, when the price of crude oil was high. MTBE and other ether additives in
gasoline, such as ethyl tert-butyl ether (ETBE) and tert-amyl methy ether (TAME), are
octane enhancers and are being used in reformulated gasoline for reducing automobile
emissions. Methanol is one of the most promising alternative automobile fuels from a

Page 8
Table 3 Overview of Methanol Applications
Direct derivatives or uses
Secondary derivatives or
uses
Fuel or fuel additives
Neat methanol fuel
Methanol blended with gasoline
MTBE Oxygenate in gasoline
TAME Oxygenate in gasoline
Methanol to gasoline
Chemicals
Formaldehyde Urea-formaldehyde resins
Phenolic resins
Acetylenic chemicals
Polyacetal resins
Methyl diisocyanate
Acetic acid Vinyl acetate
Acetic anhydride
Ethyl acetate
Solvent for terephthalic
acid
Chloromethanes
Methyl chloride
Organic paint-removal
solvent
Methylene chloride
Solvent and cleaning
application
Auxiliary blowing agent
Chloroform
HCFC-22 as a
refrigerant
Methyl methacrylate Acrylic sheet
Molding and extruding
compounds
Coating resins
Dimethyl terephthalate Polyester
Methylamines
Monomethylamine
n-Methyl-2-pyrrolidone,
water-gel explosives
Dimethylamine
Dimethylformamide,
dimethylacetamide
Trimethylamine Choline chloride
Glycol methyl ethers
Ethylene oxide based
Solvents for paints,
varnishes
Propylene oxide based
Solvents for paints,
coatings, ink
Miscellaneous chemicals, such as dimethylphthalate, methyl acrylate,
methyl formate, sodium methylate, nitroanisole, dimethylaniline
Other uses
Solvent
Windshield solvent
Process solvent
Antifreeze
Cooling agent in vehicles
Inhibitor
Hydrate inhibitor in natural gas processing
Inhibitor for formaldehyde polymerization
Substrate
Single-cell protein (animal feed substitute or nutritional source for
human food)
Crop growth
Sewage treatment

Page 9
Table 4 Reactivities of Methanol
Mechanism Reactions
Other
reactants
Product
O-H bond cleavage Esterification Acetic acid Methyl acetate
Phosgene Diemthyl carbonate
Terephthalic acid Dimethyl terephthalate
Addition Acetone Ketal
Isobutene Methyl t-butyl ether
Hydroxyl group displacement Halogenation HCI Methyl chloride
Carbonylation CO Acetic acid
Dehydration Diemthyl ether
Ammonolysis NH3 Methylamines
C-H bond and O-H
bond cleavage
Oxidative dehydrogenation O2 Formaldehyde
Dissociation CO and H2
nonpetroleum source. Its acceptance must be progressive, starting from the most
polluted areas. Advanced technology of dissociating methanol on-board a vehicle before
being fed into the engine perhaps represents the ultimate method of using methanol as a
clean and efficient fuel.
1.4.2.1
Methanol to Gasoline
Researchers at Mobil discovered in the 1970s that methanol can be converted to gasoline
selectively using the zeolite ZSM-5. Hydrocrabons of C5C10 of gasoline range can be
produced in high yields because of the shape selectivity of the zeolite catalyst. The
catalyst and the reaction process have been the subject of many studies and reviews. A
large-scale plant has been constructed in New Zealand based on methanol from natural
gas. Although the economics of the process is not competitive at current crude oil prices
and no other commercial plants are planned, the process is the most remarkable
technological advancement in synthetic petroleum since the Fischer-Tropsch process.
1.4.2.2
Methyl tert-Butyl Ether
MTBE, produced by reacting methanol with isobutene, is entering a fast growth period. It
has been used as an octane booster in gasoline. The properties of MTBE and other fuel
oxygenates are described in Table 5. With the introduction of the amended Clean Air Act
in the United States, oil companies are introducing cleaner automobile fuels to reduce
ozone and smog in the most pol-

Page 10
Table 5 Properties of Fuel Oxygenates
Gasoline Methanol Ethanol MTBE ETBE TAME
Blending octane, 1/2(RON + MON) 87 101 101 108 111 102
Heat of combustion, 103 Btu/gal 124.8 64.5 76.5 108.5 116.5 111.9
Boiling point, C Range 64.6 78.5 55.4 72.8 86.3
Specific gravity 0.74 0.79 0.79 0.75 0.74 0.77
RON: Research Octane Number.
MON: Motor Octane Number.
luted cities. The use of low-emission reformulated gasoline is a very cost-effective
method and is favored by oil companies.
High concentrations of light olefins and aromatics in gasoline are unacceptable because
of environmental concerns. Light olefins have a high blending vapor pressure and high
atmospheric reactivity that contribute to high ozone formation. It has also been shown
that reducing the concentration of aromatics in gasoline reduces the amount of NOx, CO,
and hydrocarbon emissions [25]. The Clean Air Act will limit the aromatic content in
reformulated gasoline to 25% maximum [2]. Thus, clean-burning substitutes for volatile
olefins and aromatics in gasoline are needed. Oxygenates in gasoline reduce CO and
hydrocarbon emission because of the oxygen content. For example, unleaded gasoline
containing 2 wt% oxygen on average reduces hydrocarbon emission by about 10%, and
CO emission is reduced by about 17% compared with no-oxygen fuels [25]. MTBE, the
best known fuel ether, can be produced at a reasonable cost and investment. Its use
requires no changes in current automobiles or fuel distribution systems. It has high
octane rating and is a key additive in reformulated gasoline.
1.4.2.3
Methanol and Methanol Blends
Methanol and methanol blends, such as M85 (85% methanol and 15% gasoline), are
good fuels for spark-ignited internal-combustion engines. A study by the Los Alamos
National Laboratory on the market penetration in 2025 of various alternative-fuel
passenger vehicles concluded that internal-combustion vehicles powered by methanol are
the most viable alternative to gasoline among 10 options studied [26]. Methanol may
also be used as a fuel for turbines and methanol fuel cells. Its use as an alternative
automobile fuel has received wide attention and was discussed considering environment,
technology, economy, and energy security factors [27].

Page 11
Figure 1
Use of methanol dissociator in an automobile.
1.4.2.4
Dissociated Methanol
Although undissociated liquid methanol is a promising automobile fuel, dissociation of
methanol to CO and H2 on board a vehicle (Fig. 1) provides a fuel that is more efficient
and cleaner than liquid methanol. Methanol dissociation is an endothermic reaction. The
reaction heat can be provided by the engine exhaust gas. This recovers the waste heat
and increases the heating value of the fuel. Internal-combustion engines running on
dissociated methanol can be operated under leaner combustion than those on liquid
methanol or gasoline and at higher compression ratios than those on gasoline. These
further increase the thermal efficiency of the dissociated methanol fuel. Table 6
summarizes the contribution of these factors on thermal efficiency gain. Dissociated
methanol could be up to 60% more efficient than gasoline and up to 34% better than
undissociated methanol.
Table 6 Factors Contributing to Thermal Efficiency Gain for Dissociated
Methanol
% Increase in relative thermal efficiency
Over gasoline Over undissociated methanol
Heat recovery in vaporizer 6
Heat recovery in dissociator 14 14
High compression 10
Lean combustion 30a 20a
Total Up to 60 Up to 34
a Depending on engine load.
Source: communication with H. Yoon.

Page 12
The dissociated methanol fuel that is rich in hydrogen and CO would be much cleaner
than the liquid methanol fuel. Lean and complete combustion would ensure low CO and
hydrocarbon emission. The formaldehyde emission would be improved. NOx emission
would be greatly reduced because of lower combustion temperatures.
Experimental vehicles running on dissociated methanol have been operated by a number
of organizations to demonstrate the feasibility and advantages of using dissociated
methanol. Although the integrated methanol dissociation and engine systems have not
been optimized, advantages have been clearly demonstrated. For example, Karpuk and
coworkers modified a Ford Escort and showed that at a light engine load, dissociated
methanol provided 17.7% lower fuel consumption and an order of magnitude reduction of
NOx emission compared with lean-burning liquid methanol [28]. Lean combustion itself
(say, at equivalence ratio of 0.3) has been shown to increase Otto cycle engine efficiency
by up to 21% compared with nearly stoichiometric combustion [29]. Work at the Japan
Automobile Research Institute also indicated high thermal efficiency and low exhaust
emission levels during both transient and steady-state driving of a dissociated methanol-
fueled car [30]. A number of patents and articles describe methanol dissociation
catalysts, on-board reactors, and processes [3139].
1.4.3
Other Applications
Methanol as a chemical feedstock, a fuel, or a fuel additive covers most present methanol
consumption. Other uses of methanol, although small for each, are broad. New uses of
methanol are being explored and have potential for substantial growth. These other uses
can be classified into four areas: solvent, antifreeze, inhibitor, and substrate.
1.4.3.1
Solvent
Methanol is used as a solvent in automobile windshield washer fluid and as a cosolvent in
various formulations for paint and varnish removers. It is also used as a process solvent
in chemical processes for extraction, washing, crystallization, and precipitation. For
example, methanol is used as an "antisolvent" for precipitation of polyphenylene oxide
after its polymerization. It should be pointed out here that there have been active studies
in using the extracts of agricultural plants in medicine. Methanol is often used for the
extraction. Methanol extracts of some plants show antibacterial activities [4045]. This
provides a potential use of methanol in traditional medicine.
1.4.3.2
Antifreeze
Methanol has a high freezing point depression ability. It depresses the freezing point of
water by 54.5C for a 5050 wt% methanol-water mixture [46]. The

Page 13
largest antifreeze use of methanol is in the cooling system for internal combustion
engines [47]. However, the antifreeze market for methanol has been saturated. Its
market share has been lost to ethylene glycol since 1960 because of the superior
performance of the glycol.
1.4.3.3
Inhibitor
Methanol finds little use as an inhibitor. It inhibits formaldehyde polymerization and is
present in the formaldehyde solution and paraformaldehyde. Methanol can also serve as
a hydrate inhibitor for natural gas processing.
1.4.3.4
Substrate
Methanol is an inexpensive source of carbon. It is a substrate used in many applications
for supplying the energy needed for the growth of microorganisms. For example, single-
cell protein, a protein in a variety of microbial cells, is produced through fermentation
using hydrocarbon substrates, such as methanol [4850]. Methanol is also often chosen as
the energy source for the microorganisms used in the biological nitrogen removal system
for sewage treatment [5154].
1.5
Future Opportunities and Challenges
Recent forecasts on oxygenates and methanol all point to rapid increases in supply and
demand [2123, 5456]. The Clean Air Act in the United States is a longterm commitment
to air quality. Implementation of the second phase of the Clean Air Act will start in 1997
following the first phase in 1995. The oxygenate demand in the rest of the world is also
increasing, largely driven by a need for octane enhancement when leaded gasoline is
phased out. If these countries also adopt clean air regulations, a further substantial
increase in oxygenate demand worldwide is foreseeable. Finland introduced a
reformulated fuel in 1991 [57]. An analyst sees world oxygenate demand possibly
growing more than 10-fold from 1992 to 2001 [54]. Crocco and Associates also
anticipates that MTBE will continue to be the fastest growing petrochemical in the world,
with methanol the second [21].
Besides fuel oxygenates, new uses are being studied, such as using methanol as an
inexpensive carbon source to enhance crop growth [7] and for fermentation [58] and
using dissociated methanol as a clean hydrogen fuel [27, 35]. These and the need to
keep up with the demand for methanol and oxygenates provide ample opportunities and
challenges for business and research and development.
1.5.1
Global methanol demand will increase about 8%/year from 1991 to 1995 [21]. This
increase in demand may be met by increasing nameplate capacity through

Page 14
debottlenecking, conversion of ammonia plants to methanol, and adding small methanol
plants in the United States and worldscale plants in remote locations. The M. W. Kellogg
Company expects to see nine worldscale plants constructed in the period 19911996 [59].
Production of methanol is the most promising choice for moving low-cost remote natural
gas to the marketplace.
Research and development to increase the efficiency of converting natural gas to
methanol is challenging. Engineering and process improvements to reduce the energy
demand per ton methanol and NOx and CO2 emissions have been actively sought.
Combined reforming and parallel reforming are alternatives to conventional steam
reforming in the syngas production step [60, 61]. There are also many research
opportunities in three important areas: catalytic partial oxidation of methane to syngas,
the syngas-to-methanol process with high single-pass conversions, and direct oxidation of
methane to methanol. Their successful development would drastically improve the
economics of methanol production.
The partial oxidation reaction of methane to syngas is mildly exothermic, in contrast to
highly endothermic steam reforming. It could produce stoichiometric syngas for methanol
synthesis in one step. It is an ideal process for producing methanol syngas. Effective
catalysts are needed to carry the reaction selectively at mild temperatures. A recent
finding by researchers at the University of Oxford indicated that the reaction could be
carried out selectively at 775C (97+% selectivity at 94% conversion) using lanthanide
ruthenium oxide or alumina-supported ruthenium catalysts, in contrast to more than
1200C in conventional processes [62].
The equilibrium of the methanol synthesis reaction severely limits the conversion in the
conventional process. The equilibrium conversion is very sensitive to temperature. The
high recycling rate is costly and requires oxygen instead of air in the autothermal
reforming or partial oxidation step. The development of low-temperature and continuous
methanol removal processes mentioned briefly in Section 1.3.1, would be very attractive
[6365]. High single-pass conversion could also be attained with a two-step process:
methanol carbonylation to methyl formate followed by methyl formate hydrogenolysis to
2 mol methanol [6669]. Research in these areas has yielded promising results.
The direct oxidation of methane to methanol has shown only limited success. The process
would be very economical if it could achieve 80% selectivity at 80% conversion, based on
Catalytica's evaluation. The development of selective catalysts and effective reaction
processes is challenging. Bioprocessing that has potential for high selectivity is also worth
further research.
1.5.2
Methanol Use
Many technically challenging opportunities exist in the improvement of current processes
or development of new processes for the present use of methanol and

Page 15
in developing new uses. Many of these would lead to new business or improve the quality
and quantity of existing business because of better economics, improved environmental
compatibility, or better feedstock position.
1.5.2.1
Present Use
Methanol plays a central role in C1 chemistry. Research on the reactions of methanol
continues to be very active. For example, the carbonylation of methanol to acetic acid
using the Rh complex catalyst and the iodide promoter has some drawbacks, although it
was an important achievement. Successful development of a noniodide system would
eliminate the corrosion problem and the need for using expensive zirconia as a material
of construction. There is also active research on nonRh-based catalysts [70] and polymer-
supported Rh catalysts [71]. SRI International reported that the latter could be more
economical than the present homogeneous catalysis process [72].
MTBE is produced by reacting methanol with isobutene. Isobutene is contained in the C4
stream from steam crackers and from fluid catalytic cracking in the crude oil-refining
process. However, isobutene has been in short supply in many locations. The use of raw
materials other than isobutene for MTBE production has been actively sought. Figure 2
describes the reaction network for MTBE production. Isobutene can be made by
dehydration of t-butyl alcohol, isomerization of n-butenes [73], and isomerization and
dehydrogenation of n-butane [74, 75]. t-Butanol can also react with methanol to form
MTBE over acid alumina, silica, clay, or zeolite in one step [7678]. t-Butanol is readily
available by oxidation of isobutane or, in the future, from syngas. The C4 fraction from
the methanol-to-olefins process may be used for MTBE production, and the C5 fraction
may be used to make TAME. It is also conceivable that these
Figure 2
Feedstocks and reaction network for MTBE production.
(From Ref. 27.)

Page 16
ethers could be based on nonpetroleum sources. These present vast research
opportunities for developing efficient catalysts and integrated processes depend on the
availability of feedstocks. Reactive distillation, in which the reaction of isobutene and
methanol and the distillation to remove MTBE occur in the same tower, is another active
research area. Development of efficient processes to separate and recover unreacted
methanol from C4 at a low cost is being sought. Potential processes include using a light
hydrocarbon stripping gas [79], silica as an absorbent [80], and pervaporation [81].
1.5.2.2
New Uses
Dissociated Methanol
Some applications of dissociated methanol are emerging:
Alternative automobile fuel
Supplemental gas turbine fuel at peak demand of electricity
Supplying H2 for fuel cells
Fuel and cooling system for hypersonic jets
Source of CO and H2 for chemical processes and material processing
Dissociated methanol as an alternative automobile fuel was mentioned earlier (Sect.
1.4.2). Because of limited space in the engine compartment and limited temperatures
during cold start, on-board methanol dissociation would need catalysts that are active at
low temperatures. The activity and stability are two key points for these catalysts. Coke
formation has been a problem that results in catalyst deactivation [82]. Methanol
dissociation on board a vehicle also requires a compact and efficient heat-exchange
reactor to make use of engine waste heat. The reactor should also be resistant to the
maximum anticipated exhaust temperature, thermal cycling fatigue, hydrogen
embrittlement, and methanol corrosion. Although a number of catalysts and dissociators
have been devised [3139], there are still many opportunities for improvement.
Methanol dissociation on board a passenger vehicle operates near atmospheric pressure,
a condition that thermodynamically strongly favors the dissociation reaction. However,
applying the dissociation to a diesel engine would require operation at such high
pressures as 1020 MPa (100200 atm). Exhaust gas temperatures from a diesel engine
could vary in a wide range from as low as 150C to well over 500C. Development of an
active and stable catalyst and technology to accommodate these harsh conditions is
needed to use dissociated methanol for the diesel engine.
Methanol dissociation can also be driven by heat from gas turbine exhaust gas. This
would increase the heating value and make dissociated methanol an

Page 17
attractive peaking fuel for power plants. For this application, methanol dissociation must
be conducted at about 1.52 MPa (1520 atm).
The dissociation of methanol could provide a convenient, economical, and clean source of
CO and H2 for applications in fuel cells, chemical processes (e.g., carbonylation,
hydrogenation, and hydroformylation), and materials processing. As an on-site source of
CO and H2, it can be operated under mild conditions and produces no sulfur or soot, as
opposed to high-temperature reforming or partial oxidation using other hydrocarbons.
Because of its endothermic nature, methanol dissociation could provide not only an
efficient fuel but also an effective method for cooling. For example, engine cooling is a
critical issue for hypersonic jets being developed by the U.S. Air Force. Methanol
dissociation is promising for both the cooling and fuel systems.
Source of Carbon
Enhanced crop yield
It was found recently that treatment of some agricultural crops (e.g., C3 crop plants) with
methanol or nutrient-supplemented methanol under direct sunlight drastically increased
turgidity [7]. The treatment stimulated growth rather than merely supported normal
growth. This effect far exceeded that expected of a nutrient. However, in the shade or
when other crops (e.g., plants with C4 metabolism) were treated with methanol, they
showed no growth improvement. This is an interesting finding. More studies are needed
to understand the role of methanol and its applicability.
Wastewater treatment
In Sweden, many advanced sewage treatment plants for phosphorous removal and
lowering of biological oxygen demand must be extended to nitrogen removal: a new
policy in 1988 required 50% nitrogen removal for about 70 wastewater treatment plants.
Organic matter in the wastewater has been a limiting factor for nitrogen removal in many
cases. The addition of an external carbon source can be a cost-effective solution. Use of
methanol as a carbon source has been tested in full scale at the Klagshamn plant and has
shown promising results [83].
Inexpensive substrate in microbial production
Cheap methanol may be used as a carbon source to replace carbohydrate in the microbial
production of chemicals. For example, polyhydroxybutyrate (PHB), a biodegradable
thermoplastic material, can be produced by microbial fermentation. However, its high
cost restricts large-scale application. The cost of the substrate is an important
contributing factor to the overall cost of production. The use of methanol to produce PHB,
if successfully developed without sacrificing the molecular weight, would significantly
improve process economics and increase its practical application. Recent studies have
shown promising results [58, 84, 85].

Page 18
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Page 21
83. U. Nyberg, H. Aspegren, B. Andersson, J. Jansen, and I. S. Villadsen, Water Sci.
Technol., 26(56):1077 (1992).
84. B. Byrom, Trends Biotechnol., 5:246 (1987).
85. T. Suzuki, H. Deguchi, Y. Yamane, S. Shimizu, and K. Gekko, Appl. Microbiol.
Biotechnol., 27:487 (1988).

Page 23
2
Physical and Chemical Properties and Handling Aspects
Barry L. Yang
2.1
Pure Methanol
Methanol is a clear, colorless, and volatile liquid, giving off a mild alcoholic odor at room
temperature. It is polar, acid-base neutral, and generally considered non-corrosive. It is
miscible with water and most organic solvents and is capable of dissolving many
inorganic salts. Anhydrous methanol is hygroscopic. Methanol is toxic to human beings
but is not considered particularly harmful to the environment.
Selected properties of pure methanol are given in Table 1. Two sets of values, one in SI
units and the other in optional units, are given for the user's convenience. Table 1 is
composed of data taken from References 16. A comprehensive data collection for a large
number of organic solvents, including methanol, was made by Riddick et al. [2], and
selected physical and thermodynamic properties of more than 700 aliphatic alcohols in
the carbon range C1C50 were evaluated by Wilhoit and Zwolinski [3]. Data screening and
accuracy estimation were exercised by the authors of References 1 and 3. High-pressure
data of viscosity and thermal conductivity of methanol have been given by Vargaftik [7].
Extended thermodynamic properties of methanol to 400C and 70 MPa (690 atm) have
been given by Goodwin [8], and that to 1500 K at 0.1 MPa (1 atm) have been given by
Chao et al. [9]. Thermodynamic properties

Page 24
Table 1 Basic Properties of Methanol
Property SI value Alternative value ACa Reference
Molecular weight 32.042 kg/kmol 32.042 g/mol V 1
Liquid density (25C, 1 atm) 786.4 kg/m3 0.7864 g/ml B 2
Solid density (110C) 980 kg/m3 0.980 g/ml C 1
Melting point (MP) 175.47 K 97.68C C 1
Heat of fusion at MP 3.205 kJ/mol 23.91 cal/g U 1
Triple-point temperature 175.6 K 97.6C B 1
Triple-point pressure 0.108 Pa 8.08 104 torr D 1
Boiling point (BP, 1 atm) 337.85 K 64.70C B 1
Heat of vaporization
25C 37.43 kJ/mol 0.2792 kcal/g U 2
BP 35.28 0.2632 U 2
Critical temperature 512.6 K 239.4C B 1
Critical pressure 8.10 MPa 79.9 atm C 1
Critical volume 0.118 m3/kmol 118 ml/mol D 1
Critical density 272 kg/m3 0.272 g/ml D 1
Critical compressibility factor 0.224 VU 1
Enthalpy of formation (25C, 1 atm)
Vapor 201.1 kJ/mol 48.06 kcal/mol A 3
Liquid 239.0 57.13 A 3
Free energy of formation (25C, 1 atm)
Vapor 162.4 kJ/mol 38.82 kcal/mol B 3
Liquid 166.8 39.87 B 3
Entropy (25C, 1 atm)
Vapor 239.7 J/mol/K 57.29 cal/mol/K A 3
Liquid 127.2 30.41 A 3
Heat capacity
Vapor (25C, 1 atm) 43.89 J/mol/K 10.49 cal/mol/C A 3
Liquid (25C, 1 atm) 81.17 19.40 A 3
Solid (97.6C, 0.0011 torr) 49.25 11.77 A 3
Vapor pressure (25C) 16.94 kPa 127.0 torr B 2
Acentric factor 0.5656 VU 1
Radius of gyration 1.552 1010 m 0.1552 nm VC 1
Solubility parameter 2.96 104 J1/2m3/2 VE 1
Van der Waals area 3.580 105 m2/mol 0.594 nm2/molecule VB 1
Van der Waals volume 2.171 105 m3/mol 0.036 nm3/molecule VB 1
(continued)

Page 25
Table 1 Continued
Table 1 Basic Properties of Methanol
Property SI value Alternative value ACa Reference
Dipole moment
Vapor 5.67 1030 C-m 1.70 debye B 1
Liquid (20C) 9.57 1030 2.87 U 2
Surface tension in air (25C) 0.0223 N/m 22.3 dyn/cm C 2
Refractive index (25C) 1.3265 A 1
Magnetic susceptibility (3C) 0.63 106 cgsm U 4
Electrical conductivity (25C) 1.5 107 (ohm-m)1 1.5 109 (ohm-cm)1 F 2
Dielectric constant (25C) 32.66 U 2
Liquid thermal diffusivity (25C) 1.05 107 m2/s 1.05 103 cm2/s U 5
Thermal expansion coefficient (25C) 0.001196 K1 0.001196 C1 U 2
Viscosity (25C)
Vapor 0.00961 mPa-s 0.00961 cP E 1
Liquid 0.549 0.549 E 1
Thermal conductivity (25C)
Vapor 0.0157 W/m/K 0.0000375 cal/s/cm/K C 1
Liquid 0.203 0.000484 D 1
Flash point
Open cup 289 K 16C U 6
Closed cup 284 11 U 1
Evaporation rate (n-butyl acetate = 1) 2.1 F 2
Autoignition temperature 737 K 464C U 1
743 470 U 6
Explosive limits in air, vol% 7.336 U 1
5.544 U 6
Heat of combustion (25C, 1 atm)
Vapor 764.1 kJ/mol 5.699 kcal/g A 3
Liquid 726.1 5.416 A 3
a Accuracy code: A < 0.2% error, B < 1% error, C < 3% error, D < 5% error, E < 10% error, F >
100% error possible, U = unknown accuracy, V = value defined or calculated.

Page 26
of deuterated methanols, CH3OD, CD3OH, and CD3OD, have been reported by Chao et al.
[9] and by Chen et al. [10].
Methanol in the solid phase has been discussed by Wilhoit and Zwolinski [3] and by
Wilhoit et al. [11]. There are at least two crystalline forms of solid methanol. The low-
temperature crystal II is orthorhombic, which transfers to crystal I at 115.8C with an
enthalpy change of 0.636 kJ/mol. Crystal I is monoclinic. Its powder diffraction data have
been collected in the JCPDS File [12]. Phase equilibria between solid and liquid and
between liquid and vapor have also been discussed by Wilhoit and Zwolinski [3]. Phase
equilibrium under pressure has been discussed by Goodwin [8]. Methanol vapor exhibits
appreciable deviation from the ideal gas. The molecular association of methanol
monomer into dimer and tetramer has been reported [3]. The equation of state and the
difficulty associated with its determination have been discussed by Wilhoit and Zwolinski
[3].
The temperature dependence of many properties of methanol has been described in
figures, tables, and equations. Plots of vapor pressure, liquid density, liquid heat capacity,
vapor heat capacity, heat of vaporization, surface tension, liquid thermal conductivity,
vapor thermal conductivity, liquid viscosity, and vapor viscosity against temperature have
been given by Yaws [13] and by Flick [14]. Tables of vapor pressure [3,1517], liquid
density [3,15,17], liquid volume [16], vapor density [15,17], vapor volume [16], liquid
viscosity [15,18], vapor viscosity [15], surface tension [15,19], liquid heat capacity
[15,17,20], vapor heat capacity [3,15,17], solid heat capacity [11], liquid thermal
conductivity [15,17], vapor thermal conductivity [15], second viral coefficient [16],
dielectric constant [21], refractive index [3], and heat of vaporization [16] have also been
published. Thermodynamic properties of methanol in the condensed phases have been
tabulated by Wilhoit et al. [11], and those in the gas phase have been given by Chao et
al. [9].
Equations for the description of the temperature dependence of selected properties of
methanol are given here, where T is temperature in K:
The vapor pressure P (Pa) of methanol in a limited temperature range can be described
accurately by the Antoine equation [22]:
For a wider range of temperature, Daubert and Danner [1] suggested the equation

Page 27
For liquid density d (kg/m3), Daubert and Danner [1] suggested the equation
For more precise expressions, Wilhoit and Zwolinski [3] recommended the following:
Ideal gas heat capacity Cp(g) (J/mol/K) [1]:
Liquid heat capacity Cp(l) (J/mol/K) [1]:
Solid heat capacity Cp(s) (J/mol/K) [1]:
For vapor thermal conductivity k(g) (W/m/K), the equation recommended by Daubert and
Danner [1] is

Page 28
For a wider range of temperature, Yaws [13] suggested
Liquid thermal conductivity k(l) (W/m/k) [1]:
Vapor viscosity h(g) (mPa-s) [1]
For liquid viscosity h(l) (mPa-s), the equation recommended by Viswanath and Natarajan
[18] is
For higher temperatures, Daubert and Danner [1] recommended
Heat of vaporization DHv (kJ/mol) [1]:
Surface tension s (N/m) [1]:
The spectroscopic characteristics of methanol have been well documented. Molecular
vibrational frequencies of CH3OH, CH3OD, CD3OH, and CD3OD

Page 29
have been tabulated by Shimanouchi [23]. Characteristic vibrations for CH3OH are at
3340, 2940, 2830, 1450, 1110, and 1030 cm1 [24]. Fourier-transform infrared (FT-IR)
spectra of CH3OH liquid, CH3OH vapor (150C), and CD3OD liquid can be found in
Reference 25. Raman data are in parallel with IR data [23,24]. The ultraviolet (UV)
absorbance curve of methanol is smooth and featureless throughout the range 210400
nm. Both 13C and 1H nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectra of CH3OH can be found
in Reference 26. Mass spectral data have also been collected [24,27]. Ionization energies
and electron binding energies of methanol have been tabulated by Robinson [28].
2.2
Methanol-Containing Systems
2.2.1
Methanol-Water System
Properties including freezing point, boiling point, and flash point of methanol-water
solutions of different methanol contents have been given by Flick [14]. Data for density
[14,29], viscosity [14], vapor pressure [14,29], thermal conductivity [14], specific heat
[14,29], surface tension [30], and refractive index [31] at selected temperatures have
also been tabulated. Heat of mixing can be found in Reference 32. Diffusion coefficients
of methanol and water in methanol-water solutions have been evaluated in detail by
Derlacki et al. [33].
2.2.2
Methanol-Organic Systems
A large collection of vapor-liquid equilibrium data for binary, ternary, and quaternary
methanol-containing systems has been made by Gmehling and Onken [34]. A list of
known azeotropes is given in Tables 2 and 3 [35]. Data for solubility [36,37], heat of
mixing [32], and density [37] for selected systems are available. For methanol-
hydrocarbon systems, data for heat of mixing [38] and excess volume [39] have been
compiled. The solubility of methanol in gasoline can be found in Reference 14. A
collection of diffusivities of various organic compounds in methanol is available [40].
Diffusivity and sorptivity of methanol through a polyurethane membrane have been
reported [41].
2.2.3
Methanol-Inorganic Systems
The capability of methanol in forming hydrogen bonds makes it a protic solvent, suitable
for dissolving many inorganic compounds. Data for solubility [37,4244], density [37], and
heat of solution [32,44] of many electrolytes in methanol and deuterated methanol have
been collected. Diffusivities of selected compounds in liquid methanol can be found in
Reference 40. Solubilities of methanol in compressed gases of hydrogen, nitrogen,
methane, and carbon

Page 30
Table 2 Azeotropes of Methanol-Containing Binary Systems
Methanol (wt%) Second component Wt% Boiling point (C)
12 Acetone 78 55.7
19 Acetonitrile 81 63.45
6 Acetylene dichloride 94 27.5
61.3 Acrylonitrile 38.5 61.4
62 Allyl iodide 38 63.5
39.6 Benzene 60.4 58.34
40 Bromodichloromethane 60 63.8
11 2-Bromopropene 89 42.7
41.7 iso-Butyl bromide 58.3 61.25
24 tert-Butyl bromide 76 55.6
23 iso-Butyl chloride 77 53.05
27 n-Butyl chloride 73 57.0
10 tert-Butyl chloride 90 43.75
95 iso-Butyl formate 5 64.6
70 iso-Butyl iodide 30 60.0
98.8 Camphene 1.2 64.67
14 Carbon disulfide 86 37.65
20.56 Carbon tetrachloride 79.44 55.7
12.5 Chloroform 87.5 53.5
35 Chloromethyl methyl ether 65 56
3 2-Chloropropene 97 22.0
38.8 1,3-Cyclohexadiene 61.2 56.38
42.5 1,4-Cyclohexadiene 57.5 58
61 Cyclohexane 39 54.2
40 Cyclohexene 60 55.9
18 Cyclopentene 82 37
22.5 Diallyl 77.5 47.05
13 cis-Dichlorethylene 87 51.5
63 Diethyl sulfide 37 60.2
24.2 Dimethyl acetal 75.8 57.5
70 Dimethyl carbonate 30 62.7
60 2,5-Dimethyl hexane 40 61.0
15 Dimethyl sulfide 85 34
72 Di-n-propyl ether 28 63.8
44 Ethyl acetate 56 62.25
84.4 Ethyl acrylate 15.6 64.5
4.5 Ethyl bromide 95.5 34.95
32 Ethylene dichloride 68 69.95
16 Ethyl formate 84 50.95
82 Ethylidene bromide 18 64.2
11.5 Ethylidene chloride 88.5 49.05
18.5 Ethyl iodide 81.5 54.7
28 Ethyl n-propyl ether 72 55.8
32 Fluorobenzene 68 59.7
(table continued on next page)

Page 31
Table 2 Continued
Table 2 Azeotropes of Methanol-Containing Binary Systems
Methanol (wt%) Second component Wt% Boiling point (C)
51.5 n-Heptane 48.5 59.1
27 n-Hexane 73 49.5
26 n-Hexene 74 50
99.2 d-Limonene 0.8 64.63
19 Methyl acetate 81 54.0
54.0 Methyl acrylate 46.0 62.5
8.2 Methylal 91.8 41.85
50 Methyl-tert-amyl ether 50 62.3
10 3-Methyl 1,2-butadiene 90 35
3 3-Methyl butene-1 97 19.8
7 3-Methyl butene-2 93 31.75
75 Methyl iso-butyrate 25 64.0
15 Methyl tert-butyl ether 85 51.6
43 Methyl cyclohexane 57 59.45
8 Methylene dichloride 92 39.2
70 Methyl ethyl ketone 30 63.5
22.3 2-Methyl furan 77.7 51.5
4.75 Methyl n-propionate 95.25 62.45
10 Methyl n-propyl ether 90 38.85
91 Nitromethane 9 64.55
55 Nitroethane 45 61.82
72 n-Octane 28 63.0
4 iso-Pentane 96 24.5
9 n-Pentane 91 30.8
12 Pentene-2 88 31.5
90.7 a-Pinene 9.3 64.55
17 Piperylene 83 37.5
80 iso-Propyl acetate 20 64.5
15.0 iso-Propyl bromide 85.0 48.6
20.2 n-Propyl bromide 79.8 54.1
6 iso-Propyl chloride 94 33.4
9.5 n-Propyl chloride 90.5 40.5
53 Propylene dichloride 47 62.9
50.2 n-Propyl formate 49.8 61.9
21 Propylidene chloride 79 55.5
38 iso-Propyl iodide 62 61
61 n-Propyl iodide 39 63.5
63.5 Tetrachlorethylene 36.5 63.75
69 Toluene 31 63.82
97 1,1,2-Trichlorethane 3 64.5
36 Trichlorethylene 64 60.2
32 Trimethyl borate 68 54.6
Source: From Reference 35.

Page 32
Table 3 Azeotropes of Methanol-Containing Ternary Systems
Methanol (wt%) Second component Wt% Third component Wt% Boiling point (C)
10 Ethyl bromide 50 Carbon disulfide 40 33.92
15 Ethyl bromide 55 2-Methyl butene-2 30 31.4
17.8 Methyl acetate 48.6 Cyclohexane 33.6 50.8
7 Methylal 38 Carbon disulfide 55 35.55
dioxide at elevated pressures have been measured [45]. Data for mutual diffusivity of
methanol vapor in air, hydrogen, and carbon dioxide at atmospheric pressure and a range
of temperatures and that in nitrogen and in hydrogen at elevated pressures have been
collected by Vargaftik [46].
2.2.4
Adsorption of Methanol
The adsorption of methanol on the surface of a wide range of solid materials has been
studied, with aimed applications in catalysis, electrochemistry, and processes utilizing
adsorption-desorption. A list of selected literature reports is given in Tables 4 and 5, with
each report addressed by its Chemical Abstract (CA) number. The materials studied
include metals, oxides, and high surface area adsorbents, such as active carbon, silica
gel, and zeolite. Adsorption on high surface area adsorbents is usually at ambient or mild
temperatures and is often reversible. A compilation of selected adsorption equilibrium
data has been made by Valenzuela and Myers [47]. Adsorption on metals and active
oxides is often dissociative and accompanied by decomposition reactions. A review of the
adsorption of methanol on eight transition metals and its characterization by electron
spectroscopy has been given by Hegde [48]. Other techniques commonly used for the
characterization of adsorbed methanol include infrared, nuclear magnetic resonance,
temperature-programmed desorption, and calorimetry.
2.3
Chemical Reactivity
2.3.1
Industrially Important Reactions
Methanol shares chemical properties with other primary aliphatic alcohols, with most of
its reactivity associated with the hydroxyl group. Many reactions of methanol involve the
cleavage of either the C-OH bond or the O-H bond, leading to the substitution of the OH
group or the proton. Methanol is an important chemical for the synthesis of a wide range
of organic compounds. Table 6 lists

Page 33
Table 4 Methanol Adsorption Literature: Vapor-Phase Adsorptiona
Solid surface
CA no.
(year published)
Temperature (K) Method
Metalb
Pt(110) 114:23292h (1990) 1001000 TPD
Pt(111) 103:147692f (1985) 90350 IR, UPS
Pt black 75:10590e (1971) 290350 Isotherm, heat of adsorption
Rh(001), Rh(111) 112:157509b (1989) 298360 FIM, PFDMS
O-Rh(110) 116:6014t (1991) 315417 Isotope
Ru(110) 88:95218f (1977) 80 UPS
Pd(111), O/Pd(111) 99:175090a (1983) 140300 HREELS
Na/Pd(100) 105:232853v (1986) 120600 XPS, AES, LEED
Ag(111), O/Ag(111) 99:146687v (1983) 90400 XPS, UPS
Ni(110) 111:64642d (1989) 140450 TPD
Cu(110) 116:263011a (1992) 90300 TPD, IRAS
113:103976d (1990) 90500 TPD, IRAS
Na/Cu(111), Na 103:184079g (1985) 100650 UPS, EELS
Cu-Pd, O-Cu-Pd 102:191812y (1985) 80220 UPS, EELS
Fe, Ni, Cu, Pd, Ag, Mo, W, Pt 101:89910w (1984) TPD, UPS, XPS, EELS
Nb(110) 113:159426s (1990) 2401000 ESD, TPD, EELS, AES
Mg 110:237526d (1988) 295 XPS, UPS
Ti 112:223896d (1989) 295 XPS, UPS
Mn, O-Mn 110:121980t (1988) 295675 XPS, UPS
Oxidec
Fe2O3 118:80333d (1992) IR, TPD
Fe-Mo-O 113:238760z (1990) IR
75:91489d (1971) 251298 Isotherm, kinetics
NiO(100) 117:258892e (1992) 298 HREELS
CeO2 117:158185h (1992) RT FT-IR
Cr2O3 116:105450p (1991) 298673 IR
CrO3, Cr-Mo-O 114:246758r (1991) 298473 IR
MgO(100) 115:287939q (1991) 90490 HREELS
MgO 107:205681x (1987) 373673 IR
87:38618s (1977) 3001123 TD
BeO 83:183996k (1975) IR
CuO 114:50304v (1990)
CuO/SiO2 115:190775v (1991) 295538 IR
CuO-ZnO-Al2O3 115:121080c (1991) 433623 Isotherm, heat of adsorption
Cu/ZnO/Cr2O3 102:95188d (1985) 403473 IR
Cu/ZnO/SiO2, ZnO/SiO2 117:170637q (1992) 295393 FT-IR
Cu-ZnAl2O4, ZnAl2O4 112:177859u (1990) RT523 TPD, FT-IR
90:210578d (1979) 123 XPS, UPS, AES
ZnO 111:45661t (1989) IR
(continued)

Page 34
Table 4 Continued
Solid surface
CA no.
(year published)
Temperature
(K)
Method
100:67685d
(1984)
300750 TDP, LEED
ZnO(0001)
99:104617s
(1983)
300750 TPD, LEED
TiO2(001)
113:159424q
(1990)
300800 UPS, TD
TiO2(100)
112:223896d
(1989)
295 XPS, UPS
Ti2(110), TiO2(441)
108:119464t
(1988)
298 XPS, UPS, LEED
TiO2 (anatase)
104:24675r
(1985)
FT-IR, microcalorimetry
Ti-Si-O
109:177070t
(1988)
V2O5, V2O5/SiO2
110:199697a
(1989)
RT520 FT-IR
SbVO4, CrVO4
109:135818n
(1988)
FT-IR, TPD
SbVO4, Sb2O4
94:128079r
(1980)
TPD
SbVO4, FeVo4, CrVo4, Co3(VO4)2,
Cu3(VO4)2
90:128072a
(1978)
323383
MoO3
100:92035z
(1984)
373 IR
Y2O3
72:136729p
(1970)
293473 IR, electrical conductance
Zeolite
H-ZSM-5
118:261522k
(1993)
323.16
Heat and entropy of
adsorption
113:198719j
(1990)
RT FT-IR, NMR, microbalance
113:151696j
(1990)
253323 13C-NMR
104:116585q
(1986)
273425 QENS
101:198644h
(1984)
298 Isotherm, kinetics
101:98229h
(1984)
300570 TPD, TGA, IR
98:114273v
(1983)
263298 ESR, ESES
Na-ZSM-5, K-ZSM-5
113:198719j
(1990)
RT FT-IR, NMR, microbalance
Silicalite
118:261522k
(1993)
323.16
Heat and entropy of
adsorption
Eu-mordenite
100:216110s
(1984)
298
Isotherm, UV,
fluorescence
H-mordenite
98:114273v
(1983)
263298 ERS, ESES
Zeolite
116:114099h
(1992)
IR, QCMM
Na-A, CaNa-A, Na-X, K-X, Na-Y, K-Y
95:131939x
(1981)
RT ESES
CoNa-A
97:101242p
(1981)
Mssbauer
FeCaNa-A
98:25143k
(1982)
RT373 Mssbauer
Na-Y, H-Y
83:143240c
(1975)
298498
IR, NMR, diffusion
coefficient
Na-X, Na-Y, Ca-X, Ca-Y 83:33360j (1975) 303373 IR
Clinoptilolite
101:43945h
(1984)
298 Microcalorimetry, isotherm
Carbon
Active carbon
117:77261c
(1992)
273303
Heat and entropy of
adsorption
107:184277c
(1987)
298
NMR, self-diffusion
coefficient
Ni, Cu, Zn, Cd/active carbon
117:77261c
(1992)
273303
Heat and entropy of
adsorption
Coal
116:217778h
(1992)
284, 303
Isotherm, heat of
adsorption
Charcoal cloth
115:240512e
(1991)
293 Isotherm
Graphite
106:49272m
(1986)
293303
Isotherm, heat of
adsorption
(continued)

Page 35
Table 4 Continued
Solid surface
CA no.
(year published)
Temperature
(K)
Method
Other adsorbents
Silica gel
116:114099h
(1992)
IR, QCMM
109:237790q
(1988)
RT FT-NIR
Aerosil
105:214310m
(1986)
298308 Isotherm
96:11932p (1981) 308 Isotherm
89:221387w
(1978)
293 Isotherm, TSD
83:33360j (1975) 303373 IR
Silica-alumina
104:231115y
(1986)
413533
Isotherm, heat of
adsorption
Alumina
105:159383k
(1986)
298473 FT-IR, microcalorimetry
103:201359t
(1985)
RT473 FT-IR, microcalorimetry
86:71473t (76) 3001000 TPD, isotopic tracer
Salts
CsCl, CsBr, CsI
88:198210b
(1978)
IR, heat of adsorption
LiCl, NaCl, NaBr, KCl, KBr, KI all on (100)
plane
88:12360x (1977) 283313
Isotherm, heat of
adsorption
AgI
67:111683c
(1967)
283303 Isotherm
Other
Si(111)
115:240493z
(1991)
TD
106:162977h
(1986)
TD
Glass
70:108751e
(1969)
303353
Isotherm, heat of
adsorption
Lunar soil 88:25931j (1977) 423, 573 Isotherm
a Abbreviations: AES (Auger electron spectroscopy); EELS (electron energy loss spectroscopy); ESD
(electron-stimulated desorption); ESES (electron spin-echo spectrometry); ESR (electron spin
resonance spectroscopy); FIM (field ion microscopy); FT-IR (Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy);
FT-NIR (Fourier-transform near-infrared spectroscopy); HREELS (high-resolution electron energy loss
spectroscopy); IR (infrared spectroscopy); IRAS (infrared reflection adsorption spectroscopy); LEED
(low-energy electron diffraction); NMR (nuclear magnetic resonance); PFDMS (pulsed-field desorption
mass spectrometry); QCMM (quantum chemical molecular model); QENS (quasi-elastic neutron
scattering); TD (thermal desorption); TGA (thermal gravimetric analysis); TPD (temprature-
programmed desorption); TSD (thermally stimulated depolarization); UHV (ultrahigh vacuum); UPS
(ultraviolet photoelectron spectroscopy); UV (ultraviolet spectroscopy); XPS (x-ray photoelectron
spectroscopy); RT (room temperature).
b Most under UHV conditions, adsorption/decomposition.
c Adsorption/decomposition/reaction.
some industrially important reactions. Detailed discussion of these reactions can be found
in Chapters 4 and 5. Other compounds synthesized from methanol include formic acid,
methyl nitrate, methyl nitrite, methyl hydrogen sulfate, sodium methoxide, methyl
acetals, trimethyl phosphine [6, 49], and methanethiol (methyl mercaptan) [50].
Although higher thiols can be made by direct addition of hydrogen sulfide to the
corresponding olefins, methanethiol can only be made by substituting the OH group of
methanol with SH. The radiolysis of methanol has also been studied [51].

Page 36
Table 5 Methanol Adsorption Literature: Liquid-Phase Adsorption (Most at Room Temperature)
Solid surface
CA no.
(year published)
Solution Methoda
Electrodeb
Pt(100) 118:155306h (1993) 0.1 M Na2CO3 (aq) VG, EMIRS
110:14975y (1988) 0.05 M HClO4 (aq) VG
108:64530d (1987) 0.5 M HClO4 (aq) EMIRS
Pt(110) 117:120399t (1992) 0.1 M Na2CO3 (aq) VG
108:64530d (1987) 0.5 M HClO4 (aq) EMIRS
Pt(111) 110:14975y (1988) 0.05 M HClO4 (aq) VG
108:64530d (1987) 0.5 M HClO4 (aq) EMIRS
Pt 110:221362m (1989) Acid acqueous
98:169175v (1983) 1 M HClO4 (aq) IRAS
Ni 89:154599b (1978) KOH (aq) Radiotracer
Bi 83:67801u (1975)
Ir 72:128018r (1970) KOH, phosphate (aq) Isotherm
Other
Montmorillonite 97:99006u (1982) Benzene-heptane
Active carbon 110:219678a (1989) Toluene Microcalorimetry
Charcoal cloth 115:240512e (1991) Water Isotherm
Coal 110:219678a (1989) Toluene Microcalorimetry
a Abbreviations: EMIRS (electromodulated infrared reflectance spectroscopy); IRAS (infrared reflection
adsorption spectroscopy); VG (voltammogram).
b Adsorption/reaction.
2.3.2
Chemical Hazards
Methanol is incompatible with oxidants in general. Various hazardous reactions involving
methanol have been reported [5254]. They are listed in Table 7.
2.3.3
Compatibility with Industrial Materials
Methanol is considered noncorrosive to most structural metals and alloys. Carbon steel is
a satisfactory material commonly used for making methanol containers and handling
equipments. Aluminum and its alloys have also been used [35,55]. However, anhydrous
methanol at its boiling point has been reported to be corrosive to aluminum and its alloys
[55,56]. Copper was reported to be resistant to methanol liquid from room temperature
to its boiling point and to methanol vapor at 108C [56]. Copper lining has been used in
autoclaves for

Page 37
Table 6 Some Industrially Important Reactions Using Methanol as Feedstock
Type of reaction Product Reaction equation
Oxidative
dehydrogenation
Formaldehyde CH3OH + 1/2O2 HCHO + H2O
Addition to
unsaturated bond
Methyl tert-butyl ether
(MTBE)
CH3OH + (CH3)2C = CH2 (CH3)3COCH3
Carbonylation Acetic acid CH3OH + CO CH3COOH
Acetice anhydride CH3OH + CH3COOH + CO (CH3CO)2O + H2O
Esterification Methyl methacrylate
CH3OH + CH2 = C(CH3)COOH
CH2 = C(CH3)COOCH3 + H2O
Dimethyl terephthalate
2CH3OH + HOOC(C6H4) COOH
CH3OOC(C6H4)COOCH3 + 2H2O
Etherification Dimethyl ether 2CH3OH CH3OCH3 + H2O
Dehydration Ethylene 2CH3OH CH2 = CH2 + 2H2O
Gasoline nCH3OH CnH2n + nH2O
Substitution Methyl Halides CH3OH + HI CH3I + H2O
Methyl amines CH3OH + NH3 CH3NH2 + H2O
CH3OH + CH3NH2 (CH3)2NH + H2O
CH3OH + (CH3)2NH (CH3)3N + H2O
Methanethiol CH3OH + H2S CH3SH + H2O
methanol carbonylation to acetic acid operated at 300C and 25.3 MPa (250 atm) in the
presence of nickel carbonyl and iodine as catalysts [44].
Collections of corrosion data can be found in References 5557. Reference 55 also gives
sources of literature data. Metals reported as incompatible with methanol include
aluminum against anhydrous methanol at its boiling point [55,56], lead against 96100%
methanol at room temperature [56], and magnesium against pure methanol at room
temperature [55]. Titanium and its alloys suffer from stress corrosion cracking in
methanol [55], and zirconium alloys suffer from stress corrosion cracking in mixtures of
methanol and hydrochloric acid and in mixtures of methanol and iodine [55].
Nonmetal structural materials, including glass, porcelain, ceramic bricks and tiles,
cements, concrete, and graphite, have been reported to be methanol compatible [56].
Compatibility of polymeric materials with methanol has also been reported [58,59]. Table
8 serves as a general classification. A more complete list can be found in Reference 59.
The temperature effect can be found in Reference 58 for some plastics in general.

Page 38
Table 7 Hazardous Reactions Involving Methanol
Reaction counterpart
Explosive reaction Air (mixture may explode at 0.181 MPa and 120C)
Chloroform (when heated)
Diethyl zinc
Violent reaction Acetyl bromide (with HBr evolution)
Alkyl aluminum salts or solutions
Beryllium hydride
Chloroform with sodium hydroxide or potassium hydroxide
Chromium trioxide
Cyanuric chloride
Hydrogen with Raney Ni catalyst (hydrogenolysis of methanol)
Iodine with mercuric oxide and ethanol
Lead perchlorate
Nitric acid
Phosphorus(III) oxide
Perchloric acid
Potassium tert-butoxide (ignition)
Chemically
incompatible
Barium perchlorate
Bromine
Carbon tetrachloride with Al, Mg, or Zn (2 h induction period for Zn)
Chlorine
Dichloromethane
Hydrogen peroxide
Metals, including Al, Mg, K, Zn (mixtures with Al, K, or Mg powder are capable of
powerful detonation)
Methylene chloride (flammable)
Oxidants
Sodium hydrochlorite
Water at 3040% methanol (can be ignited by a static discharge)
Source: From References 5254.
2.4
Specification and Analysis
Methanol (synthetic, 99.85%) is readily available commercially. The four most accepted
sets of specification are given in Table 9 [6062]. Common impurities are water, acetone,
formaldehyde, ethanol, methyl formate, and traces of dimethyl ether, methylal, methyl
acetate, acetaldehyde, carbon dioxide, and

Page 39
Table 8 Compatibility of Polymeric Materials with Methanol
Thermoplastics Thermosets Elastomers
Compatible
Polyethylene (LDPE, HDPE)
Polypropylene (PP)
Chlorinated polyether
Polyacetals
Fluoroplastics (PTFE, ETFE, FEP, PVDF,
ECTFE, PTFCE, PFA)
Polymethylpentene (PMP)
Epoxides
Phenolics (PF)
Polyimides
Polybutadiene
Melamine formaldehyde
resin (MF)
Chloroprene
(neoprene)
Silicones
Fluorosilicone Ethylene-
propylene
Less
compatible
Polycarbonates (PC)
Polyvinylchlorides (PVC)
Polyurethanes (PU)
Styrene-based polymers
Polyoxymethylene (acetal, ACL)
Polyesters (PET)
Polysulfones (PSF)
Polyurethanes (PU)
Polyesters, unsaturated
Furan
Diallyl phthalate (DAP)
Nitrile rubber (NBR)
Incompatible
Polyamides (nylon)
Polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA, acrylics)
Cellulosics
Styrene based
Source: From References 58 and 59.

Page 40
Table 9 Methanol Specifications
Property Grade A [60]
Grade AA
[60]
ACS [61] ASTM [62]
Methanol content 99.85 wt% 99.85 wt%
99.8
wt%
99.85 wt%
Water 0.15 wt% 0.10 wt%
0.10
wt%
0.10 wt%
Acetone 20 ppm 10 ppm 30 ppm
Ethanol 10 ppm
Formadelhyde 10 ppm
Acetaldehyde 10 ppm
Hydrocarbon To pass test
Acetone and aldehydes 30 ppm 30 ppm
Titratable acid 30 ppm 30 ppm
0.3
Eq/g
30 ppm
Titratable base
0.2
Eq/g
Specific gravity
20/20C 0.7928 0.7928 0.79200.7930
25/25C 0.78830.7893
Odor CharacteristicCharacteristic Nonresidual
Color, Pt-Co (APHA) 5 5 10 5
Appearance Clear Clear Clear
Residue after evaporation 10 mg/L 10 mg/L 0.001% 50 mg/L
Permanganate time 30 min 30 min
To pass
test
50 min
Carbonizable impurities by sulfuric acid, color, Pt-Co
(APHA)
30 30
To pass
test
50
Distillation range (1 atm) 1Ca 1Ca 1Ca
Solubility in water
To pass
test
a Must include 64.6 0.1C.
ammonia [63]. The U.S. federal grade AA has specific limits on acetone and ethanol
contents; the American Chemical Society (ACS) reagent grade has limits on acetone,
formaldehyde, acetaldehyde, and base contents.
The comparative ultraviolet absorbance test provides a quick and satisfactory quality
check for methanol for general uses [6]. The method relies on the featureless response of
methanol to UV and is sensitive to traces of aromatic and most other organic compounds.
The ACS absorbance test [61] checks the measured sample absorbance as 0.001 from
280 to 400 nm, 0.04 at 260 nm, 0.10 at 240 nm, 0.20 at 230 nm, 0.40 at 220 nm,
and 0.80 at 210 nm. The absorbance curve throughout the range 210400 nm should be
smooth and without extraneous impurity peaks. A standard 1.00 cm cell is used, and pure
water is used as the reference. Other ACS test methods can be found in Reference 61.
Methods for methanol purification, especially the removal of water and

Page 41
acetone, are summarized by Perrin and Armarego [63]. Some methanol-related American
Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) methods are as follows:
D1152-84
(06.03)
Specification
E346-87
(15.05)
Analysis of methanol
D1612-86
(06.03)
Acetone in methanol
D1613-85
(06.03)
Acidicity in volatile solvents
D1364-86
(06.03)
Water in volatile solvents
D1353-86
(06.03)
Nonvolatile matter in volatile solvents
D769-85
(15.07)
Odor of methanol
D1363-84
(06.03)
Permanganate time
D1209-84
(06.03)
Color, Pt-Co scale (APHA, American Public
Health Association)
D1078-86
(06.03)
Distillation range
There are various market products of methanol for specific laboratory uses. That for a
solvent for spectrophotometry should pass the ACS absorbance test [61]. That for high-
performance liquid chromatography should pass the absorbance test and yield no peaks
greater than 0.005 absorbance unit in the ACS gradient elution test [61]. That for
pesticide residue analysis should pass gasliquid chromatography interference test with
chlorinated hydrocarbons (as heptachlorepoxide) 10 ng/L, sulfur (as parathion) 500
ng/L, and phosphorus (as parathion) 100 ng/L. There are also products extremely low
in metal impurities ( 1 ppm total heavy metals) for semiconductor processing, or
extremely low in water content (0.005%). Deuterium- and carbon 13-exchanged
methanol, CH3OD, CD3OH, CD3OD, 13CH3OH, and 13CD3OD, are also available. The
degree of exchange usually exceeds 99%.
2.5
Handling Aspects:
Fire Hazards, Storage and Transportation, and Spillage
2.5.1
Fire Hazards
Methanol is highly inflammable, having a National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) fire
hazard rating of 3 [54] in a scale from 0 to 4 (0 corresponds to noncombustible and 4 to
extremely inflammable). Methanol vapor evolved at room temperature may form an
explosive mixture with air over a wide range of concentration (5.544%). Methanol has a
flash point of 11C and an autoignition temperature of 464C. It has a reported burning
rate of 1.7 mm/min [17].
Because of the explosive nature of methanol, electrical devices and equipment used in
the area of methanol must be in accordance with relevant regulations.

Page 42
Open flame and devices capable of igniting the vapor must not be used. Also, pure
methanol has a very low electrical conductivity. Electrostatic charging should be
prevented when handling pure methanol. The electrical hazard of methanol is rated class
1, group D [17].
Methanol fire is difficult to fight because the flame is usually invisible in day-light.
Flashback of fire along the vapor trail may also occur. Effective extinguishing agents for
methanol fire are dry chemical powder, alcohol foam, and carbon dioxide [17]. Water
may be ineffective on fire but is useful in cooling exposed containers to reduce explosion
potential. Formaldehyde and carbon monoxide may be formed from methanol burning
when the oxygen supply is insufficient. Respirators must therefore be used when fighting
methanol fires in enclosed areas.
2.5.2
Storage and Transportation
Because of its inflammability and toxicity, methanol must be handled with precaution.
Methanol loading and unloading can be handled by pumping. If pressure loading and
unloading are to be practiced, an inert gas must be used. Compressed air should never be
used for methanol handling.
Methanol in small amounts is usually stored in glass bottles or sheet-metal cans. Plastic
bottles made of high-density polyethylene or polypropylene are also used. A metal bucket
should be used when carrying methanol in a glass or plastic bottle. Steel drums of up to
200 L each are used for storage and transportation of methanol.
Large-scale methanol storage usually uses cylindrical tanks similar to those used for
petroleum products. A floating-roof design is usually the choice. If a fixed-roof tank is
used, an inert gas pad must be used to prevent the possible formation of an explosive
mixture above the liquid. Tanks in a tank farm are usually enclosed by dikes and
protected by water cannons and fire-extinguishing systems.
Inland transportation of methanol usually uses tank trucks, rail tank cars, or waterway
vessels. The shipping containers should be dry and clean before loading. If the containers
are not specialized for methanol transportation, analysis is usually required for each
delivery. Each container must be appropriately labeled (such as U.S. Department of
Transportation red label) for inflammable liquids. Additional cautionary labels (such as
poisonous chemical) may be required by local authorities. Overseas transportation is by
tankers. Regulations governing methanol transportation in selected countries can be
found in Reference 6.

Page 43
2.5.3
Spillage
With methanol spillage, fire hazard is the first concern. Open flame and ignition sources in
the nearby area should be shut off immediately. All persons should withdraw to a safe
distance.
A small amount of spill can be mopped up and run to the waste with excess running
water. Gloves and respirators, if necessary, should be worn in the clean-up. The area
should be well ventilated to dispel methanol vapor.
At a large-scale spill, most likely as a result of a transportation accident, local authorities
and fire department should be notified immediately. People in the area should be
evacuated. Action, whenever possible, should be taken to stop the methanol discharge
and to isolate the damaged container from the rest. Rescuers should stay upwind and use
water spray to knock down the vapor and disperse the liquid. Local health and pollution
control agencies should be notified, and the potential of methanol drainage to surface or
underground water that may lead to the contamination of drinking water should be
evaluated and monitored if needed.
2.6
Toxicity, Occupational Health, and Environmental Concerns
2.6.1
Toxicity
Methanol is toxic under acute and chronic exposure. Poisoning may occur from ingestion,
inhalation, or skin absorption. Methanol is an irritant to mucous membrane, skin, and
eyes. Liquid contact and vapor exposure and inhalation should be avoided. The most
commonly known poisoning effect of methanol is visual impairment or blindness, often as
a result of ingestion. Methanol is also a teratogen and a narcotic [54].
Sensitivity to methanol poisoning varies widely from person to person. There were cases
in which no permanent damage resulted from drinking large quantities (200500 ml) of
methanol [64,65]. In another case, however, permanent blindness was reported as a
result of methanol consumption of only 4 ml [66]. Although the fatal dosage is usually set
at 100250 ml [67], death from ingestion of as little as 30 ml has been reported [68].
Continuous exposure to 50,000 ppm methanol vapor for 12 h will probably also cause
death [17]. Cases of vision impairment and death resulting from methanol absorption or
inhalation were cited in early reports [69]. Collections of methanol toxicity reports can be
found in References 68 and 70.

Page 44
Whether methanol intake is via ingestion, inhalation, or skin absorption, the same
symptoms may develop. The acute effects are weakness, headache, fatigue, dizziness,
nausea, and abdominal pain, followed by characteristic visual impairment, including
blurred or double vision, mydriasis, and photophobia. In severe cases, usually from
ingestion, convulsions, circulatory collapse, respiratory failure, and death may also follow.
Within days, the visual impairment may either ease or develop into permanent blindness.
Damage to the central nervous system may be another chronic effect.
The diagnosis of methanol intoxication includes the observation of the preceding
symptoms. The combination of the characteristic visual disturbances and a history of
methanol exposure is usually considered a confirmative diagnosis. Confirmation can also
be reached by a urine test with positive formic acid or methanol presence.
The human toxicology of methanol has been studied [6,71,72]. The skin absorption rate
has been reported to be 0.19 mg/cm2/min [73]. Methanol vapor uptake by the lungs is
effective, usually 7080% (74). In the liver, methanol goes through oxidation metabolism
catalyzed by alcohol dehydrogenase (an enzyme), producing toxic formaldehyde and
formic acid. The accumulation of formic acid leads to acidosis, damaging the nervous
system, particularly the optic nerves, and the retina. In the copresence of ethanol,
ethanol is selectively metabolized by alcohol dehydrogenase over methanol; this delays
methanol intoxication and allows detoxication by the natural elimination of methanol via
respiration and urination. The methanol elimination half-life is about 23 h [6]. Because of
the slow elimination, methanol can be regarded as a cumulative poison [68]. Chronic
exposure may result in sufficient methanol accumulation in the body, and illness.
First aid for liquid methanol contact with eyes or skin is immediate water flush for 15 min.
For vapor exposure and inhalation, the victim should be removed to fresh air and given
artificial respiration if needed. If ingestion is suspected, a physician should be called and
treatment should be initiated as quickly as possible. Effective measures for conscious
patients include inducing vomiting [6,17], orally taking 3040 ml ethanol to delay
methanol metabolism [6,49], and orally taking 510 g of sodium bicarbonate (baking
soda) in a glass of water every hour to combat acidosis [75].
2.6.2
Occupational Health
Methanol is classified by the NFPA to be of slight health hazard [54], with a rating of 1 in
a scale from 0 to 4 (0 corresponds to no significant health hazard and 4 to extreme health
hazard). Although methanol vapor is not particularly health hazardous, its presence
deserves special concerns for having no natural

Page 45
alarms: methanol vapor is colorless and has only a mild alcoholic odor. There is no clear
or reliable odor threshold for methanol vapor. The reported values vary from 100 [17] to
2000 ppm [76]. A collection of reports on methanol odor threshold is given in Reference
76. Furthermore, the alcoholic odor of methanol may not be differentiable from that of
other less harmful alcohols. Test methods for methanol vapor concentration in air have
been released from NIOSH (Set E) [77] and ASTM (D4597 and D4598) [78]. Methanol
vapor concentrations from 50 to 6000 ppm at workplaces have been reported [76]. Some
recommended levels for maximum methanol vapor exposure are given in Table 10. The
maximum level of 200 ppm is also observed in Germany [77], Canada [52], and Sweden
[77]. Chronic exposure to methanol vapor of 12008300 ppm may cause vision impairment
[79]. Exposure to 3653080 ppm may cause blurred vision, headache, dizziness, and
nausea [69].
If methanol handling is a routine practice, the workplace should be ventilated adequately.
Whenever possible, methanol handling should be practiced in a confined area with forced
venting so that vapor does not spread into the workroom. Workers handling methanol
should wear goggles or face shields for eye protection and gloves and protective clothing
to prevent skin contact. If workers must enter an enclosed area or vessel with high
methanol vapor concentrations, respirators with supplied air should be used.
Workers regularly handling methanol should receive a physical examination every 6
months, including visual test, neurological evaluation, and tests of liver and kidney
functions. The alarm concentration of methanol in urine has been reported to be 10 g/ml
[72]. Individuals with disease of the eyes, liver, kidneys, and lungs should avoid methanol
handling and exposure.
2.6.3
Environmental Concerns
Methanol is readily biodegradable and is not particularly environmentally harmful. The
most serious concern about methanol pollution is the contamination of
Table 10 Recommended Levels of Maximum Methanol Vapor Exposurea
OSHA PEL 200 ppm TWA IDLH 10,000 ppm
ACGIH TLV 200 ppm TWA STEL 250 ppm (skin), 60 min
NIOSH REL 200 ppm TWA Ceiling 800 ppm, 15 min
a Abbreviations: OSHA, Occupational Safety and Health Administration; ACGIH, American Conference
of Governmental Industrial Hygienists; NIOSH, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health;
PEL, permissible exposure level; TLV, threshold limit value; TWA, time-weighed average, up to 10 h
workday, 40 h workweek; IDLH, immediately dangerous to life or health; STEL, short-term exposure
limit.

Page 46
drinking water or its sources. The suggested method for methanol liquid and vapor
disposal is incineration [52,77]. Methanol in wastewater can be effectively eliminated by
biodegradation [6]. The biological oxygen demand (BOD) has been reported to be
0.61.12 kg/kg in 5 days [17]. A list of biological effects of methanol on bacteria, algae,
protozoa, arthropoda, fish, mammalia, and human, as well as a collection of water
pollution-related reports, can be found in Reference 76. The methanol content of
wastewater should not exceed 3.6 mg/L as suggested by the U.S. Environmental
Protection Agent (EPA) [17,77]. Methanol is in the Community Right to Know List, and the
EPA Toxic Substances Control Act Inventory and Genetic Toxicology Program [68].
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56. E. Rabald, Corrosion Guide, 2nd ed., Elsevier, Amsterdam, 1968, pp. 449452.
57. R. H. Perry, D. W. Green, and J. O. Maloney (eds.), Perry's CHemical Engineers'
Handbook, Vol. 23, 6th ed., McGraw-Hill, New York, 1984, pp. 2830.
58. Nalgene Labware 1991 Catalog, Nalge Co., Box 20365, Rochester, New York, 14602,
1991, p. 174.
59. N. A. Waterman and M. F. Ashby (eds.), CRC-Elsevier Materials Selector, Vol.

Page 49
3, CRC Press, Boca Raton, Florida, 1991, pp. 15371575.
60. Federal Specification O-M 232 F, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C.,
June 5, 1975.
61. Reagents Chemicals, ACS Specification, 7th ed., American Chemical Society,
Washington, D.C., 1986, pp. 428431.
62. Annual Book of ASTM Standards, D 115284, Vol. 06.03, American Society for Testing
and Materials, Philadelphia, 1987.
63. D. D. Perrin and W. L. F. Armarego, Purification of Laboratory Chemicals, 3rd ed.,
Pergamon Press, Oxford, 1988, p. 217.
64. R. Heinrich and J. Angerer, Int. Arch. Arbeitsmed, 50:341 (1982).
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1945, p. 3021.
67. G. D. Clayton and F. E. Clayton (eds.), Patty's Industrial Hygiene and Toxicology, Vol.
2C, 3rd ed., Wiley-Interscience, New York, 1982, pp. 45284541.
68. N. I. Sax and R. J. Lewis, Dangerous Properties of Industrial Materials, Vol. 3, Van
Nostrand-Reinhold, New York, 7th ed., 1989, pp. 22172218.
69. N. H. Proctor, J. P. Hughes, and M. L. Fischman, Chemical Hazards of the Workplace,
2nd ed., J. B. Lippincott Co., Philadelphia, 1988, pp. 320321.
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Philadelphia, 1990, pp. 557558.
71. E. Browning, Toxicity and Metabolism of Industrial Solvents, Elsevier Pub.,
Amsterdam, 1965, pp. 310323.
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ed., Int. Labour Office, Geneva, 1983, pp. 13561358.
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Standard Occupational Exposure to Methyl Alcohol, DHEW (NIOSH) Pub. No. 76148, U.S.
Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C., 1976, pp. 6875.

Page 51
3
J. R. LeBlanc, Robert V. Schneider, III, and Richard B. Strait
The M. W. Kellogg Company, Houston, Texas
3.1
History
It is reported [1] that methanol was first isolated in 1661 by Sir Robert Boyle by rectifying
crude vinegar over milk of lime. Independently, both Justus Von Liebig (18031873) and J.
B. A. Dumas (18001884) determined the composition of methanol. As a result of their
work, the term ''methyl" was introduced into chemistry in 1835.
Commercially, the first process for the production of methanol was by the destructive
distillation of wood, thus the source of the common name wood alcohol. Wood was the
source of methanol from about 1830 until the mid-1920s [2]. It was at that time that a
process for the synthetic manufacture of methanol was put into commercial operation by
Badische Anilin-und-Soda-Fabrik (BASF) in Germany. Before the BASF process, methanol
was considered a specialty chemical. With the introduction of synthetic methanol, the
supply of methanol greatly increased. In the early 1920s in the United States, the
demand for methanol was some 15,00030,000 t per year. By the early 1940s, the
demand in the United States increased to over 180,000 t. This sharp increase reflected
the use of methanol as a chemical intermediate, a feedstock for downstream processes.
BASF introduced the first large-scale commercial methanol plant in 1923. Perhaps this
was not too surprising because BASF first commercialized the

Page 52
process for making synthetic ammonia 10 years earlier, in 1913. The process for making
methanol used a zinc chromite catalyst over which a mixture of hydrogen and carbon
oxides was reacted at temperatures of 300400C and pressures of 2535 MPa (250350
atm). The synthesis feed gas was coal derived through the water-gas shift reaction.
In the United States, a subsidiary of the DuPont Company, Lazote, Inc., made synthetic
methanol at Belle, West Virginia. The Belle operation was part of the ammonia plant at
the site. The methanol production was actually a step in the ammonia process for
removing carbon monoxide, which was an impurity in the ammonia synthesis gas.
Commercial Solvents was the first to employ the high-pressure synthesis process,
developed by BASF, in the United States. The plant, located in Peoria, Illinois, began
operation a few months after the Lazote plant at Belle. The Commercial Solvents plant
used an off-gas from a fermentation operation. The off-gas contained carbon dioxide and
hydrogen from the production of butanol from corn. This first of a kind plant in the United
States was rated at about 4000 t per year.
Most of the methanol made until the end of World War II was produced from coke-
derived synthesis gas as well as off-gases from fermentation, coke ovens, and steel
furnaces. One of the most significant changes in commercial methanol manufacture was
the use of natural gas as the feedstock source. There were a number of factors that
contributed to the use of natural gas. A natural gas facility produced a higher quality
synthesis gas with fewer impurities, and in the United States natural gas was available in
almost unlimited quantities. In 1946, about 71% of the carbon monoxide used in feeding
methanol plants was derived from coke or coal. By 1948, about 77% was obtained from
natural gas [2].
By the late 1960s, medium- and low-pressure methanol technology was in commercial
use [3]. This new technology was based on the use of copper zinc catalysts.
Contributing to the success of the new methanol catalysts was the ability to clean the
natural gas feed to very low impurity levels. Sulfur, which typically is the major impurity,
can be removed to levels of less than 0.5 ppm in the natural gas feed. This means even
lower levels in the synthesis gas. Such impurities, which are poisons to the highly active
catalyst, must be removed to these low levels for the operation to be efficient.
ICI, Ltd. of the United Kingdom began manufacturing methanol with the new technology
in 1966. The plant, with 400 t per day capacity, operated at 5 MPa (50 atm) and used
centrifugal compression equipment. Here again the history of ammonia and methanol
production crossed paths. In the mid-1960s, the M. W. Kellogg Company first
commercialized the large-scale single-train ammonia plant using centrifugal compression
equipment. The use of centrifugal com-

Page 53
pression equipment in producing methanol was made possible through low-pressure
operation over the copper zinc catalyst. The operation benefitted from applying the
compression know-how gained in ammonia synthesis. Through the use of the low-
pressure copper synthesis catalysis and by using the large-capacity single-train concept,
the manufacture of methanol became much more cost effective than earlier plants using
the high-pressure technology. Economy of scale, reduced energy consumption, and
improved plant reliability made the new low-pressure plants much more economical.
Thus, with few exceptions, since about 1970 new methanol plants have been based on
the low- and medium-pressure synthesis technologies.
Today, methanol technology is available from several sources, all of which use low to
medium synthesis pressure technology. ICI provides methanol technology through several
licensee engineering companies. ICI provides the synthesis catalyst for their technology.
Lrgi of Germany provides methanol technology through its own engineering services.
The Lrgi technology is based on using the Sd-Chemie, AG methanol synthesis catalyst.
The M. W. Kellogg Company of the United States provides methanol technology
worldwide.
The Kellogg technology is based on using BASF low-pressure methanol synthesis catalyst.
Mitsubishi Gas Chemical of Japan provides methanol technology based on the use of its
own methanol catalyst. Topse of Denmark, using its own catalyst, is a supplier of
methanol technology as well. All these currently available methanol technologies use a
copper-based synthesis catalyst.
3.2
Thermodynamics and Kinetics of Methanol Synthesis
3.2.1
Thermodynamics
Methanol is typically synthesized in the gas phase over a heterogeneous catalyst from a
gas containing a combination of hydrogen, carbon monoxide, and carbon dioxide.
Synthesis can be from either of the following chemical reactions
On an industrial scale, methanol is synthesized from both reactions (1) and (2)
simultaneously. Reaction (1) is exothermic, with a heat of reaction equal to 21.66 kcal/g-
mol at 298K. Reaction (2) is likewise exothermic, with a heat of reaction equal to 11.83
kcal/g-mol. Both reactions exhibit a decrease in volume (reduction in moles as the
reaction proceeds to the right), and since both

Page 54
are exothermic, methanol synthesis is favored by increasing pressure and decreasing
temperature.
A reverse water-gas shift is also promoted over catalysts that promote methanol
synthesis and thus must also be considered. This reaction proceeds according to
Reaction (3) as it proceeds toward CO production is endothermic, with a heat of reaction
equal to 9.84 kcal/g-mol. In all the preceding cases, heats of reaction may be easily
calculated at any temperature from heats of formation tables, where
Reaction (2) is simply the sum of reactions (1) and (3), so even though all reactions
progress simultaneously, only reactions (1) and (3) are considered independently, with
maximum conversion of syngas to methanol limited by thermodynamic equilibrium.
Equilibrium compositions may be calculated by simultaneous solution of the equations
that describe the equilibrium constants for the given reactions (1) and (3):
and likewise.
When accounting for the nonideality of gases at elevated pressures, the concept of
fugacity should be taken into account, where
In this equation,
fi= fugacity of the ith component
= partial pressure of the ith component
fi
= fugacity coefficient of the ith
component
Taking the concept of fugacity into account, these equilibrium expressions can thus be
written as

Page 55
Fugaciticy coefficients can be estimated by assuming ideal solutions and using critical
temperatures and pressure for the various components to arrive at approximate values
for fi from generalized charts (see Ref. 4) or can be calculated from some appropriate
equation of state.
Several convenient temperature-dependent equations for calculating K values are readily
available from the literature. For the reader's convenience, suitable examples that show
reasonable agreement with handbook values are given.
For K1, Thomas and Portalski derived the expression [5]
where T is in degrees Kelvin. For K3, Bissett suggests the relationship [6, 7]
where T is in degrees Kelvin.
3.2.2
Catalysts
Originally, industrial synthesis of methanol was over a zinc oxide-chromium oxide catalyst
that was operated at a nominal pressure of about 35 MPa (350 atm) and temperatures up
to about 450C. This catalyst unfortunately had a tendency to promote the exothermic
methanation reaction (CO + 3H2 CH4 + H2O) under certain conditions, which led in
some instances to severely overheated reactors. This characteristic plus the high cost of
compression and relative nonselectivity of the high-pressure process made it
uneconomical following the introduction of low-pressure synthesis in the 1960s.
Low-pressure methanol synthesis, first introduced commercially by ICI of England, is
based on a copper oxide-zinc oxide-alumina catalyst that operates over a much lower
pressure range (510 MPa nominally) and at considerably lower temperatures (200280C).
The copper-based family of methanol synthesis catalysts is extremely active, as well as
selective, and is used in vapor-phase

Page 56
methanol synthesis as well as the more recently introduced liquid-phase processes. The
copper-zinc-alumina family of methanol synthesis catalysts available today typically
exhibits formulations within the following ranges:
Copper oxide, 6070%
Zinc oxide, 2030%
Alumina, 515%
Low-pressure methanol synthesis catalyst is a well-proven product that is commercially
available from a number of reputable suppliers, including BASF, ICI, United Catalysts/Sd-
Chemie, and Haldor-Topse. In the past, methanol synthesis catalyst was available from
these suppliers as part of a process licensed to the end user, although today this practice
is no longer universally applied.
These catalysts are manufactured in tablet form (with cylinder sizes generally ranging
between 5.5 3.5 and 5 5 mm) and delivered to the end user in their oxide form. They
must then be reduced in situ by passing a controlled concentration of H2 (around 1
mol%) in a circulating carrier gas, such as nitrogen or methane, over the catalyst bed or
beds in question. Maximum temperatures during reduction should be limited typically to
230C or less.
Reduction or activation must be carefully controlled to preserve copper crystallite size and
ensure an optimal catalyst initial activity and life. Proper catalyst activation has time and
again been proven to benefit the user by yielding lower by-product makes, higher
activities (close approaches to thermodynamic equilibrium), and longer lives.
Although the copper-based catalysts operate under much milder conditions than the high-
pressure zinc-chrome catalysts, they are much more susceptible to poisoning and
deactivation. The copper-based catalysts are particularly sensitive to sulfur and chlorine,
which permanently deactivate the catalyst. Typically, gas feed-based plants (including
natural gas and liquid propane gas, LPG, feeds) contain cobalt oxide-molybdenum
oxide/zinc oxide guard systems that efficiently remove sulfur as H2S to levels below 0.1
ppmv, which in turn results in a synthesis section feed containing less than 0.025 ppmv
sulfur. Sulfur is absorbed by both copper and zinc on the surface of the catalyst, and to a
certain extent, the catalyst has some ability to protect itself. The levels of clean-up
quoted above are not difficult to achieve and generally result in acceptable synthesis
catalyst lives that typically range between 2 and 4 years, although many charges have
lasted less and a few have lasted more. Chlorine is a more virulent catalyst poison;
absorption results in a loss of copper surface area by a mechanism similar to sintering
whereby a large number of small copper crystallites are transformed into a smaller
number of much larger crystallites; this results in a loss in active copper surface area and
an attendant loss in catalyst activity. For achieving a normally expected catalyst life, the
chlorine content of the syn-

Page 57
thesis section feed should be less than half of the sulfur content after cleanup in the
purified feed. Unusually high levels of chlorine in the front-end feed gas can be removed
by specially formulated chlorine guard absorbents. Particularly with partial oxidation feeds
containing high concentrations of CO, iron carbonyl may enter the synloop whereby it is
subsequently dissociated over the copper catalyst, leaving substantial deposits of iron
that can be expected to lead to excessive by-product formation via the Fischer-Tropsch
reaction.
Typically, the copper-based family of methanol synthesis catalysts are extremely
selective. Methanol yields are high relative to organic by-products, with generally over
99.5% of the converted CO + CO2 present as methanol in the crude product stream. H2O,
of course, is normally a by-product, with a resultant concentration in the crude product
that is influenced by the ratio of CO2 to CO in the methanol synthesis reactor feed
stream. Hydrocarbon by-products typically are present in concentrations of less than 5000
ppm(w) and consist of such compounds as the following:
Higher alcohols including ethanol, i/n-propanol, and i/n-butanol
Dimethyl ether
Methyl formate
Acetone and other ketones
Aldehydes
Various paraffinic hydrocarbons, including through waxes
The aforementioned by-products are formed by the following chemical reactions [7]:
Higher alcohols:
Dimethyl ether:
Methyl formate/esters:

Page 58
Paraffinic hydrocarbons and waxes (via Fischer-Tropsch):
and generally
High catalyst space times and operating temperatures tend to influence the degree of by-
products observed in the crude methanol produced in the commercial synthesis unit.
Therefore, as the catalyst ages and operating temperatures are adjusted upward to
maintain production, the by-product concentration tends to increase, placing additional
load on the purification train, which has the requirement of producing a specification-
grade methanol product. Space times (residence times) are generally more a function of
the particular synthesis section design being utilized by a given operator.
3.2.3
Kinetics
Commercial methanol synthesis processes are generally offered under license by various
process designers and/or catalyst suppliers. Each has developed its own approach to
modeling the synthesis converter or converters, which is usually based upon some type of
proprietary kinetic model. Many kinetic models have been postulated in the literature for
methanol synthesis. These models are generally of the Langmuir-Hinshelwood type,
based on a consideration of the rate-limiting step in the catalytic processes of absorption,
reaction, and desorption. One model postulated by Natta et al. [8] and given in terms of
fugacities is
This kinetic model considered both ZnO-Cr2O3 and ZnO-CuO/Cr2O3 catalysts operating in
a temperature range of about 330390C. Pressure in this case was upward of 30 MPa
(300 atm).
A more recently derived expression suitable for use with low-pressure methanol synthesis
catalyst is given by Seyfert [9]:
There is much discussion regarding the influence of CO2 in the methanol synthesis
reaction, but today it is generally accepted that CO2 pays an important role in the kinetics
of methanol synthesis. Note that the earlier model by

Page 59
Natta had no CO2 term, whereas the Seyfert model accounts for the influence of CO2 on
the rate of methanol synthesis. In the Seyfert model, the rate is expressed in terms of
fugacities (as with the Natta expression) and r = kg-mol MeOH/kg-cat-h. A, B, C, D, E,
and F are rate parameters that have been determined by Seyfert for the BASF low-
pressure Cu/Zn/Al2O3 catalyst. Variation in these parameters as a function of temperature
is accounted for by an Arrhenius expression generally given as
For the case at hand, the rate parameters vary with temperature accordingly:
and so on, where T is in K, E is the activation energy term in kJ/gmol, and R is the gas
constant. Seyfert's evaluation of these terms is given in Table 1. The intrinsic rate of
reaction may thus be calculated for synthesis gases containing over 4% CO2.
The actual or observed rate of reaction, however, is a function of the degree to which
diffusion limitations exist, and thus one can define the observed rate of reaction, Robs =
Rkinh, where h = the effectiveness factor. Said another way, the effectiveness factor h is
defined as "the ratio of the observed rate of reaction to that which would occur in the
absence of diffusion effects within the pores of the catalyst" [8]. Hasberg et al. [10]
suggested that a value of h = 0.7 may be reasonable for 5 5 mm pellets. With larger
diameter catalyst particles, the effectiveness factor would rapidly decrease.
Table 1 Kinetic Parameters for Methanol Synthesis Reaction
Parameter k0 E (kJ/mol)
A 0.166 33.2
B 2.16 1014 148
C 2.1 105 51.4
D 1.21 105 45.3
E 1.82 108 98
F 1.83 105 60.4

Page 60
Actual sizing of commercial converters becomes an even more complex matter. The
converter design itself has a marked bearing on the catalyst requirements depending
upon the choice of a multibed intercooled, multibed quench, or isothermal converter. In
addition to considering kinetic effects as given in the preceding discussion, some
allowance is generally made for catalyst aging. By reducing expected activity to some
minimum desired "end-of-run" performance criterion, a design activity is arrived at for use
in sizing a commercial converter. Additionally, there may or may not be some additional
allowance made for protecting the design volume of catalyst. This allowance or guard
volume is estimated based upon some reasonable expectation of what concentrations of
poisons, such as sulfur or chlorine, would be in the feed gas to the methanol synthesis
loop. These points are considered differently from designer to designer: there is always a
trade-off to be made between capital cost and long-term operability.
3.2.4
Effect of Operating Variables on Methanol Synthesis
3.2.4.1
Temperature
The catalyst operating temperature has a marked effect on the rate of methanol
synthesis. New converter charges of Cu/Zn/Al2O3 catalyst should be operated as cool as
possible at the inlet to preserve long-term life but generally not below 200C. When
equilibrium is not being achieved, an increase in the catalyst operating temperature gives
a marked increase in methanol conversion. At design catalyst activity ("end of life"), a
few degrees Celsius increase in the average bed temperature could result in a 35%
increase in the rate of reaction and hence rate of methanol production. For a fresh
catalyst, a 3C increase in the average bed operating temperature could result in about a
10% increase in methanol production. However, as equilibrium is attained, further
increases in temperature result in a reduction in the rate of methanol synthesis.
3.2.4.2
Pressure
Pressure affects both equilibrium position and rate of reaction in methanol synthesis.
From a total loop perspective, an increase (or decrease) in operating pressure affects
more than merely the reaction conditions. It also affects the condensation of product
(dew point) and recycle of methanol back to the converter system. Considering any given
converter, however, calculations indicate that a 10% increase in operating pressure yields
about a 10% increase in methanol production if equilibrium conditions exist. When the
reaction is far from equilibrium and controlled by kinetics, the increase (or decrease) in
methanol production is more than proportional to the increase (or decrease) in operating

Page 61
pressure. A 10% increase in pressure under these conditions, for example, yields about a
20% increase in methanol production.
3.2.4.3
Circulation Rate
When the reactor system in methanol synthesis operates under kinetically controlled
conditions, an increase in the circulating gas rate causes methanol production to
decrease. If equilibrium is being achieved, however, one can expect that a 2.53%
increase in production will be realized for a 5% increase in circulation and that a 56%
increase in production will result from a 10% increase in circulation, and so forth.
3.2.4.4
H2/CO/CO2 Concentration in the Loop
For a plant based upon a natural gas feedstock, the converter feed gas may have a
composition roughly as that shown in Table 2. Small changes in loop gas composition
should not have large effects on equilibrium, but depending upon the model one uses, the
effect of synthesis kinetics may be more marked. Earlier models were heavily dependent
upon hydrogen concentration; however, the more recently postulated models give more
credence to the effects of carbon oxides. If one bases observations on variability in gas
composition on the aforementioned converter system feed (which is high in hydrogen
concentration and relatively low in CO/CO2 concentration) and considers one of the more
contemporary reaction rate models, one finds the following.
A 1% increase in hydrogen concentration results in a 4% decrease in carbon oxide
content and causes expected production to drop by about 1%. With a 2% increase in
hydrogen concentration accompanied by a 7+% decrease in carbon oxide content,
methanol production under kinetically controlled conditions drops by more than 2%. At
the relative low concentrations of carbon oxides
Table 2 Typical Composition of Feed Gas
Component Mol%
H2 78.7
CO 4.33
CO2 3.48
Methanol 0.31
CH4 12.29
N2 0.85
H2O 0.04

Page 62
observed in the feed gas under given conditions, small decreases in the carbon oxide
content seem immediately to affect production. Alternatively, as hydrogen concentration
is slightly decreased (say, 1% and then 2%) with total carbon oxides increasing by 4 and
8%, respectively, production is expected to increase under kinetically controlled
conditions by about 1 and 2%, respectively.
3.2.5
Alternative Methanol Synthesis Loop Designs
As previously discussed, several converter designs are commercially available from
various technology suppliers. All these different designs are generally incorporated into a
synthesis loop, however, where fresh feed gas plus recycle is recirculated over the
converter system. Because of the relatively low equilibrium constant with respect to
methanol synthesis, recirculation is required to achieve reasonable yields on feedstock.
Figure 1 displays a Kellogg synthesis loop that utilizes a series of adiabatic, intercooled
spherical reactors. In this loop, fresh makeup gas (containing H2, CO, CO2, and some inert
components, such as CH4 and N2) is blended with recycle gas on the discharge side of a
single-stage recycle compressor. The fresh feed + recycle is preheated to reaction
temperature in a shell-and-tube feed effluent exchanger before passing into the first
reactor vessel. Note that a steam-heated start-up heater has been provided for catalyst
reduction and initial loop start-up. This exchanger is not required during normal
operations.
Reaction proceeds over the first bed adiabatically, the effluent being cooled indirectly by
an intercooler that raises intermediate-pressure steam. The second, third, and fourth
reactors operate in a similar manner, final reactor effluent being cooled in the feed-
effluent exchanger. Methanol concentration in the effluent from bed 4 is typically about
5%. The effluent, once cooled in the feed-effluent exchanger, then passes to a crude
condenser, where methanol and water of reaction are condensed out of the circulating
gas. Typically this is a water-cooled exchanger, although air-cooled exchangers have had
some application in this service. The condensed crude methanol is separated from the
recirculating gas in a centrifugal separator. Recovered crude product then passes to the
distillation train, where specification-grade product is produced. Recycle gas exiting the
separator then returns to the suction side of the recycle compressor.
Between the crude separator and the recycle compressor, a purge is typically taken to
control buildup of inerts and any excess reactants that may be present in the synthesis
loop. Typically in natural gas-based plants, there is a large excess of hydrogen, which is
removed from the loop at this point. Purge gas is generally used as supplementary fuel
elsewhere in the battery limits plant, such as fuel to the fired reformer. Ratios of recycle
to fresh feed are typically in the range

Page 63
Figure 1
Methanol synthesis loop utilizing Kellogg spherical intercooled reactors.
(Diagram courtesy of The M. W. Kellogg Company.)
34. The Kellogg spherical reactor system (see Fig. 2) has been successfully used in the
Cape Horn methanol plant located near Punta Arenas, Chile.
Figure 3 [11] displays the classic ICI quench converter. A typical installation is shown in
Figure 4. This design was the first to be used in low-pressure methanol synthesis plants
and has been successfully applied in many instances. The loop that contains the ICI
quench reactor is not very different from that given

Page 64
Figure 2
Spherical reactors at Cape Horn Methanol (Cabo Negro, Chile).
(Photograph courtesy of The M. W. Kellogg Company.)
in Figure 1 except that several beds are contained (generally) in a single converter, with
interbed cooling accomplished via quenching with fresh feed. The converter displayed in
Figure 3 is a four-bed unit. Part of the feed gas enters the top bed, and the remainder is
used as interbed quench. This quench gas is introduced via distribution lozenges, as
indicated by points C in the figure. Figure 5 [11] displays the reaction path for the quench
converter. Note that the concentration of methanol in the gas exiting any given bed
(except the last bed) is diluted somewhat by the direct-quench cooling process. This
diagram also indicates what the path might be for an intercooled design, in which
interbed dilution is not a factor. Note that in the ICI design, heat of reaction is recovered
at the exit of the converter. Recovered heat is used typically to heat high-pressure boiler
feedwater, reformer feed saturation circulating water, and, finally, fresh reactor feed. ICI
also more recently offered a new converter design, the tube-cooled converter. Figure 6
[11] displays this particular design. In the tube-cooled design, reaction gas temperature
is controlled by transferring heat to the incoming feed on the inside of the tubes.
At least two commercial isothermal designs are also available. Figure 7 [12] displays a
typical Lrgi tubular converter arrangement. The Lrgi isothermal converter is a shell-
and-tube unit in which catalyst is contained within relative-

Page 65
Figure 3
Typical ICI quench converter.
(A) Catalyst is charged and inspected through these ports.
(B) The pressure vessel is of a simple designno internal
catalyst basket is required.
(C) The ICI lozenge quench distributors ensure good gas
distribution and allow the free passage of catalyst for
charging and discharging.
(D) Gravity discharge of catalyst permits rapid preparation
for maintenance or recharging.
(Diagram courtesy of ICI.)

Page 66
Figure 4
Twin 2200 tpd methanol units at Methanex Corporation, Motunui, New Zealand.
(Photograph courtesy of ICI.)
Figure 5
Temperature concentration profiles for a quench converter and an intercooled
converter. Inlet temperature 200C, exit temperature 240C.

Page 67
Figure 6
ICI tube-cooled converter.
(A) Catalyst is charged and inspected through these ports.
(B) The pressure vessel is of a simple designno internal
catalyst basket is required.
(C) Thin-walled cooling tubes are welded to a simple header
system embedded in the catalyst.
(D) Gravity discharge of catalyst permits rapid preparation
for maintenance or recharging.
ly small diameter tubes. Reaction heat is transferred to the shell side, which contains
boiling water. The shell side is connected to a steam drum, where nominally 4 MPa (40
atm) steam is raised. In the diagram one converter is shown, but several Lrgi
installations have used a dual-converter system. The decision regarding the use of one or
two converters is mostly dependent upon

Page 68
Figure 7
Typical Lrgi tubular methanol converter arrangement.
(Diagram courtesy of Lrgi GmbH.)
desired plant capacity. Figure 8 [12] displays a plot of reactor temperature versus tube
length for the Lrgi isothermal converter. The various curves refer to different points in
the life of the catalyst (aged versus new). Note the rapid increase in temperature in the
top of the tubes as the feed gas is heated to reaction tem-

Page 69
Figure 8
Reactor temperature versus tube length for the Lrgi isothermal converter.
Curves I, II, and III denote behavior of catalyst as a function of age.
perature. Once the peak has been reached, there is a slight drop in temperature, which is
at a fairly constant offset from the equilibrium temperature. This operation is often
referred to as ''quasi-isothermal." Reactor effluent from the Lrgi converter system
typically contains about 68% methanol. Some 26 commercial Lrgi methanol reactors
with a total capacity of about 20,000 t/day have been built as of 1993. Figure 9 displays
the 1200 t/day Lrgi methanol reactor installed at Wesseling, Germany.
Another isothermal design is offered by Linde of Germany. Figure 10 [13] displays a
cutaway diagram of this converter. In the Linde converter, unlike the Lrgi unit, the
process gas is on the shell side and water boils in the tubes, which are embedded within
the catalyst zone in a helical arrangement. An integral steam drum is connected to the
helix tubes, which make up the risers and downcomers from which steam is generated
within the converter. As with the Lrgi unit, the isothermal reactor may be controlled by
varying the steam drum pressure. At higher drum pressures, the catalyst bed operates
hotter; at lower pressures, it

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Figure 9
Lrgi converter installation at Wesseling, Germany.
(Photograph courtesy of Lrgi GmbH.)

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Figure 10
A Linde spiral-wound converter.
(Diagram courtesy of Linde AG.)
operates cooler. Typically, one expects to increase the converter temperature as the
catalyst begins to show signs of aging. The Linde converter has been successfully applied
to commercial methanol facilities, perhaps the most notable of which is the BASF plant at
Ludwigshafen, Germany. A photograph of this installation is displayed in Figure 11.
Other gas-phase methanol synthesis converter designs are available from such designers
as Haldor-Topse and Mitsubishi Gas Chemical Company.

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Figure 11
Linde converter installation at the BASF Ludwigshafen works.
(Photograph courtesy of Linde AG.)
3.2.6
Catalyst Yield Factors
The various designs for gas-phase methanol synthesis have their own peculiarities along
with associated advantages and disadvantages. Because of variations in approach to
equilibrium and catalyst utilization, each of the systems previously described exhibits
different yield factors with respect to the required volume of methanol synthesis catalyst.
Traditionally, the isothermal converters have required the lowest catalyst volumes
because of the more or less constant approach to equilibrium achieved as the gas passes
downward through the catalyst-filled tubes. This reactor then exploits the maximum
reaction rate by ap-

Page 73
proaching without quite reaching the equilibrium point. Isothermal converters typically
are designed with a yield factor in the general neighborhood of 0.91.0 kg methanol/h/L
catalyst.
Quench converters have typically exhibited the largest installed catalyst volumes per ton
of methanol produced and therefore have the lowest yield factor. A quench converter is
normally expected to be designed for a yield of 0.350.40 kg methanol/h/L catalyst.
Adiabatic intercooled converters fall between quench converters and isothermal
converters. They exhibit the so-called sawtooth reaction profile as observed in a quench
converter. However, all the gas passes through all the catalyst, which allows a significant
improvement in catalyst utilization. This concept was adopted long ago in the ammonia
industry: most modern ammonia converters are intercooled rather than quench. The
adiabatic-intercooled converter is typically designed with a yield factor of approximately
0.550.60 kg methanol/h/L catalyst.
3.2.7
Liquid-Phase Processes
Significant development has occurred within the industry over the last several years with
respect to liquid-phase processes. One example of this process that is reasonably close to
commercialization is that developed by Air Products. A pilot unit has been operated for
several years at their La Porte, Texas location. The process is characterized briefly as
using an inert hydrocarbon reaction medium in the liquid phase to absorb the synthesis
heat of reaction; conventional copper-zinc catalyst is fed to the reactor system as a
slurry. This type of process appears to be particularly well suited to substoichiometric
feeds (high carbon content), such as those produced by partial oxidation or coal
gasification. The Air Products process has been extensively described in patent literature
[14]. Kinetic data and liquid-phase reaction systems have also been extensively discussed
by Lee in Methanol Synthesis Technology [15].
3.3
Syngas Preparation Processes
As discussed in Section 3.2, methanol may be synthesized from a gas containing H2O, CO,
and CO2 in varying proportions, which depend mostly on the feedstock of choice. The
syngas from which methanol is ultimately produced may come from any number of
different routes, including coal gasification, partial oxidation of heavy oils, steam
reforming of natural gas (with or without CO2 injection), steam reforming of LPG
feedstocks and naphthas, combined or oxygen-enhanced reforming, and heat-exchange
reforming. This list names the principal routes by which methanol synthesis gas may be
produced.

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Recalling that methanol may be produced by the following reactions:
the degree to which the syngas is stoichiometric may be determined by the stoichiometric
ratio R,
A balanced or stoichiometric syngas has an R value close to unity. Substoichiometric
gases have R values less than unity, and H2-rich gases (sometimes referred to as low-
carbon gases) have R values that are greater than unity. Steam reforming of methane,
for example, yields a syngas that typically has an R value of about 1.4 because of the H/C
ratio of the feedstock. Reforming of feeds with lower H/C ratios (such as propane,
butane, or naphthas) yields syngases with R values closer to stoichiometric. Sometimes,
the stoichiometric nature of the feed is referred to in a different manner. The
stoichiometric number S has been defined as
S values of approximately 2.0 are representative of stoichiometric syngases. H2-rich
syngases have S values that are greater than 2.0.
All the aforementioned front-end process routes exhibit varying efficiencies, capital costs,
and operating complexities. No single route is best, but a particular route is likely to be
best under certain project- and/or site-specific circumstances. Project specifics generally
dictate the preferred synthesis gas generation route. In this section, each of these routes
is reviewed briefly for purposes of comparison.
3.3.1
Coal Gasification
Coal gasification is accomplished by a combination of partial oxidation and
hydrogasification of coal feedstock according to the following chemical reactions:

Page 75
Low Btu value gas is typically produced when air is used as the oxidant. The heating
value improves markedly when pure oxygen is substituted for air.
Coal gasification has been expected for many years to become the preferred route for
syngas generation in the United States because of large indigenous coal reserves;
however, given the continued availability of natural gas and the higher cost of coal
conversion, the boom in coal as a chemical feedstock has yet to come. Significant
development work in this area continues nonetheless, and several designs have been
successfully commercialized.
Several different types of gasification units have been developed over the years. These
include moving- or fixed-bed gasifiers, fluidized-bed gasifiers, entrained-flow gasifiers,
and those based upon the molten-batch process.
Commercial gasification units include the Koppers-Totzek entrained-flow atmospheric
gasifier, the Winkler fluidized-bed atmospheric gasifier, the Lrgi fixed-bed pressurized
gasifier, and the Texaco pressurized entrained-flow gasifier. Table 1 in the Kirk-Othmer
Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology [16] gives a listing of gasification unit types that
are either already commercialized or in development.
The properties of a particular coal play a significant role in the ultimate selection and
design of the gasification equipment. Some of the more important coal properties that
bear careful consideration include moisture content, ash content, volatile content, fixed
carbon availability, caking behavior, reactivity, and particle size distribution. Ash content
and reactivity are properties that are somewhat tied together in that the inorganic
impurity content of the coal can play a significant role in the rate of reaction between
hydrogen, carbon dioxide, steam, and oxygen. This is because of the catalytic effect
imparted by the presence of impurities, such as potassium and iron.
The Koppers-Totzek (K-T) gasifier produces a medium-Btu gas (in the general range of
300 Btu/scf) and has been commercially employed in many different syngas applications,
with particular emphasis in the area of ammonia synthesis. The process is carried out at
just over atmospheric pressure but at very high temperatures of over 1870C. The data in
Table 3 [16] give the expected K-T gasifier product composition for an Illinois coal (62%
C, 19.1% ash, 4.4% H2, and 5% S plus O2 and H2O) that has been gasified with a steam-
coal ratio (wt/wt) of 0.27 and an oxygen/coal ratio (wt/wt) of 0.7. K-T units vary in size
between those that convert about 300 t coal per day and those that convert over 750 t
coal per day.

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Table 3 Raw Gas Analysis of Products from a K-T Gasifier
CO 55.4%
CO2 7.1%
H2 34.6%
N2 1.0%
H2S 1.8%
COS 0.1%
Heating value 290 Btu/scf
Gas make 60,000 scf/ST
Coal to gas efficiency Approximately 76%
The Lrgi pressurized gasifier has been used extensively in commercial applications for
Fischer-Tropsch syngas generation and Synthetic Natural Gas applications in which CO/H2
gas is converted to a high-Btu gas via methanation within the gasifier as well as in
downstream reactors (methane formed via CO + 3H2 CH4 + H2O).
The Lrgi gasifier is depicted schematically in Figure 12 [16]. The unit is designed to
operate at pressures of up to 3.2 MPa (32 atm). Coal is fed through a top-mounted lock
hopper to a bed within the body of the gasifier. The bed is uniformly fed by the rotating
distributor as shown. Steam and oxygen are sparged through a revolving gate, where ash
is removed to a bottom-mounted lock hopper for eventual discharge from the unit. Gas
discharges from the unit at temperatures of up to 600C. The process conditions and gas
composition depend largely on the type of coal feed employed. Table 4 [16] compares
gasification product gases achieved with a variety of coal feed types for a Lrgi
pressurized gasifi-
Table 4 Product Gases from Gasification of Different Coals for a Lrgi Gasifier
Component (vol%) Lignite Subituminous coal Low volatile coal
CO2 31.9 28.2 26.5
CnHm 0.5 0.3 0.1
CO 17.4 20.6 21.4
H2 36.4 39.6 43.5
CH4 13.5 10.5 8.0
N2 0.3 0.8 0.5
Approximate heating value, Btu/scf 325 304 290

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Figure 12
Lrgi coal gasifier.

Page 78
er. Product gas from a Lrgi gasifier is typified by a higher than average methane plus
higher hydrocarbon content compared with gasifiers that operate at lower pressure and
higher temperatures. Lrgi, together with British Gas Corporation, has developed but not
yet commercialized a slagging version of their original gasifier that reportedly features a
higher specific throughput at a much lower steam consumption.
Texaco has successfully commercialized a pressurized gasification reactor that is of the
entrained-flow type. Figure 13 [17] displays a schematic diagram for the Texaco goal
gasification process. This process operates at pressures of about 3.8 MPa (38 atm) and a
temperature in the range of 1450C. The gasifier operating temperature is typically a
function of the coal feed properties. The coal feed is pumped into the unit as an
approximately 60% slurry. Table 5 [17] gives
Table 5 Representative Operation Data for a Texaco Gasifier
Coal composition
Volatile matter, wt% 25.4
Fixed carbon, wt% 55
Moisture, wt% 8.0
Ash, wt% 11.6
Carbon, wt% (dry and ash free) 86.1
H2, wt% 5.0
O2, wt% 5.8
N2, wt% 1.7
S, wt% 1.2
Operating pressure, atm 38.4
Operating temperature, C 1450
Crude gas composition
Product gas, dry mol%
CO2 13.5
CO 51.5
H2 34.3
CH4 0.05
CnHm
N2 0.4
Crude gas yield stp, m3/t (dry and ash free) 2430
O2 consumption, m3/m3 0.314
Cold gas efficiency, % 73.3
Carbon conversion, % 99

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Figure 13
Texaco coal gasifier operated in the quench mode.
(Diagram courtesy of Texaco Development Corporation.)

Page 80
representative data for a Texaco gasifier operating on a bituminous coal. For syngas
conversion to methanol or ammonia, the process is preferably operated in the quench
mode to promote downstream shifting of CO to H2.
For methanol synthesis, the raw gas leaving the gasification unit requires significant
additional treatment. Once the gas has been cooled (generally in a direct contact
scrubber in which particulate matter is also removed), COS is hydrolyzed over a suitable
catalyst, H2S is removed to a large extent, the gas composition is shifted across a sour
gas shift converter + H2 reaction promoted over a cobalt-molybdenum
catalyst), and finally excess CO2 is removed. The syngas is then ready for compression
before passing into the methanol synthesis loop.
Syngas produced from coal gasification yields a raw gas that is very carbon rich and
therefore substoichiometric (R < 1.0). By shifting some of the CO to H2 and subsequently
removing excess CO2, a balanced or stoichiometric gas (R @ 1.0) can easily be achieved.
Worldwide, there have been more applications of coal gasification for ammonia synthesis
than for methanol synthesis (particularly in China), although the process is appropriate
for methanol. In the United States, Tennessee Eastman Corporation (Kingsport,
Tennessee) has operated for several years a methanol-manufacturing facility based on
Texaco coal gasification followed by a Lrgi-designed synthesis loop (utilizing their
tubular isothermal converter design). The plant nominally produces 600 stpd of methanol.
Coal gasification may likely find future application in methanol production for utilization in
combined cycle power generation facilities. In this case, the methanol (stored on-site as a
liquid) will be utilized as a peak shaving fuel and will be produced from excess gasifier
capacity as power demand is reduced. Several different schemes have been proposed for
combining methanol production with coal gasification in a power plant scenario. This
particular arrangement may be most favorable for a liquid-phase process (see reference
to the Air Product process in Sec. 3.2.7) that can utilize a substoichiometric feed with a
reasonable once-through conversion while passing on unconverted gas to the combined
cycle gas turbine as a fuel.
Coal gasification for application in methanol will be justified by today's economic criteria
only in special cases. The cost of the methanol production unit will be no different from
that based on other feeds, although the cost of the coal gasification unit is expected to be
significantly greater than the cost of a comparably sized gas feed-based facility, such as a
steam-methane reformer. Emphasis on coal as a methanol feedstock will undoubtedly
grow at some later date when natural gas supplies are expected to be much less
plentiful.

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3.3.2
Partial Oxidation
The partial oxidation (POX) of heavy oils is a process whereby incomplete combustion of
hydrocarbons is affected according to the following general chemical reactions:
The minimum amount required to achieve complete conversion of the hydrocarbon
feedstock is 0.5 mol O2 per mol carbon. Steam is added to control the reaction
temperature, which leads to additional H2 generation via CO shift [Eq. (3)]. The final
partial oxidation effluent gas composition is governed by the following chemical
equilibrium expressions:
Partial oxidation is achieved at reactor conditions ranging from 1350 to 1600C and
pressures of up to 15 MPa (150 atm). This process is attractive because it allows
utilization of hydrocarbon feeds that could not be handled in the more conventional
vapor-phase processes, such as steam reforming. Particular disadvantages of the process
(besides the need to furnish pure oxygen for POX reactor injection) include cost and the
inevitability of soot formation either via thermal cracking of the feedstock or through the
Boudouard reaction (CO disproportionation),
Additionally, reactor effluent gas in partial oxidation always contains sulfur in the form of
H2S and COS, which requires eventual downstream removal before the synthesis gas can
be used for methanol manufacturing.

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Successful commercialization of partial oxidation processes has been achieved by both
Shell and Texaco. Figure 14 [17] displays a schematic of the Shell process, and Figure 15
[17] displays a schematic of the Texaco process. Both processes are similar. Commercial
units based on Shell and Texaco partial oxidation processes (considered in total) number
in the several hundreds.
Table 6 [17] gives some typical results from the partial oxidation of a vacuum residue
with soot recirculation. The product gas from partial oxidation is not suitable for methanol
synthesis because it is highly substoichiometric (carbon rich). Figure 16 is a block flow
diagram describing the basic process steps required to adapt partial oxidation to
methanol synthesis.
Once the raw gas has been scrubbed for soot removal, H2S is removed and CO is shifted
across a cobalt molybdenum sour gas shift catalyst to adjust the H2O/CO/CO2 ratio.
Finally, excess CO2 is removed and the gas may be compressed (if required) and then
processed in a conventional methanol synthesis loop. The processing steps as just
described yield a syngas that is approximately stoichiometric in nature (R @ 1.0) although
considerably more concentrated in CO than CO2.
Several commercial methanol production facilities have been constructed worldwide using
partial oxidation as a source for synthesis gas.
Figure 14
Shell heavy oil partial oxidation unit.

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Figure 15
Texaco heavy oil partial oxidation unit.
(Diagram courtesy of Texaco Development Corporation.)

Page 84
Table 6 Typical Operation of a Partial Oxidative Process
Operating pressure, MPa (atm) 5.9 (59)
Feedstock, kg 100
Pure O2, m3 70.7
Steam, kg 50
Product gas volume, m3 290
Gas composition, mol%
CO2 4.63
CO 48.92
H2 44.94
CH4 0.3
N2 + Ar 0.2
H2S + COS 1.01
3.3.3
Natural Gas Steam Reforming
For many years, the overwhelming feedstock of choice for methanol producers has been
natural gas. As of 1990, some 75% of the world's methanol production capacity was
based on a natural gas feedstock. Steam reforming with its low sulfur feed gas (typically,
feeds to a reformer contain less than 0.1 ppmv total sulfur) makes synthesis gas that is
particularly well suited to feed a loop containing Cu-Zn catalyst. With the advent of the
low-pressure process (pressures of 10 MPa, 100 atm, or less), it became advantageous to
feed gases to a loop that were not necessarily stoichiometric because of the overall
reduction in compression requirements.
Consider the feedstock in the following table:
Component Dry mol%
CO2 1.75
N2 0.40
C1 82.62
C2 8.56
C3 3.82
i-C4 0.78
n-C4 1.15
i-C5 0.30
n-C5 0.27
C6 0.22
C7 0.10
C8 0.03
C9 0.01
Total 100.0

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Figure 16
Partial oxidation.

Page 86
This feedstock, although perhaps slightly heavier than a typical U.S. Gulf Coast natural
gas (because of C2, C3, and content) is easily steam reformed over a conventional
nickel-on-alumina catalyst at normal steam ratios. Syngas generation proceeds according
to the following reactions:
From these equations it is apparent that, theoretically, one can produce 4 mol hydrogen
for every mol methane fed to the reformer. Since methanol may be produced as follows:
Summing Equations (26) and (2) gives
Thus it is apparent that a methane-rich natural gas feedstock yields a hydrogen-rich or
low-carbon synthesis gas.
The natural gas given in the preceding table, when reformed at a catalyst exit
temperature of 860C, a pressure of 2 MPa (20 atm), and a steam-carbon ratio of 3:1,
yields a syngas with the following composition:
Component Dry mol%
H2 72.10
N2 0.09
CH4 4.26
CO 14.75
CO2 8.80
The stoichiometric ratio R [H2/(2CO + 3CO2)] for this particular syngas may be calculated
to be approximately 1.3, which is expected. Normally in steam reforming of a natural gas
feedstock, R values of 1.31.4 are observed. Lower steam ratios of about 2.72.8 are
possible, some overall energy benefits being achieved at these lower ratios, but
operating at values much below this level has generally not been found to be prudent.

Page 87
Figure 17
Natural gas steam reformer.
A typical steam reforming schematic is given in Figure 17 [18]. Note the relative
simplicity of this process. A light feed gas is simply preheated, desulfurized, mixed with
steam, and then reformed and cooled before being compressed as feed to a methanol
synthesis reaction loop. The process steps utilized in the steam reforming of a natural gas
feedstock are described in somewhat more detail in Section 3.4.

Page 88
Considering a plant designed to produce 2500 tpd methanol based on the aforementioned
feed gas, the following feed and fuel requirements are estimated for a plant utilizing 10
MPa synthesis and steam reforming for syngas generation [18]:
Feed, Gcal/h, 755.99
Total reformer duty, Gcal/h, 350.29
Feed and net fuel, Gcal/h, 826.42
Specific gas consumption, Gcal/t, 7.934 (LHV basis)
This specific gas consumption figure is on an LHV (lower heating value) basis and is
equivalent to approximately 31.5 MMBtu/t. This value is representative of the energy
required not only to produce 2500 t/day of methanol plant but also to support all required
off-sites, such as power generation, desalination of sea-water for boiler feedwater if
required, and cooling water circulation. Battery limits energy consumption for a plant of
this capacity would be about 2 MMBtu/ t less.
The thermal efficiency of the process as described (LVH of methanol/LHV of feed + fuel)
is approximately 60%. This value lies within the expected range for the process. Implicit
in these energy calculations is the assumption that excess H2 produced by reforming
(which is purged from the synloop), plus any letdown or distillation and light end vents, is
burned as fuel in the reforming furnace.
Energy values quoted are deemed to be typical in nature. Specific feed and fuel
consumption for any particular steam reforming-based plant depend upon exact gas
composition, site climatic conditions, degree of available existing site infrastructure, and
project economics.
3.3.3.1
The CO2 Addition Alternative
When CO2 is available nearby (as when a methanol facility is located adjacent to an
ammonia plant), it makes a balanced syngas (R = 1.0 approximately) possible by
judicious addition to the process gas either upstream or downstream of the reformer.
Typically, about 1 mol CO2 may be added to every 4 mol natural gas feed to balance the
syngas chemically so that it is nearly stoichiometric as it enters the methanol synloop. For
new plants, CO2 may be most often added as an auxiliary feed to the reformer, but when
CO2 is added to an already operating plant, addition is likely into the suction of the
syngas compressor or directly into the synloop. Energy differences on an overall basis
between these various alternatives are virtually nil. CO2 provides additional methanol
make (by balancing out the excess H2 produced by steam-methane reforming) in an
almost mole per mole ratio but also adds additional H2O to the crude, which must be
removed in distillation. Higher CO2 syngases are more stoichiometric but also

Page 89
result in a loop carbon efficiency perhaps 12% less than that expected with a low carbon
feed (where R = 1.31.4).
CO2 addition results in reduced loop purge gas, which in turn means that additional
natural gas is required as fuel to the reformer. CO2 addition is a proven process
enhancement, and there are many industrial demonstrations of the concept.
3.3.4
Combined Reforming
The process of combined reforming (also variously known as combination reforming or
oxygen-enhanced reforming) utilizes both a primary and a secondary (or autothermal)
reformer in series for production of synthesis gas, as is commonly practiced in ammonia
manufacturing. The secondary in the case of methanol, however, is injected with nearly
pure oxygen (99.5+%) rather than air since the presence of excessive N2 in the syngas
would overburden compression and retard methanol synthesis. Figure 18 [18] displays
one possible scheme for employing this process. By introducing oxygen into the
secondary, excess H2 is combusted, and a nearly stoichiometric (R = 1.0) synthesis gas
may be produced from a natural gas feedstock. Combustion in the upper zone of the
secondary (or autothermal reformer) increases the temperature of the partially
combusted gas (feed is primary reformer effluent), which then drops rapidly in the
catalytic zone, where the endothermic reforming process ''soaks up" heat as it proceeds
axially along the reactor catalyst bed.
By shifting some of the reforming duty from the primary reformer to the secondary
reformer, the primary size (in new plants) and fired duty are reduced. It is generally
found advantageous in this process to reduce the primary reformer catalyst exit
temperature (say from 860 to 730C) while increasing the primary exit pressure from
about 2 MPa (20 atm) to 3.8 MPa (38 atm). This save energy further by reducing syngas
compression requirement while maintaining an acceptable catalyst tube life.
The key to success in this process is in the design of the secondary reformer, in particular
the design of the burner apparatus in the combustion zone. Figure 19 gives one example
of a commercially proven design (Kellogg unit) that has been successfully used in both H2
and methanol service in which pure oxygen injection was employed. Ultimately, oxygen
injection rates in this process must be limited by such considerations as the degree of
mixing expected in the combustion zone and the expected reliability of the refractory and
refractory support system within the lined reactor. The safest design for a secondary
reformer injected with pure oxygen would employ not only the requisite refractory lining
and recommended external water jacket but also a safe upper limit on the amount of
oxygen added to the system.

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Figure 18
Combined reforming diagram.
(Courtesy of The M. W. Kellogg Company.)
Consider a case comparison whereby 2500 tpd of methanol was produced via combined
reforming by adding 0.4 t O2/t MeOH to the secondary reformer (nearly 1000 tpd O2
required). The feed gas was similar to that discussed in Section 3.3.3 describing the
steam reforming of natural gas. Table 7 compares steam reforming and combined
reforming for the same size of plant. In that comparison, a grass roots complex with all
supporting utilities was the basis. Power was generated within the process (steam
turbogenerator furnished) to operate the air separation facility, which required
approximately 15,420 kW for air

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Figure 19
Autothermal reformer with water-cooled burner.

Page 92
compression plus oxygen compression to process requirements. Table 7 shows that the
combined reformer duty is reduced by about 45% (versus the base case of steam
reforming) and makeup gas compression power is expected to drop by about 50%.
Impressive savings to be sure: however, these are mostly offset by the high cost of air
separation. On an overall basis, a savings of 2.2% favoring combined reforming was
indicated (0.18 Gcal/t). Other cases may save somewhat more energy than indicated in
the preceding example. Typically, the expected savings are in the range of 24% favoring
combined reforming.
The M. W. Kellogg Company has successfully employed combined reforming for both H2
and methanol production. Lrgi has built at least two commercial methanol units based
on their combined reforming process. Details of the Lrgi process are given in References
19 and 20.
Different process licensors take a slightly different approach in the exact equipment and
piping arrangement for combined reforming. The approach can have a major effect on the
cost of the furnace, which represents a substantial portion of the inside battery limits
capital investment. Accordingly, there is some variation in both energy savings and cost
differentials predicted. In combined reforming, the furnace is substantially smaller and
compression requirements are considerably reduced. However, the high cost of air
separation and oxygen compression facilities has been found by several designers to
more than offset the expected savings, resulting in a plant cost approximately 15% more
than one of a similar capacity based on steam reforming of natural gas.
This increased capital requirement could only be justified with exceedingly high energy
costs. There are significant environmental benefits to consider in combined reforming,
however. Reduced firing reduces NOx (perhaps by as much as 70%) and CO2 emissions.
CO2 is not reduced as dramatically as NOx in combined reforming since reduced H2 in the
loop purge means that additional firing with CH4 is required in the primary reforming
furnace.
Table 7 Comparison of Steam Reforming and Combined Reforming of Natural Gas
Steam reforming of
natural gas
Combined reforming
of natural gas
Feed, Gcal/h 755.99 660.06
Utilities, Gcal/h 68.99 46.41
Total reformer duty, Gcal/h net 350.29 192.50
Feed and net fuel, Gcal/h 826.42 807.90
Specific gas consumption, Goal/t 7.934 7.756

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Combined reforming has been successfully applied in grass roots applications, but it may
find its best application in the potential retrofit of ammonia plants to methanol
manufacturing. Use of combined reforming in a retrofit enables the ammonia producer to
convert to methanol production and maximize production while achieving an acceptable
return on investment (pretax, internal rate of return, IRR, of more than 20%).
Conclusions regarding combined or oxygen-enhanced reforming can be briefly
summarized as follows:
The process is proven; several commercial units have been built.
Reliability is a key issue; special attention should be paid to the design of the
autothermal reformer, particularly the O2/feed gas mixer/burner.
O2 injection rates should be limited to ensure that practical design limitations are not
exceeded.
Gas consumption can, in some cases, be dramatically reduced, but on an overall specific
energy consumption basis, 24% savings are probably achievable compared with a
process based on steam-methane reforming.
NOx emissions may be reduced by roughly 70% without the use of selective catalytic
reduction to treat the flue gas.
CO2 emissions may be reduced by about 13%.
Plant cost is about 15% more than one based on steam-methane reforming.
Plant complexity for the process may result in on-stream factors less than those typically
expected for the steam reforming process.
Gas costs of over $5/MMBtu will likely be required to pay out the extra capital
requirements of combined reforming; however, environmental benefits can potentially
reduce the threshold gas cost for justification.
Combined reforming can be an attractive option for retrofitting an existing ammonia plant
to methanol production.
3.3.5
Heat-Exchange Reforming
Heat-exchange reforming provides the plant operator with a process for producing
methanol syngas without the use of a tubular fired reformer or a partial oxidation/coal
gasification alternative front end. The concept is relatively simple. By linking a tubular
heat-exchange reformer and an adiabatic or autothermal reformer, a simplistic reforming
operation is arrived at whereby the heat generated in the autothermal unit is used to
heat the process gas reacting within the heat-exchange reformer. Figure 20 gives one
example of a Bayonet heat-exchange reformer. In a unit of this design, the heat-
exchange reformer and autothermal (or secondary) reformer operate in series.
Hydrocarbon feed (generally a light natural gas) plus steam enters the heat-exchange
reformer between

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Figure 20
Bayonet reforming exchanger.

Page 95
two upper located tube sheets. The process gas passes axially downward through an
annular space filled with conventional nickel-based steam reforming catalyst, where the
reforming reaction takes place. The gas exits the catalyst at the bottom of the annular
space and then passes upward through a center tube, where some sensible cooling takes
place. The effluent exits above the top tube sheet, where it then passes to the
secondary, where reforming is completed in the normal fashion. The gas exiting the
bottom of the secondary reformer then passes to the bottom of the heat-exchange
reformer shell, where it passes upward through the baffled section of bundle, providing
the heat requirement for the heat-exchange reformer. The gas exiting the shell then
passes onto a boiler or feed-effluent exchanger, where cooling takes place before the
compression step. ICI has proposed a heat-exchange reformer similar to this design for
methanol in their leading concept methanol process. They have commercialized the
design (which they call a gas-heated reformer) in two small ammonia plants located in
the United Kingdom.
Kellogg has proposed an alternative process, which is called KRES (Kellogg reforming
exchanger system) and is schematically displayed in Figure 21. This process utilizes a
patented open-tube reforming exchanger that is pictorially described in Figure 22.
In KRES, the secondary (or autothermal reformer) and reforming exchanger operate in
parallel rather than in series. Process feed gas plus steam passes in parallel to the
secondary and the reforming exchanger. In the secondary (as in combined reforming),
pure oxygen is used for partial combustion of the hydrocarbon feed. The feed stream
entering the reforming exchanger passes downward through a multiplicity of catalyst
filled tubes, where significant reforming takes place. The secondary effluent and
reforming exchanger catalyst tube effluent combine in the bottom shell of the reforming
exchanger before passing upward through the shell as heat is provided to the catalyst-
filled tubes by sensible cooling of the mixed gas stream.
Reforming pressure for the heat-exchange process is optimally in the 3.54.2 MPa (3542
atm) range. Pure oxygen requirements are about 0.5 ton oxygen per ton refined
methanol product. The key theoretical reactions involved in the heat-exchange reform
process (which equally apply to combined reforming) are as follows:

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Figure 21
Simplified diagram of the Kellogg reforming exchanger system (KRES).

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Figure 22
Kellogg open-tube reforming exchanger.

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Note that a nearly stoichiometric feed is possible in this case, as with combined
reforming.
The lack of fired reformer provides an ideal opportunity for integrating a gas turbine into
the process. Utility duties can be handled in the turbine exhaust duct, and an overall
improvement in energy utilization is made possible since the gas turbine with associated
heat recovery can achieve a thermal efficiency of over 85%; the steam cycle normally
exploited in a fired reformer application (where waste heat generates steam that drives
the syngas compressor turbine) is generally limited to about 33%.
The advantages of the heat-exchange reforming processes include the following:
Operational flexibility is increased.
They are as or more reliable than a conventional plant.
Maintenance costs are reduced.
Overall complex energy savings of about 0.4 Gcal/t are expected.
Units are compact and require less space.
As in combined reforming, emissions of NOx and CO2 are significantly reduced.
Commercialization of the Kellogg KRES design is set for an ammonia plant expansion in
Canada that will start up in 1994.
3.3.6
Relative Comparison of Syngas Preparation Processes
Design of the methanol synthesis loop and accompanying distillation train is generally
based on the following considerations:
Design preferences
Expected reliability and operability
Capital cost considerations
Generally speaking, the energy consumption differences between the various loop
designs (based on quench, adiabatic-intercooled, and isothermal reactor systems) are
very small and therefore not sufficiently large to make a choice on this basis alone. The
choice of a syngas preparation process is much more difficult, however. This choice must
consider a number of factors, including the following (but not limited to them):
Feedstock availability
Feedstock composition

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Cost of feed and/or fuel
Plant location
Complexity of integration with existing facilities (if any)
Required reliability
Environmental constraints
Capital cost considerations
Of course, it should be obvious that there is no single ''best" choice for syngas
preparation. Every site has its own particulars, which demand consideration, and every
project has specific goals that must be met. These circumstances affect what is
considered the optimum choice in any given instance.
However, the following apply generally. Steam reforming of natural gas will undoubtedly
continue as the process of choice for most new methanol installations. Energy efficiency
for this route is competitive; the reliability is such that on-stream factors of well over
90% are possible, and the capital cost will generally be the most attractive of all
potential alternatives. Single-train capabilities of up to 3000 tpd are possible with this
proven technology.
Coal gasification and partial oxidation alternatives appear to be niche applications that fit
only in select and special cases. These processes are more complex and less reliable than
steam reforming and are higher in capital cost. Nonetheless, future special-purpose
applications may favor these technologies, such as in combined cycle power generation.
In this case, a coal gas feed linked to a liquid-phase synloop may be an attractive design
alternative.
Combined reforming and heat-exchange reforming both are somewhat more efficient
than steam reforming. At this point, use of a reforming exchanger-based system appears
to offer the lowest energy consumption with the minimum amount of equipment required.
Both processes are expected to cost more than a steam reforming-based plant. Other
benefits may swing the decision in favor of one of these options, however, even at lower
gas costs.
Combined reforming seems particularly attractive for maximizing production when
retrofitting an existing ammonia plant for methanol production.
3.4
Steam Reforming of Natural Gas to Methanol
Natural gas is the most common raw material used in the manufacture of methanol. More
than 75% of all the methanol produced worldwide is produced from natural gas. The flow
scheme for a typical large-capacity methanol plant is depicted in Figure 23. The
processing steps include feed gas pretreatment, steam reforming, waste heat recovery,
synthesis gas compression, methanol synthesis, and distillation.

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Figure 23
Simplified methanol flow diagram.

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3.4.1
Pretreatment
The natural gas feedstock must be clean and dry. The sulfur compounds normally found
in pipeline natural gas must be removed to prevent poisoning and subsequent
deactivation of the reforming and methanol synthesis catalysts. Starting with pipeline
natural gas typically containing no more than 50 ppmv sulfur, the natural gas stream is
heated to 260C. A small amount of hydrogen recycle is added so that the organic sulfur
compounds are hydrogenated to H2S across a CoMo or NiMo catalyst, and subsequently
the H2S is absorbed on a bed of ZnO catalyst. In this manner the sulfur content of the
feedstock is typically reduced to less than 0.1 ppmv. Zinc oxide beds used in this type of
application are typically sized for a minimum bed life of 6 months to 1 year. The most
common arrangement is to allow two ZnO beds to operate in series, with actual bed
change based on an observation of interbed sulfur breakthrough.
Higher hydrocarbons present in natural gas can be beneficial to the production of
methanol but detrimental to the operation of the reformer. Hydrocarbons higher than
methane contain a higher ratio of carbon to hydrogen and generate a more stoichiometric
synthesis gas. For a given heat content a heavier gas produces more methanol than a gas
containing methane only. The fired reformer performance can be adversely affected by
higher hydrocarbons, however, resulting in uneven heat flux in the catalyst-filled reformer
tubes and the potential for hot bands and carbon formation in the tubes.
An adiabatic reformer (prereformer) upstream of the fired reformer permits the use of
heavier feedstocks while reducing the load on the reformer for higher throughput and
improved efficiency [21]. After desulfurization, the feedstock and steam are heated to
500550C and passed through a bed of special nickel/alumina prereforming catalyst. The
reactions occur adiabatically, and all higher hydrocarbons are converted to methane; a
portion of the methane is reformed to hydrogen and carbon monoxide. The process gas
cools as the reactions take place, and the prereformer effluent is then reheated before
entering the reformer tubes. A prereformer provides a portion of the reforming load, and
therefore a smaller reformer can be used. Also, fuel need not be burned to heat the
prereformer feed since the temperatures are low enough that process or flue gas heat
can be used. This permits a more efficient design and less generation of nitrous oxides.
Figure 24 displays a schematic for a typical prereformer installation.
Prereforming is not a widely used practice, due in part to the limited number of
commercially available catalysts and more specifically to the wide use of light natural gas
feedstocks for methanol manufacture. In recent years more active and stronger
prereforming catalysts have been successfully demonstrated in commercial operation,
and these will likely be used more frequently when heavy

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Figure 24
Prereformer flow diagram.
feedstocks, such as LPG and naphtha, are used as a methanol plant feedstock. With
prereforming, the plant operator may operate a fired reformer at more or less normal
steam-carbon ratios while using conventional nonpromoted catalysts and higher
hydrocarbon feeds.
3.4.2
Steam Reforming
Following feed pretreatment, the next step in the preparation of methanol synthesis gas
is the steam reforming of the natural gas to form a mix of hydrogen and carbon oxides.
Two principal reactions take place in the steam reformer: reforming [Eq. (29)] and water-
gas shift [Eq. (20)]. The predominant reaction taking place is the steam reforming of
methane [Eq. (21)].
The overall reaction within the reformer is endothermic, and conversion is enhanced by
high temperature, low pressure, and high steam-carbon ratios.
The steam reformer is a large process furnace in which catalyst-filled tubes are heated
externally by direct firing to provide the necessary heat for the reactions taking place
inside the reformer tubes. In methanol service, fired tubular reformers typically come in
two principal types: downfired and side-fired.
In the downfired design the burners are located at the top of the furnace alongside the
top of the reformer tubes. The feed gas and hot flue gas flow in parallel down the length
of the tube. The tubes are manifolded together to collect the synthesis gas, which passes
back up through the furnace in riser pipes that collect more heat before passing into the
effluent transfer line and out of

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the reformer. Some top-fired designs allow a bottom exit where gas exits the catalyst
filled tubes through pigtails before passing to external collection manifolds. The flue gas
is pulled out of the radiant section of the reformer through the convection section, where
additional heat is extracted to increase overall furnace efficiency before final discharge to
the atmosphere.
Contractors offering downfired furnaces for methanol applications include ICI licensees,
such as Davy Technology (division of John Brown) and Humphreys and Glasgow, Uhde,
KTI, and The M. W. Kellogg Company. (See Figs. 25 and 26.)
Side-fired furnaces have many small burners located at each side of the radiant box, firing
directly at a centrally located single row of tubes. For large plants, typically two or more
cells are required. Selas and Topse offer furnaces of this design.
The Foster Wheeler reformer furnace is a Terrace-Wall furnace. The unique feature of this
side-fired design is the burner location (Fig. 27 and 28). The burners are directed at the
walls of the furnace, which radiate heat to the tubes. As with the top-fired reformer, the
process gas enters the top and passes to the bottom. Unlike many top-fired furnaces, the
terrace-walled furnace tubes have
Figure 25
Steam reformer at Cape Horn Methanol plant near Cabo Negro, Chile.

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Figure 26
Kellogg downfired steam reformer.
an exit at the bottom of the reformer. The flue gases pass up and out the top of the
reformer. Burners are located along the walls of the furnace principally at two distinct
locations, the upper and lower terraces. Functionally the two types of furnaces are the
same. They provide the heat required for the process reactions and recover heat from the
flue gas to increase the efficiency of the furnace.
Until the 1980s most reformer furnaces were constructed using centrifugally cast 25%
chromium and 20% nickel (HK-40) alloy tubes. More recently, however, a higher strength
25% chromium and 35% nickel-niobium (HP modified) cast tube is being used. The
newer tube material is stronger (as evidenced by greatly improved stress-to-rupture
properties) and can result in thinner tubes containing less net metal for the same design
tube life.
The radiant box of the reformer is typically about 50% efficient. Thus, to ensure a
thermodynamically efficient operation, the heat liberated but not absorbed in the
reforming reaction must be recovered in the convection section of the reforming furnace.
Typically the reformer flue gases are reduced to about 150C, resulting in an overall
furnace efficiency of 9293%.
Hot flue gases are typically used to heat mixed streams of steam and natural gas feed to
the reformer, steam only, fuel gas, boiler feedwater, and combustion air.

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Figure 27
Foster Wheeler steam reformer.
(Photograph courtesy of Foster Wheeler Corporation.)
3.4.3
Waste Heat Recovery
The methanol synthesis gas exiting the reformer is much hotter than required for the
methanol synthesis reaction. To increase the efficiency of the process this waste heat is
recovered back into the process just as the heat in the reformer flue gas is recovered to
increase furnace efficiency. The process gas leaves the reformer typically at about
860880C and first enters a steam boiler for the recovery of excess process heat. The
steam raised in the boiler (after it has been superheated) is then used to provide motive
power for compressor turbines and/ or process steam to the reformer.
There are two principal types of boilers for this steam generation downstream of the
reformer: fired-tube boilers and water-tube boilers. In fired-tube boilers the hot process
gas passes through the tubes of the boiler, steam being generated on the shellside. This
Tubular Exchange Manufacturers Association BEM exchanger uses a fixed tube sheet
design that does not permit the shell and tubes to grow thermally independent of each
other. As a result this exchanger is constructed with a thick tube sheet and shell and
high-strength connections between

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Figure 28
Terraced-wall steam reformer.
(Courtesy of Foster Wheeler Corporation.)

Page 107
the tubes and tube sheet. An alternative design for a fired-tube boiler is provided by
Borsig (Fig. 29 and 30). The Borsig boiler uses a thin but strengthened tube sheet to
reduce the impact of differential thermal growth on stress encountered in the tube-tube
sheet joints. These types of boilers have found wide application in commercial methanol
facilities.
Water-tube boilers, as the name implies, have water inside the heat-exchanger tubes,
where steam is generated; the hot process gases are on the shell side. Water-tube
boilers are partial vaporization boilers requiring some form of water circulation through
the tubes to keep the tubes from becoming dry. This circulation is accomplished by
pumping or natural circulation through an elevated steam drum. One such water-tube
boiler is a floating-head heat exchanger as used by Kellogg (Fig. 31). With this design the
differential thermal growth between the shell and tubes is taken up by the expansion
joint, and the bundle can be removed from the shell for repair or replacement.
The high-temperature process heat is normally recovered through steam generation;
however, to make the overall process efficient, lower temperature process heat must also
be used. Therefore, processes normally pick up the heat after the high-pressure boiler
and use it to reboil the distillation columns in the purification section, raise low-pressure
steam, and heat boiler feedwater or
Figure 29
Borsig fired-tube boiler.
(Photograph courtesy of Babcock Borsig.)

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Figure 30
Borsig boiler showing strengthened tube sheet.
(Courtesy of Babcock Borsig.)
demineralized feedwater to the deaerator. Final cooling before compression is generally
by heat rejection to cooling water.
3.4.4
Compression
At this point the synthesis gas is low in poisons, such as sulfur, and of the correct
composition to react to methanol over the synthesis catalyst in the synthesis loop.
Commercial methanol synthesis loops operate at 510 MPa (50100 atm) and the reforming
takes place at 1.52 MPa (1520 atm) for typical steam reforming. Therefore the synthesis
gas must be compressed (makeup gas compression) before conversion to methanol. The
methanol synthesis reaction is a gas-phase equilibrium reaction, with about 48%
conversion of the reactants to methanol achieved per pass across the catalyst bed or
beds. Therefore it is necessary to condense crude methanol from the reactor effluent and
then compress and recycle the unreacted reactants back through the reactor(s). In all
large methanol plants this compression is accomplished with centrifugal compressors.
Some processes combine the recycle compression and makeup gas compression in the
same compressor. Other processes have separate makeup and recycle compressors. The
combined makeup and recycle compressor has the advantages of a single compressor,
but at the same time the speed of the recycle compressor section must be the same as
the makeup compressor section. Having a single compressor train gives this concept a
cost advantage. On the other hand, effi-

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Figure 31
Floating-head water-tube boiler.

Page 110
ciency is lost when the compressor operates away from its design point, and as methanol
synthesis catalyst ages, varying amounts of recycle are needed for peak efficiency.
By separating the recycle compressor from the makeup compressor, the amount of
recycle can be varied independently of the makeup compression required. Makeup gas
compression is most dependent upon production rate. Recycle is most dependent upon
methanol synthesis catalyst activity. As the catalyst deactivates, more and more
recirculation is required. With a separate recycle compressor the recycle compression step
operates efficiently over the full range of flow. When the recycle compressor is connected
to the makeup compressor, the combined unit must operate inefficiently part of the time.
It is somewhat more costly to have two separate compressors, but for efficiency reasons
a separate recirculation compressor is normally chosen. Having a separate recycle
compressor can also be beneficial for synthesis catalyst reduction purposes.
3.4.5
Methanol Synthesis
Central to the manufacture of methanol is the methanol synthesis catalyst. This Cu-Zn
catalyst is poisoned by even small amounts of sulfur or chlorine compounds. Also, the
catalyst is permanently deactivated by certain abnormal operating conditions, such as
high temperatures and abnormally low CO2/CO ratios. Considerable attention is given to
controlling the conditions around the catalyst to maintain a highly active and selective
catalyst.
The methanol conversion reactions are exothermic, and the heat of reaction is removed
in each process to increase the conversion per pass through the reactor system. There
are three basic types of gas-phase reactor systems: quench, isothermal, and intercooled.
ICI introduced the low-pressure methanol process with a quench reactor system. The ICI
process is the most widely used, and therefore there are many quench reactors in
methanol service. Other reactor systems have been developed over the years to improve
upon the thermodynamics of the system, including pseudoisothermal reactors as used by
Lrgi and Linde and intercooled reactors as used by Topse and Kellogg. These reactors
are described in Section 3.2.5.
After passing across the catalyst to reach the maximum methanol concentration, the
crude methanol, including water and reaction by-product impurities, is condensed from
the synthesis gas. This crude methanol is sent to the purification section of the plant for
further processing into product methanol; the noncondensables, including the reactant
hydrogen, carbon monoxide, and carbon dioxide, are recycled and recompressed to pass
across the synthesis catalyst again.

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In plants with nonstoichiometric feedstocks, which is the case for most plants, hydrogen
and methane build up in the synthesis loop and must be purged. The purge gas is
generally used as fuel in the fired reformer.
3.4.6
Distillation and Methanol Purification
U.S. federal grade specification O-M-232e identifies three grades of methanol. Grade C is
for wood alcohol used in denaturing. Grade A covers methanol generally used as a
solvent. Federal grade AA is the purest product and is used for chemical applications in
which high purity and low ethanol content are required, such as for methyl tert-butyl
ether manufacture [22]. The general standard observed by the industry for methanol
product purity is U.S. federal grade AA (Table 8).
Crude methanol as removed from the synthesis section contains water and impurities,
which must be removed before the product is ready for commercial use. Although fuel-
grade methanol can be produced with a single distillation tower, two, three, and
sometimes even four tower distillation systems are used to produce federal grade AA
methanol. The amount of distillation required is dependent upon the by-product
formation of the methanol synthesis catalyst, which includes esters, ethers, ketones,
aldehydes, higher alcohols, and parafinic hydrocarbons. The amount of by-product is
dependent upon the type and age of the synthesis catalyst and the operating conditions
in the loop. The most problematic impurity is ethanol.
Table 8 Specification of U.S. Federal Grade AA Methanol
Component Grade AA
Ethanol, mg/kg < 10
Acetone, mg/kg < 20
Total acetone and aldehyde, mg/kg < 30
Acid (as acetic acid), mg/kg < 30
Color index (APHA)a < 5
Sulfuric acid test (APHA) < 30
Boiling point range, I C < 1
Dry residue, mg/L < 10
Density (20C), g/cm3 0.7928
Permanganate number, min > 30
Methanol content, wt% > 99.85
Water content, wt% < 0.10
a American Public Health Association.

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The first column of any multicolumn system is the topping column, which operates at
about 60 kPa (0.6 atm) to remove light ends (ethers, ketones, and aldehydes) and any
dissolved gases remaining in the crude methanol, including hydrogen, methane, carbon
oxides, and nitrogen. The topping column bottoms (sometimes referred to as ''topped"
crude) are further purified in one, two, or three refining columns.
The two-column system (Fig. 32) uses a single atmospheric refining column to separate
the methanol from water and the higher alcohols (often referred to as fusel oil). Final
separation is difficult and requires a large number of distillation stages. Particularly
difficult is the ethanol-methanol separation, and one of the more common problems with
off-specification methanol is ethanol in excess of 10 ppm. The product methanol is
withdrawn a few trays down from the top of the refining column. The top of the column is
used to reflux the column and separate any light ends that may have passed the topping
column. The higher boiling alcohols more farther down the column and are extracted a
few trays from the bottom. This methanol stream containing the heavier hydrocarbons,
such as paraffins and higher alcohols, is commonly called fusel oil. The fusel oil has
traditionally been burned in the primary reformer or utility boiler or further processed to
separate the methanol from the by-products. Water is re-
Figure 32
Two-column methanol distillation.

Page 113
moved from the bottom of the refining column. This water is generally sent to some form
of biological treatment to remove any organics.
In the three-column system (Fig. 33) the topping column bottoms passes first to a
pressurized refining column and then to an atmospheric refining column. Federal grade
AA methanol is withdrawn close to the top of both refining columns. Although the three-
column system is more costly, it can reduce the required distillation heat input by 3040%
[23].
Occasionally a four-column distillation system is used, but most modern processes use
either a two- or three-column system to produce U.S. federal grade AA methanol.
Multicolumn systems (three or more columns; Fig. 33) can generally only be justified
when the cost of energy is prohibitively high.
3.4.7
Energy and Utility Systems
A methanol plant is very energy intensive. The theoretical energy required to convert
pure methane to methanol and hydrogen, Equation (27), is 5.97 Gcal (LHV)/t, and the
theoretical energy required to produce methanol from ethane, Equation (30), is 5.32 Gcal
(LHV)/t:
Figure 33
Three-column methanol distillation.

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As the carbon content of the feedstock increases, the theoretical energy required to
produce methanol decreases. This is why heavier feedstocks are often used for methanol
production.
Because carbon is the limiting factor, the carbon conversion to methanol, also referred to
as carbon efficiency, is an important operating parameter for overall energy efficiency.
Carbon efficiency is a measure of how much carbon in the feed is converted to methanol
product. There are two commonly used carbon efficiencies, one for the overall plant and
one for the methanol synthesis loop. For the overall plant all the carbon-containing
components in the process feedstock from the battery limits and the methanol product
from the refining column are considered. For a typical plant and natural gas feedstock, an
overall carbon efficiency is about 75%. The methanol synthesis loop carbon efficiency for
the same plant is about 93%. The synthesis loop carbon efficiency is calculated using
only the carbon in the reactive components in the makeup gas (CO and CO2). Carbon in
the form of methane is not considered because it is inert in the methanol synthesis
reaction and is ultimately purged from the loop and burned. The carbon in the product for
this calculation is that in the form of methanol in the crude leaving the methanol
synthesis loop.
The means by which the unreacted synthesis gas and by-products are used in the process
have a significant impact on overall energy consumption. Hydrogen is purged from the
synthesis loop, combined with the light ends from the topping columns and the refining
column, and burned in the reformer. In other words, all the process gas purge streams
are burned in the reformer, making use of these streams as fuel. The higher boiling by-
products are contained in the fusel oil, which in most operations are also burned in the
reformer. By burning almost everything but the product methanol in the high thermal
efficiency reformer, none of the process feedstock is wasted. In many instances the purge
from the process provides about 90% of the total fuel burned in the reformer.
Natural gas-based methanol plants typically consume 7.27.8 Gcal (LHV)/ t, depending on
project specifics. How the fuel and process heat are used has a significant impact on the
overall process energy consumption.
Heat is needed in the distillation steps, and steam is required for reforming and shift
reactions. Heat is liberated in the reformer and the methanol synthesis reactors. The
more efficient processes integrate the heat for distillation with the process waste heat,
but even these processes must find a use for the excess process heat. Usually more
steam is raised than is required for the process, and the excess may be exported or used
to generate electrical power.
Figure 34 shows a typical methanol plant steam balance. High-pressure steam is
generated downstream of the primary reformer, where the process temperature is the
highest. The high-pressure steam is superheated in the convection

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Figure 34
Simplified methanol plant steam balance.

Page 116
section of the primary reformer, where the flue gases are the hottest. Work is extracted
from this superheated high-pressure steam in the steam turbine driving the synthesis gas
compressor as the steam pressure drops to the medium-pressure level. This medium-
pressure steam is then used as process steam in the primary reformer as well as for other
power requirements.
The third level of steam pressure is referred to as intermediate-pressure steam. Steam at
this pressure may be generated between stages of the methanol reaction (for intercooled
loops). The steam pressure is set to remove the heat of reaction while protecting the
temperature-sensitive catalyst from excessively high temperatures. The lowest pressure
steam is used to reboil the distillation columns. Most of the steam is condensed, polished,
and recycled back to the deaerator. From the deaerator the boiler feedwater is heated by
the process and used to make steam, once again completing the steam generation cycle.
How the process heat and reformer flue gas heat are used has a significant effect on the
efficiency of the process. In all modern processes the furnace thermal efficiency is 90+%.
Additionally, the process heat generators are matched with heat users so that the overall
process is highly efficient.
3.5
Environmental Considerations for a Natural Gas Plant
3.5.1
Effluents
The manufacture of methanol from natural gas using steam reforming is a relatively clean
and environmentally safe process. Methanol is a chemical that is manufactured in large
quantities, and compared with other chemical and petrochemical processes, the methanol
process is not found to be a serious polluter. Despite a long record of clean operation,
attention is being focused on all chemical manufacturing processes, including methanol.
Table 9 lists the contaminants present in various effluents of a methanol plant.
CO2 is generated in the reformer furnace combustion zone as natural gas is burned to
produce the heat required for the endothermic reforming reaction. The reduction of CO2
emissions is an environmental objective of modern methanol processes. By reducing CO2
generation, the impact of methanol production on global warming can be reduced.
The flue gas from the reformer contains NOx, CO2, and occasionally volatile organic
carbon (VOC) and particulates. Since the VOC and particulates are not present in any
significant amount in a reformer using natural gas as fuel, they present no danger to the
environment. CO2 emissions are of concern and are directly related to the energy
consumption of the process. Therefore, most of the effort to reduce CO2 emissions
parallels the effort to make the processes

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Table 9 Contaminants from Various Sources in a Methanol Plant
Methanol plant effluents Contaminantsa
Reformer flue gas NOx, VOC, particulates
Process condensate TDS, TSS
Light ends Ethers, ketones, aldehydes
Fusel oil Methanol, higher alcohols
Process water Methanol, heavy hydrocarbons, wax
Storage tank vent Methanol
Spent catalyst Various metals
Steam drum blowdown TDS, TSS
Cooling tower blowdown TDS, TSS
Surface water Oil
a TDS, total dissolved solids; TSS, total suspended solids.
more energy efficient. NOx emissions, however, are not affected merely by the amount of
fuel consumed. The amount of NOx generation is dependent on how the fuel is burned.
Most plants in operation today control NOx by controlling NOx-forming compounds in the
fuel. By using a clean fuel gas and controlled combustion, the NOx concentration in the
flue gas remains low.
Process condensate collected from the front end of the plant is condensed steam and
therefore quite clean except for traces of solids and a small amount of dissolved gases.
The process condensate is stripped with steam and then sent to a demineralizer unit,
where the solids are removed from the water so it can be recycled as boiler feedwater.
The volatile by-products are carried with the steam into the reformer, where they are
reprocessed.
At several points in the back end of the process, volatile by-products are removed. These
light ends are combined and sent to the reformer to be used as fuel.
Fusel oil is taken off the refining column. It is comprised mostly of methanol and higher
alcohols, which are easily burned as fuel in the reformer or a utility boiler. Generally,
existing operations burn the fusel oil. With the current U.S. environmental regulations,
specifically the Clean Air Act Amendment of 1990, fusel oil must be considered a
hazardous waste, which makes it much more difficult to dispose of by burning.
Biological treatment breaks down methanol almost completely. Large quantities of
methanol must be prevented from mixing with groundwater to avoid contamination of
drinking water, but liquid effluents containing methanol can be biologically treated and
oxidized to form methane and water [24].

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One of the large-volume by-products of methanol manufacture is water (0.2 ton/ton),
which is discharged from the bottom of the refining column. This water contains methanol
and some higher alcohols, ketones, and paraffins. The refining column bottoms are
skimmed or filtered to remove paraffins and then sent to a biological treatment unit,
where the impurities are digested. The water effluent from the biological treatment unit
is clean enough to be discharged into the surface water.
There are other effluents besides refining column bottoms from the manufacture of
methanol. Effluents include steam system blowdown, surface water contaminated with
oil, reformer flue gas, and the methanol storage tank vent.
The steam system blowdown contains dissolved solids but is clean and usually discharged
directly to the surface water.
Area drains may contain oily water originating from oil drips and drains around the
compressors and other lubricated machinery. Process spills of methanol can also make
their way to the surface water around the plant. Typically the sewers in and around the
plant are collected and discharged to a holding basin, where the surface water is
analyzed before discharge.
In recent years, much more attention has been directed at methanol discharge to the
atmosphere. This has resulted in improved schemes for capturing methanol vapor
emissions from the atmospheric methanol storage tanks. Frequently the tank vent is
scrubbed to absorb the methanol vapors, or the vapors are recompressed and the
methanol condensed and returned to storage.
3.5.2
Alternative Treatments
Environmental regulations are changing rapidly toward less and less pollution in chemical
plant effluents. This has led to alternative methods of processing and treating what once
was discharged. Current environmental regulations in the United States require treating
fusel oil as a hazardous waste. Thus a permit must now be issued to methanol
manufacturers if they wish to burn fusel oil. Fusel oil burning was common in former
designs. Modern designs have found alternative methods of disposing of fusel oil. One
such design by Kellogg, shown in Fig. 35, separates the carbon-bearing components in a
fusel oil stripper and recycles them to make more methanol product. The water and
unremoved hydrocarbons are treated together with refining column bottoms.
Considerable attention has been given to the reformer stack and the NOx and CO2
contained there. NOx can be removed at the source or removed after it is generated.
Reduction can occur by lowering the combustion air temperature, eliminating or reducing
the amount of purge gas burned, injecting steam into the combustion zone, or using "low-
NOx" staged burners.

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Figure 35
Kellogg unitized stripper for combined treatment of fusel oil and process condensate.
Combustion modifications through changes in operating conditions and burner design are
NOx control techniques that have been successfully demonstrated on utility boilers and
other stationary combustion sources. The reformer in most methanol plants operates at
relatively low excess combustion air levels (1020%). Reducing emissions by further
lowering excess air is not practical. However, burner redesign is a very effective means of
controlling NOx.
So-called low-NOx burners have been successfully demonstrated and have earned wide
industry acceptance. Favored low-NOx techniques include staging the combustion air (Fig.
36) and staging the fuel (Fig. 37). Staged fuel is pre-

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Figure 36
Staged air burner.
(Courtesy of the John Zink Company.)
ferred over staged air as the low-NOx burner design most widely adopted by burner
vendors. By minimizing the peak flame temperature and controlling the nitrogen-oxygen
contact in the hottest zones, NOx formation can be significantly reduced.
The inherent drawback of any technique used to control NOx emissions by lowering flame
temperature is that CO emissions will increase. Using staged fuel, low-NOx burners, the
CO concentration in the flue gas can be expected to rise. A CO concentration of 50100
ppmv in the flue gas is considered a good compromise with low-NOx burners.
If low-NOx burners cannot lower the NOx to an acceptable level, selective catalytic
reduction of the NOx in the flue gas is an alternative method of treatment that converts
the NOx to nitrogen and water.

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Figure 37
Staged fuel burner.
(Courtesy of the John Zink Company.)
Combined reforming, in which an autothermal reformer is used downstream of the
primary reformer, is another means of reducing NOx and CO2 generation: a portion of the
reforming occurs in the autothermal reformer, where oxygen is consumed, and the duty
on the primary reformer is reduced. Since the heat in the primary reformer is supplied by
burning a hydrocarbon, natural gas, the reduction in fuel burned results in a reduction in
NOx and CO2 generated.

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Once autothermal reforming is added to the process, the NOx and CO2 generation can be
reduced even further by incorporating a reforming exchanger. Heat exchange reforming
uses the heat liberated in the autothermal reformer to provide the heat required in the
primary reforming reaction without the need for burning fuel. See Section 3.3.5.
3.6
Project Economics
Methanol producers compete in the commodity chemical business. Thus, their ability to
produce the product at a cost-competitive price is essential. Any new methanol plant
must deal with this issue, and by and large, the operator must approach a project with
the intent of being a low-cost producer.
In this section both qualitative and quantitative data on the sensitivity to project
economics are provided relative to major variables of natural gas cost, methanol price,
capacity utilization, plant size, and plant cost.
3.6.1
Basis
The material presented here is based on using natural gas feed in a straight reforming
process scheme for producing the synthesis gas needed for methanol production. Unless
otherwise noted, the plant has a nameplate capacity of 750,000 tpy of U.S. grade AA
methanol. Figure 38 shows such a complex.
Figure 38
Cape Horn Methanol 750,000 tpy methanol complex at Cabo Negro, Chile.

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Capital cost can vary widely, depending on plant location, utility and off-site
requirements, and infrastructure available or required. A U.S. Gulf Coast basis for costing
is generally accepted in the petrochemical industry. This is the case here. Inherent in this
position is the assumption of locating the plant at a developed site where only limited
utilities and off-sites are required, such as cooling water system, demineralized water
system, steam system, and product storage. For such a complex, the capital cost for the
battery limits plant and limited off-sites, utilities, and storage facilities required in the
1993 time frame is about $300 per annual metric ton installed capacity.
The operating staff for such a facility is shown in Figure 39. A total of 36 operating,
administration, technical, and supervisory staff are shown. Such an operating staff is
typical of this type of facility in the chemical and petrochemical industries.
The raw material and catalyst requirements typical of this 750,000 tpy methanol plant
are as follows:
Natural gas, 7.8 Gcal (LHV)/t
Electrical power, 74 kWh/t
Cooling water makeup, 8.16 m3/t
Boiler feedwater makeup, 0.85 m3/t
Catalyst cost, $1.60/t
Maintenance cost is generally represented as a percentage of the plant capital cost. For a
methanol plant like that under consideration, the typical cost, including material and
labor, is 2 1/23 1/2% per year.
3.6.2
Variable Analysis
In developing the data that follow, the following assumptions were made:
Complex consists of a battery limits plant with supporting off-sites, utilities, and storage.
Battery limits methanol plant uses natural gas in a straight reforming process scheme.
The complex is located at a developed site.
All financial analyses are based on 100% equity, 3 year project execution, and 15 year
project life, and the internal rate of return is pretax.
3.6.3
Natural Gas Cost and Methanol Price
The data in Figure 40 present project profitability as a function of natural gas cost and
methanol selling price. All gas costs are on an LHV basis.
The cost of natural gas at low methanol market prices has a significant effect on IRR. For
example, at $150/t for methanol, the IRR falls from 18.4%

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Figure 39
Typical operating staff for a methanol plant facility.
at a gas cost of $1.50/MMBtu to 11.7% at a gas cost of $2.50/MMBtu. At this level of gas
cost and methanol price, an increase of $1.00/MMBtu reduces the IRR by 6.7%. Thus, an
increase of 66% in gas cost (from $1.50 to $2.50/ MMBtu) results in a reduction in project
profitability of 35% (IRR drops from 18.4 to 11.7%).

Page 125
Figure 40
Methanol plant profitability analysis. Sensitivity to gas cost and methanol
selling price, 750,000 tpy plant size.
As dramatic as these data are, the selling price of methanol is even more so. Using a
natural gas cost of $2.50/MMBtu and a methanol selling price of $200/ t, the IRR is
21.7%. Relative to a methanol price of $150/t, the IRR increases 10%. Here, a methanol
price increase of some 33% increases project profitability by 85%.
With the data in Figure 40, one can make other differential analyses. The consistent
conclusion is that the price of methanol is the significant factor in this feedstock cost and
product price sensitivity analysis.
3.6.4
Capacity Utilization
Because methanol producers operate in the commodity market, they are particularly
sensitive to product availability, which can directly affect product selling price. Thus, all
new projects are undertaken to position the new plant operator as a low-cost producer.
Gas cost, as we have seen, plays a large part in this overall approach. As such, many
projects are placed in gas-rich areas of the world, which can mean a remote location.
What happens to project profitability as capacity utilizationplant reliabilitychanges is
shown in Figure 41. These data are represented for a gas cost of $2.00/MMBtu.

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Figure 41
Methanol project profitability analysis. Sensitivity to capacity utilization.
Natural gas cost of $2/MMBtu, 750,000 tpy plant size.
In all the analyses presented in this chapter, a capacity utilization factor of 90% is used
unless otherwise noted, as in Figure 41. It appears that currently the overall utilization
factor for methanol plants on a global basis is around 85%, maybe slightly more. Some
plants appear to have capacity utilization factors much lower, for example, 80% and less.
In a relatively low-price methanol market, the effect of plant reliability is particularly
significant. From Figure 41, with methanol at $150/t, the plant that operates at a 80%
capacity utilization has an IRR of 11.8%; the plant that operates at a 90% capacity
utilization has a 15.3% IRR. Increasing the reliability of the plant from 80 to 90%
improves project profitability by about 30%.
When methanol prices are better, the change in IRR is less dramatic; however, the loss of
potential profit is still significant. In addition to IRR data, net present value (NPV) data
were also developed. NPV was computed at a 10% discount rate over the 15 year life of
the project.
Following are NPV data for the 80, 90, and 95% capacity utilization plants at a selling
price of $200/t:

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Capacity utilization (%) NPVa $000,000
80 199.4
90 279.1
95 317.4
a Millions of dollars, with gas cost at $2/MMBtu and methanol at
$200/t.
The plant that achieves a 95% capacity utilization has an NPV of $317,400,000 on the
same basis. Again, relative to the less reliable 80% capacity utilization plant, this
represents a significant increase of about 59%.
These data lead to a clear conclusion: plant reliability is essential in positioning the
operator to be a low-cost producer and in maximizing profits.
3.6.5
Plant Size
Thus far we have considered a large-scale plant of 750,000 tpy. Plants of about this size
are about the largest in operation today. Smaller plant sizes for some projects are being
considered. In general, however, there is a price to pay for smaller plants in the chemical
process industries, and methanol is no exception.
Figure 42 shows the project profitability sensitivity for plant sizes of 250,000, 500,000,
and 750,000 tpy. These data were developed for a gas cost of $2/ MMBtu. These data
show that plant size for a given methanol price dramatically affects profitability. The
smaller 250,000 tpy plant has an IRR of 13.6% with methanol at $200/t; the larger
750,000 tpy plant has an IRR of 24.2% at the same methanol price. Changing from the
smallest to the largest plant improves project profitability by about 80%. Clearly, there
must be special circumstances to warrant the small plant. There may be such reasons as
market size, distribution system, plant location, and captive use that lead to a small plant
project.
Figure 43 is a reorganization of the data in Figure 42 to a format that can be used to give
the small plant investor a quantitative understanding of selling price disadvantage
relative to the larger plants. For example, if one assumes a constant IRR of 15%, the
selling price of methanol from the 750,000 tpy plant is about $149/t; for the 250,000 tpy
plant the selling price is about $212/t. Thus the smaller plant has a selling price
disadvantage of some $63/t. If the smaller plant operator will compete on a free market
basis, this disadvantage must be overcome. Gas price is a consideration; for the complex
considered here, $1.00/ MMBtu change in gas cost, if passed through to methanol price,
has an impact

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Figure 42
Methanol project profitability analysis. Sensitivity to plant size.
Natural gas cost of $2/MMBtu.
Figure 43
Methanol project profitability analysis. Sensitivity to plant size. Natural gas
cost of 2/MMBtu.

Page 129
of about $30/t. Transportation and distribution are other items that can play important
roles.
The data show rather clearly, however, that on the same basis, the smaller plant is at a
significant disadvantage competing in the marketplace.
3.6.6
Plant Capital Cost
One of the most significant factors affecting plant capital cost is location. Capital cost is
influenced by whether the site is developed or grass roots. Developed sites generally
have basic utilities, such as electrical power and water. Grass roots sites typically require
the inclusion of such utility systems for the project. Additionally, at some grass roots and
undeveloped sites, there is little or no local infrastructure to support the construction
activity. A construction camp may be required, as well as imported construction labor.
Alternatively, the project can adopt modular construction to offset the need for a large
construction force.
These factors can significantly affect plant cost. Depending on project specifics, location
factor can in some instances lead to an increase of as much as 60% in plant cost.
For a methanol plant sited in a gas-rich area that is not developed, the increase in plant
cost affects project profitability. The data in Figure 44 show the sensitivity of plant cost
on project IRR. For example, with a gas cost of $2.00/ MMBtu, a $175/t selling price for
methanol, and plant cost of 100, 120, and 140%, the project IRR are 20.1, 16.9, and
14.3%, respectively. However, the incentive to locate at a gas-rich undeveloped site is
generally that the cost for natural gas is relatively low.
Data from Figure 44 can be used to develop a quantitative understanding of what the
relatively low gas cost and high plant cost do to project profitability.
A way of making such an analysis is to consider projects at sites where the plant cost is
100, 120, and 140%, IRR at 15%, and a methanol selling price of $175/t and determine
the corresponding gas cost. For this example the results are as follows:
Plant cost (%) Natural gas cost ($/MMBtu)
100 2.85
120 2.35
140 1.85

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Figure 44
Methanol project profitability analysis. Sensitivity to plant cost.
Thus the plant operator at the developed site (100% plant cost) can compete with the
operator with the plant costing 140% at a $1.00/MMBtu cost disadvantage for natural gas
($2.85 to $1.85/MMBtu).
If one considers that the operator at the remote site may have additional costs, such as
increased shipping and possibly import duties, this ''gate price" is effectively reduced.
Assuming that these additional cost factors amount to $25/t, then the gate price for this
methanol in the preceding example is $175 25 = $150/t. At 120 and 140% plant cost and
$150/t methanol price, with an IRR of 15%, the corresponding natural gas cost is about
$1.55 and $1.05/MMBtu, respectively.
Thus, the operator at the developed site (100% plant cost) could compete with a gas
cost disadvantage of $2.85 1.55/MMBtu = $1.30/MMBtu and $2.85 1.05/MMBtu =
$1.80/MMBtu relative to the operators at the remote with 120 and 140% plant costs,
respectively.
There is a significant message here: with plants in remote locations costing more and
having additional costs to contend with relative to the plant at a developed site, the
operator of the plant at the developed site close to market can incur a significant natural
gas cost disadvantage and compete on a free market basis.

Page 131
References
1. E. Fiedler, G. Grossman, B. Kersebohm, G. Weiss, and C. Wite, Ullmann's Encyclopedia
of Industrial Chemistry, Vol. A16, 5th ed., F. C. H. Verlagsgesellschaft MbH, Weinheim,
1990, p. 465.
2. J. J. McKetta and W. A. Cunningham (eds.), Encyclopedia of Chemical Processing and
Design, Marcel Dekker, New York, 1988, p. 423.
3. Kirk-Othmer, Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology, 3rd ed., John Wiley & Sons, New
York, 1981, p. 400.
4. J. M. Smith and H. C. Van Ness, Introduction to Chemical Engineering
Thermodynamics, 2nd ed., McGraw-Hill, New York, 1959, p. 354.
5. W. J. Thomas and S. Portalski, Thermodynamics in methanol synthesis, Industrial and
Engineering Chemistry, 50(6):968 (June 1958).
6. L. Bissett, Chem. Eng., 84(21):155 (1977).
7. E. Fiedler, G. Grossman, B. Kersebohm, G. Weiss, and C. Witte, Ulmann's Encyclopedia
of Industrial Chemistry, Vol. A16, 5th ed., F. C. H. Verlagsgellschaft MbH, Mannheim,
1990, p. 468.
8. C. N. Satterfield, Heterogenous Catalysis in Practice, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1980.
9. W. Seyfert, Kinetischen Untersuchungen zur Methanolsynthese im vrbesserte
treibstahlreactor unter Lohen Drucken, T. H. Darmstadt, 1984.
10. W. Hasberg, M. Roth, and H. Cremer, Analyse der Betriebsparameter der Niederdruck-
Methanolsynthese, Erdoel Kohl-Erdgas-Petrochem. Brennstoff-Chem., 40:2736 (1987).
11. M. V. Twigg, Catalyst Handbook, 2nd ed., Wolfe Publishing, England, 1989, pp. 449,
450, 452.
12. E. Supp, Improved methanol process, Hydrocarbon Proc., March: 72, 73 (1981).
13. Chemical Week, November 24:48 (1982).
14. D. M. Brown, J. J. Leonard, P. Rao, and R. F. Weimer, U. S. Patent 4,910,227, High
Volumetric Production of Methanol in a Liquid Phase Reactor (assigned to Air Products
and Chemicals, Inc., Allentown, Pennsylvania), March 20, 1990.
15. S. Lee, Methanol Synthesis Technology, CRC Press, Boca Raton, Florida, 1990.
16. Kirk-Othmer Encycloped of Chemical Technology, Vol. 11, 3rd ed., John Wiley, New
York, 1980, pp. 410425.
17. Ullman's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry, Vol. A12, 5th ed., F. C. H.
Verlagsgesellschaft MbH, Weinheim, 1989.
18. R. V. Schneider, III, and J. R. LeBlanc, Choose optimal syngas route, Hydrocarbon
Proc., March:5157 (1992).
19. G. L. Farina and E. Supp, Produce syngas for methanol, Hydrocarbon Proc.,
March:7779 (1992).
20. E. Supp, Improved methanol production and conversion technologies, Energy Prog.,
5(3):127130 (September 1985).
21. D. Clark and W. Henson, AlChE Safety Symposium, Opportunities for Savings with Pre-
Reformers, 1987, Minneapolis.

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22. D. Mehta and W. Parr, Hydrocarbon Proc., 50:115 (February 1971).
23. K. Ohsaki, K. Shoji, O. Okuda, Y. Kobayashi, and H. Koshimizu, Chem. Economy Eng.
Rev., 17(5/188):34 (1985).
24. E. Fiedler, G. Grossman, B. Kersebohm, G. Weiss, and C. White, Ullman's Encyclopedia
of Industrial Chemistry, Vol. A16, 5th ed., Verlagsgesellschaft mbh, Weinheim, 1990, p.
478.

Page 133
4
Methanol to Gasoline and Olefins
Clarence D. Chang
Mobil Research and Development Corporation, Princeton, New Jersey
4.1
Conversion of Methanol to Gasoline
The Mobil methanol-to-gasoline (MTG) process is one of two current commercial
technologies for producing synthetic fluid fuels from synthesis gas. Until 1985, the sole
"synfuel" process in commercial practice was the Sasol Process (in South Africa), which is
based on classic Fischer-Tropsch chemistry and utilizes coal-derived synthesis gas. The
Sasol process produces a wide range of aliphatic hydrocarbon products, from light
paraffins to waxes, whose carbon number distribution is governed by Schulz-Flory
kinetics. The MTG process, conceived and developed in the wake of the 1973 Arab oil
embargo, is utilized in New Zealand for conversion of natural gas, via methanol, to a
regular unleaded gasoline composed mainly of isoparaffins and aromatics and low in
benzene and sulfur. Known there as the GTG (gas-to-gasoline) process, the New Zealand
facility was designed to meet one-third of that country's demand for transportation fuel,
thereby lessening their heavy dependence on foreign oil imports.
The chemical basis of the MTG process [1,2] is the direct conversion of methanol to
hydrocarbons, catalyzed by the synthetic zeolite ZSM-5 [35]. The overall stoichiometry of
the reaction is

Page 134
where (CH2)n represents the average formula of the hydrocarbon mixture produced. This
mixture is composed of olefins, aromatics, and paraffins. Since no net hydrogen is made
in the MTG reaction, stoichiometry dictates that for every aromatic ring formed, 3 mol
hydrogen must be transferred in concurrent paraffin formation (via saturation of olefins).
4.1.1
The MTG Catalyst
4.1.1.1
Composition and Structure
Although many catalysts with the capability of converting methanol to hydrocarbons have
now been identified, the synthetic zeolite ZSM-5 is the most selective and stable catalyst
discovered to date. Catalysts active for the MTG reaction are all Brnsted acids.
Zeolites are crystalline aluminosilicates having the empirical formula
where M is an exchangeable cation with valence n and x > 2. The zeolite crystal
framework is three-dimensional and is composed of TO4 tetrahedra interconnected
through sharing of oxygen atoms at their vertices. The tetrahedral central ion T may be Si
or Al, with the proviso (Loewenstein's rule) that Al-O-Al linkages be avoided. This results
in a negatively charged framework, with association cations M necessary for
electroneutrality. When M is a proton, the zeolite is a Brnsted acid. It is noted in passing
that framework T atoms may be subject to isomorphous substitution, such as Si for Al or
Ga for Al [611].
4.1.1.2
Shape Selectivity
Zeolites of catalytic utility are microporous. Such materials are permeated by channels
and cages of molecular dimensions (513 ). The interior of the zeolite is accessed via
pores having various well-defined geometrics. As a result, intracrystalline sorption can be
highly selective depending on sorbate size and shape. This phenomenon is known as
"molecular sieving" or "shape selectivity." When catalytic sites are present in the zeolite,
"shape-selective catalysis" [1214] can occur.
The zeolite ZSM-5 is characterized by pore openings consisting of 10 rings of oxygen
atoms and an intersecting channel system of straight and sinusoidal channels. The pores
associated with the two channel systems have slightly different geometry. This is shown
in Figure 1, which also compares ZSM-5 pores with 8-ring and 12-ring pores from zeolites
erionite and faujasite, respectively. Figure 2 gives a representation of the ZSM-5 pore
system, and Figure 3 provides stereoscopic views of the crystal structure.

Page 135
Figure 1
Pore geometries of typical 8-, 10-, and 12-ring zeolites.
Figure 2
The ZSM-5 pore system.

Page 136
Figure 3
Stereo-pair drawing of the ZSM-5 framework viewed along [010].
(From Ref. 5.)
Scheme 1

Page 137
Owing to its pore geometry, ZSM-5 is shape selective. It admits normal and single methyl
branched paraffins and can discriminate between certain aromatics depending on their
size and shape. For example, the diffusivity of p-xylene in ZSM-5 is 103 higher than that of
the ortho and meta isomers at ambient conditions [15].
4.1.1.3
Nature of the Active Site
As indicated, zeolites possess exchangeable cations and therefore can exist as protonic
acids. The H-zeolite can be generated either by direct hydronium exchange with mineral
acids or by thermolysis of an NH4+ precursor [16]:
4.1.2
MTG Reaction Pathway
The MTG reaction path is illustrated in Figure 4[1], which shows the variation in product
selectivity with contact time at 370C and 1 atm. The reaction path may be summarized
as follows:
where (CH2) = average formula of a paraffin-aromatic mixture, from which it is seen that
the reaction is sequential and complex. The initial stage is a rapid dehydration to an
equilibrium mixture of dimethyl ether (DME), water, and methanol. Further loss of water
affords light olefins, which subsequently undergo various reactions, including
oligomerization, cyclization, and H transfer to yield an aromatic-paraffin mixture. From
Figure 4, it is apparent that under the stated conditions these various reactions are
kinetically coupled.
Although the mechanism of aromatics (and concurrent paraffin) formation from the
intermediate olefins can readily be understood in terms of classic carbenium ion theory,
the mechanism of formation of the initial C-C bond from C1 precursors remains a mystery
and a matter of controversy at present. Unlike other alkanols, methanol lacks a b-H and
therefore cannot undergo the expected elimination reaction yielding water and a parent
olefin. Much of the controversy is centered on the genesis, nature, and fate of the
reactive "C1 moiety." For a discussion the reader is referred to several reviews on the
subject [2,79].
4.1.3
Thermochemistry
The MTG reaction is highly exothermic. This is demonstrated in Figure 5 [1], where the
heat release associated with the data in Figure 4 are plotted. The degree of
exothermicity depends on the conversion as well as the product composition.

Page 138
Figure 4
The MTG reaction path at 370C, 1 atm.
(From Ref. 1).

Page 139
Figure 5
Heat of reaction at 370C, 1 atm, as a function on contact time.
(From Ref. 1.)
In Figure 6[2], heats of reaction are plotted against C number for typical MTG
hydrocarbon products. At complete methanol conversion, DH = 400 cal/g, which would
result in an adiabatic temperature rise of ~650C. Fortunately, the sum of the heat of
vaporization of methanol and the sensible heat required to bring methanol to the reaction
temperature balances the heat of reaction, as indicated in Figure 5. This is important for
process design and optimization.
4.1.4
Hydrocarbon Product Distribution
Shown in Table 1 [1] is a typical MTG hydrocarbon product analysis. The selectivity can of
course be varied by changing reaction conditions, as shown later. The hydrocarbon
distribution displays some noteworthy features: little or no hydrogen, methane, or ethane
is produced; the carbon number range is limited mainly to C3C10 (it is fortuitous that C10
is also the normal end point of conventional gasoline); the fraction contains significant
amounts of isobutane, which will be useful for alkylate synthesis under conditions in
which light olefins are brought into balance with isobutane; and the aromatics are nearly
exclusively methyl substituted.

Page 140
Figure 6
Heats of reaction in the formation of select hydrocarbons from methanol at 600 K.
(From Ref. 2.)
The typical MTG aromatics distribution is shown in detail in Table 2 [1], along with the
calculated (normalized) thermodynamic equilibrium values. The xylenes are seen to be
essentially at equilibrium, but departure from equilibrium distribution becomes more
pronounced with higher aromatics.
A characteristic aromatic constituent of ZSM-5-catalyzed MTG is durene (1,2,4,5-
tetramethylbenzene), which is the predominant C10 aromatic, although it is not the
thermodynamically favored tetramethylbenzene isomer. This is a consequence of catalyst
shape selectivity, wherein the more bulky isomers can-

Page 141
Table 1 Typical MTG Hydrocarbon Distribution
Reaction conditions
T, C 371
LHSV, hr1 1.0
Conversion, % 100.0
Hydrocarbon distribution, wt%
Methane 1.0
Ethane 0.6
Ethylene 0.5
Propane 16.2
Propylene 1.0
i-Butane 18.7
n-Butane 5.6
Butenes 1.3
i-Pentane 7.8
n-Pentane 1.3
Pentenes 0.5
C6+ aliphatics 4.3
Benzene 1.7
Toluene 10.5
Ethylbenzene 0.8
Xylenes 17.2
C9 aromatics 7.5
C10 aromatics 3.3
0.2
not diffuse through the pore. It is believed that these isomers are trapped in the more
spacious channel intersections and must isomerize to the symmetrical isomer before they
can escape. Evidence in support of this view may be found in the work Schulz et al. [20],
who used HF to dissolve ZSM-5 after MTG reaction, extracted the residue with CH2Cl2,
and identified polyalkyl aromatics, mostly mononuclear, but too bulky to exit the zeolite
pores (''ship-in-the-bottle" effect), and Anderson and Klinowski [21], who found by 13C
nuclear magnetic resonance, significant amounts of intracrystalline durene during MTG
reaction. The accumulation of higher aromatics in the zeolite channel intersections may
therefore be a major contributor to reversible catalyst aging.
Since durene is a solid under ambient conditions (melting point 79.3C), it was
determined based on driveability tests and marketing factors that it would be preferable
to reduce its content to < 5% in the finished gasoline even though

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Table 2 Typical Aromatics Distribution (normalized) in MTG Hydrocarbons
Normalized distribution (wt%) Approach to equilibriuma
Benzene 4.1
Toluene 25.6
Ethylbenzene 1.9
Xylenes
Ortho 9.0 0.90
Meta 22.8 1.04
Para 10.0 1.02
Trimethylbenzenes
1,2,3 0.9 0.82
1,2,4 11.1 1.19
1,3,5 2.1 0.57
Ethyltoluenes
Ortho 0.7
Meta + para 4.1
Isopropylbenzene 0.2
Tetramethylbenzenes
1,2,3,4 0.4 0.58
1,2,3,5 1.9 0.87
1,2,4,5 2.0 1.39
Other A10b 2.7
0.4
a Ratio of observed to equilibrium values (normalized) at 370C.
b Diethylbenzenes + dimethyl ethylbenezenes.
its octane rating is high [22]. In the New Zealand plant (see later) this is accomplished by
hydrofinishing the heavier gasoline fractions. Higher durene concentrations may be
tolerable in warmer climates or in cars equipped with fuel injection.
4.1.5
Kinetic Parameters
4.1.5.1
Pressure Effects
The main effect of varying feed partial pressure is to change the relative rates of olefin
formation and aromatization. Reducing pressure decouples the two reactions; increasing
pressure enhances their overlap. This phenomenon is represented in Figure 7 [23], where
the shaded areas highlight the extent of over-

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Figure 7
Effect of pressure at 370C on the MTG reaction path.
(From Ref. 25.)

Page 144
lap of the methanol and DME consumption and aromatics formation trajectories. It is in
the region of overlap that the potential for ring methylation is highest, and the tendency
is toward exhaustive methylation. Thus increasing pressure increases durene selectivity,
as seen in Figure 8 [23]. Again, since durene is the bulkiest polymethylbenzene that can
readily diffuse through the ZSM-5 pore, it is the most abundant A10 product isomer.
4.1.5.2
Temperature Effects
In the presence of ZSM-5, the MTG reaction "initiates" at above 250C. Below this
threshold temperature the main reaction is methanol dehydration to DME. Under
isothermal conditions the effect of temperature (at low space velocity) is illustrated by
Figure 9 [1], which demonstrates that with changing temperature the pathway of
Equation (2) is tracked. However, above about 450C light olefins and methane appear.
At these low space velocity conditions methane is the result of secondary cracking, and
increased olefins can be attributed to secondary cracking and/or differences in activation
energy [24] between their formation and subsequent aromatization. Above 500C, CH4
and CO from methanol dissociation become detectable.
4.1.5.3
Effect of Catalyst SiO2/Al2O3
The zeolite ZSM-5 is one of a small number of zeolites that can be synthesized with a
wide range of Al content, including its pure silica form, and therefore
Figure 8
Effect of pressure on durene formation at 1.01.2 h and 1 LHSV.
(From Ref. 23.)

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Figure 9
Effect of temperature on product distribution of 0.60.7 h 1 LHSV, and 1 atm.
(From Ref. 1.)
displays wide range of activity. The effect of increasing SiO2/Al2O3 (decreasing acid
concentration) at constant temperature, pressure, and contact time is equivalent to
moving backward along the MTG reaction path. Thus, the product becomes increasingly
olefinic until the appearance of methanol and DME. Typical data are plotted in Figure 10
[24].
At high SiO2/Al2O3 (> 70) and with suitable adjustment of reaction temperature and
contact time to provide complete conversion, it has been found possible substantially to
decouple olefin formation from aromatization. This mode of operation is the basis of the
methanol-to-olefins (MTO) process (see later).
4.1.5.4
Catalyst Aging and Regeneration
Unlike most zeolites, ZSM-5 is stable to severe steaming conditions, such as those
encountered during MTG service. Although ZSM-5 undergoes slow deactivation, it is
readily reactivated by air calcination to remove accumulated organic deposits.
In fixed-bed reactors, the MTG catalyst ages via a "band-aging" mechanism [25,26]. In
this type of aging, a zone, or band, where most of the reaction is occurring, travels slowly
toward the reactor exit, leaving behind an increasing mass of deactivated catalyst. As the
band nears the end of the catalyst bed, the product becomes more olefinic and less
aromatic until methanol breakthrough occurs, signaling the end of cycle and the need for
regeneration. These chang-

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Figure 10
Variation of hydrocarbon selectivity with ZSM-5-effective SiO2/Al2O3 at 370C, 1 h,
and 1 LHSV.
(From Ref. 24.)
es in selectivity can be interpreted as follows: as the volume of active catalyst diminishes
owing to band aging, the effective contact time decreases, equal to moving backward on
the reaction path represented in Equation (3).
4.1.6
Kinetic Modeling
Kinetic analysis of the complex MTG reaction is somewhat simplified by the finding (Fig.
11) [2] that the methanol-DME-water equilibrium (dashed curves) is rapidly established
and maintained along the initial segment of reaction path. Experimental data in Figure 11
demonstrate that this holds for pure methanol as well as pure DME feed. Thus
oxygenates can be treated as a single pseudospecies or kinetic "lump." Kinetic analysis
can be further simplified by

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Figure 11
Approach to methanol/DME/H2O equilibrium at 370C, 1 atm
(dashed lines are equilibrium).
(From Ref. 2.)
regarding olefins as single lumps and lumping together paraffins and aromatics. In this
scheme all lumps, including methanol and DME, are treated as (CH2)n, that is, on a
water-free basis [this is already implicit in Eqs. (1) and (2)].
The autocatalytic nature of the early steps of the MTG reaction was first recognized by
Chen and Reagan [27], who proposed the following simple lumping scheme:
where A = oxygenates, B = olefins, and C = aromatics + paraffins.

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Neglecting k3 at low conversions, the reaction rate is given by
which integrated yields
where R = k1/k2. Experimental data were fit for k1 = 0.02 and k2 = 55 (Fig. 12).
The autocatalytic nature of the early stages of reaction is clearly evident in Figure 13
[23], which contains a plot of C2C5 olefin selectivity versus contact time at a very low
methanol partial pressure. Characteristic sigmoid trajectories are shown by the C3C5
olefins; ethylene increases only slowly. This is consistent with a chain-growth mechanism
whereby olefins are homologized by C1 addition, with ethylene as the "first" olefin.
Figure 12
Autocatalytic kinetic model of Chen and Reagan with experimental data at 370C, 1 atm.
(From Ref. 27.)

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Figure 13
Autocatalysis as evidenced in MTG light olefin selectivity at 370C, 0.04 atm.
(From Ref. 23.)
Ono et al. [28,29] modified the model of Chen and Reagan by assuming the first step to
be bimolecular:
where A and B are oxygenates and olefins, respectively. With x = conversion of A and w
= catalyst weight, there results

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where a = k1/k2 and b = [B]0/[A]0.
Upon integration, one obtains
At low initial conversion (b = 0, a << 1), Equation (9) reduces to
Figure 14 [29] shows the fit to data obtained at three temperatures.
Chang [30] further modified the Chen-Reagan model by including a step representing C-C
bond formation via C1 insertion into C-H, initiating auto-catalysis.
Figure 14
Autocatalytic kinetic model of Ono et al. (solid lines are calculated).
(From Ref. 29.)

Page 151
where A = oxygenate, B = (:CH2), C = olefins, and D = paraffins + aromatics.
The carbenelike species B was assumed capable of attacking either oxygenates or olefins.
Invoking the steady-state assumption on B and eliminating time, there results
where u = C/A, K1 = k3/k2, and k2 = k4/k1.
Equation (12), integrated (with initial conditions A = 1, u = 0), yields
where a = K1(1 K2), b = K1 K2 + 2, and This was applied to data obtained at
three pressures, resulting in the plot in Figure 15.
Anthony [31] and Sedran et al. [32] revised the Chang model to allow net increases in
olefin concentration.
A number of MTG kinetic models of increasing complexity have since been proposed
[3339].
4.1.7
The Mobil MTG Process
Two major versions of the MTG process currently exist. The first, as exemplified by the
New Zealand GTG configuration, is a fixed-bed process; the second is a fluidized-bed
process. A third process concept, the Topse TIGAS [40], integrates methanol synthesis
with MTG. This variation uses a multifunctional catalyst for producing a mixed oxygenate
feed (including methanol) from synthesis gas and was tested on the pilot plant scale.
4.1.7.1
The New Zealand GTG Plant
The fixed-bed MTG was selected for New Zealand as the configuration most readily scaled
up. At the time this decision was made, the fluidized-bed version was considered to
require more extensive development [22], including devel-

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Figure 15
Kinetic model of Chang (solid lines are calculated).
(From Ref. 30.)
opment of a fluid catalyst. The New Zealand GTG complex, which was started up in
October 1985, is situated on the North Island between the villages of Waitara and
Motonui on the Tasman seacoast. A simplified block flow diagram of the complex is
shown in Figure 16 [41]. The facility processes over 130 million standard cubic feet per
day of natural gas from the offshore Maui gas field, supplemented by gas from the
onshore Kapuni field, to methanol and thence to 14,500+ barrels per day of gasoline.
Methanol feed to the MTG section is synthesized using the ICI low-pressure process [42]
in two trains, each with a capacity of 2200 ton per day. The MTG section itself is single
train.
The natural gas feed is desulfurized, combined with medium-pressure steam, and passed
through reformer reactor tubes containing a nickel catalyst at 900C to produce synthesis
gas. The synthesis gas, after cooling to 35C and compression to 1500 psia, is reheated
and converted at 250300C over the ICI Cu-Zn catalyst to crude methanol (17% water).
This is fed directly to the MTG reactor section, where it is converted in two stages to
aromatic gasoline.

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Figure 16
The New Zealand GTG complex.
(From Ref. 41.)

Page 154
A flow diagram of the MTG section is presented in Figure 17 [43]. Methanol feed,
vaporized by heat exchange with MTG reactor effluent gases, enters a first-stage
dehydration reactor, where an equilibrium mixture of DME, methanol, and water is
produced over an alumina catalyst at 300420C [43]. Roughly 20% of the reaction heat is
removed at this stage. The effluent from the dehydration reactor is combined with recycle
gas and enters the conversion reactors containing ZSM-5 catalyst, where it is converted at
360415C and 315 psia to the gasoline product. As indicated in the diagram, the second-
stage conversion utilizes a system of five fixed-bed swing reactors in parallel. Four of
these reactors are on feed while the fifth is in a regeneration mode. The reactors are
adiabatic. Heat removal is by means of light gas recycle through the catalyst beds, which
limits temperature rise to 420C at the reactor outlet. After cooling,
Figure 17
The MTG section of the New Zealand GTG plant.
(From Ref. 22.)

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condensing, and separation of water, the crude gasoline product is hydrofinished to
remove heavy components, mainly durene, and sent to the gasoline pool for blending.
The multiple reactor scheme serves two main purposes: pressure drop minimization and
maintenance of constant product composition. As indicated earlier, catalyst aging in fixed-
bed MTG occurs through a band-aging mechanism, by which product selectivity changes
with increasing catalyst age, becoming more olefinic and less aromatic with stream time.
With parallel multiple catalyst beds at different aging states, it is possible to maintain
constant overall product selectivity by proper sequencing, or ''staggering." Figure 18 [43]
provides an example of a reactor operating sequence used to smooth yield variations.
Table 3 contains typical gasoline quality data from the New Zealand plant [44]. These
results were obtained during JanuaryFebruary 1987 for 97,000 ton gasoline.
The thermal efficiency of a GTG plant depends on the composition of the natural gas as
well as the plant design. The MTG reaction per se has high energy efficiency, of the order
of 95% based on the lower heating value (LHV), with the remaining 5% of chemical
energy released as heat of reaction [25]. The LHV is the appropriate basis since internal-
combustion engines do not condense
Figure 18
Typical reactor operating sequence in the New Zealand MTG section.
(From Ref. 43.)

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Table 3 Gasoline Quality, New Zealand GTG Plant
Average Range
Density, kg/m3 at 15C 730 728733
RVP, psia 12.5 12.113.2
RON 92.2 92.092.5
MON 82.6 82.283.0
Durene content, wt% 2.0 1.742.29
Induction period, min 325 260370
Distillation
% Evaporated at 70C 31.5 29.534.5
% Evaporated at 100C 53.2 51.555.5
% Evaporated at 180C 94.9 94.096.5
End point, C 204.5 196209
water. The overall thermal efficiency of the New Zealand plant is of the order of 53%
[45].
4.1.7.2
The Fluidized-Bed MTG Process
Heat management of the highly exothermic MTG reaction is greatly facilitated through
use of fluidized-bed reactors. The turbulent bed ensures isothermality through the
reaction zone and, owing to its excellent heat-transfer properties, enables steam
generation by direct exchange with steam coils in the bed. Furthermore, a fluidized-bed
system with continuous catalyst withdrawal, regeneration, and recycle can maintain
constant catalyst activity and therefore does not require the use of multiple reactors.
Although not as yet commercialized, the fluidized-bed MTG process has been scaled up
[22,25,46,47] and demonstrated on a semiworks scale of 100 barrels per day [48,49]. A
simplified flow diagram of the 100 bpd demonstration unit appears in Figure 19 [25]. As
depicted, the reactor system consists of three principal parts: the reactor, the catalyst
regenerator, and an external catalyst cooler. The reactor was also equipped with internal
heat-exchanger tubes in the catalyst bed to allow evaluation of that option for heat
removal.
Feed to the reactor is a simulated crude methanol stream consisting of a mixture of 83%
methanol and 17% water. The reactor accommodates a dense fluid catalyst bed
measuring 2 ft in diameter by 40 ft in height. The feed can either be injected as a liquid
or vaporized and superheated before entering the reactor. The feed passes through the
bed, where it is converted quantitatively

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Figure 19
Flow diagram of the 100 bpd fluidized-bed MTG demonstration unit.
(From. Ref. 25.)
to hydrocarbons and water in a single pass. Reaction conditions are 4060 psia and
380430C, with methanol feed rate of 5001050 kg/h. After catalyst disengagement,
product vapor is condensed, the condensate collected in the separator, and the
hydrocarbon layer drawn off. The hydrocarbon product is sent to the debutanizer column,
where it is split into and fractions.
The 100 bpd fluidized-bed plant was installed in Wesseling, Germany and began MTG
operations in December 1982. The plant logged 8600 h on-stream, processing a total of
6870 ton methanol to gasoline.
4.1.7.3
Fixed-Bed and Fluidized-Bed MTG Compared
The advantages in fluidized-bed operation for heat management and for maintenance of
constant catalyst activity have already been noted. Other advantages include higher
yield, quality, lower durene, and potentially lower investment costs. The fluidized-bed
operation requires catalysts with low attrition properties. In the design of a fluidized-bed
reactor system, particular attention must be given to the reactor fluid dynamics to ensure
complete methanol conversion. This is critical to avoid the need for additional distillation
facilities to recover unreacted feed.
Typical process conditions and product yields from fixed- and fluidized-bed MTG are
compared in Table 4 [22]. The fluidized-bed hydrocarbons are seen to be more olefinic
than the fixed bed. In the fixed-bed process, the recycle of

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Table 4 Comparison of Fixed- and Fluidized-Bed MTG Process Conditions
and Product Yield
Fixed bed Fluidized bed
Conditions
Methanol/water charge (wt/wt) 83/17 83/17
Dehydration reactor inlet temperature, C 316
Dehydration reactor outlet temperature, C 404
Conversion reactor inlet temperature, C 360 413
Conversion reactor outlet temperature, C 415 413
Pressure, kPa 2170 275
Recycle ratio, mol/mol charge 9 1
Yields, wt% of methanol charged
Methanol + ether 0.0 0.2
Hydrocarbons 43.4 43.5
Water 56.0 56.0
CO, CO2 0.4 0.2
Gasoline (including alkylate), RVP 62 kPa (9 psi) 85.0 88.0
LPG 13.6 6.4
Fuel gas 1.4 5.6
Total 100.0 100.0
Gasoline octane (R + 0) 93 97
light gas, in addition to removing heat, serves to reinsert the constituent olefins into the
reaction path, enhancing their conversion as well as increasing reaction rate by their
interaction with the methanol-DME feed (autocatalysis). In contrast, the fluidized-bed
operates in a single-ass mode. By "fine-tuning" catalyst activity through adjustment of
catalyst recirculation rate, the product propylene and butenes are readily brought into
balance with the isobutane, thereby allowing supplemental downstream alkylate
synthesis to increase yield and quality of the finished gasoline.
4.1.8
MTG Economics
As stated at the beginning of the chapter, the MTG process was developed in response to
the 1973 oil shock and the rapid rise in oil prices. These prices reached a peak of nearly
$40/bbl in 1980. However, prices were not to remain at that high level for long, because
of a combination of factors, including conservation measures, reduced demand, and the
inability of the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries to agree on production
levels. Crude prices began

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to decline soon after, dipping briefly to below $10/bbl in 1986. With the exception of a
single upward spike as a result of the 19891990 Gulf War, crude prices have stabilized as
of this writing to $1520/bbl. At these prices MTG is not competitive with petroleum for
gasoline production, although there may exist unique situations involving remote natural
gas for which MTG might be considered today. Economics for a New Zealand type of plant
based on the U.S. Gulf Coast are summarized in Table 5 [50]. Although these data are
taken from an earlier analysis assuming a 1987 start-up, it is unlikely that the conclusions
would change significantly even with present advances in methanol technology, because
the process is highly capital intensive and capital recovery will remain the dominant
factor. Nevertheless, since synthesis gas can be produced from any gasifiable
carbonaceous material, including coal and biomass, such processes as the MTG may
assume increasing importance as sources of oil and natural gas are depleted in the
future.
4.2
Conversion of Methanol to Olefins
Light olefins are intermediates in the MTG reaction, according to Equation (3). By proper
selection of reaction conditions and with suitable catalyst design, it is possible to
decouple the "olefination" step from aromatization. This is the basis of the Mobil MTO
process, which utilizes fluidized-bed technology. The process has not yet seen
commercialization, but has been scaled up [51,52] and demonstrated on a 100 bpd scale.
Alternatively, olefin yield can be increased by operating under partial conversion
conditions, recovering the intermediate
Table 5 GTG Plant Economicsa
Natural gas, bcf/year 44
Methanol, t/sd 4,400
Gasoline, bpsd 14,600
Inventment, MM$b 895
Gasoline cost, cents/gal
Natural Gas at $1.00/MMBtu 22
Operating 34
Capital at 12% DCF RORc 82
Total 138
a Bases: New Zealand type plant, 1982 technology, U.S. Gulf Coast,
1987 start-up, equity financing.
b Not included are land, pipeline, and venture costs. Debt financing: ~ 60
cents/gal; total = 116 cents/gal. DCF, ROR,

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olefins, and recycling unreacted feed. This approach was adopted in part for MTC
(methanol-to-chemicals) [53], an ethylene-selective MTO process developed by AECI of
South Africa [54]. This process, utilizing coal-derived methanol, has not been
commercialized.
4.2.1
Catalysts for the MTO Reaction
Not surprisingly, ZSM-5 is an effective MTO catalyst and has been subject of very
intensive scrutiny. Among the host of other catalysts [55,56] reported in the literature to
be active for MTO, the silicoaluminophosphate molecular sieves SAPO-17 and SAPO-34
[5760] seem noteworthy. The framework structures of SAPO-17 and -34 are topologically
related to the zeolites erionite and chabazite, respectively [57,58]. These zeolites have
eight-ring pore openings, and hence their SAPO analogs should produce aliphatics to the
exclusion of aromatics. This has been verified experimentally [59]. Representative MTO
selectivity data for ZSM-5 and SAPO-34 are shown in Tables 6 [24] and 7 [59]. SAPO-34 is
apparently effective at lower temperatures than ZSM-5 for MTO; however, data on the
long-term thermal and steam stability and regenerability of the SAPO have not been
published.
4.2.2
Kinetic Parameters
The discussion of MTG kinetic effects just presented is generally applicable to MTO. Olefin
selectivity is improved by decreasing methanol partial pressure, increasing temperature,
and increasing zeolite SiO2/Al2O3. An additional effect, that of varying zeolite crystallite
size, was reported by Howden et al. [61], who found that when the crystallite size was
reduced from 30 to 3 m, ethylene selectivity increased. This was attributed to enhanced
diffusivity of light products, which reduces their opportunity for further reaction.
The effect of increasing ZSM-5 SiO2/Al2O3 is demonstrated in Figure 20 [24], where C2C5
olefin selectivity is plotted against contact time at 500C and 1 atm. In addition to the
selectivity increase with increasing SiO2/Al2O3, each reaction trajectory passes through an
expected maximum, which shifts to the right (higher contact time) with increasing
SiO2/Al2O3.
In principle, the kinetic models developed for MTG should be applicable to MTO.
However, under conditions in which olefination is largely decoupled from aromatization, a
simple reaction scheme
where A = oxygenates (as CH2), B = olefins, and C = aromatics + paraffins,

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Table 6 Methanol Conversion to Olefins over ZSM-5
Catalyst SiO2/Al2O3 70 142 500 1670
LHSV, h1 100 50 14.4 10
Total product distribution, wt%
H2O 55.93 55.96 51.77 54.00
DME 0.20 0.98 3.67 0.59
MeOH 0.29 2.50 2.90 0.95
CO 0.09 0.05 0.10 0.84
CO2 0.01 0.01 0.04 0.59
H2 0.01 0.02 0.15 0.42
Hydrocarbon 43.47 40.48 43.37 42.53
% Conversion 99.43 96.14 92.00 98.23
Hydrocarbon distribution, wt%
Methane 0.99 1.26 1.15 3.67
Ethane 0.12 0.13 0.11 0.23
Ethylene 10.48 9.94 7.43 7.75
Propane 3.76 1.92 0.56 0.48
Propylene 22.60 35.14 39.40 37.59
i-Butane 7.82 4.32 0.73 0.60
n-Butane 1.60 0.74 0.21 0.16
Butanes 16.56 17.61 21.58 20.43
i-Pentane 4.80 2.97 0.81 0.62
n-Pentane 0.65 0.52 0.52 0.47
Pentenes 5.91 8.35 12.13 10.25
nonaromatic 10.63 9.50 7.59 8.98
Benzene 0.22 0.12 0.17 0.18
Toluene 1.28 0.67 0.70 0.51
Ethylbenzene 0.32 0.18 0.16 0.16
Xylenes 6.87 3.58 3.71 2.80
Ag 4.31 2.55 2.61 3.98
1.90 0.47 0.40 1.48
C1C5 19.74 11.88 4.10 6.24
55.55 71.04 80.55 76.03
10.63 9.50 7.59 8.98
Aromatics 14.08 7.58 7.77 8.72
was found to be adequate and instructive [24]. Assuming the disappearance of
oxygenates and olefins to be pseudo-first order, the parameters k1 and k2 can be
determined in a straightforward manner. Figure 21 is a first-order plot of the

Page 162
Table 7 Methanol Conversion to Olefins over SAPO-34a
Molar selectivity (%)b
375Cc 400Cc 425Cc 450Cd
Ethylene 43.0 46.7 51.4 61.1
Ethane 0.8 0.6 0.6 0.7
Propylene 41.8 36.7 32.5 27.4
Propane 0.5 0.5 0.5 Trace
Butenes 10.8 11.9 9.3 5.4
C5 1.7 1.6 1.4 0.6
C6 Trace Trace Trace Trace
Methane 1.3 2.0 4.3 4.8
Dimethyl ether Trace
C2C4 olefin efficiency 95.6 95.3 93.2 93.9
Ethylene-propylene 1.03 1.27 1.58 2.23
Run time, h 5.2 6.3 6.2 11.0
Methanol 100 100 100 100
Conversione 0.9 1.5 5.5 1.0
Carbon dioxide efficiency, %e 0.9 1.5 5.5 1.0
a WHSV (methanol): 0.830.87 h1, WHSV (water): 1.952.04 h1.
b To carbon-containing products exclusive of carbon dioxide or involatile deposits, such as coke, on
catalyst.
c SAPO-34 (A) (Si0.07Al0.51P0.42)O2.
d SAPO-34 (B), prepared identically to A: not analyzed.
e Molar, based on all volatile carbon-containing products.
disappearance of oxygenates at 400, 450, and 500C and 1 atm. The HZSM-5 catalyst in
this example had SiO2/Al2O3 = 500. The parameter k2 can then be estimated [62] from
In Figure 22 experimental data are fit using the model. The data in Figure 22AC were
obtained at 400500C and SiO2/Al2O3 = 500, and in Figure 22D, at 500C and SiO2/Al2O3
= 400. The small deviations at low conversion are attributed to autocatalysis, which was
not taken into account in the simple model. The plot in Figure 23A shows the increase in
the ratio k1/k2 with increasing temperature and is the physical basis for decoupling of the
two reactions, that

Page 163
Figure 20
Light olefin selectivity as a function of ZSM-5 SiO2/Al2O3 at 500C, 1 atm.
(From Ref. 28).
Figure 21
First-order plot of oxygenate disappearance in MTO.
(From Ref. 24.)

Page 164
Figure 22
MTO data fitted to simple A B C kinetics
(From Ref. 24.)

Page 165

Page 166
Figure 23
Variation in k1/k2 with temperature and catalyst SiO2/Al2O3.

Page 167
is, a difference in apparent activation energy. A plot of k1/k2 versus catalyst SiO2/ Al2O3 is
presented in Figure 23B, showing a similar effect of catalyst activity on the relative rates
of the two reactions.
4.2.3
The Mobil MTO Process
Large-scale demonstration of the MTO process was carried out in same 100 bpd unit used
for the MTG fluidized-bed demonstration (Fig. 19). Process conditions were 3252 psia,
470515C, and methanol feed rate of 570620 kg/h. Catalyst makeup rate was less than
0.5% of inventory per day. The demonstration unit accumulated 3600 h on-stream and
processed 2130 ton methanol. Methanol conversion was 99.9+% throughout the run.
Typical product distribution is shown in Figure 24 [49], which plots hydrocarbon yield
versus propane to propene ratio, a reaction index that is a measure of severity. Higher
olefins yields are reflected in lower values of the reaction index. The unit achieved a
maximum of 60% olefin yield during the demonstration. Operation at lower pressure or
with diluents, both known to increase olefin yield, was not implemented during this run.
A potential application of MTO olefins that has received considerable attention is their
conversion to distillates and/or gasoline via the Mobil MOGD process [6365]. Typical
MOGD process yields with C3C6 olefin feed are presented in Table 8 [52]. With the MOGD
process, the flexibility of MTG/MTO technology may be significantly enhanced, as seen in
Figure 25 [52].
Figure 24
Light olefin distribution in MTO as a function of the propane-propylene reaction index.
(From Ref. 49.)

Page 168
Table 8 Typical MOGD Yields from C3C6 Olefins
Maximum distillate
mode
Gasoline
mode
C1C3 1 4
C4 2 5
C5165C gasoline 15
165C + distillate 82
C5200C gasoline 84
200C + distillate 7
Figure 25
Gasoline and distillate synthesis from methanol with MTO and MOGD.
(From Ref. 52.)
4.2.4
The MTC Process
The MTC process was designed to maximize ethylene and propylene from coalbased
methanol by MTO. This is achieved by addition of excess steam during

Page 169
the reaction. This reduces methanol partial pressure, which was shown previously to
increase olefin selectivity. Excess steam provides an additional benefit, not well
understood, of increasing ethylene selectivity over other olefins under MTO conditions
[53,66]. Representative data obtained using a small fluidized-bed reactor is shown in
Table 9 [53].
A simplified block diagram of the MTC process appears in Figure 26 [54]. The general
layout is quite similar to that of the New Zealand plant MTG section. Fresh methanol and
makeup water, along with recycle methanol-DME, is vaporized, combined with recycle
steam, and fed to the DME reactor, where a mixture of methanol, DME, and water is
produced. The DME reactor effluent then passes through a series of conversion reactors,
where the main reactions occur. No design information on the conversion section has
been published to date. After cooling, separation, and fractionation, a hydrocarbon
product consisting of 30% ethylene, 20% propylene, 12% methane and ethane, 1314%
liquid propane gas (LPG), and 35% gasoline is recovered. The MTC pilot plant was
designed to process 12 ton per day of methanol.
Table 9 Conversion of Methanol to Ethylene with ZSM Catalyst
Feed methanol/water (wt/wt)
83/17 16/84
Conditions
Temperature, C 299 343 324
Methanol partial pressure, kPa 105 105 28
Methanol WHSV 0.4 0.4 0.2
Oxygenate conversion, % 52 84 62
Hydrocarbon product, wt%
Ethylene 21.3 18.8 27.6
Propylene 17.2 11.7 17.5
Butenes 7.1 6.5 6.1
Pentenes 2.1 2.9 1.3
C1C5 paraffins 18.3 20.8 24.7
paraffins and olefins 19.5 23.0 16.2
Aromatics 14.5 16.3 6.6
Total 100.0 100.0 100.0

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Figure 26
Simplified AECI ethylene-selective MTO process.
(From Ref. 54.)

Page 171
References
1. C. D. Chang and A. J. Silvestri, J. Catal., 47:249 (1977); Chemtech., 17:624 (1987).
2. C. D. Chang, Catal. Rev.-Sci. Eng., 25:1 (1983).
3. R. J. Argauer and G. R. Landolt, U.S. Patent 3,702,886 (1972).
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5
Methanol to Chemicals
Harold H. Kung
Kevin J. Smith
University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
5.1
Acetic Acid
In 1992, about 6.5 billion lb acetic acid was produced worldwide, of which about 3.6
billion lb was produced in the United States [1]. The current commercial processes for its
production include oxidation of ethanol (acetaldehyde), oxidation of butane-butene
mixture or naphtha, and carbonylation of methanol or methyl acetate. These are catalytic
processes. The last, liquid-phase carbonylation of methanol using a rhodium and iodide
catalyst, has become the dominant process since its introduction in the late 1960s, and
accounted for about half the production of acetic acid in the United States [2]. That
represents a conversion of 1.5 106 ton per year of methanol into 2.8 106 ton per year
of acetic acid. In the United States, 80% of actual plant operation capacity is based on
this technology [3]. The reaction is thermodynamically favorable [4], and the theoretical
conversion is practically 100% at 389 K:
where DG389K = 72.79 kJ/mol and DH389K = 133.82 kJ/mol.
The reaction of carbonylation of methanol was described by Badische Anilinund-Soda-
Fabrik (BASF) as early as 1913. In 1963, BASF began large-scale production of acetic acid
by this reaction using a cobalt carbonyl catalyst with

Page 176
an iodine compound as a cocatalyst [5,6]. The catalytically active agents are Co2(CO)8
and HI, which can be produced in situ using cobaltous iodide. The process must be
operated under rather severe conditions to obtain commercially attractive yields: 70 MPa
pressure (700 atm) and 250C. The high pressure and the corrosive nature of iodine
resulted in rather high equipment and operation costs.
5.1.1
Low-Pressure Methanol Carbonylation (Monsanto) Process
In 1968, a new methanol carbonylation process was disclosed by Monsanto, using a much
more active catalyst of rhodium salt and iodide cocatalyst than the cobalt-iodide system
[79]. The reaction temperature is about 180C, and the process pressure is reduced to
3.34.4 MPa (3040 atm). The catalyst is highly selective, producing acetic acid or its
methyl ester with greater than 99% yield based on methanol and at least 90% based on
carbon monoxide [6]. In a laboratory test, the selectivity for such by-products as ethanol,
ethanal (acetaldehyde), propanoic acid, propanal (propionaldehyde), butanal
(butyraldehyde), and butanol can be as low as 0.1% in the liquid. There are negligible
amounts of hydrogen, carbon dioxide, and methane in the gas phase if CO is used as the
feed [8]. Since its introduction, the Monsanto process has been used in all new plants
because of the lower operating and capital costs as a result of the less stringent process
conditions.
The Monsanto process and the higher pressure BASF processes have been reviewed
[3,1012]. In the Monsanto process (Fig. 1) [9], methanol and carbon monoxide are fed to
a continuous reactor system. The corrosive nature of iodine in an acid medium requires
the use of a highly corrosion-resistant metal reactor (made of such material as Hastelloy
C). The acetic acid produced is purified by conventional distillation. The purified acetic
acid is sent to a drying column. The dried acetic acid is removed as the bottom product
and sent to the product column to reduce the small concentration of propanoic acid. The
typical composition of the acetic acid from this process is [9] as follows:
Acetic acid, 99.9 wt%
Water, 0.03 wt%
Formic acid, < 0.03 wt%
Acetaldehyde, 0.004 wt%
Propionic acid, < 40 ppm
Chloride, < 1 ppm
Iron, < 1 ppm
Because of the low operating temperature, only a part of the heat of reaction (which is
relative small) is recovered to preheat the feed gas.

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Figure 1
The Monsanto process for methanol carbonylation to acetic acid:
(a) reactor; (b) scrubber system; (c) light-end column; (d) drying column;
(e) product column; and (f) finishing column.
[Adapted from H. D. Grove, Hydrocarbon Proc., November:76 (1972).]
5.1.2
Catalyst and Reaction Mechanism
A wide variety of rhodium compounds can be used as the catalyst precursor [8,11]. They
include RhCl3 3H2O, Rh2O3 5H2O, [Rh(CO)2Cl]2, Rh(CO)Cl(PPh3)2, RhCl(PPh3)3,
Rh(CO)2(AsPh3)I2, and [Rh(1,5-cyclooctadiene)X]2, with X = Cl, I, OMe, OAc, OPh, and
other complexes. The observed reaction rates using different rhodium compounds are
essentially the same, although the duration of the induction period may vary. Iridium
compounds are also effective catalysts, but none has been commercialized. The reaction
kinetics indicates that the reaction mechanism for the iridium catalyst is more complex
than for the rhodium catalyst, but the gross behavior is similar. Various iodide promoter
compounds are equally effective, such as aqueous hydrogen iodide, methyl iodide,
calcium iodide, and iodine. Alkali iodide salts, such as sodium iodide, are less effective,
however, although lithium iodide has been claimed to be an exception [10c]. Bromides
are also less effective than iodides [13].

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That similar activities and product selectivities are obtained with different rhodium
compounds as catalyst and iodine compounds as cocatalyst suggests that the different
compounds eventually are converted to the same active catalytic species under reaction
conditions [8,13,14]. Indeed, the working catalyst has been identified as [Rh(CO)2I2]-
(species 1 in Fig. 2). Most of the iodine exists as methyl iodide under reaction conditions,
and the portion that exits the reactor should be recovered and recycled. The catalytic
cycle is shown in Figure 2. The oxidative addition of methyl iodide to [Rh(CO)2I2]- to form
the methylrhodium complex 2 is believed to be the rate-limiting step. The resulting
complex is unstable and rapidly isomerizes by methyl migration of an acetyl
monocarbonyl complex 3 [8]. Addition of CO to this complex 3 results in a labile six-
coordinated acetyl complex 4. In the reaction mixture containing water and methanol, 4
may react with water, yielding acetic acid directly [Equation (2)], or undergo partial
hydrolysis or methanolysis to yield acetic anhydride or methyl acetate [12].
Under the conditions of industrial operation, the rate of methanol carbonylation reaction
has been found to be zeroth order in the partial pressure
Figure 2
Catalytic cycle involved in methanol carbonylation to acetic acid.
(Reprinted with permission from G. Parshall and S. Ittel, Homogeneous
Catalysis: The Applications and Chemistry of Catalysis, 2nd ed.,
copyright John Wiley and Sons, New York, 1991.)

Page 179
of carbon monoxide and zeroth order in the concentration of methanol (i.e., the rate is
independent of these concentrations). However, it is first order in the concentrations of
rhodium and iodide (i.e., the rate is directly proportional to these concentrations). It is
not affected by the presence of hydrogen. In fact, the presence of hydrogen has no effect
on the product distribution either [8]. The dependence of the rate on the concentrations
of the reactants and catalysts is quite different for the cobalt-catalyzed carbonylation
reaction.
In the reaction mixture, several chemical equilibria are established rapidly:
The rapid equilibrium ensures that all the methanol charged into the reactor is ultimately
converted to acetic acid. The equilibrium constant for Equation (5) strongly favors methyl
iodide and water. This ensures a supply of methyl iodide for addition to [Rh(CO)2I2]. It
also plays an important role in limiting the rate of water-gas shift reaction [Eq. (6)],
which is the source of loss of carbon monoxide:
The water-gas shift reaction is catalyzed by [Rh(CO)2I2]. The proposed reaction cycle is
[13,14]:
Equation (8) is presumably the rate-limiting step. Its rate depends on the concentration
of [Rh(CO)I4], which in turn depends on the concentrations of [Rh(CO)2I2] and HI. Thus
the equilibrium established by Equation (5), which limits the concentration of HI, controls
the extent of the water-gas reaction. That alkali halides are less effective cocatalysts
than other iodides may be because they do not regenerate methyl iodide rapidly.
As mentioned earlier, a number of iridium compounds have been shown to be effective
catalysts for the methanol carbonylation reaction [11,13]. Nickel catalysts have also been
found to be effective, particularly when used with compounds of Sn, Cr, Mo, or W
[10c,15]. Heterogenized rhodium catalysts, prepared by supporting rhodium compounds
on a solid or by anchoring a rhodium complex to a polymer matrix, are also catalysts.
However, none of these have been commercialized. In the latter case, the slow
dissolution of rhodium is a major problem.

Page 180
5.1.3
Future Prospects
The methanol carbonylation process can be integrated quite naturally into a large-scale
methanol plant [9]. The reactant CO can be obtained readily by separation from the
synthesis gas used in methanol synthesis. With the large proven reserve of natural gas in
the world, this process is in a very secure position compared with the hydrocarbon-based
processes. It is also easily adaptable to the use of coal as a source of raw material, since
there are proven economic routes to produce synthesis gas from coal.
5.2
Formaldehyde
In 1991, the U.S. annual rate of production of formaldehyde was 7.0 billion lb [1].
Formaldehyde is usually available commercially as an aqueous solution. Aqueous
solutions containing 30 wt% formaldehyde are stable at room temperature, but solutions
containing higher concentrations become cloudy on storage because of the formation of
poly(oxymethylene)glycol [Eqs. (9) and (10)]. Technical-grade formaldehyde solutions
contain a small amount of methanol, which suppresses the polymerization process.
Industrial production of formaldehyde is by catalytic oxidation of methanol using either a
silver or an iron-molybdenum mixed-oxide catalyst. The two processes differ in the
temperature of operation and the methanol-air ratio in the feed, the process using silver
catalyst being at a higher temperature of 600700 versus 270350C in the other process
and employing a methanol-air ratio less than stoichiometric versus excess air.
Formaldehyde can be formed from methanol by oxidative [Eq. (11)] or nonoxidative
dehydrogenation [Eq. (12)]. Table 1 shows the thermodynamic data for these two
reactions. For the lower temperature mixed-oxidecatalyzed process, the oxidative
pathway is the only thermodynamically favorable reaction. However, for the higher
temperature silver-catalyzed process, the nonoxidative process also becomes
thermodynamically favorable. Thus both nonoxidative and oxidative pathways contribute
in this process.

Page 181
Table 1 Enthalpy and Gibbs Free Energy Changes of Oxidative and Nonoxidative Dehydrogenation of
Methanol
Reaction kJ/mol
Temperature (K)
400 500 600 700 800 900
CH3OH CH2O + H2 DG 41 29 17 5 7 20
DH 87 89 90 91 92 92
CH3OH + 1/2O2 CH2O + H2O DG 183 190 197 204 211 218
DH 137 130 124 118 112 106
Source: Thermodynamic data from I. Barin, Thermochemical Data of Pure Substances, VCH,
Weinheim, 1989.
5.2.1
Silver-Catalyzed Process
This process is typically operated at 600700C (873973 K) using a methanol-air ratio that
is higher than stoichiometric (stoichiometric ratio 0.4) and outside the upper flammability
limit (36.5 vol% of methanol in air). In this range of temperature, both the oxidaive [Eq.
(11)] and the nonoxidative [Eq. (12)] dehydrogenation process are operative. The
carbon-containing by-products are primarily carbon oxides formed by the following
reactions:
The contribution from the oxidative and the nonoxidative pathway to the production of
formaldehyde depends on the catalyst used and the process conditions. The amounts of
process air (i.e., methanol-air ratio) and inert diluents control the extent of the
exothermic oxidation reactions (11), (14), and (15), which in turn control the reaction
temperature that determines the extent of the endothermic reactions (12) and (13).
Water and recycled inert gas that contains nitrogen and carbon dioxide are used as
diluents.
The silver-catalyzed process can be operated in the mode of either complete or
incomplete conversion of methanol [17]. In the complete conversion mode, the methanol
conversion is 9798%. In the incomplete conversion mode, it is 7787%. A schematic for
the silver-catalyzed process is shown in Figure 3. The two modes of operation share many
features. The major difference between them is the need to separate the unreacted
methanol present in the incomplete conversion mode by distillation.

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Figure 3
The methanol oxidation process. The solid lines apply to both the complete
and incomplete conversion modes of operation, and the dotted lines apply
only to the incomplete conversion mode of operation.
In either mode of operation, methanol, fresh air, water, and recycled off-gas are fed into
an evaporator. In the incomplete conversion mode, recycled unreacted methanol is also
returned to the evaporator. The evaporated mixture is further heated with steam before
entering the reactor. The reaction is carried out adiabatically. The heat evolved in the
exothermic oxidative reactions is used for the endothermic dehydrogenation reaction. The
product from the reactor is cooled to about 150C and sent to an absorption unit, where
formaldehyde is eluted by a countercurrent flow of water.
In the complete conversion mode of operation, the absorption unit consists of multiple
absorption columns with recycle of formaldehyde solution at each stage. The final
product, a solution of about 5055 wt% formaldehyde, can be obtained exiting the first
stage if the off-gas is recycled to reduce the use of water in the feed; otherwise, a
solution containing 4044 wt% formaldehyde is obtained [18].

Page 183
In the incomplete conversion mode, the mixture entering the absorption unit is a solution
of about 42 wt% formaldehyde and containing methanol. The bulk of the methanol,
formaldehyde, and water exits the first stage of the unit. The mixture is fed into the
distillation column, from which a bottom product containing up to 55 wt% formaldehyde
and less than 1 wt% methanol is obtained. The formic acid content in this bottom product
is reduced by using an anion-exchange unit. The methanol in the overhead product is
recycled and mixed with the fresh feed. The off-gas from the absorption unit is
combusted to remove the residual methanol and other organic species. Part of it is then
recycled into the reactor as inert diluent.
One difference between the two modes of operation is the reaction temperature. The
complete conversion mode operates at a slightly higher temperature (680720C),
whereas the incomplete conversion mode operates at 600650C. The lower temperature
of the latter mode, coupled with the lower oxygen-methanol ratio, reduces the extent of
the undesirable overoxidation reactions [Eqs. (14) and (15)]. The complete conversion
mode is used in the BASF process and has an overall yield of 89.590.5 mol%, whereas
the incomplete conversion mode is used in the ICI, Bordena, and Degussa processes and
has an overall yield of 9192 mol% [17].
A silver catalyst is used in both processes in the form of either a wire gauze or pellets.
The catalyst bed is shallow, less than 50 mm thick. It has a useful life of 38 months. It is
easily poisoned by traces of transition metals, including iron [19] and sulfur.
A summary of the studies of the mechanistic aspect of the catalytic reaction can be found
in Reference 20. It has been confirmed that the oxidative and nonoxidative
dehydrogenation reactions [Eqs. (11) and (12)] are independent processes. That is, the
oxidative pathway is not simply a combination of nonoxidative dehydrogenation [Eq.
(11)] followed by oxidation of hydrogen. At lower temperatures, at which the
nonoxidative pathway is thermodynamically unfavorable, formaldehyde is formed only
when oxygen is present on the silver catalyst [21]. Adsorbed oxygen on silver promotes
the adsorption of methanol. In a low-pressure laboratory study, it was found that
methanol did not adsorb on a clean silver surface but only on a silver surface containing
adsorbed oxygen [22]. Oxygen adsorbs as atomic oxygen on a clean silver surface at
room temperature and above, although the sticking coefficient is low (that is, a large
number of collisions with the surface are needed before a molecule of oxygen adsorbs).
At high pressures of oxygen, molecularly adsorbed oxygen may also be present [20].
On a silver surface with adsorbed oxygen, methanol adsorbs to form water and adsorbed
methoxy [CH3Oad, Eq. (16)] [22]. The methoxy species de-

Page 184
composes readily on heating to form formaldehyde and adsorbed hydrogen [Eq. (17)].
If adsorbed oxygen is depleted, the adsorbed hydrogen can react with adsorbed methoxy
to produce methanol [Eq. (18)]. A small amount of by-product methylformate (HCOOCH3)
can also be formed by the reaction of adsorbed methoxy and formaldehyde [Eq. (19)].
Adsorbed formate can be formed by reaction of adsorbed formaldehyde and adsorbed
oxygen [Eq. (20)] [22,23].
The combustion product CO2 is believed to form by both direct combustion of methanol
and subsequent oxidation of formaldehyde.
5.2.2
Iron-molybdenum Mixed-oxidecatalyzed Process
This oxide-catalyzed process operates at a much lower temperature of 270400C than the
silver-catalyzed process, and its feed has a lower methanol-air ratio, which is below the
lower flammability limit (6.7 vol% methanol in air). The methanol concentration can be
increased without danger of explosion if the oxygen concentration is reduced to below 10
mol% by diluting with recycled off-gas [24]. The amount of air used is in excess of the
stoichiometric ratio. Methanol is produced by the highly exothermic oxidative
dehydrogenation reaction [Eq. (11)]. The conversion of methanol is essentially complete
(9899%). The exothermicity of the reaction makes it very important to control the
temperature in the reactor to avoid the development of hot spots, which enhance the
undesirable side reactions of combustion of methanol and formaldehyde [Eqs. (14) and
(15)].
A number of companies have developed processes using the oxide catalyst. They include
Haldor-Topse, Perstorp/Reichhold, Lummus, Montecatini, Hiag/ Lrgi, and Nippon Kasei
Chemical [17,25]. The process schematic for the oxide process is similar to that of the
silver-catalyzed process operated in the complete combustion mode. Thus Figure 3 can
be used to show the general features of this process. The one major difference between
a silver-catalyzed and an oxide-catalyzed reaction is the reactor. In the oxide-catalyzed
process, the catalyst bed is larger, about 1 m deep. The reactor is like a shell-and-tube
heat exchanger

Page 185
in which the heat of reaction is carried away by an oil heat-transfer medium passing
outside the tubes. Because of the higher air-methanol ratio, the process equipment must
be able to handle a larger throughput than the silver-catalyzed process.
The final product contains up to 55 wt% formaldehyde and 0.51.5 wt% methanol. The
overall methanol conversion ranges from 95 to 99 mol%, and the yield is 8899 mol%.
References 17 and 18 provide economic comparison of the oxide- and the silver-catalyzed
processes.
The current commercial catalyst is a mixed oxide of iron and molybdenum, with a
molybdenum-iron ratio in excess of that required for the formation of the compound
Fe2(MoO4)2. For example, the Harshaw catalyst is a 3:1 mixture of MoO3 and Fe2(MoO4)2
[26]. Commercial catalysts are often promoted with small amounts of other cations, such
as vanadium, copper, chromium, and phosphorus [17]. Promotion with chromium, for
example, enhances the selectivity for formaldehyde [27]. The selectivity for formaldehyde
is very high, usually in excess of 90 mol%. The catalyst is more tolerant to trace
contaminants than the silver catalyst. The catalyst life is typically 1218 months [28].
Excess MoO3 is necessary to maintain catalyst life because molybdenum is loss by
vaporization during operation. Thus it is believed that the excess MoO3 functions as a
source to replenish the Mo loss and to serve as a structural promoter to increase the
surface area of Fe2(MoO4)3. However, in a laboratory test it was shown that MoO3,
Fe2(MoO4)3, and MoO3/Fe2(MoO4)3 were all active and selective in the methanol oxidation
to formaldehyde, although Fe2(MoO4)3 was two to four times more active than pure MoO3
[29,30]. Thus it is possible that the excess MoO3 is also a catalytically active phase.
The detailed method of preparation of the catalyst is also important [31,32]. Among
various factors, the preparation method affects the pore size, surface area, and the
distribution of iron molybdate and molybdenum oxide. These factors affect the behavior
of the catalyst [33].
Laboratory tests also show that the reaction of MoO3 is structure sensitive. That is, the
product selectivity is a strong function of the exposed crystal plane on which the reaction
proceeds [34,35]. The (010) and the (100) planes of molybdenum oxides catalyze
dehydrogenation in the presence of oxygen much more selectively than other surface
planes. On supported vanadium oxide catalyst of low vanadia loadings, the reaction rate
is found to be a strong function of the support [36]. The rate of reaction of methanol per
vanadium ions is 103 times higher on a 1 wt% V2O5/ZrO2 or 1 wt% V2O5/TiO2 catalyst
than 1 wt% V2O5/SiO2 catalyst.
It has been shown that on a Fe-Momixed-oxide catalyst dimethoxymethane and dimethyl
ether are significant by-products at low conversions of methanol

Page 186
[29]. The selectivity for formaldehyde increases with increasing conversion. The rate-
limiting step of the reaction is the breaking of the C-H bond in the methyl group. This is
confirmed by observing a large deuterium kinetic isotope effect when the methyl group of
methanol is labeled [37].
The oxide catalyst probably undergoes reduction and oxidation cycles during the reaction.
Reduction of the catalyst on exposure to methanol has been demonstrated, defect
structures are formed [38,39], and the production of 16O-labeled water has been
observed when a feed of methanol and 18O2 was used.
The reaction proceeds first by dissociative adsorption of methanol on the oxide to form an
adsorbed methoxy and a surface hydroxy group (OHad), similar to Equation (16).
Cleavage of a C-H bond in the methyl group produces an adsorbed formaldehyde, which
desorbs to yield the observed product. Further oxidation of the formaldehyde to form a
surface formate similar to that in Equation (20) eventually leads to combustion.
5.3
Acetic Anhydride
Acetic anhydride is the largest commercially produced carboxylic acid anhydride, with an
annual U.S. production capacity of 2.6 billion lb [40]. There are three principal routes to
manufacture acetic anhydride [40,41]. The older process is based on the reaction of
ketene with acetic acid:
The ketene could be produced by thermal decomposition of acetone at 700800C or
dehydration at 750C at reduced pressure over a dehydration agent, such as triethyl
phosphate:
Another process is by catalytic oxidation of acetaldehyde. Acetaldehyde is partially
oxidized with air in the liquid phase to acetic acid. The acetic acid reacts with the
remaining acetaldehyde to form acetaldehyde monoperacetate, which decomposes
quantitatively to acetic anhydride, acetic acid, and water.
A newer process was brought on-stream in the early 1980s by Eastman Chemical
Company: catalytic carbonylation of methyl acetate produced by methanol acetylation
[4145]. The overall reaction of this process is

Page 187
The reaction is catalyzed by a rhodium catalysts, with iodide and lithium salt as
cocatalysts. This process currently represents about two-third of the U.S. production
capacity [41].
The Eastman Chemical process for carbonylation of methyl acetate starts with the
production of syngas from gasification of coal. The purified syngas is then converted to
methanol over a conventional methanol synthesis plant. The conversion of methanol and
acetic acid to methyl acetate [Eq. (24)] involves a novel reactor-separation column
design [42]. This is necessary because methyl acetate forms an azeotrope with water and
methanol. In this novel design, shown schematically in Figure 4, reaction between
methanol and acetic acid occurs in the reaction section in a series of countercurrent
flashing stages. Above the reaction section, water and methanol are extracted with acetic
acid, and acetic acid is separated from methyl acetate. Below the reaction section,
methanol is stripped from water.
In the carbonylation section, carbon monoxide, hydrogen, methyl acetate, and acetic acid
solvent are fed into the liquid-phase reactor operated at over 5 MPa (50 atm) and
175190C [42]. The catalyst consists of a rhodium salt, methyl
Figure 4
The Eastman Chemical acetic anhydride production process.

Page 188
iodide, and lithium iodide. Similar to the Monsanto acetic acid process, many different
rhodium salts and compounds are nearly equally effective catalysts.
Although this process shows similarities to the Monsanto process for the carbonylation of
methanol to produce acetic acid (Sec. 5.1.1), there are some important differences. In
addition to the difference in the catalysts and the corresponding mechanistic aspect of
the reactions, the methyl acetate carbonylation reaction [Eq. (25)] has a much smaller
Gibbs free energy change than the methanol carbonylation reaction [Eq. (1)]. Thus, to
maintain a substantial net rate of reaction, the methyl acetate carbonylation process is
operated at 175190C up to a conversion between 50 and 70% and at over 5 MPa
pressure (50 atm). Acetic anhydride is separated from the rest of the material in the
effluent of the reactor by a series of distillation steps. Acetic acid is a by-product. Most of
the other material in the reactor effluent is recycled back to the reactor. A small amount
of tar is removed. In this process, acetic anhydride with purity up to 99.7% could be
obtained. The main impurity is acetic acid.
The minor by-products of the process include ethylidene diacetate (1,1-diacetoxyethane),
acetone, carbon dioxide, methane, and tar. The rhodium trapped or bound to the
nonvolatile tar must be recovered for process economic reasons. The quantities of the
organic products are very small. Carbon dioxide is formed by degradation of acetic
anhydride.
Recovery of rhodium is an important component of the process. One example of the
method to accomplish this, which was disclosed by Hembre and Cook [46], is described in
Reference 44. The rhodium complex in methyl iodide is extracted into an aqueous phase
using a 13% aqueous solution of hydrogen iodide. In the industrial operation, rhodium
recovery of over 99.99% is achieved.
The presence of a lithium salt (LiI) as cocatalyst and hydrogen is very important for
efficient production of acetic anhydride. The proposed reaction mechanism is shown in
Figure 5 [42,43,47]. In this mechanism, there are two catalytic cycles for the formation of
methyl acetate: a rhodium-catalyzed cycle and a lithium-catalyzed cycle. The rhodium-
catalyzed cycle is similar to the Monsanto process of methanol carbonylation (Fig. 1). The
participation of the second cycle was discovered when it was found that the reaction rate
was much enhanced when hydrogen and a lithium salt were added [43,44]. The role of
hydrogen is to reduce the catalytically inactive Rh(CO)2I4 to the active Rh(CO)2I2. In the
anhydrous medium used in the reaction, the formation of hydrogen by the reaction of
carbon monoxide with water as in the water-gas shift reaction is not possible. Thus
hydrogen must be added.
The dependence of the reaction rate on the concentrations of the catalysts depends on
their concentrations. At high lithium concentrations, the reaction is

Page 189
Figure 5
Mechanism of the Eastman Chemical process for the carbonylation of
methyl acetate to acetic anhydride.
(Reprinted with permission from S. L. Cook, in Acetic Acid and Its
Derivative (V. H. Agreda and J. R. Zoeller, eds.),
Marcel Dekker, New York, 1993, p. 145.)
first order in rhodium and in the actual concentration of methyl iodide in the mixture. At
low lithium concentrations, the rate is nearly independent of these variables. For a fixed
concentration of rhodium and methyl iodide, the reaction rate increases rapidly with
increasing lithium concentration until it reaches a maximum beyond which the rate is
independent of lithium concentration.
Other cations also exhibit promoting effects like those of lithium, although less effective.
Under one particular set of conditions, the reaction rates with promoters, relative to that
without promoters, decrease as Li+, 9.2 > Al3+, 7.4 > Na+, 6.3 > Bu4P+, 6.0 > Mg2+, 5.5
> Bu4N+, 4.9 > Zn2+, 1.4 [44]. The enhanced rate is explained by the role of these
cations in the transformation of methyl acetate to methyl iodide (M is the cation):
The forward rate of this reaction matches the observed overall rate of the carbonylation
reaction.

Page 190
5.4
Methylated Products and Homologation to Higher Alcohols
5.4.1
Alkylation Reactions
5.4.1.1
Alkylation of Alkylbenzenes
The alkylation of toluene with methanol has been investigated for many years as a
potential alternative route to p-xylene, ethylbenzene, and styrene. Conventional p-xylene
production from petroleum reformate requires costly purification and separation from
xylene isomers and other aromatics. A process that selectively produces p-xylene could
have a significant commercial impact by eliminating the need for p-xylene separation.
Furthermore, styrene or ethylbenzene production from methanol and toluene is desired as
part of the development of processes based on C1 feedstocks rather than ethylene or
propylene feedstocks [48]. Para-xylene is used primarily in terephthalic acid production, a
major component of polyester manufacture.
Toluene alkylation with methanol using Friedel-Crafts catalysts results in mixed products
since isomerization reactions and further methylation of the desired products readily
occur under these reaction conditions [49,50]. Recent work has therefore been aimed at
the development of processes with high selectivity, and zeolite catalysts appear to have
the most promise in this regard.
The development of ZSM-5 zeolites has had the most impact on achieving high selectivity
to p-xylene from methanol and toluene. Kaeding et al. [49] showed that at 600C and 0.1
MPa pressure, a nearly equilibrium mixture of xylenes is produced over a HZSM-5
catalyst. Under these conditions the equilibrium mixture is approximately 23% p-xylene,
51% m-xylene, and 27% o-xylene. However, if the zeolite was treated by impregnating
with Mg, P, or B, the p-xylene content of the xylene product increased to >90%.
Modification of the zeolite significantly decreased the activity of the catalyst, presumably
a result of the B and P bonding to the framework oxygen in the zeolite. The initial toluene
conversion decreased from 51% at 400C with HZSM-5 catalyst to 40% at 600C upon
incorporation of the P. Table 2 presents a summary of some of the results reported by
Kaeding et al. [49]. Operation at high toluene-methanol ratio was also necessary to limit
side reactions of methanol, highly reactive on the HZSM-5 zeolites and readily converted
to olefins and other hydrocarbons. Kaeding et al. [49] varied the toluene-methanol molar
ratio from 1:1 to 8:1 at 600C over the P-modified HZSM-5 catalyst and reported a
decrease in the content of side products (CO, CO2, and C1C4 hydrocarbons) from 5.1 wt%
of the total product to 0.3 wt%. Apart from the selectivity issue, this process suffers from
rapid catalyst deactivation, as shown by the data in Figure 6.

Page 191
Table 2 Alkylation of Toluene with Methanol over Modified HZSM-5 Catalyst at 0.1 MPa Pressure.
Catalysta HZSM-5 Coated HZSM-5 P-HZSM-5 B-HZSM-5
Temperature, C 490 450 600 600
Time on-stream, h 0.5 4 56
WHSVb 20.6 15 10.3 3.8
Toluene-methanol molar feed ratio 1.5 1.4 1 2
Conversion, %
Toluene 39 4 40 13
Methanol +99 96
Xylene in product, wt% 32.5 3.7 28 13.9
Xylene distribution, wt%
Para 23 43 90 94
Meta 53 27 7 4
Ortho 24 30 3 2
a Coated HZSM-5: the zeolite was coated with Dexsil 300, a polymer with high temperature stability. P-
HZSM-5: the zeolite was doped with 5 wt% P. B-HZSM-5: the zeolite was doped with B.
b Weight of toluene + methanol per hour per unit weight catalyst.
Source: Data from Kaeding et al. [49].
Figure 6
Catalyst deactivation during toluene alkylation with
methanol over B-HZSM-5 catalyst. Temperature 600C,
WHSV = 3.8, pressure = 0.1 MPa, and toluene-methanol
molar ratio = 2:1. Toluene conversion (circles); xylene
wt% in organic product (open squares); and p-xylene
wt% of total xylenes (filled squares).
(Data from Ref. 49.)

Page 192
Kaeding et al. [49] proposed that the high p-xylene selectivity obtained with the modified
zeolites was a result of steric hindrance effects within the pores of the zeolite. The first
step of the reaction mechanism is thought to be methanol protonation that occurs on the
Brnsted acid sites of the zeolite. This is followed by transfer of the methyl group to the
aromatic ring. Alkylation at the para position is predicted to be less sterically hindered
than at the meta or ortho position and is favored in the small pores of the modified
zeolite. Furthermore, diffusion out of the pore by m-xylene and o-xylene would be
relatively slow, resulting in isomerization of these components to p-xylene. Without
modification of the zeolite, the pore dimensions are such that o-xylene and m-xylene can
be produced within the pores of the zeolite [49].
Many other catalyst systems have been investigated for toluene alkylation with the aim of
reducing the loss in catalyst activity that results upon modification of the HZSM-5 zeolites
with Mg, B, or P. The catalysts studied are all acid and have the potential for molecular
sieving to obtain high para selectivity. Examples include pillared clays [51],
aluminophosphates [52], and carbon-exchanged NaY zeolites [53], as well as variously
modified ZSM zeolites [5459] and nonzeolite molecular sieves [60]. Table 3 summarizes
the results of some of these studies, from which it is concluded that no significant
improvement in the performance of the catalyst reported by Kaeding et al. [49] has been
made to date. An additional difficulty for this potential route to p-xylene has been
demonstrated by the comparative study of the performance of ZSM zeolites toward
isomerization of m-xylene and toluene methylation [61]. For both reactions the activity
was shown to decrease in the order ZSM-5 > ZSM-22 > ZSM-23, whereas
Table 3 Maximum Toluene Conversions and p-Xylene Selectivities
Reported for Various Catalysts in Toluene Alkylation
Catalyst Toluene conversion (%) p-Xylene selectivity (%) Reference
Na-X-zeolite 12 25 55
Mg-X-zeolite 24 40 55
ZSM-5 47 27 55
Cs-ZSM-5 15 51 55
AlPO4 13 28 52
AlPO4-Al2O3 22 24 52
Al PILCa 35 51
P-ZSM-5 40 90 49
a Al-pillared clay.

Page 193
the selectivity for p-xylene followed the reverse trend. Thus the high para selectivities
obtained to date correspond to catalyst activities that remain too low for commercial
application of this process.
Operation with the high toluene-methanol ratios required to limit methanol side reactions
means that product yield based on alkylbenzene feed is low and the reaction is limited by
methanol. Attempts to overcome this limitation have been made by use of composite
methanol synthesis-HZSM-5 catalysts, and this approach has been demonstrated for p-
xylene alkylation to yield 1,2,4-trimethylbenzene. Yashima et al. [62] claimed that the
efficiency of methanol usage as an alkylating agent is greater when the methanol is
produced in situ on the Zn/Cr oxide catalyst than when the methanol is cofed with the p-
xylene.
Various studies have reported the use of zeolite catalysts for the alkylation of
alkylbenzenes other than toluene. Studies include the conversion of ethylbenzene and
methanol to yield p-ethyltoluene, which after dehydrogenation yields p-methylstyrene.
The latter compound can be polymerized to yield a polystyrene analog [63]. HZSM-5
zeolites prepared with Na, K, and Rb ions were examined by Kolboe et al. [63] who
reported selectivities of 1050% for ethylbenezene alkylation with methanol. High para
selectivity was observed, particularly for the Rb-containing zeolite that has a low Al
content. In addition, the alkylation of phenol with methanol is a commercially viable
process for the production of cresols and xylenols. The reaction occurs in the liquid phase
at about 300C and 5 MPa pressure. The catalyst is aluminum oxide, but recent work on
HY and ZSM-5 zeolites has been reported that increases selectivity to p-cresol as a result
of shape selectivity effects [64].
Although the para selectivity of these alkylation reactions is a result of zeolite shape
selectivity effects, the acidity of the catalyst also plays an important role. According to
the mechanism for toluene alkylation, for example, the methanol is protonated on
Brnsted acid sites [49]. Furthermore, high catalyst acidity can increase the dehydration
of methanol to water and dimethyl ether [65]. During toluene alkylation with methanol,
side-chain methylation to styrene and ethylbenzene can also occur. Side-chain alkylation
occurs when both acid and basic sites are available, such as with alkali-exchanged X and
Y zeolites [55]. Monsanto has obtained patents describing X zeolites containing Cs and B
that yielded ethylbenzene and styrene with 50% selectivity at 60% conversion of
methanol [66]. A significant portion of the methanol is dehydrogenated. More recently,
Zheng et al. [55] reported > 90% selectivity to ethylbenzene and styrene with a K-
exchanged X zeolite at a 10% toluene conversion.
5.4.1.2
Alkylation of Amines and Ammonia
The production of methylamines from anhydrous ammonia and methanol is an
established industrial process that consumes about 4% of the total U.S. metha-

Page 194
nol production [67]. Dimethylamine (DMA) is the more desired product since about 60%
of methylamine demand is for DMA [67]. However, monomethylamine and
trimethylamine (TMA) are also produced at typical synthesis conditions since the
reactions
approach equilibrium in the industrial process.
The conversion of methanol and ammonia to methylamines is achieved over dehydration
catalysts operated in the temperature range 300450C and 0.12 MPa pressure. The
reactions are exothermic, and excess ammonia is used to control the product distribution.
The dehydration catalysts are generally promoted Si-Al composites. The promoters
include molybdenum sulfide and silver phosphate [68]. In the commercial Leonard
process, a gas-phase downflow catalytic reactor operating at about 350C and 0.62 MPa
is used [69]. Recovery of the desired product is achieved through a series of four
distillation and extractive distillation columns. Unwanted product is recycled, suppressing
further formation of the undesired component in the reactor. A very small amount of
methanol is lost to CO and H2, and yields from the commercial process based on
methanol and ammonia are >97% [70].
In recent years research on the development of highly selective catalysts has been
reported (see Table 4). In this approach, zeolite catalysts that selective-
Table 4 Catalyst Performance Data for Methylamine Synthesis
Catalyst
Methanol/
NH3
ratioa
Temperature
(C)
Methanol conversion
(%)
Selectivity
Reference MMAb
(%)
DMA
(%)
TMA
(%)
DME
(%)
SAPO-34 1:1 325 63 32 5 122
SiO2-Al2O3 1:1 300400 >90 18 11 45 27 72
Si-H-
mordenite
1:1 300400 >90 33 65 1 <1 72
g-Al2O3 1:1 400 79 4 4 0 92 71
SiO2-MgO 1:1 400 66 12 82 2 71
La-
Mordenite
1:1 400 95 20 59 20 1 71
a Molar feed ratio of CH3OH:NH3.
b Monomethylamine.

Page 195
ly produce DMA or monomethylamine, partly because of the shape selectivity properties
of the zeolites, are being studied. Mochida et al. [71] reported the suppression of TMA
selectivity to less than 10% of the total methylamine product using alkali-earth ion-
exchanged zeolites. For example, a La-exchanged synthetic mordenite zeolite (Norton
zeolon with 50% H+ exchanged with La3+) operated at 300C and 0.1 MPa pressure with
7% methanol and 7% ammonia in He, resulted in 85% selectivity to DMA and
monomethylamine at 36% methanol conversion. The low TMA selectivity was ascribed to
the 0.39 nm free diameter of the zeolite compared with the estimated minimum
molecular sizes of 0.39, 0.30, and 0.22 nm for TMA, DMA, and monomethylamine,
respectively [71].
A similar shape selectivity was reported in the more recent study of modified mordenite,
faujasite, and ZSM-5 zeolites by Segawa and Tachibana [72]. The mordenite zeolites,
treated with SiCl4 at 973 K in Na form and then exchanged to protonic form, gave 98%
selectivity to monomethylamine and DMA, with <1% diemthyl ether (DME) as a side
product, at a methanol conversion > 90%. The reaction was performed with a feed of
composition NH3/CH3OH/ N2 = 1:1:31 mol% at atmospheric pressure and in the
temperature range 300400C. The formation of TMA is limited by the catalyst pore
openings, which were smaller than the TMA molecule. Under the conditions of the
laboratory experiments, no catalyst deactivation was observed [72].
In addition to the production of methylamines, the formation of alkylamines from
ammonia and alcohols is well known. Substituted amines can also be generated
according to the reactions:
where R and R' are alkyl groups. The synthesis is carried out at elevated pressures (0.12
MPa) on dehydration oxide catalysts, supported group VIII metal catalysts, and Cu-based
catalysts. Reaction temperatures are typically 350450C for the oxide catalysts and
170220C for the supported metal catalysts. A variety of different catalysts and
feedstocks have been investigated and are summarized by Herman [73]. Selectivity
control is also an important issue in this process. Ford and Johnson [74] showed that
strontium hydrogen phosphate catalyst is selective in converting methanol and
ethylamine to methyl- and dimethylethylamine (>90%), which is far removed from the
equilibrium product mixture.

Page 196
5.4.2
Dehydration:
Synthesis of Dimethyl Ether
Dimethyl ether is an important intermediate in several processes converting C1
feedstocks to liquid fuels or chemicals. DME may also be used as an alternative propellant
for aerosols [67]. It is well known that DME can be produced from methanol over acid
dehydration catalysts under relatively mild conditions. Most of the investigations reporting
DME formation are related to olefin and gasoline production via the Mobile methanol-to-
olefins and methanol-to-gasoline processes, discussed in Chapter 4. In both cases,
elevated pressures (13 MPa) and temperatures above 300C are used to maximize olefin
and aromatic yield. In this section DME production from methanol is considered in the
context of producing DME as a useful chemical rather than as an intermediate in a Mobil
process.
Methanol dehydration to DME as described in patent literature occurs on g-Al2O3 and g-
Al2O3 modified with phosphates or titanates [75]. Temperatures in the range 250400C
and pressures up to 1.04 MPa have been claimed. Many other catalysts have been
reported for alcohol dehydration, including zeolites, silica aluminas, mixed metal oxides,
and ion-exchange resins, and these catalysts were reviewed recently [65,76]. DME
formation has also been reported over a 1 wt% Pd/Al2O3 catalyst with a 90% selectivity
at 71% methanol conversion [77]. The reaction was performed at 200C and 0.1 MPa.
When the Pd was supported on ZnO, the product was primarily methyl formate, whereas
on various other supports, including SiO2, Cr2O3, and MgO, only CO was produced.
Both Lewis and Brnsted acidity are involved in the dehydration reactions over acid
catalysts, and selectivity control to limit the dehydration of DME to olefins and aromatics
requires that the surface acidity not be too high and the reaction temperature be below
300C [65]. The olefins are generally thought to be produced by a consecutive reaction in
which methanol is first converted to DME, which in turn is converted to olefins and
aromatics. Reaction mechanisms for DME formation have been proposed by various
investigators. According to Kubelkova et al. [78], the mechanism over Si-Al zeolites
involves protonation of the hydroxyl group of methanol on a Brnsted acid site to form a
skeletal methoxyl. This methoxyl group reacts with a gas-phase methanol molecule to
form DME at 180300C and C2C5 aliphatics and aromatics above 300C. According to
these authors, Lewis acid sites (Aln-OH), associated with nonskeletal alumina, can also
form methoxyls according to the reaction

Page 197
Bandeira and Naccache [79] proposed a duel acid-base mechanism in which CH3OH
reacts on a Brnsted acid site and another methanol molecule reacts at an adjacent O2-
site. Thus a bimolecular Langmuir-Hinshelwood reaction mechanism is proposed
according to the following reaction steps:
and reaction (37) is the rate limiting step.
Most recently, methanol dehydration kinetics were examined over a g-Al2O3 catalyst at
0.15 MPa in the temperature range 290360C. A kinetic equation assuming surface
reaction control with dissociative adsorption of methanol gave the best fit to the
experimental results [80]. The dissociative adsorption is consistent with many previous
kinetic models in which the rate of DME formation is found to proportional to the square
root of the methanol concentration [80].
A high selectivity to DME can be obtained by suitable choice of the catalyst and the
reaction conditions. It has been shown that weak acid sites favor methanol dehydration
[81] and that strong acid sites, although having high turnover frequency, are less
selective than weak acid sites [65]. Controlled dealumination of the zeolite is therefore
one way of achieving high DME selectivity. DME selectivity and yield have also been
shown to increase with time on-stream, presumably because of coking of the strong acid
sites, as shown by the data in Table 5 for a SAPO-11 catalyst [82]. Acidity control is most
effective with zeolite catalysts, and these appear to be the most promising catalysts for
this synthesis.
Table 5 Effect of Coking on Diemthylether Yield over SAPO-11 Catalysts
Methanol feed rate (g methanol/g/h)
0.050 0.031
Time on-stream, h 0.12 1.1 0.17 1.5
Methanol conversion, % 43.4 35.3 68.0 38.9
DME selectivity, % 41.2 67.1 5.1 86.6
DME yield, % 17.9 23.7 3.5 33.7
Source: Adapted from Reference 82.

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A single-step process for DME production from synthesis gas in which methanol is a co-
product was also investigated recently [8385]. The methanol synthesis, methanol
dehydration, and water-gas shift reactions occur simultaneously in the reactor over mixed
methanol and alcohol dehydration catalysts. The Air Products slurry-phase process has
been tested over a wide range of operating conditions and offers the potential for both
lower capital and operating costs compared with a multistep process in which methanol
synthesis from synthesis gas is the first step of the process [83,85]. Most recently, a DME
to methanol selectivity of 76:24 mol% was claimed for a mixed-catalyst system operated
at 250C and 65 mol% CO conversion [84]. The productivity at these conditions was 4.7
gmol/kg/h of DME and 1.5 gmol/kg/h of methanol. These values compare with 95% DME
selectivity and 51% methanol conversion over a SAPO-16 catalyst at 425C for the
synthesis of DME from methanol [86].
5.4.3
Dehydrogenation:
Synthesis of Methyl Formate
There has been significant interest in studying the dehydrogenation of methanol to
methyl formate (MF) as a potential industrial process [87]. The overall stoichiometry for
this reaction may be written as
However, the reaction is thought to occur in two steps via formaldehyde that
subsequently converts to methyl formate by the Tischenko mechanism [88]. The reaction
occurs on various copper-containing catalysts [8792] and was recently shown to occur
over Pd catalysts [77]. With Pd, however, the selectivity to methyl formate is very
dependent on the support, as shown by the comparative data in Table 6. Selectivity is
>90% to CO over most of the Pd catalysts; however, with a 1 wt% Pd/ZnO catalyst, the
selectivity is 80% to methyl formate at a methanol conversion of 21% [77]. On copper
catalysts, 93% selectivity to MF has been claimed at 50% methanol conversion and
reaction temperatures 285330C [87].
The catalyst support has also been shown to play an important role in methanol
dehydration to MF [93], particularly over the copper catalysts. Tonner et al. [88]
investigated the copper supported on chromia, magnesia, and silica for methanol
dehydrogenation and obtained a range of conversions (431%) and MF selectivities
(6295%), depending on the support. The support effect was thought to be related to
reduced copper activity as a result of a copper-support interaction. Alternatively, a local
excess of hydrogen adsorbed on the support could reduce the yield of MF by favoring the
reverse of reaction (38). Tonner et al. [88] have shown that the catalysts with high Cu
dispersion and bulk density gave the maximum activity per unit volume of catalyst. An
86% selectivity to MF

Page 199
Table 6 Comparative Performance of Catalysts for Methanol Dehydration and Dehydrogenation
Catalyst Conversion (%)
Selectivitya (%)
CO MF DME
Pd/ZnO 21 20 80 0
Pd/SiO2 2 100 0 0
Pd/Al2O3 71 10 0 90
Pd/MgO 11 100 0 0
Cu/SiO2 18 6 94 0
a MF = HCOOCH3; DME = (CH3)2O.
and a 2% methanol conversion were reported at 270C and 0.1 MPa. Significant catalyst
deactivation was reported for an unsupported Raney Cu catalyst, apparently because of
polymerization of the formaldehyde intermediate [88].
Methyl formate can also be produced by carbonylation of methanol according to the
reaction
This reaction occurs at high pressure (810 MPa) in the presence of a catalyst, such as
sodium methoxide, at low temperature (80C) [87]. The effects of various alkali metal
alkoxides has been investigated, and the activity of the catalyst has been shown to
increase with increasing ionization potential of the metal [94]. From kinetic studies it has
also been shown that both CO2 and H2O react with the catalyst, resulting in a reduced
reaction rate. The effect of CO2 is twice as severe as that of water [95].
The proposed commercial unit for this process operates with about 2 wt% catalyst in a
''loop reactor," designed to have efficient heat transfer and gas-liquid dispersion [93]. The
CO and methanol conversions are 95 and 30%, respectively, with MF production of
approximately 800 g/h/L [87]. The process has been proven on the pilot scale [93].
The methanol dehydrogenation route to MF has not been commercialized, and the
lifetime of the acid catalysts has not been reported. However, the process is attractive
since it operates at low pressure compared with the carbonylation route. Technical
development of the carbonylation route is far more advanced than that of the
dehydrogenation route, in part because of the interest in meth-

Page 200
anol carbonylation to methyl formate with subsequent hydrogenolysis as an alternative
low-temperature methanol synthesis route [96,97].
Production of methyl formate from methanol also leads to the potential production of
formic acid from methanol [87]. Formic acid is produced commercially as a side product of
the liquid-phase oxidation of n-butane to acetic acid. It has been suggested, however,
that new formic acid capacity will best be obtained by hydrolysis of methyl formate
because of raw material costs [87]. The methyl formate could be produced by either the
carbonylation or dehydration of methanol according to the technologies discussed
previously.
The Scientific Design/Bethlehem Steel process for formic acid production is based on the
methanol carbonylation route to methyl formate [87,98,99]. The methyl formate is
subsequently hydrolyzed and the products separated to yield pure formic acid and
methanol. The methanol is recycled to the carbonylation reactor, and overall methanol
usage is about 2 kg per 100 kg product [99]. The reaction of methyl formate and water to
form formic acid is an equilibrium reaction performed at 0.3 MPa and 80C, with a
residence time of about lh [87]. The overall process stoichiometry yields formic acid from
CO and H2O according to the reactions
5.4.4
Methanol Homologation
Methanol homologation to higher alcohols, in which the carbon being added to the
alcohols comes from methanol, has been claimed in a noncatalytic reaction with metal
acetylides [100]. For example, the reaction of methanol and CeC2 at 400C and 0.1 MPa
yielded alcohols up to pentanols, with a maximum selectivity for 2-methyl-1-propanol of
77%. The product distribution included a mixture of alcohols, CO, H2, and CH4.
Depending on the contact time in the laboratory-scale test reactor, ethanol selectivities
ranged from 1.3% (C atom) to 12.5% and 2-methyl-1-propanol selectivities ranged from
58 to 86%. Methanol conversion was <2%. Using 13C-labeled methanol, Fox et al. [101]
showed that methanol rather than the metal acetylide was the source of carbon in the
higher alcohols. A formaldehyde condensation reaction mechanism has been invoked to
explain the 13C distribution in the product.
Accordingly, methanol reacts with the metal acetylide to form metal methoxide and
acetylene. The methoxide decomposes to formaldehyde, which undergoes a condensation
reaction to yield acetaldehyde. Hydrogenation of the acetaldehyde yields ethanol. Similar
aldol condensation reactions occur among the aldehydes with carbon number 1 to yield
higher alcohols.

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Methanol homologation to produce higher alcohols has also been invoked in the synthesis
of higher alcohols from CO/CO2/H2 over alkali-promoted Cu/ZnO and Zn/Cr catalysts
[102104]. In both cases the reaction is carried out at high pressure (>7.5 MPa) and high
temperatures (250325C for the Cu/ZnO catalyst and 300400C for the Zn/Cr catalyst).
The product obtained from this synthesis is a complex mixture of alcohols, aldehydes,
esters, and hydrocarbons, the relative amounts of each being very dependent on the
catalyst and the operating conditions [102104]. The product alcohols are primarily 2-
methyl branched and linear alcohols. Various investigators have shown that addition of
alkali metal salts, such as K2CO3 and CsOH, increases the selectivity to the higher
alcohols, as does operation with low ratio synthesis gas (H2/CO < 1) [102106]. This
technology offers a route to an oxygenate mix suitable for blending with gasolines, and
commercial processes have been proposed [107,108].
Based on mechanistic and kinetic studies of the higher alcohol synthesis from synthesis
gas, it has been shown that the ethanol in the mixed-oxygenate product is produced from
intermediates derived from methanol, not CO [103,109]. Kinetic models of the synthesis
have been developed that are able to explain the observed product distribution
[110,111]. These models are based on a detailed understanding of the reaction
mechanism in which two types of reactions dominate: aldol condensation, which yields
primarily 2-methyl branched alcohols, and C1 coupling reactions, which yield linear
alcohols [106,111]. Estimates of the parameters of the kinetic models that quantitatively
describe the oxygenate product distributions suggest that the rate of ethanol formation is
about an order of magnitude lower than the rate of production of branched alcohols
[111,112]. On the Cs/Cu/Zn catalysts, this results in a minimum in yield of ethanol
compared with the yields of methanol, 1-propanol, and 2-methyl-1 propanol. Although
methanol conversion to ethanol has been confirmed as part of the higher alcohol
synthesis from synthesis gas, this synthesis does not offer a plausible route for the
conversion of methanol to ethanol. Under the reaction conditions methanol rapidly
decomposes, even at a pressure of 0.1 MPa [113], to yield an equilibrium mix of
methanol, CO, and H2. Furthermore, as shown by the data in Table 7, the yield of ethanol
remains low even with methanol in the feed.
Higher alcohol formation from synthesis gas is also known to occur over MoS2-based
catalysts. The alcohol product distribution is quite different from the modified methanol
synthesis catalysts and consists primarily of linear alcohols [114]. In particular, the
product distribution with Cs/Co/MoS2 catalysts has a maximum in the yield of ethanol
[115]. A modification of this synthesis in which higher alcohols formed from methanol and
synthesis gas has been claimed by Quarderer et al. [116]. As K2CO3-promoted CoS/MoS2
catalyst, operated at

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Table 7 Higher Alcohol Yields over K/Cu/Zn Oxide Catalyst with
Methanol in the Feeda
Space velocity, h1 2300 2800
Methanol in feed, % 0 8.6
Yields, g/kg/h
Methanol 118
Ethanol 8 16
1-Propanol 5 10
1-Butanol 2 1
2-Methyl-1-propanol 4 4
a Temperature 285C, pressure 10.4 MPa, feed H2/CO = 0.9.
290C and 13.7 MPa, yielded a product with significant ethanol content, as shown by the
data in Table 8. This process is similar to the higher alcohol synthesis over promoted
Cu/Zn and Zn/Cr catalysts; however, the rate of ethanol formation is significantly greater
with the MoS2-based catalysts than with the modified methanol synthesis catalysts.
Methanol can also be converted to ethanol by homologation with H2 and CO in the
presence of cobalt-carbonyl complexes. As pointed out by Wender, however, the reaction
is reductive carbonylation of methanol rather than
homologation [117]. The reductive carbonylation of methanol to ethanol has been known
for many years, and various reviews of the process and catalysts have been published
[117119].
Reductive carbonylation of methanol based on homogeneous cobalt catalysts can yield a
complex mixture of higher alcohols, aldehydes, esters, acids, and
Table 8 Higher Alcohol Synthesis from Methanol and Synthesis Gas over
K/CoS/MoS2 Catalystsa
Component Yield (g/h)
Methanol 2.73
Ethanol 5.36
Propanols 1.51
Butanols 0.38
a Temperature 290C, pressure 13.8 MPa, gas hourly space velocity
2000 h1; feed H2/CO = 1.05.

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ethers. Typically, 5090% of the product is ethanol plus acetaldehyde with cobalt
catalysts. Such promoters as iodine increase selectivity toward ethanol, whereas group V
metals promote acetaldehyde formation [117]. Figure 7 presents an example of the
product distribution obtained with varying amounts of iodine promoter. Hydrogenation
cocatalysts also increase the yield of ethanol, ruthenium being the best. Despite these
improvements, selectivity to ethanol is usually below 75% at the optimum temperature
of about 200C and high operating pressures of 27 MPa. At the present state of technical
development, the process remains uneconomical, partly because of the low catalyst
selectivities and activities.
Figure 7
Effect of I/Co ratio on methanol homologation over cobalt carbonyl
catalyst. Pressure = 27.3 MPa, temperature = 200C, and H2/CO = 1.
Ethanol (filled squares), dimethyl ether (open squares), and others,
including CH4 (triangles).
(Data from Ref. 118.)

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5.4.5
Miscellaneous Reactions
5.4.5.1
Methyl Methacrylate and Dimethyl Terephthalate Synthesis
Methanol is utilized in the production of methyl methacrylate (MMA), a monomer used in
the manufacture of glasslike plastics [120]. The most important technology for MMA
manufacture is the acetone cyanohydrin process, a mature technology in which acetone
and hydrogen cyanide are the primary reactants. The acetone cyanohydrin produced from
these two reactants is reacted with sulfuric acid to produce a methacrylamide sulfate.
MMA is produced by reacting methanol with this sulfate. Although this technology is well
established, it suffers from a negative environmental impact associated with HCN
transportation and the disposal of sulfuric acid and ammonia. More recent process
developments for MMA manufacture attempt to address this issue. In the alternative
isobutylene technology practiced in Japan, methanol is used for the esterification of
methacrylic acid to methyl methacrylate. The methacrylic acid is produced from
isobutylene in a series of high-temperature catalytic oxidation reactions [120].
Terephthalic acid (TA) is a starting material for the manufacture of polyesters, used
particularly in fiber manufacture. TA can be produced commercially by hydrolysis of
dimethyl terephthalate, the latter compound produced by oxidation of p-xylene. Oxidation
of p-xylene is achieved in the presence of Co/Mn salt catalysts that yield p-toluic acid.
The oxidation is performed at 140170C and 0.40.8 MPa pressure. Esterification of the
toluic acid with methanol at 250280C and 22.5 MPa yields TA. Alternatively, the
oxidation is performed in the presence of a bromine promoter that results in the oxidation
of both methyl groups to yield TA [121].
5.5
Synthesis of Ethers
Interest in the synthesis of ethers, particularly methyl tert-butyl ether (MTBE) and tert-
amyl methyl ether (TAME), has increased in recent years as a result of the need for
oxygenates in reformulated gasolines. The 1990 amendment to the U.S. Clean Air Act
mandates that new gasoline formulations have a minimum oxygen content of 2 wt% in
areas that do not comply with U.S. Environmental Protection Agency attainment
standards for ozone or CO. Ethers, particularly MTBE, reduce CO emissions during cold
weather [123,124], and they are at present the oxygenate of choice to meet the
oxygenate requirement of reformulated gasolines [124]. Ethers are preferred over other
oxygenates, such as alcohols, because of their favorable vaporization properties and low
sensitivity

Page 205
to water [124]. However, recent health concerns related to the use of MTBE have been
raised that could impact on its future use [123].
Although MTBE is generated as a by-product of propylene oxide production [125], direct
synthesis by acid-catalyzed addition of methanol to isobutylene is necessary to meet the
rapid increase in worldwide MTBE demand. Worldwide capacity of MTBE is expected to
double by 1995 from the 1992 level of 377,000 bbl/day [125,126], and much of this
increased capacity is expected to come from new plants and MTBE expansions [126].
Commercial MTBE (and TAME) synthesis occurs at about 1.5 MPa and 100C in the liquid
phase over an acid resin catalyst that is based on the sulfonic acid group -SO3H. The
synthesis reaction is slightly exothermic and limited by equilibrium under the conditions of
the commercial operation:
The reaction mechanism and kinetics of the MTBE synthesis from methanol and
isobutylene have been studied over the commercial Amberlyst 15 cation-exchange resin
catalyst. An activation energy of 71.2 kJ/mol was reported by Ancillotti et al. [127] for the
forward reaction, whereas Gicquel and Torck [128] reported a value of 82.0 kJ/mol. For
the reverse reaction an activation energy of 122.6 kJ/mol has been reported [128]. The
kinetics of the reaction are very dependent on the olefin and alcohol concentration.
Ancillotti et al. [129] showed that the initial rate of synthesis is zero order in methanol at
methanol-isobutylene ratios > 1. Most commercial processes operate at close to the
stoichiometric ratio, and the rate is first order in isobutylene under these conditions.
Ancillotti et al. [129] suggested that the effect of alcohol-olefin ratio can be explained in
terms of the equilibrium reaction
The kinetics are consistent with an ionic mechanism wherein the rate-determining step is
the protonation of the olefin by the solvated proton. At lower alcohol-olefin ratios (<1),
the order of reaction is negative in the alcohol, reaction (43) is shifted to the left, and the
olefin is protonated directly by the sulfonic acid group of the resin. A Langmuir-
Hinshelwood model of the kinetics was also described by Gicquel and Torck [128] for
relatively high methanol concentrations.
Commercial MTBE (and TAME) processes are very similar and based on the acid-catalyzed
addition of methanol to isobutylene. The reactor effluent is fractionated in various stages
to recover MTBE, methanol for recycle, and unreacted C4 hydrocarbons present in the
feed. The three different designs of the commercial processes reflect different approaches
to control the heat gen-

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erated by the reaction [130132], since the resin catalysts are very temperature sensitive
and must be operated below about 90C. The fixed-bed reactor with recycle was the first
process commercialized [130]. In this process methanol and isobutylene are premixed
and heated before being fed to a fixed-bed reactor. The reaction exotherm heats the
reacting fluid, and the effluent from the reactor is split into two streams. Part of the
effluent is recycled back to the first reactor, and part undergoes further conversion in a
second reactor. In this way the reactor temperature is controlled. The fractionation of the
product from the second reactor occurs in a single column to recover the MTBE. The
overhead from this column is further treated in a methanol wash column and a methanol
fractionation column to recover C4 raffinate (unreacted hydrocarbons in the isobutylene
feed) and methanol for recycle [130].
For the fixed-bed tubular reactor, the reaction exotherm is controlled by placing the
catalyst in a series of tubes. The heat generated by reaction in the tubes is removed by
circulating cooling water on the shell side of the reactor. The effluent from this reactor
passes to a second packed-bed reactor for further conversion. Product recovery follows
the same flow scheme as for the packed-bed reactor with recycle [130].
A more recent innovation in MTBE synthesis is the use of catalytic distillation in which the
reactor and MTBE fractionator are combined in one vessel [130,131]. The reactive
distillation unit is basically a tray distillation column with catalyst held in a proprietary
packing placed on the trays. In this way the heat of reaction is recovered and used for the
distillation and recovery of the MTBE. Among the major benefits of this design are
efficient conversion of the isobutylene [130] and lower operating and capital costs [131].
Many processes based on this technology have been established recently [126,132].
Efficient utilization of the olefin feedstock is critical in ether production because of the
limited supply and cost of the olefin feedstock [133]. The estimated order of magnitude
cost of a 12,500 bpsd MTBE complex is about $200 million (1992 dollars), of which
3550% of the cost is associated with dehydrogenation costs for isobutylene synthesis
from isobutane [130]. The source of olefins is a major issue in ether production [134136],
and the interest in TAME and other ethers for fuel oxygenates stems from the fact that
they can be produced from methanol and olefins other than isobutylene [134].
The synthesis of ethers at high temperature using zeolites was also investigated recently
[137139]. Use of shape-selective ZSM-5 and ZSM-11 zeolites almost eliminates the
unwanted side product diisobutene [137]. The reaction temperature is above 100C with
zeolites, and the synthesis reaction occurs in the gas phase. Table 9 compares MTBE
synthesis over a zeolite catalyst with that over the Amberlyst 15 resin catalyst.
Advantages of zeolites compared with

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Table 9 Comparison of MTBE Synthesis over Zeolite and Amberlyst 15
Catalysts
Amberlyst 15 H-ZSM-5
Temperature, C 75 75 115
W/F, g-h/mola 20 16.1 18.9
Isobutylene conversion, % 94.9 35.2 84.2
Selectivity to MTBE, % 98.1 100 100
a Catalyst weight to feed flow rate.
the commercial process using acid resin catalysts include the high thermal stability of the
zeolites, no acid effluent, high MTBE selectivity, and less sensitivity to the alcohol-olefin
ratio in the reactor [137]. However, the zeolites are less acid than the Amberlyst 15
commercial catalysts and have a lower acid site density. Comparing the performance of
the catalysts at low temperature, at which the resin catalyst is stable, shows the zeolite
to be about 10 times less active than the resin catalysts [138]. Attempts to increase the
zeolite acidity with triflic acid have not been successful, since the active sites are blocked
by the acid added to the zeolite [140].
Although MTBE synthesis from methanol and isobutylene is a well-established commercial
process, shortfalls in olefin feedstock have led to studies aimed at alternative routes to
MTBE. The direct coupling of methanol and 2-methyl-1-propanol to yield methyl isobutyl
ether (MIBE) has been demonstrated over resin catalysts [141,142]. Over a Nafion H
resin at 157C, Nunan et al. [141] reported high selectivity for MIBE from methanol and
2-methyl-1-propanol (42 mol% of product mix). Air Products and Chemicals have also
reported the synthesis of ethers from methanol-isobutanol, the latter produced from
synthesis gas (CO/ CO2/H2) over Cs/Cu/ZnO catalysts [143]. In this case, the reaction
occurs in a slurry reactor and the feedstock is synthesis gas. Laboratory studies of MTBE
synthesis via the oxidative coupling of methane have also been reported [144]. However,
yields of these process are very low and require more development before they can be
considered alternatives to current commercial technology.
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Texas, March 28 to April 1, 1993.

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6
Fuel Methanol
Glyn D. Short
ICI Americas, Wilmington, Delaware
6.1
Foreword
Between 1990 and 1992, the U.S. Congress passed two landmark bills, the Clean Air Act
Amendments (CAAA) of 1990 and the Energy Policy and Conservation Act (EPACT) of
1992. These two bills will slowly change the nature of transportation fuels and the
engines they power, not only in the United States, but eventually throughout the world.
The CAAA, with its emphasis on achieving even stricter emissions limits for all classes of
road vehicles, will engender redesign and optimization of cost-effective emissions control
systems for both gasoline and diesel. The EPACT specifically excludes gasoline and diesel
from consideration as alternative fuels, which are mandated for use in an increasingly
large fraction of the federal fleet to promote energy security (Table 1). In addition, the
President of the United States, in 1993, formed a Task Force for Alternative Fuels with the
assigned role of expediting the conversion of the federal fleet as well as facilitating the
proliferation of alternative fuels into the private sector.
The views expressed in this chapter are those of the author, not ICI.

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Table 1 EPACT-Mandated Public Sector Alternative Fuel Fleet Vehicle Purchases
Year Federal (%)a State (%) Fuel providers (%)
1993 5,000
1994 7,000
1995 10,000
1996 25 10 30
1997 33 15 50
1998 50 25 70
1999 75 50 90
2000 75 75 90
2001 75 75 90
2002 75 75 90
2003 75 75 90
2004 75 75 90
2005 75 75 90
2006 on 75 75 90
a Values for 19931995 are not percentages.
Of singular importance to the continuing developing of an alternative fuels industry is the
provision in the CAAA for the State of California, allowing the state to enact its own
vehicle emissions-reduction program. Because of the severity of air pollution in its
southern half, California has historically been in the forefront of emissions control
technology development, evidenced by its initiation of lead-free gasoline and automobile
catalyst systems. For alternative fuels, California's sophisticated and well-informed state
agencies, the California Energy Commission, the California Air Resources Board (CARB),
and the South Coast Air Quality Management District, have long been supporters of those
fuels that can outperform conventional gasoline and diesel in terms of cost-effective
emissions reduction.
In 1989, CARB formulated a set of increasingly stringent standards for low-emission
automobiles, thereby creating several new classes of vehicles: transitional low-emission
vehicles (TLEV), low-emission vehicles (LEV), ultralow-emission vehicles (ULEV), and
zero-emission vehicles (ZEV). Sales of these vehicles are required to be phased in over
the next 10 years so that an increasing fraction of California automobiles will be low-
emission vehicles. Other states have the freedom to adopt the ''California rules" in their
entirety, and so far New

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York State and other northeastern states have exercised this choice, with many other
states considering joining.
The ability of alternative fuels, principally methanol and compressed natural gas (CNG),
to compete against gasoline and diesel in the low-emissions stakes has been enhanced
significantly by a further CARB rule that allows for the differing efficacy of exhaust
pollutants in enhancing the rate of tropospheric ozone formation. Each fuel is awarded a
"reactivity adjustment factor," which is used as a multiplier for the speciated main
emissions. Because both methanol and CNG generate lower reactivity pollutants, they
have an advantage over the more reactive components found in gasoline emissions.
In addition to the California rules, the federal government has derived its own set of
regulations, generally less strict than California's. Further, sets of emissions performance
criteria applying to medium- and heavy-duty vehicles have been drawn up. Tables 2 and
4 summarize the various rules, some of which are yet to be fully defined by the regulating
entities.
In this situation, which represents the briefest of synopses of the current U.S. alternative
transportation fuel regulatory environment, methanol as a fuel must compete against
CNG (for fleets) and reformulated gasoline and diesel (for general use). It is therefore
being required to prove itself in use against ever improving engine and emissions
technology using conventional fuels before a market demand of significant volume has
been built up, while withstanding the increasingly sophisticated scrutiny of the
environmental movement.
Table 2 Passenger Car Emissions Levels: California and U.S. Federal Requirements
Emission standards (g per mile)
CA TLEV CA LEV CA ULEV CA ZEV CAAA tier 1a CAAA tier 2b CAAA 1993
NMOGc 0.125 0.075 0.040 0
NMHCd 0 0.25 0.125 0.41e
CO 3.400 3.400 1.700 0 3.40 1.700 3.40
NOx 0.400 0.300 0.200 0 0.40 0.200 1.00
Formaldehyde 0.015 0.015 0.008 0
a Effective 1994.
b Effective 2004 if adopted.
c Nonmethane organic gases.
d Nonmethane hydrocarbons.
e Total hydrocarbons.

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Table 3 Implementation Rates for California Low-Emission Vehicles
Model year
% Fleet meeting NMOG emission standards
Fleet average standard (NMOG)
% TLEV % LEV % ULEV % ZEVa
NMOG 0.125 0.075 0.040 0
1994 10 0 0 0 0.250
1995 15 0 0 0 0.231
1996 20 0 0 0 0.225
1997 25 2 0 0.202
1998 48 2 2 0.157
1999 73 2 2 0.113
2000 96 2 2 0.073
2001 90 5 5 0.070
2002 85 10 5 0.068
2003 75 15 10 0.062
a The ZEV percentages are mandatory; other figures are indicative of acceptable averaging.
6.2
Introduction
Although methanol has been used for decades to fuel automobiles, either neat or as an
additive or extender to gasoline, its potential to fulfill the role of a commodity
transportation fuel has only recently become a topic of significant commercial interest. As
a chemically simple liquid fuel of reasonable cost derived independently of crude oil, it is
being considered globally for a variety of fuel uses with the aim of generating benefits for
the environment, energy security, or economics, depending on local circumstances.
Among these uses are direct fuel applications in power generation, internal-combustion
engines (e.g., substitution for conventional diesel or gasoline), and fuel cells, and indirect
fuel use via such derivatives as methyl tert-butyl ether (MTBE), tert-amyl methyl ether,
and methylated vegetable oils (biodiesel). This chapter is concerned only with direct fuel
usage, but it should be noted that the rapid growth in demand for MTBE necessarily
impacts the demand, supply, and price of fuel methanol.
Many countries have experimented with, and are continuing to assess, methanol's
attributes in both direct and indirect fuel applications, but effort has been placed primarily
on substituting methanol for gasoline and diesel. It hardly needs to be stressed that
supplanting with methanol any significant fraction of the market demand for gasoline and
diesel is a prospect being viewed with some misgivings by the oil industry and as a
competitive opportunity by other, com-

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Table 4 California Medium-Duty Diesel Engine Emission Level Requirementsa
Vehicle weight (lb)
Emission standards (120,000 mile standards, g per mile)
NMOG CO NOx PM
03750 1995+ 0.360 5.0 0.55 0.08
LEV 0.180 5.0 0.60 0.08
ULEV 0.107 2.5 0.30 0.04
37515750 1995+ 0.460 6.4 .098 0.10
LEV 0.230 6.4 1.00 0.10
ULEV 0.143 3.2 0.50 0.05
57518500 1995+ 0.560 7.3 1.53 0.12
LEV
0.280 7.3 1.50 0.12
ULEV
0.167 3.7 0.80 0.06
850110,000 1995+
0.660 8.1 1.81 0.12
LEV 0.330 8.1 1.80 0.12
ULEV 0.197 4.1 0.90 0.06
10,00114,000 1995+ 0.860 10.3 2.77 0.12
LEV 0.430 10.3 2.80 0.12
ULEV 0.257 5.2 1.40 0.06
a Beginning in 1998, a minimum percentage of all medium-duty vehicles will be required to be certified
as low-emission vehicles according to the following schedule (year, % LEV, % ULEV): 1998, 25, 2;
1991, 50, 2; 2000, 75, 2; 2001, 95, 5; 2002, 90, 10; 2003, 85, 15. PM = particulate matter.
peting alternative fuels interests. Among the latter are ethanol and its derivative ethers,
natural gas in the form of CNG or liquefied natural gas, and electrically powered vehicles
of various types.
For the past few years, the manifold economic and environmental forces associated with
the competitive situation just outlined have been interacting in the U.S. political arena,
with the lead being taken by the State of California, principally because of the problems
posed by poor air quality in Los Angeles. More recently, air quality improvement has been
joined by energy security as a major driving force toward increasing utilization of
alternative fuels in the United States, so the debate now encompasses not only the air
quality benefits of methanol-fueled vehicles, but also the degree to which future
methanol supplies may be sourced from countries external to the North American Free
Trade Agreement. The future of fuel methanol is therefore being determined by some of
the most powerful political and economic interests in the world, so it is not

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surprising that market development has been extremely slow and difficult: most of these
interests see methanol as a threat to be neutralized rather than an opportunity to be
exploited. Inevitably, this high profile in turn has generated a large number of reports and
vast amounts of data, of which this chapter is a brief summary.
As a chemical intermediate and solvent, highly pure synthetic methanol has been an
article of commerce for several decades; its properties and distribution modes are familiar
and well understood in this context. In the role of transportation fuel, however,
considerations are so radically different that fuel methanol must be treated almost as a
new product. This is so partly because the general public is exposed to contact when
fueling vehicles and partly because engine combustion products and fuel distribution
systems raise a host of new technological questions that have never been addressed by
conventional chemical industry.
In the course of introducing this new fuel, major questions have therefore had to be
addressed, among which education of the public in the face of competitive misinformation
has been of key importance. Other major uncertainties have been the fuel-vehicle supply
conundrum, the future price and source of fuel methanol, and the establishment of a fuel
specification together with distribution infrastructure. During the 1980s and early 1990s,
significant progress was made in all three areas. By mid-1993, with the advent of the
Clinton Administration, the stage seems to be set for a rapid expansion of fuel methanol,
spearheaded by federal fleets and proliferating to general use in light- and heavy-duty
vehicles.
6.3
General Considerations
Ever since it became clear that the United States, led by California, was seriously
determined to encourage the clean-burning alternative fuels, methanol has had to prove
its acceptability as transportation fuel, not just while experiencing fierce opposition from
the established conventional fuels but also while coping with competition from other
aspirant industries seeking access to the same market opportunity. Thus methanol
protagonists have had to present their case for methanol on a variety of frontspolitical,
legislative, economic, and technicalwhile defending their product from the combined
assaults of the oil companies, gas and electric utilities, and the ethanol industry (backed
by the U.S. farm lobby). That methanol is still a major contender in the face of such
formidable adversaries reinforces the conviction that the methanol case has very
considerable merit.
The ensuing debates have been concentrated at two locations, Washington, D.C. and
Sacramento, California, with satellite engagements in Austin, Texas

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and Albany, New York. The consensus emerging from these debates is that no single fuel
will emerge as an unequivocal winner in the near future, but rather that all the
alternatives will find significant niches, either geographical (i.e., CNG vehicles in Texas)
or technical (e.g., methanol flexibly fueled automobiles for general fleets). Among these
contenders, the eventual major winner will be the fuel that can best satisfy the
requirements of the private automobile while meeting all the goals of the legislature and
the acceptability criteria set by the market-place. There are many reasons why the
widespread fuel of choice will ultimately prove to be methanol.
6.4
Fuel Supply Conundrum
A fundamental obstacle facing the introduction of any new consumer-oriented
transportation fuel is the difficulty of providing simultaneously both a new alternatively
fueled engine and widespread fueling infrastructure. Consequently, there exists a familiar
stalemate: no cars are bought unless there is access to fuel to power them, and no
fueling stations are built unless there is sufficient demand from vehicles using the fuel to
justify the associated capital outlay.
It was the need to break this impasse that led officials in the State of California to
propose and implement the flexibly fueled vehicle (FFV) strategy. This concept neatly
bypasses the problem of fuel supply by making available a vehicle capable of being fueled
with either gasoline or M85 (a mixture of pure methanol with 15% gasoline). This
transition strategy therefore enables alternatively fueled vehicles to penetrate the
marketplace by removing the obstacle of restricted fueling facilities in the early years. At
the same time, the addition of 15% gasoline allows three other problems of methanol to
be successfully dealt with, each of which stems from the low volatility and chemical
simplicity of methanol.
First, cold starting is difficult with pure methanol fuel, partly because methanol lacks the
highly volatile butane component of gasoline, which provides vapor to the cylinder even
in very cold weather, and partly because methanol, like water, has a high heat of
vaporization and thus quickly cools its surroundings when it evaporates. These effects
make methanol a very efficient engine fuel but also make it difficult to start the engine
without specifically engineered components not present in a regular gasoline engine. The
addition of 15% gasoline provides sufficient vapor at low temperatures to enable FFV to
start even in the coldest climates.
The second property concerns the potential explosivity of the vapor space in a partially
empty fuel tank. Gasoline has such high volatility that except on the coldest days, the
space above the fuel is too rich in vapor to be ignitable, whereas methanol vapor
pressure leads to gas-phase composition within the ignitable

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range. Fortunately, the problem is easily solved by addition of 15% gasoline; even with
pure methanol, simple mechanical precautions have been developed that can avoid the
problem altogether. In addition, the safety of methanol fuel tanks has been amply
demonstrated by tests in which fuel tank explosions have been deliberately initiated by
incendiary bullets, the only observable effect being a slight buckling of the tank [1].
Third, that methanol is a simple, pure chemical whose molecular formula involves no
carbon-carbon bonds leads to its flame being virtually nonluminous. The luminosity of a
flame normally stems from the formation at the flame surface of hot, glowing carbon
particles, which can subsequently materialize on cooling in the form of smoke. Methanol,
as a clean-burning fuel, does not form smoke and its flame is therefore nonluminous. This
in turn can, ironically, cause a fire safety hazard in those circumstances in which
methanol may be spilled and ignited without other flammable smoke-forming materials
being present. Addition of smoke-generating gasoline provides sufficient flame luminosity
for acceptability as a fuel for FFV while measures to avoid the luminosity problem are
being sought for application to pure methanol fuel [2].
Following the introduction of the M85 concept, flexibly fueled vehicles have been made
available by all the major car manufacturers, including General Motors, Chrysler, Ford,
Volvo, Mercedes, Volkswagen, and the Japanese majors: there were nearly 10,000 such
vehicles in operation in California by mid-1993. However, it is important to bear in mind
that the FFV is essentially a compromise and does not therefore offer the best
performance achievable in terms of either emissions or fuel economy. Thus, although FFV
represent a powerful means of circumventing the fuel supply conundrum, they also
possess a fundamental weakness that competitive fuel suppliers, particularly the oil
companies, have been quick to exploit. An optimized gasoline engine operating on the
"cleanest" reformulated gasoline can approach the emissions performance of a
compromise FFV operating on an M85 fuel whose gasoline component may contain more
than 65% aromatics [3]. That FFV represent merely a transition to the extremely low
emissions that an optimized dedicated M85 vehicle will offer can readily be lost under
such circumstances.
6.5
Acceptability
Analysis shows that there are six basic areas having sets of criteria that must be fully met
before a given fuel can be considered acceptable for general use by society. For example,
the go-anywhere, unrestricted car user will suffer no lessening of driving freedom, a
consideration that places limits on minimum driving range and fuel storage and
availability in remote locations. In time, such

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Safety Emissions Economics
Energy Security Environment Engine Availability & Performance
Figure 1
Six criteria for alternative fuel acceptability.
matters determine boundary limits of fuel projects. The six critical areas referred to are
listed in Figure 1.
To gain general acceptance, it is necessary for any alternative fuel to withstand scrutiny
with respect to each of the critical areas. In this chapter, we discuss the advantages and
disadvantages that methanol offers: space precludes presenting a detailed comparison
between methanol and the various other alternative fuels that are candidates for general
transportation use.
6.5.1
Safety
The chief issues facing fuel methanol in the field of safety involve fire properties and
human toxicity, each of which are prime concerns when the general public is exposed to
fuel handling. Fortunately, a considerable amount of work has been performed on both
topics, with the broad conclusion that methanol is safer than gasoline but less safe than
diesel.
In terms of human toxicity, it is fortunate that most car owners are very familiar with the
blue windshield washing fluid sold in 1 gal containers by service stations and stores
throughout the United States, since the fluid formulation comprises between 50 and 70%
pure methanol. This alone means that many consumer handling fears can be readily
allayed: practically every car and garage contains methanol, and there are no associated
problems generally experienced with skin contact, spills, exposure to vapor, or reports of
adverse effects upon car paintwork.
Following the theme of public exposure, methanol's wide availability via such uses as fuel
deicing fluid, antifreeze, and solvent applicationseven such domestic uses as fuel for
chemistry sets and heaters for fondue cooking vesselsimplies that although public safety
always requires vigilance, methanol poses minimal risk to the consumer.
The human body is of course the main focus for safety, and the ability of methanol to
produce symptoms of toxicity following internal consumption has been widely discussed.
Methanol is commonly encountered in the biosphere, and since it is frequently present in
low levels in many beverages, the human body clearly has the capacity to metabolize
small amounts of methanol without ill effects. Larger quantities of methanol can be toxic
because, unfortunately, the immediate metabolic product of methanol digestion is formic
acid, which hu-

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mans (although not most other mammals) are slow to metabolize. Formic acid at high
levels can give rise to acidosis (low blood pH), which can lead to deterioration of acid-
sensitive tissue, particularly the optic nerve. Thus reports of blindness, usually temporary,
often accompany cases in which large quantities of methanol have been ingested without
antidote treatment. Reliable data are few, but most estimates, usually anecdotal, place a
fatal dose at 23 oz. Cases are on record of survival following ingestion of more than 1 pint
and fatality after 1 oz: thus sensitivity may be variable.
In response to the need to avoid accidental ingestion, the methanol industry proposes to
add a small quantity of MTBE to fuel methanol as a taste and odor additive. In addition,
to avoid accidental misidentification with water, a blue dye will be added. Between them,
these measures should deter all but the most enthusiastic of would-be imbibers.
The Health Effects Institute, in its study of methanol, investigated liquid absorption
through the skin and vapor absorption through the lungs [4]. It concluded that methanol's
overall rate of absorption was significantly lower than the rate of its metabolization, even
in a worst-case, real-life scenario. This important finding implies methanol can be used
safely at fueling stations even by untrained personnel with minimal personal risk.
Because methanol is already a natural constituent of the ecosphere, low background
exposure is a de facto reality for everyone. Accordingly, chronic subacute toxicity should
not be a substantive issue, even though the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) is
planning a program for its investigation. By toxin standards, methanol of course
possesses a very low toxicity. Figure 2 illustrates graphically a comparison of various well-
known substances with some of the more lethal toxins known to science. It is the need to
demonstrate that the commonplace hazards of fuel handling are reasonably acceptable
for the general population that drives the continuing study of fuel methanol safety.
Where fire safety is concerned, the properties of methanol have been carefully analyzed
by officials of the EPA, and compared with the corresponding fire hazard posed by
gasoline [5]. A summary of the EPA conclusions derived from this study is that
widespread use of pure methanol would result in a 90% reduction in the number of
vehicle fires compared with gasoline, and the M85 blend would yield a 45% reduction. To
support this conclusion by practical demonstration, the EPA and the Southwest Research
Institute have filmed typical car fires involving gasoline and methanol. In one dramatic
test, two cars, one fueled with methanol and one with gasoline, were allowed to leak fuel
at equal rates onto the ground adjacent to an open flame. The gasoline leak ignited
quickly and the resulting fire consumed the entire vehicle within minutes. The spilled

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Figure 2
Comparative mammalian toxicity chart. Toxicity is represented by the number
of oral doses lethal to a typical 1 kg mammal per 100 g (approximately 3.5 oz)
of the named substance.
methanol took three times longer to ignite, and the resulting fire damaged only the rear
half of the vehicle.
The main properties underlying the reduced fire hazard are the low volatility of methanol
and its low-temperature, smokeless flame, as described earlier. A very important,
although not obvious safety advantage possessed by methanol arises because the
methanol flame possesses a low radiant heat output, which is a direct consequence of its
smokelessness and low luminosity. This is a significant benefit, because not only does it
allow a closer approach by fire fighters but also there is a much lower probability of fire
spreading to nearby ignitable materials, and it is therefore much easier to put the fire
out.
To underpin the EPA conclusions, Indianapolis racing cars have been using solely
methanol fuel for the last 25 years or so, without significant mishap. Indeed, the main
reason for switching from gasoline to methanol was safety: methanol's low smoke
production gives high visibility on the track so that in the event of a fire, following
vehicles can take safe evasive action.
In summary, the difficulty of ignition, low-temperature flame, low radiant heat output,
and ease of extinguishing together mean that compared with gasoline, methanol fires are
less likely to occur and less damaging when they do occur.

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Finally, formaldehyde emissions are frequently raised as an issue of particular
environmental importance for methanol vehicles on two counts: first, there is concern for
formaldehyde as an air toxic, and second, there is its role as a highly reactive ozone
precursor. Formaldehyde is a gas that is naturally present at low concentrations in the
atmosphere, originating as an intermediate in the slow photooxidation of various organic
compounds released into the environment from a variety of sources. As a low-level
constituent of engine exhaust, it is also emitted directly into the air by both diesel and
gasoline vehicles.
Early versions of methanol-powered automobiles and heavy-duty engines tended to suffer
from noticeably odorous formaldehyde emissions. The same odor is prevalent at
Indianapolis 500 races. Formaldehyde is a product of the incomplete combustion of any
carbon-based fuel, so poorly designed engine systems or lack of catalytic controls can
give rise to readily detectable emissions, particularly when the engines are cold. The
human nose can detect extremely low concentrations of formaldehyde, which is sensed
as acrid and unpleasant.
For these reasons, CARB early placed tight limits on formaldehyde emissions from
methanol-fueled engines. Fortunately, the high reactivity of formaldehyde means that it is
readily removed by catalytic oxidation, so that the limits can be attained by careful
control of combustion parameters and catalyst system designs.
Like methanol itself, that low levels of formaldehyde are normal and natural constituents
of the biosphere tends to defuse genuine concerns about longterm exposure. Even so,
because formaldehyde has been classified as a probable human carcinogen by the EPA
(largely because a specific strain of rats suffered from nasal carcinomas when exposed to
very high concentrations), there is continuing attention addressed to this topic.
6.5.2
Energy Security
Most industrialized nations are vulnerable to changes in the availability of imported
energy since the efficient functioning of their economies, as well as their defense
equipment in the event of war, depends largely on access to a reliable fuel supply. As the
world's predominant energy user, the United States is particularly sensitive to this issue.
The Gulf War and EPACT are recent examples illustrating the gravity with which U.S.
dependence on foreign oil is viewed by congress and the extreme measures deemed
necessary to achieve energy security in a situation in which oil is cheap, in surplus, and
available globally.
The U.S. Department of Energy early realized that with the eventual depletion of crude oil
reserves the long-term energy requirements of the United States could be met only by
coal, tar sands, and oil shale, provided fusion and other forms of nonfossil energy prove
to be unviable. In the medium term, domestic fuel needs can be met by natural gas since
current estimates of total reserves

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exceed 50 years, considerably longer if Canada's natural gas reserves are included. The
only fuel that can be made from all these domestic resources, that can be stored and
transported as a liquid, and that can be utilized in power stations, diesel engines, and
gasoline engines is methanol (Fig. 3).
Some opponents of methanol claim that it should not be considered a domestic fuel since
future expansion of manufacturing facilities will occur overseas, where very low cost gas
is available. So far, this argument has been without merit. Incremental methanol
production has continued to be placed in the United States, largely because lower capital
costs, easier capital availability, shorter construction time, political stability, and access to
the largest world market have tended to outweigh the benefits of cheaper gas. There is
an opposing argument, which holds that provided the infrastructure and technology are in
place to use methanol, it is preferable to import it in the short term (so long as it is low
cost), thereby to preserve domestic reserves of gas for use over a longer time period.
This view has been overshadowed by the attractions of maximizing domestic production
to generate short-term economic benefits and preserve both jobs and business
competitiveness.
Energy security can also be enhanced through energy diversity: fuels that avoid oil, such
as nonassociated natural gas used as a feedstock for methanol, can either reduce
dependence on or avoid altogether the ''conventional" crude oil-producing countries. In
this way, even methanol produced overseas would still contribute a measure of security
to those countries that import energy since it would lessen their dependence on the
Organization of Oil-Exporting Countries (OPEC). Gas is very widely distributed throughout
the globe, minimizing the likelihood that a gas cartel similar in nature to OPEC would
form. For example, Tables 5, 6, and 7 show reserves and economics of nonassociated gas
totaling 3849 trillion cubic feet (tcf) for selected countries. The countries constituting the
former Union of Soviet Socialist Republics alone own 809 tcf exportable gas. These
figures should be viewed against a total current U.S. natu-
Feedstocks Fuel Outlets
Fossil Regenerable Power Stations
Coal, Lignite, Peat Biomass Diesel Engines
Natural Gas Landfill gas Gasoline engines
Associated Natural Gas Sludge Fuel Cells
Oil Shale Agricultural Wastes Turbines
Tar Sands Cellulosic Garbage Heat Engines
Crude Oil Vegetable Oils
Biomass
Figure 3
Potential feedstock sources and market applications of methanol.

Page 228
Table 5 Economically Recoverable Natural Gas Reserves of Selected
Countries
Origin Proven reserves (tcf) Exportable surplus (tcf)
Former USSR 1450 809
Iran 489 158
USA 187 0
Abu Dhabi 184 155
Qatar 157 152
Saudi Arabia 140 0
Algeria 106 40
Canada 95 12
Venezuela 95 14
Norway 89 56
Nigeria 84 67
Australia 79 53
Mexico 76 0
Indonesia 73 46
Netherlands 64 10
Malaysia 52 29
Other Middle East 122 0
Other Asia Pacific 113 25
Other Europe 77 3
Other Latin America 61 31
Other Africa 56 6
Total world 3849 1666
ral gas annual usage of approximately 20 tcf. It should also be noted that exploration for
new gas fields is not of great concern outside the industrial nations simply because there
are more than ample supplies to meet existing demand. Thus methanol, as an effective
way of transforming natural gas into a transportable and storable liquid, offers long-term
availability, security, and diversity whether derived from domestic or foreign sources.
6.5.3
Environment
All alternative fuels contending for widespread application in the transportation sector
must satisfy criteria for environmental acceptability on a "cradle-to-grave" basis: that is,
the environmental impact of all the steps involved in the process

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Table 6 Methanol U.S. East Coast Landed Price (Gas at $1/mcf)
Origin
Current
technology
(/U.S. gal)
Advanced
technology
(/U.S. gal)
No. world-scale methanol
plants supportable at $1/mcf
Trinidad 41.4 29.4 8
Venezuela 41.4 29.4 6
Algeria 42.9 30.9 60
Libya 42.9 36.9 14
West
Russia
52.9 38.9 36
Chile 54.1 40.1 23
Argentina 54.1 40.1 28
Middle
East
56.5 42.5 2104
Nigeria 67.5 47.5 40
Table 7 Methanol U.S. West Coast Landed Price (Gas at $1/mcf)
Origin
Current
technology
(/U.S. gal)
Advanced
technology
(/U.S. gal)
No. world-scale methanol plants
supportable at $1/mcf
Indonesia 46.9 34.9 57
East
Russia
51.9 37.9 3
Australia 54.9 40.9 17
Malaysia 54.9 40.9 24
of using the fuel, from production of the feedstock to utilization of its energy in an engine,
must be evaluated. Figure 4 illustrates the overall process for methanol.
Fortunately, the environmental risks involved in methanol production and exploitation are
relatively small, largely as a consequence of its high volatility, water miscibility and
metabolizability. For example, much of the environmental hazard and cost of handling
crude oil and its derivative fuels arise from their very low water solubility, so that even
minor spills can cover the water surface over a very large area, and their low-volatility
components ensure that the ef-

Page 230
Figure 4
Fuel methanol life cycleenvironmental considerations.
fects of any oil spillage linger over a longer time period. In contrast to oil, methanol
rapidly becomes diluted by local water in most spillage situations to the point at which it
is readily metabolized by ambient organisms.
A methanol plant is typically sited near a gas field, so that leakage of natural gas from an
extensive network of old pipes is not a problem. (Methane, the major constituent of
natural gas, is a highly effective global warming gas, and leakage from aging distribution
systems has been pinpointed as a significant source of incremental anthropogenic global
warming [6].) However, since natural gas is frequently associated with carbon dioxide,
which must be separated and vented into the atmosphere, methanol production involves
a measure of avoidable global warming. It should also be noted that 1015% carbon
dioxide is often added to the synthesis gas mixture in the methanol synthesis loop to
maximize feedstock efficiency, so that at least some of the release of global warming
potential is mitigated via carbon dioxide conversion.
In general, leaks, spillages, and emissions from methanol plants are minor, and marine,
estuarine, and fluvial spillages are relatively benign compared with those of oil products.
In fact, cases are on record in which methanol could not be detected following riverine
spillage because dilution to undetectable limits is so swift. Calculation shows that even a
massive marine supertanker incident would have minimal environmental impact:
instantaneous release of 100,000 ton

Page 231
(300 million gal) methanol into the sea, for example, would typically result in a
concentration of less than 0.1% within a 1 mile radius, at which point methanol is readily
assimilated by marine life. The net ecological affect of such an incident would be close to
zero, in contrast to the disaster that would occur if equivalent volumes of crude oil were
involved.
The major environmental hazard connected with fuel methanol is uncertainty concerning
the fate of the 15% gasoline component of M85 when aquifers may be potentially
contaminated via service station tank leaks or tank truck collision spillages. Little data
exist, since there is no experience with major M85 leaks. New service station methanol
tanks are required to be double-walled, a requirement that should limit the hazard.
Nevertheless, ongoing work to define the extent of the potential hazard concerning
gasoline transport via M85 is being undertaken by the EPA. Since aromatics have a finite
solubility in water (benzene is soluble in water ~0.08% at ambient temperatures), the
problem is already a real factor in aquifer pollution by gasoline, which typically contains
0.52.0% benzene and 1030% aromatics. General substitution of gasoline by M85 would
therefore reduce aromatics pollution by a factor of 67, assuming the 15% gasoline
component of M85 has the same composition as regular gasoline and that M85 would
suffer the same leakage rate hazard as gasoline.
6.5.4
Economics
It is an ironic fact of life that the more remote a given technology is from real-life
application, the less emphasis is placed on economic viability and the more resources it
seems able to command. Thus research into fuel cells and advanced batteries receives
very large grants from government sources, whereas methanol engine development has
received very little. On the other hand, methanol has been the subject of detailed
scrutiny of every aspect of its economics in a multitude of reports sponsored by a variety
of organizations. These include, in the United States, state and federal agencies, private
industry, research foundations, and universities. Against the real-life feasibility yardstick,
methanol must be very close to general acceptance. However, if methanol is to supplant
a significant fraction of the gasoline and diesel fuel currently used, it is appropriate that
economic considerations should be emphasized, although they should not be paramount.
Assessment of new technologies is notoriously difficult, particularly for alternative fuels,
because not only is a cost-benefit analysis required for air quality and energy security
effects based on today's knowledge, but it is also necessary to take a view on the
capacity for the future development of engine performance and fuel distribution
technologies. How many people foresaw traffic signals and underpasses when the
internal-combustion engine was invented? In

Page 232
these circumstances, careful comparison of fundamental qualities must be made in the
context of utilitarian and economic criteria. Unfortunately, such comparisons are
frequently skewed in the economic arena because there is a lack of equity in society's
treatment of the competing fuels on the so-called level playing field. Transportation fuel
economics should take into account five major areas of financial concern: the cost of fuel
production, the costs of distribution and storage (infrastructure), the incremental cost of
associated engine and emission technologies, the nature and extent of local, state, and
federal taxes, and the potential for and quantification of emissions reduction credits, as
well as benefits accruing to society from reduction in the indirect environmental costs
associated with conventional fuel use. Each of these areas has been acknowledged and
discussed in the public arena without any consensus emerging, largely because no
dedicated fuel methanol plant and distribution system is yet in existence to test basic
assumptions. In practice, demand is being satisfied using conventional chemical methanol
infrastructure, but the potential size of the market is so large (Table 8) that future
distribution systems will have to be modeled on current gasoline practice. Similarly,
engine assembly plants are not designed solely to produce methanol vehicles, with the
result that the benefits of mass production have not thus far been applicable [7].
6.5.4.1
Cost of Methanol Fuel Production
Chapter 3 in this book deals with the production of chemical methanol, from which the
basic economics of fuel methanol production differ but little. Most sources of cost, such as
provision of gas feedstock, purification systems, gasification, synthesis, and distillation,
remain broadly the same in the context of fuel: only distillation limits can be relaxed
slightly, a measure yielding small economic benefit. The prospect of fuel, however, lends
some new perspectives on methanol production. For example, fuel involves a market of
much higher volume than chemical methanol, so considerations of energy security and
longer term gas supplies arise. In particular, fuel allows much larger facilities to be
constructed, resulting in prospects for significant cost reductions. Many fuel methanol
studies have evolved around a conceptual fuel complex of four 2500 t per day methanol
synthesis units operated cooperatively at one site. Such studies are important because
they facilitate estimates of realistic methanol prices at a time in the future when a large-
scale demand will exist. To apply current chemical methanol prices in a situation in which
demand is minimal is clearly misleading, especially when opposition fuels already enjoy
the benefits of a national fuel distribution infrastructure funded and maintained by utility-
financing mechanisms. Most such studies forecast bulk fuel methanol prices around
per U.S. gallon [8]. Current quotations hover around per U.S. gallon, and chem-

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Table 8 Potential Market Size of Fuel Methanol in the United States
% Total transport-fuel
penetration by methanol
Methanol volume
demand per year
No. world-scale plants
required (2500 tpd)
Natural gas usage
per year (tcf)
(Mt) (billion U.S. gal)
Current world methanol
production
20 6.7 25 0.6
10 50 17 62 1.5
25 125 42.5 155 3.7
50 250 85 310 7.4
100 500 170 620 15

Page 234
ical methanol has varied in recent years between and per U.S. gallon. At its lowest
price, methanol could therefore compete easily with regular gasoline prices in the United
States and could come close to meeting bulk diesel prices, provided that other factors,
such as taxation, are equitably applied.
6.5.4.2
Distribution and Storage
Compared with chemical methanol, the cost of shipping fuel methanol by sea should be
significantly lower for two reasons. The first is that the exceptionally high purity required
of chemical methanol necessitates costly delays while tankers are cleaned and inspected,
and further expenses are associated with provision of dedicated tankers, analyses, and
insurance. All these can be largely avoided since the fuel methanol specification allows
considerably more latitude in impurity content. Second, because fuel methanol will be
delivered in bulk to relatively few customers, supertankers can be used: there is no
reason that methanol should cost more per gallon to ship than any other liquid shipped in
comparable volumes. Thus the ultimate cost of shipping methanol should be the same as
crude oil, per gallon.
The other means of transporting large volumes of liquid is via pipelines, a method that
offers very significant benefits over road or rail transport. Despite frequent assertions that
methanol pipelining would not be practicable, methanol has been very successfully
transferred by pipeline in two demonstrations conducted in Canada in 1986. One
demonstration involved a crude oil line running from Edmonton, Alberta to Burnaby,
British Columbia, a distance of 716 miles; the other used a liquefied petroleum gas
pipeline over a distance of 1819 miles. Figure 5 shows analyses of the two shipments,
each of which comprised 4000 t. In both cases, the transfer was effected well within the
impurity limits dictated by any proposed fuel methanol specification. Such pipelined
distribution of methanol must become standard if a significant fraction of the current
transportation fuel market is gained by fuel methanol (see Table 5).
Via Trans Mountain Crude Oil Pipeline
Leaving Edmonton,
Alberta
Arriving Burnaby, British
Columbia
Methanol Content % 99.99 99.68
Hydrocarbon
Content %
0 0.29
Water Content % 0.01 0.02
Nonvolatiles % 0 0.01
Figure 5
Pipelined methanol feasibility demonstration: Edmonton to Burnaby.
(From Ref. 12.)

Page 235
6.5.4.3
Incremental Vehicle Costs
Estimates of the true incremental costs of manufacturing an automobile designed to run
on methanol presents some difficulty because the relevant facts are not readily available
from the automobile industry [7]. Nonetheless, since methanol is a liquid similar to
gasoline, methanol automobile-manufacturing processes are more or less conventional,
and the mass-produced cost of a methanol vehicle should be little different from the cost
of producing a gasoline vehicle of the same emissions category. Minor differences can
arise. For example, fuel tanks need to be double normal capacity for methanol to achieve
the same range as gasoline. Similarly, FFV need fuel sensors and associated circuitry for
providing variable fuel capability (see Fig. 6). On the other hand, the emissions reduction
hardware can be less sophisticated for methanol vehicles because catalysts are required
to deal with a smaller range of pollutants and the sulfur-free nature of methanol implies
that less stress is placed on the catalyst. (Sulfur is present in gasoline, and sulfur-
containing exhaust gases reduce significantly both the activity and the useful life of
emissions reduction catalysts. The 1990 Clean Air Act mandates further reduction in sulfur
level in gasoline.)
6.5.4.4
Taxation
Taxation is the "loose cannon" on the alternative fuels playing field in that it can be used
arbitrarily as a powerful and decisive influence on the outcome of cost comparisons made
by potential fuel users. Heavy negative taxation (e.g., subsidy) of fuel ethanol in the
United States, for example, has kept that fuel alive when a competitive marketplace
would have rejected it long ago.
In 1993, fuel tax policy was being seriously debated by congress and a final outcome has
not yet been realized. A straightforward new tax on energy content has been rejected,
and instead, there has been proposed a volume-based tax that extends existing tax law.
Unfortunately, all the alternative fuels possess lower energy per unit volume than
gasoline or diesel, so the new extension tax disadvantages the very fuels congress has
itself decided to encourage in EPACT. At the same time, most states place widely varying
taxes on methanol, CNG, and gasoline. To compound the complexities, CNG is not
required to pay the federal highway tax of per gallon gasoline equivalent that applies
to all the nongaseous fuels. Table 9 illustrates the resulting tax inequities by comparing
the differentials in taxation in various states of the United States [9].
The Presidential Task Force on Alternative Fuels recommended that alternative fuels
taxes should either be removed or drastically lowered. At the time of writing, this
recommendation appears to have been more than ingored: gasoline is actually receiving
fiscal encouragement. Resolution of these inequities awaits the harmonization of the U.S.
administration's fiscal policy with its environmental policy, a process that may take
considerable time.

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Figure 6
Unique 3.0 liter Ford Taurus FFV components.

Page 237
Table 9 Total Taxes (State and Federal) on Methanol, CNG, and Gasoline in Selected States
State Methanol (/U.S. gal equivalent)a CNG (/U.S. gal equivalent) Gasoline (/U.S. gal)
Arkansas 50.8 0 37.0
Arizona 49.2 1 36.0
California 29.7 7 34.9
Connecticut 68.8 28 47.1
Florida 37.3 12 29.2
Georgia 29.5 7 24.8
Illinois 51.2 19 35.1
Louisiana 53.2 20 38.2
Massachusetts 55.2 21 39.3
New Jersey 35.3 5 28.1
New York 29.7 8 41.6
Ohio 55.2 21 39.3
Pennsylvania 37.4 12 34.4
Texas 53.2 20 38.2
District of Columbia 53.2 20 38.2
a Energy efficiencies assumed equal. In practice, methanol is approximately 12% more efficient than
gasoline, resulting in slightly low effective tax rates per mile.
6.6
Methanol as a Fuel
Many properties of methanol are of little importance to its chemical applications but can
be critical to its success as a fuel. Table 10 lists a variety of physico-chemical parameters
that must be considered in the context of transportation fuel. Broadly, such
considerations center around engine technology, fuel handling, and human exposure risk.
In some areas, methanol lacks a characteristic required of a fuel. For example, as
previously discussed, methanol burns with a virtually nonluminous flame, constituting a
hazard that may need to be addressed with an additive. In other areas, methanol suffers
drawbacks because of its incompatibility with gasoline.
From the chemical viewpoint, methanol is a simple small molecule completely miscible
with water. It has a high dipole moment and high dielectric constant and is associated in
its liquid state. It is therefore a good solvent for ionizable substances, such as acids and
salts, as well as for certain plastics. Gasoline, on

Page 238
Table 10 Methanol Fuel Parameters (see also Specification, Fig. 7)
Formula CH3OH
Molecular weight 32.04
Density at 60F, 1 atm 49.6 lb/ft3
6.63 lb/gal
0.796 g/ml
Boiling point 148.2F
Freezing point 143.3F
Vapor pressure, psi at 100F 4.63
Latent heat of evaporation 3070 Btu/U.S. gal
Gross heating value 64,767 Btu/U.S. gal
Net heating value 57,070 Btu/U.S. gal
Autoignition temperature ~800F
Adiabatic flame temperature 3,400F
Stoichiometric flame speed 1.4 ft.s
Electrical conductivity at 46F 4.4 107 S/cm
Vapor density versus air 1.11
Flash point 52F
Flammability limits 6.736.5 vol%
Stoichiometric air-fuel ratio 6.46 mass
7.15 vol
Sulfur content 0
Dielectric constant at 68F 33.58
Diffusivity in water 1.6 cm2/s 105
Specific heat at 20C 0.6 cal/g
Viscosity, cP at 60F 0.64
Research octane number 106
Motor octane number 92
the other hand, is a complex mixture of many different kinds of hydrocarbons, the vast
majority of which have zero dipole moment, low dielectric constant, and no miscibility
with water and are nonassociated as liquids. Thus gasoline is a good solvent for
unpolarized covalent materials and is completely different from methanol. Unfortunately,
in its fuel applications, methanol is required to fit into a marketplace and a technology in
which expectations and experience are predicated on gasoline. It is this feature that has
led to various charges that methanol is corrosive and threatens the integrity of materials.
The plastics, rubbers, and metals used in the process of storing, pumping, and delivering
gasoline will be predictably often incompatible with methanol: the reverse would of
course be true.

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6.6.1
Engine Technology
Compared with direct corrosion and chemical attack, a more subtle incompatibility arises
with lubricating oils. Since gasoline and diesel are derived directly from crude petroleum,
it was natural that early pioneers would turn to the lower boiling fraction of crude oil to
provide lubricating oils and greases for the engines powered by the fuels. Questions of
compatibility did not arise simply because both fuel and lubricants shared the same
chemical characteristics. In contradistinction, methanol presents problems because it is
incompatible with the lubricant systems designed for gasoline and diesel engines. Ideally,
synthetic oils must be developed with chemical kinship to methanol. Such oils are known
and, in some cases, are being marketed. Although not yet perfected, they offer in the
long term an opportunity for methanol engines to demonstrate longevity and durability
equal to or surpassing those of the corresponding conventionally fueled engines. In the
meantime, methanol fuel use is handicapped by the need to compromise, particularly
with FFV, between the very different lubrication needs of gasoline and methanol.
In addition to the basic incompatibility of lube oil stock, a further problem arises with
additive packages. Most lubricant oils, especially those used in high-performance engines,
contain several additives designed to confer specific properties on the oil to improve,
maintain, or measure their performance. These can include dyes, buffers, antioxidants,
detergents, antifoamers, and emulsifiers, depending on the application. Such packages
have evolved over the years so that each individual additive is compatible not only with
the lube base but also with its fellow additives and with competitors' products. It would
be unacceptable, for example, if it were impossible to mix one lube oil product with
another when refilling or replacing engine oil. Since all crude oil lubes are chemically
similar, compatibility has hitherto been no problem. The advent of fuel methanol raises
some difficulty because, for optimal performance, new lubes and additives need to be
devised. Thus there arises another example of the supply-production conundrum:
optimized lubricant and additive packages for methanol vehicles will not be developed
unless or until there is a sufficiently large demand to justify the expense of development,
but such a demand may not occur if the engine performance proves unsatisfactory
without optimized lubricants.
This problem is most clearly exposed with FFV because it is inevitable that M85 and
regular gasoline, each with its packages, will become commingled in the fuel tank.
Already some difficulties have been experienced with filter plugging because of this
factor. So far it has been possible to design around the problem, but in the longer term,
optimized lube and additive packages developed specifically for methanol fueled engines
will become necessary if the full potential of methanol to improve engine performance is
to be realized.

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6.6.2
Fuel Handling
For technical and legal reasons, a fuel must be closely defined by a specification before it
can become widely available. Thus far, the American Society for Testing Materials (ASTM)
has considered specifications for M85 and M100 without reaching a final recommendation.
CARB has issued specifications that are given in full in Tables 11 and 12 and which may
eventually form the basis for a national or even international consensus. It is significant
that the CARB specification requires the 15% gasoline component of M85 to be
reformulated (i.e., low sulfur, aromatics, and olefins), whereas most testing of M85
emissions performance has been conducted with 15% regular gasoline containing up to
66% aromatics [3]. Needless to say, the results of such testing show lower emission
benefits then would have been obtained with reformulated gasoline.
The major problems experienced to this point with methanol fuel handling have revolved
around M100 flame luminosity, corrosion of aluminum and its alloys in fuel systems, and
the lube oil and additive incompatibility just described. However, a variety of other
considerations must be addressed. For example, excess water in methanol can enhance
diesel engine deposits, ionic impurities can adversely affect conductivity devices designed
to measure methanol-gasoline ratios, and high ash content can give rise to valve
problems. In general, solutions have been found to these and other concerns, which are
typical of the teething troubles encountered when new technology is grafted onto old.
6.6.3
Fuel Additives
Pure methanol, like water, is a clear, colorless, transparent, highly mobile fluid with little
odor or taste. The risk of confusion with water is therefore real and must be minimized to
acceptably low levels before public exposure can be promoted. Appropriate additives
providing color (blue), taste, and odor have been identified but have yet to receive official
recognition.
In general, additives for methanol can be classified into two categories, generic and
proprietary, according to whether the property desired to be modified is a fuel property
that differentiates methanol as a fuel product (generic) or is designed to promote specific
behavior in an engine system, such as detergency (proprietary). Table 13 lists the critical
factors in determining whether a given additive will be satisfactory, the most difficult to
determine being, of course, compatibility with other additives.
In the latter category fall ignition-improving additives. These, like cetane improvers used
in diesel fuel, enable methanol to ignite readily in diesel engines and, therefore, open up
the diesel market to methanol without the need to use the electrical ignition systems that
would otherwise be necessary. They also

Table 11 California Air Resources Board M85 Fuel Methanol Specification
Specification Value Test method
Methanol +
higher
alcohols
84 vol% (min) Annex A1 to the ASTM D-2 Proposal P-232, Draft 8-9-91
Higher
alcohols
(C2C8)
2 vol% (max) ASTM D4815-89
Hydrocarbons
+ aliphatic
ethersa
1316 vol%
ASTM D4815-89, and then subtract concentration of alcohols, ethers, and water from 100 to obtain
percentage hydrocarbons
Vapor
pressure,
dryb
Methods contained in Title 13, Section 2262 must be used. ASTM D-4953-90 is an alternative method;
however, in case of dispute about the vapor pressure, the value determined by the methods
contained in Title 13, Section 2262 shall prevail over the value calculated by ASTM D4953-90, including
its precision statement
Luminosity
Shall produce a luminous flame, which is visible under maximum daylight conditions throughout the
entire burn duration
Acidity as
acetic acid
0.005 mass%
(max)
ASTM D1613086
Total chlorine
as chloride
0.0002 mass%
(max)
ASTM D3120-87 modified for determining organic chlorides, and ASTM D2988-86
Lead 2 mg/L (max)c ASTM D3229-88
Phosphorus
0.2 mg/L
(max)d
ASTM D3231-88
Sulfur
0.004 mass%
(max)
ASTM D2622-87
Gum,
heptane
washed
5 mg/100 ml
(max)
ASTM D381-86
Total
particulates
0.6 mg/L
(max)
ASTM D2276-89, modified to replace cellulose acetate filter with a 0.8 m pore size membrane filter
Water
0.5 mass%
(max)
ASTM E203-75
Appearance
Free of
turbidity,
suspended
matter, and
sediment
Visually determined at 25C by Proc. A of ASTM D4176-86
a Hydrocarbon fraction shall have a final maximum boiling point of 225C by ASTM method D86-90, oxidation stability of 240 min by
ASTM test methanol D525-88, and No. 1 maximum copper strip corrosion by ASTM method D130-88. Ethers must be aliphatic. No
manganese added. Adjustment of RVP must be performed using common blending components from the gasoline stream. Starting
at April 1, 1996, the hydrocarbon fraction must also meet specifications for benzene, olefin content, aromatic hydrocarbon content,
maximum T90 and maximum T50 found in California Code of Regulations, Title 13, Sections 2262.3, 2262.4, 2262.7, and 2262.6
(T90 and T50), respectively.
b RVP range 7.09.0 psi for those geographical areas and times indicated for A, A/B, B/A, and B volatility class fuels in Table 2 of
ASTM D4814-91b. RVP range 9.010.9 psi for those geographical areas and times indicated for B/C, C/B, C/D, and D/C volatility
fuels. RVP range 10.913.1 psi for those geographical areas and times indicated for D/ D/E, E/D, and E volatility fuels. Geographical
areas referenced in this note shall be adjusted to reflect the air basin boundaries set forth in Title 17, California Code of Regulations,
Sections 60100 through 60113.
c No added lead.
d No added phosphorus.

Table 12 California Air Resources Board M100 Fuel Methanol Specification
Specification Value Test Method
Methanol 96 vol% (min) As determined by the distillation range below
Distillation 4.0C (range) ASTM D1078-86, at 95% by volume distilled; must include 64.6 + 0.1C
Other alcohols and
ethers
2 mass% (max) ASTM D4815-89
Hydrocarbons, gasoline,
or diesel fuel derived
2 mass% (max)
ASTM D4815-89, and then subtract concentration of alcohols, ethers, and water
from 100 to obtain percentage hydrocarbons.
Luminosity
Shall produce a luminous flame, which is visible under maximum daylight
conditions, throughout the entire burn duration; applicable January 1, 1995
Specific gravity 0.792 + 0.002 at 20C ASTM D891-89
Acidity as acetic acid 0.01 mass% (max) ASTM D1613-86
Total chlorine as chloride0.0002 mass% (max) ASTM D2988-86
Lead 2 mg/L (max)a ASTM D3229-88
Phosphorus 0.2 mg/L (max)b ASTM D3231-89
Sulfur 0.002 mass% (max) ASTM D2622-87
Gum, heptane washed 5 mg/L (max) ASTM D381-86
Total particulates 5 mg/L (max)
ASTM D2276-89, modified to replace cellulose acetate filter with a 0.8 m pore
size membrane filter
Water 0.3 mass% (max) ASTM E203-75
Appearance
Free of turbidity,
suspended matter, and
sediment
Visually determined at 25C by Proc. A of ASTM D4176-86
Bitterant c
Odorant d
a No added lead.
b No added phosphorus.
c The M-100 fuel methanol at ambient conditions must have a distinctive and noxious taste to prevent purposeful or inadvertent
human consumption, application January 1, 1995.
d The M-100 fuel methanol upon vaporization at ambient conditions must have a distinctive odor potent enough for its presence to
be detected to a concentration in air of no more than 1/5 (one-fifth) of the lower limit of flammability, applicable January 1, 1995.

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Table 13 Preferred Property Requirements for Generic and Proprietary Additives

Page 244
enable diesel engines to be converted readily to methanol fuel. One such additive,
AVOCET, has been successfully used in retrofitted buses in Los Angeles for several years
[10, 11, 12].
6.7
Methanol Vehicle Exhaust Emissions
As part of the fuel neutral policy being followed by the U.S. administration under the
CAAA, all vehicles are, or will be, covered by increasingly stringent exhaust emissions
standards irrespective of the fuel being used. It has already been mentioned that the
California Clean Vehicle Program sets standards (see Tables 2, 3, and 4) to be attained
by increasing percentages of vehicles over the next 20 years. The EPA, on behalf of the
federal government, has also issued national standards pertaining to fleet vehicles, with
particular emphasis on regulating evaporative emissions in addition to exhaust emissions.
Evaporative emissions refer to fuel vapors (hydrocarbons) emitted into the atmosphere as
a result of evaporation during fueling or generated as a result of leakage and spillage, or
fugitive emissions from the fuel supply lines to the engine or vapor absorption canisters.
Fuels that offer low evaporative emissions performance include CNG (because any leak
tends to be critical and therefore would be rectified immediately) or any fuel with
relatively low vapor pressure at ambient temperature. Engines utilizing such fuels and the
vehicles powered by them are identified as inherently low-emissions vehicles (ILEV).
It is fundamental to the establishment of the ILEV concept that a reduction in
hydrocarbon emissions results in a corresponding reduction in ambient ozone levels, a
view not universally shared. For example, in areas where there is a high concentration of
natural hydrocarbons in the atmosphere or where there is a low NOx-hydrocarbon ratio,
hydrocarbon reductions will have little effect. However, there is sufficiently widespread
applicability of beneficial effects arising from lower hydrocarbon emissions, not least
when air toxics, such as benzene or 1,2-butadiene, are concerned, that the national ILEV
designation is another worthwhile step on the road to clean air.
The impact of ILEV on methanol fuel is dramatic because M85 or any similar fuel
methanol formulation is effectively excluded from consideration. The ILEV concept is a
carefully constructed transportation control measure designed to encourage the swifter
introduction of dedicated vehicles, particularly those fueled by M100 or CNG, provided
such vehicles can meet the LEV exhaust emissions standards set by California and the
ILEV evaporative emissions standard set by the EPA for the fuel and fuel supply system.
The EPA estimates that the ILEV standards offer triple the emissions reductions of a LEV
and double those of ULEV [13]. Of course, such estimates beg the question of equivalen-

Page 245
cy of emissions. For example, is a gram of NOx of equal importance to a gram of, say,
carbon monoxide or hydrocarbons?
In practice, exhaust emissions are notoriously difficult to establish for a given engine-
vehicle combination because of the number of parameters that can influence significantly
both the quantity and the nature of exhaust pollutants. Many of these variables are
interactive, and trade-offs between them mean that emissions performance is always a
compromise. Nevertheless, the CARB LEV standards can be readily met by dedicated
methanol engines, both M85 and M100 fueled. The vapor pressure of M85, on the other
hand, leads to problems with the evaporative emissions criteria. Figure 7 illustrates the
vapor pressure of methanol containing varying quantities of gasoline, showing clearly the
penalty each fuel suffers by virtue of its incompatibility with the other.
6.8
Future Methanol Engines and Vehicles
The twin forces driving the move toward alternative fuelsenergy security and air
qualityare mutually supporting in the sense that EPACT is air quality neutral whereas
CAAA is fuel neutral. Legislation is therefore encouraging the cleanest, most economical
alternative transportation fuel capable of being supplied nationally from domestic
sources. However, a fuel is only ''clean" in the context of its use to power an engine, so it
is the distribution-fuel-engine system that must be assessed. In California, there is set
out a clear progression to the cleaner system already discussed (Tables 2 and 3).
Methanol fuel-vehicle systems must be developed to meet not only the needs of
California, but also the national standards promulgated by the EPA. Currently an evolution
of methanol-fueled
Figure 7
Reid vapor pressure of methanol/gasoline mixtures.

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Figure 8
Evolution of methanol engine technology.
engines to meet clean air requirements is beginning to unfold. Any view of the future of a
particular technology, especially one so quickly moving as clean-air vehicles, is fraught
with more than the usual uncertainty. However, Figure 8 shows a reasonably defensible
outlook that envisions a transition from gasoline to dedicated by hybrid to fuel cell
methanol vehicles over the next 25 years. Central to future methanol vehicles is the
concept of an engine family dedicated to M100 operation and fully utilizing all the
features methanol can offer as a clean and efficient [14] fuel. Such an engine has been
developed by FEV under a project initiated by the EPA [15]. It involves a direct-injected
high-compression engine configured to minimize emissions and maximize fuel economy.
Figure 9 gives some data on this engine and its performance parameters. Of
Emissions in grams per brake horsepower hour
NMOG CO NOx Aldehydes Particulates
LEV 0.075 3.4 0.2 0.015 0.08
ULEV 0.040 1.7 0.2 0.008 0.04
FEV DI 0.100 0.1 0.16 0.002 0.03
Fuel Economy (miles per gallon diesel fuel equivalent:
38.3 Federal Test
57.5 Highway Fuel Economy Test
Note: This engine started at 30C, and is expected easily to reach ULEV standards with further
development.
Figure 9
Emissions and performance of the FEV direct-injected methanol engine.

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particular interest is the idea of utilizing this type of engine to power a hybrid vehicle.
This concept embodies the best features of batteries and methanol by running a
methanol-fueled FEV engine continuously at a constant load optimized for lowest
emissions and directing the power either to drive the vehicle or to charge a battery,
whichever is demanded. Peak power is obtained by taking energy from both the battery
and the engine. In this way, a small engine with its lower (and optimized) emissions can
yield emissions results close to ZEV, without suffering the disadvantages of a large engine
(higher emissions and intermittent operation) or a large bank of batteries (cost and
limited life at high power).
6.9
Methanol in Heavy-Duty Engines
Methanol is an efficient high-octane fuel for gasoline engines, which means that it
possesses poor compression ignition characteristics in diesel engines. In other words, the
ability of methanol to suppress ignition translates into a low cetane number in diesel
engines, in which the ability to ignite fuel readily at temperature produced by air
compression in the cylinder is critical.
Consequently, the task faced by diesel engineers in designing a diesel cycle engine fueled
by methanol is considerably more difficult than the equivalent for a spark-ignited engine.
Various approaches to achieve facile ignition of methanol under diesel conditions have
been tried, including electrical ignition by spark plug or glow plug; ignition-improving
additives, such as AVOCET; very high compression ratios (>22:1); dehydrating some
methanol to dimethyl ether before injection; and pilot ignition with diesel fuel. All these
approaches work, but successful engines have used one or more combinations of the first
three.
Most progress has been made in the heavy-duty transit bus engine market, dominated in
the United States by the Detroit Diesel Corporation. This market segment was explicitly
chosen by the EPA to pioneer alternatively fueled diesel engines because buses operate
in the midst of people and so give rise to a disproportionate number of complaints
regarding smoke emissions and odor. They are also relatively easy to regulate since they
are centrally fueled, funded in part by public funds, and operate within a well-defined and
limited geographical area.
By 1993, the Detroit Diesel Corporation (DDC) had taken a commanding lead in heavy-
duty methanol engine development, with over 400 buses in revenue service within North
America, powered by a methanol version of the well-proven 6V92 engine [16]. This
engine uses a 23:1 compression ratio, requires glow plugs for starting up, and was the
first heavy-duty engine to be certified for transit bus use by both the EPA and CARB
(Tables 14 and 15). At the same time, the

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Table 14 EPA Standards for Heavy-Duty Diesel Engines (Including Buses) and DDC 6V92-Certified
Emissions Data
Emissions (g per brake hp-h) EPA transient test procedure
Hydrocarbons NOx CO Particulates Aldehydes
EPA 1991 1.3 5.0 15.5 0.25 Not regulated
EPA Urban Bus 1993 1.3 5.0 15.5 0.10 Not regulated
EPA Urban Bus 1994 1.3 5.0 15.5 0.05a Not regulated
EPA Urban Bus 1998 1.3 4.0 15.5 0.05a Not regulated
DDC Certification (1992) with M100 Fuel 0.1 1.7 2.1 0.03 0.10
a EPA can set at 0.07.
capacity of ignition improvers to allow methanol to ignite compressively opened up the
option of converting existing buses to run on methanol. This technology has been brought
to fruition in Los Angeles by the former Rapid Transit District (now part of the
Metropolitan Transit Authority), where 12 such retrofitted buses have been running
successfully for several years in revenue service in South Central Los Angeles.
Additional heavy-duty engines under development include the Navistar 466 DT and DDC
471 and 8V92, and market penetration is beginning to open up
Table 15 CARB Urban Bus Standards for DDC 6V92TA-Certified Emissions Data
Emissions (g per brake hp-h)
Hydrocarbons NOx CO Particulates Aldehydes
M100 0.1 1.7 2.1 0.03 0.07
M85 0.2 4.1 1.6 0.03 0.08
M99 + 1% AVOCETa 0.2 4.0 0.6 0.04 0.18
1994 CARB Urban Bus Standards 1.3 5.0 15.5 0.07 0.10
1996 CARB Urban Bus Standards 1.3 4.0 15.5 0.05 0.10
a Results achieved without optimization.

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other segments, including stationary generators, school buses, paratransit vehicles, and
other medium- to heavy-duty applications. Outside the United States, Volvo, Saab-Scania,
and Daimler-Benz have been particularly active in developing heavy-duty methanol
engines, without as yet widespread commercialization taking place.
6.10
Outlook for Fuel Methanol
The future of alternative fuels in the United States, and the role of methanol in that
future, is difficult to predict with any certainty. There is no question that alternative fuels
will capture a fraction of the total U.S. transportation fuel market; the uncertainty
revolves around how large the portion will become and over what time period.
The major imponderables determining the extent of use and rate of penetration of
alternative fuels are as follows:
Future price of crude oil
Congressional determination to tackle energy security
Administrative willingness to apply the CAAA
Beyond the general question of alternative fuels usage, the probability that methanol in
particular will achieve a significant proportion of alternative fuel growth as a
transportation fuel must be assessed. That the merits of methanol make it the only
alternative fuel suitable for widespread distribution (see Table 16) does not guarantee it
a significant role in transport. This is simply because conventional fuels in the form of
reformulated gasoline (RFG) or "clean diesel," together with advances in engine
technology, such as close-coupled preheated catalysts for cars and advanced electronic
controls for diesels, make it likely that gasoline and diesel will continue to be major fuels.
Indeed, it could be argued that the main role of alternative fuels has been to galvanize
the transportation industry into developing cleaner fuels and technology. Without the
stimulus (i.e., threat) posed by methanol, it is certain that neither RFG nor clean diesel
would have made an appearance on the fuels scene.
A further major factor holding back the expansion of methanol is competitive pressure
from CNG. There are those who claim that the deployment of massive, and frequently
rate-based, resources by natural gas utilities does not in fact detract from the rate of
growth of methanol because each fuel has its own market niches in which it is
paramount, and in any case, the potential market demand is so large that there is more
than enough room for both. Such claims are illusory: they ignore the fact that there are
limited commitment, resources, and financing available to federal, state, and municipal
governments to facilitate the

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Table 16 Merits and Disadvantages of Fuel Methanol
Methanol is the only alternative fuel offering all these attributes:
Capable of meeting lowest PM and NOx requirements
Liquid at room temperature
Available from domestic sources for all U.S. needs
Accessible via conventional infrastructure
Supplied by open market competition
Supported by proven engine technologies
Ultimately fully cost competitive as demand increases
Comparatively risk free
Currently methanol suffers from the following disadvantages:
Potential formaldehyde emissions
Higher cost per Btu
Toxic to humans
Low flame luminosity
Vapor-phase explosivity
Cold start difficult (M100)
Lower energy density (versus gasoline)
advancement of fuels. If those finite resources are committed to CNG because of the
disproportionately large influence and funds that the natural gas industry can bring to
bear, then there is no residual enthusiasm or revenue left for the relatively tiny and
underrepresented methanol industry (it should be borne in mind that the natural gas
industry is three orders of magnitude larger than the methanol industry). Similar
reasoning applies to the engine manufacturers: limited engineering and development
efforts are overwhelmed by funds made available for CNG engine development by the gas
industry. The distortion, which this heavy bias brings to even-handed development of
alternative fuels based upon their true merits, is probably the most serious and
underappreciated handicap currently prejudicing the future of fuel methanol.
References
1. Ortech International, Safety of Alternative Fuels Phase III, Contract No. T8080-9-4371,
Transport Canada, Toronto, Canada, 1992.
2. O. L. Guldes, B. Glavincewski, and V. Battista, Visibility of methanol pool flames,
Proceedings of 1993 Windsor Workshop, Toronto, Canada, 1993.
3. F. Black, Emissions and Fuel Economy of Federal Alternatively Fueled Fleet Vehicles,
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina, 1992.

Page 251
4. Health Effects Institute, Automotive Methanol Vapors and Human Health, Cambridge,
Massachusetts, May 1987.
5. P. A. Machiele, Summary of the fire safety impacts of methanol as a transportation
fuel, Proceedings of Government/Industry Meeting, SAE Paper 901113, Washington, D.C.,
May 1990.
6. U.S. Energy Policy, 1990, p. 809.
7. S. A. Leonard, Alternative fuels and clean cars, Proceedings of the National Governor's
Association Meeting, Tulsa, Oklahoma, 1993.
8. Jack Faucette Associates, Methanol Prices During Transition, U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency, August 1987.
9. D. Gushee and S. Lazzari, Disparate Impact of Federal and State Highway Taxes on
Alternative Motor Fuels, Congressional Research Service, Report 93/330, March 1993.
10. S. Unnasch, G. Karbowski, R. Wilson, V. Pellegrin, D. Quigg, R. Ikeda, D. Dickason,
and L. Dunlap, Bus Retrofit Program Using a Methanol Ignition Improver, Acurex
Environmental Corporation, Mountain View, California, November 1992.
11. Acurex Environmental Corporation, Technical Feasibility of Reducing NOx and
Particulates from Heavy Duty Engines, Mountain View, California, 1993, pp. 516 et seq.
12. American Methanol Institute, Methanol Fact Sheets, Washington, D.C., 1993, p. 12.
13. Federal Register 58, No. 38, p. 11, 900 (March 1993). See also Environmental
Protection Agency, Office of Mobile Sources, May 1993; Clean Air Act Amendments Fleet
Program and ILEV.
14. Scientific American, 260, No. 11 (November 1989).
15. R. I. Bruetsch and K. H. Hellman, Evaluation of a passenger car equipped with a
direct injection heat methanol engine, International Congress and Exposition, SAE Paper
920196, Detroit, Michigan, February 1992.
16. S. Miller, Production of a 6V92TA methanol bus engine, Proceedings from SAE
Conference Paper 911631, 1991.
17. Jensen Associates, Inc., Natural Gas Supply, Demand and Price, February 1989.
18. U.S. Department of Energy, Assessment of Costs and Benefits of Flexible and
Alternative Fuel Use in the U.S. Transporation Sector, Technical Report Three: Methanol
Production and Transportation Costs, DOE PE-0093, November 1989.

Page 253
7
Agriculture and Methanol
Arthur M. Nonomura
Arizona State University, Tempe, Arizona
Andrew A. Benson
Scripps Institution of Oceanography, La Jolla, California
Deepak Nair
Methanex Inc., Houston, Texas
7.1
Introduction
Modern agriculture is intensive and integrates financial, social, and mechanical as well as
scientific biological aspects. Crop productivity has attained optimization by effectively
integrating biochemistry, applied engineering, crop physiology, tillage, fuel energy,
genetic, and educational considerations. Handling bulk quantities of pure chemicals on
farms is generally well-understood; however, the same degree of familiarity is not shared
by the methanol industry with agriculture. Important resources in the overall picture of
improving crops in modern agriculture include such elements as regulatory agencies,
land, water, electricity, fuel, machinery, transportation, marketing, and agricultural
chemicals, but the methanol industry has previously only participated indirectly in the use
of methanol as a chemical intermediate or feedstock for the synthesis of agrichemicals:
methanol is utilized in some agrichemicals as a carrier.
Agricultural resources are limited and the burgeoning pressures of massive increases in
the population of the world drive competition for them by urban and rural sites. Thus, as
the stewards of the land are giving way to the encroachment of territory by urban
requirements, agriculture is met with the challenge of increasing the efficiency of
production with fewer raw materials. Technologies to improve the efficiency of
photosynthetic production that have been in-

Page 254
troduced within the past two decades include the provision of aqueducts to irrigate
farmland with high insolation, intensive planting designs, and, to a lesser degree,
adjustments of anatomy to reduce self-shading and increase light interception. Efforts to
breed plants with improved photosynthetic efficiency have not been successful.
Improvement in crop efficiency is at a state of high demand, but the potential for
development from classic resources has been all but exhausted.
Terrestrial crops are inefficient light energy-gathering systems in which 13% or less of
the sun's energy that is intercepted by green plants is transformed into biomass. Dry land
crops grown under nearly optimal conditions with irrigation and complete major nutrient
and micronutrients availability generally show an upper limit of 1% net solar energy
conversion to harvested total biomass. In part, this low efficiency of solar conversion by
plants is explainable by such physical considerations as photosynthetically active
radiation, which constitutes 43% of the total incident solar radiation energy, but other
factors, such as arrangement of leaves and adaptive anatomy, are involved. It is possible,
for instance, to calculate energy conversions as high as 3% for plants with Kranz
anatomy, C4 metabolism, and low rates of photorespiration. These photosynthetically
efficient plants, generally referred to as C4 plants (plants for which the first product of
photosynthesis is a four-carbon sugar), are generally tropical weeds and comprise a few
of our major food crops, that is, corn, sugarcane, sorghum, and amaranth. C4 plants
generally have higher light intensity, drought stress, and heat tolerances than C3 plants
(plants for which the first product of photosynthesis is a three-carbon sugar). With rare
exceptions, all other major food crops are C3 plants in which photorespiration can occur at
sufficiently high rates to stop growth for several hours per day. Sunflower is one of the
rare C3 plants that is adapted to very high light intensities and other conditions that
would otherwise cause high rates of photorespiration under clear afternoon skies.
In the sun belt under the midday sun, light energy may often be dissipated by heat, a
complete waste, contributing greatly to the inefficiency of the lightgathering system of
green plants. Considering an evolutionary perspective, this low efficiency with light is
attributable to an atmospheric carbon dioxide deficiency in plants within the C3 category.
Air contains only about 0.033% carbon dioxide, but 20% oxygen. Oxygen competes for
the same binding sites as carbon dioxide, that is, for the enzyme ribulose bisphosphate
carboxylase. When oxygen uptake outcompetes carbon dioxide uptake by plants in light,
the plant is photorespiratory. Net carbon dioxide uptake decreases with greater rates of
photorespiration and reverses the overall reaction of photosynthesis as sugar is converted
back to carbon dioxide and water. At high light intensities characteristic of direct midday
sunlit fields with clear skies, the top leaves of a C3 plant,

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which are photorespiratory, show reduced net photosynthesis. Lower leaves in the
canopy, which are shaded, may not show photorespiratory stress attributable to very high
light intensities because they are shaded. In the field at sea level, the very high light
intensities at noon are often associated with high temperatures and water stress, which
make the stomata close. When the stomata close, the entry of carbon dioxide into the
leaves is reduced, which can result in more photorespiration. Theoretically, the control of
photorespiration across the food crops of the world could as much as double yields, but
previous attempts at such control were not feasible utilizing conventional technologies.
For example, increasing the concentration of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere
surrounding plants increases vegetative yield, but the daily cost of the extra carbon
dioxide (e.g., $5000 per acre) far exceeds the returns. Alternatively, culture of crops by
frequent irrigation to relieve photorespiratory stress has been recommended, but the
direct cost of water is high in most areas. Add to this the indirect costs attributable to
high levels of irrigation, including weed control, erosion, more labor, added cultivation
and land-leveling requirements, water table depletion, correction of pollution, and lack of
field entry, and the cost of increased water demands becomes prohibitive. For responsive
crops that are inexpensive commodities, technologies that decrease irrigation
requirements without stress by inhibiting photorespiration may be of benefit to the
grower. An economical means of inhibition of photorespiration has been sought for
decades, and methanol may well provide the solution.
Plants have a limited capability for absorption of aqueous nutrients through foliage, but
with the addition of methanol, penetration is enhanced. Rapid uptake of methanol by
plant tissues has been known for decades, and more recently, the metabolism of
methanol in minutes by passage through tetrahydrofolate to serine and subsequent
sugars has also been understood for years. As was recently determined by the
Agricultural Laboratory of the Arizona Department of Agriculture (R. A. Sinnott, 1993), the
uptake of methanol by plants in light leaves no significant residual methanol above
baseline as detectable by as chromatography within 1530 min of penetration. Treatment
of plants with methanol is therefore an inexpensive, safe, and effective means of
providing plants with a source of fixed carbon and carbon dioxide. The metabolism of
methanol is a natural consequence of the degradation of cell wall materials, particularly
pectin, in plants: hence the early nomenclature, wood alcohol.
Methanol is a concentrated liquid source of carbon for plants, but only very low
concentrations (usually less than 1% methanol) were previously utilized in laboratory
studies, higher concentrations generally having been found to be toxic to plant tissues. As
a carbon nutrient source for plants, application of 1% methanol to crops is not
economically feasible, but if a method existed by which the

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input of much higher concentrations of methanol could be achieved, the carbon input
would be that much more significant. Nonomura and Benson [1] recently established that
the application of concentrations of 10100% methanol to some crops increased
photosynthetic productivity. Plant metabolism of concentrations of methanol that were
previously considered toxic was achieved by application with high-intensity sunlight.
Laboratory investigations [26] and field observations support indications that methanol
inhibits photorespiration. Benson and colleagues [4,5] concluded that safe treatment of
plants with methanol was most effective when applied under conditions consistent with
lengthy periods of photorespiration.
''Photorespiration" is a biochemical term describing plant uptake of oxygen in light
outcompeting carbon dioxide uptake in light. Oxygen uptake is catabolic and results in
the breakdown of sugars that were made previously during photosynthesis.
Photorespiration is greatest under conditions of high light intensity, high temperatures,
and wind and water stress. Lengthy periods of high rates of photorespiration are often
physically manifested by midday wilt. An economically feasible means of inhibiting
photorespiration was not achieved until the discovery by Nonomura and Benson that
foliar treatments with relatively high concentrations of methanol increased plant growth
in a manner consistent with the reduction of photorespiration.
7.2
Mechanism
The methanol molecule is smaller than carbon dioxide and penetrates most plant tissues
quickly for rapid metabolism. As a plant source of carbon, methanol is a liquid
concentrate: 1 cc methanol provides the equivalent fixed-carbon substrate of over
2,000,000 cc of ambient air. Methanol absorbed by foliage is metabolized to carbon
dioxide, amino acids, sugars, and other structural components. Two major paths of
methanol metabolism are the internal production of carbon dioxide that is then utilized in
photosynthesis and the incorporation of methanol as a fixed source of carbon. Briefly
stated in field terms, methanol treatments are a means of placing carbon directly into the
foliage. High light intensity is necessary to drive photosynthesis at the rates necessary to
process the high internal levels of carbon dioxide presented by methanol. Serine
formation and carbon dioxide fixation by photosynthesis may lead to the production of
sugar. Increases of sugar concentration in the presence of moisture lead to increased
turgidity.
Methanol treatments of C3 plants have been found to result in growth improvements, but
methanol on C4 plants does not enhance growth. This observation is consistent with the
inhibition of photorespiration by methanol since C4 plants have very low rates of
photorespiration under high light intensities.

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7.3
Field Observations
Several crops that are particularly responsive to treatment with methanol in Arizona
desert regions include watermelon, tomato, strawberry, eggplant, chili, and lettuce.
These plants have C3 metabolism in common, but they are also misplaced plants in the
desert. Optimal culture of these plants was developed for the temperate zone. Under
summer conditions of the desert, these plants become highly photorespiratory. When
methanol is utilized to inhibit photorespiration in these plants, increased photosynthetic
productivity results. In other words, with methanol treatments, the high-intensity sunlight
energy input that is characteristic of the desert is no longer dissipated as heat by crops,
but is instead put to use to make sugars and other plant structural components. Light
energy is utilized with greater efficiency than normal when methanol is applied to plants
in a timely manner. The increase in photosynthetic productivity in the plant is therefore
directly related to the subsidence of midday wilt attributable to methanol applications to
crops in the desert. Environments, such as northern latitudes, in which optimal growth of
plants is achieved normally will not benefit from methanol treatments, but if crops in the
northern latitudes show lengthy periods of high rates of photorespiration, for example,
during hot periods, with water stress far exceeding the historical norms, then a significant
potential for growth improvement exists. Under stressless conditions, plants do not
exceed optimal growth potentials by the addition of methanol. In the desert environment
of the Valley of the Sun in Arizona, most crop plants are misplaced: that is, optimal
growth is rarely achieved because the majority of the summer and autumn seasons are
given to clear skies, with very high light intensity, daily high temperatures exceeding
40C, and low humidity with high winds contributing to severe water stress. Under such
arid environments, high rates of photorespiration, which slow growth substantially, are
likely to be observed in C3 plants. Appropriate treatment of plants with methanol in the
desert environment is therefore likely to enhance growth to fulfill optimal potential. For
example, lettuce was treated with diluted methanol several times in a trial undertaken by
Professor William Molin at the University of Arizona during the summer. In these tests,
lasting 5 weeks, small lettuce plants treated with methanol in the greenhouse showed
significantly higher vegetative shoot yields than controls that were treated with water
and surfactant (see Figure 1). The populations compared were small, as indicated by the
low values given for degrees of freedom, but the probability of sameness between test
and control populations indicates a significant improvement in growth when plants were
treated with methanol.
Similar results have been observed consistently in the desert agriculture of other food
crops with C3 metabolism [7], but improved photosynthetic productivity was not observed
in C4 crops, such as corn.

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Figure 1
Effect of methanol treatment on the growth of lettuce.
The spring and summer of 1993 were dedicated to systematizing the necessary protocols
for methanol application to crops, a large number of field tests being conducted around
the world. It is clear that growers and scientists who have followed protocols specifically
designed toward nutrient amendment and the exploitation of the photorespiratory
pathways have succeeded in improving the growth of plants with methanol (e.g., Ref. 8).
Compromising protocols or disregarding the environmental factors prerequisite to
methanol utilization on crops may not show such clear benefits.
7.4
Conclusion
When applied to C3 crop plants under conditions consistent with lengthy periods of high
rates of photorespiration, methanol contributes to the nutrification of foliage and is likely
to improve photosynthetic productivity substantially. Photorespiratory stress can be
induced artificially by controlling environmental

Page 259
factors or introduction of photorespiratory metabolites and provides a means of safe and
effective treatment with methanol.
Photosynthesis and photorespiration are of the highest orders of scientific complexity and
the application of methanol to crops poses certain need for mechanistic studies as well as
continual practical consideration and reduction of safety and handling risks. Therefore, it
should be precautioned that end users should not rush out to spray methanol. It is hoped
that a defined formulation and protocol will be ready for the grower after all data have
been carefully digested. Then, and only then, with custom-designed distribution of
methanol products for crops, can humanity begin to gain maximum benefit and
enjoyment from this discovery.
We conclude that treatment of crops with methanol has the potential to improve
photosynthetic productivity under a variety of conditions, but it is economically favored
under the very high light intensities typical of agricultural crops in the sun belt particularly
for alternative crops. Methanol is the least expensive of industrially manufactured fixed-
carbon nutrient sources for plants. As the mechanism of action of methanol on
photosynthesis is elucidated, it is quite likely that other plant treatments will be designed
for ever greater efficiencies of light energy capture. Factoring in the low commodity cost
of methanol, however, ensures its utilization in agriculture over a very long future.
Recommended Sources for More Information
Estrella Mountain Community College Center, 3000 North Dysart Road, Litchfield Park, AZ
85340-4937; FAX (602)935-8060.
Arizona Department of Agriculture, 1688 West Adams, Phoenix, AZ; FAX (602)542-5420;
regulatory and safety inquiries.
State Fire Marshall, 1540 West Van Buren, Phoenix, AZ 85007; (602)255-4964; permits
for handling more than 10 gal methanol are obtained here.
Estrella Rotary Rose Company, P.O. Box 236, Litchfield Park, AZ 85340; the most
sensitive bioassay plant is the Paul Harris Rose.
Industrial Commission of Arizona, Division of Occupational Safety and Health, 800 West
Washington Street, Phoenix, AZ 85007-2922.
Arizona Department of Transportation, Transportation Safety Office, 531M, P.O. Box
2100, Phoenix, AZ 85001-2100.
References
1. A. M. Nonomura and A. A. Benson, The path of carbon in photosynthesis: Improved
crop yields with methanol, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 89:97949798 (1992).

Page 260
2. A. M. Nonomura and A. A. Benson, The path of carbon in photosynthesis: Methanol and
light, Research in Photosynthesis, Proceedings of the IXth International Photosynthesis
Congress, Vol. 3, Part 18 (N. Murata, ed.), Kluwer Academic, Dordrecht, 1992.
3. A. M. Nonomura and A. A. Benson, The path of carbon in photosynthesis: Stimulation
of crop yields with methanol, Photosynth. Res. 34:207 abstract P-589 (1992).
4. A. A. Benson and A. M. Nonomura, The path of carbon in photosynthesis: Methanol
inhibition of glycolic acid accumulation, Photosynth. Res. 34:196, abstract P-522 (1992)
5. A. A. Benson, J. L. Stein, and A. M Nonomura, Methanol effect on leaf photorespiration,
FASEB J. 7(7):A1110 (1993).
6. A. M. Nonomura and A. A. Benson, Methanol inhibits germination, Proceedings of the
5th Annual Conference Western Plant Growth Regulator Society, Costa Mesa, CA, 1993,
pp. 133137.
7. A. M. Nonomura and A. A. Benson, Foliar methanol treatment for crop improvement,
PGRSA Q. 21(3):111, abstract 1 (1993).
8. J. N. Nishio, T. Winder, and S. Huang, Physiological aspects of methanol feeding to
higher plants, PGRSA Q. 21(3):112, abstract 3 (1993).

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8
Other Applications
Chauchyun Chang
Union Chemical Laboratories/Industrial Technology Research Institute, Hsinchu, Taiwan,
Republic of China
Wu-Hsun Cheng
Chang Gung College of Medicine and Technology, Kweishan, Taoyuan, Taiwan, Republic
of China
8.1
Introduction
Methanol applications can be divided into three major end-user categories: chemical
feedstock, fuel and fuel additives, and miscellaneous applications. The first two users
cover more than 95% of methanol consumption and are discussed in the previous
chapters of this book [1, 2]. This chapter focuses on various methanol applications that
are not covered in previous discussions. Most of these applications utilize the physical
properties of methanol, except for the production of single-cell protein and sewage
treatment, which use methanol as a substrate to supply the energy needed in the growth
of microorganisms. A brief discussion of each of these applications of methanol is given.
8.2
Single-Cell Protein
8.2.1
Historical Development
Single-cell protein (SCP) is the term that refers to protein in a variety of microbial cells,
which are produced by fermentation using hydrocarbon substrates. The typical protein
content of these microorganisms is 6070% in bacteria, 4565% in yeasts, and 3540% in
mold after separation and drying [3]. When

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properly produced, these protein concentrates can be used as an animal feed substitute
or a nutritional source for human food [39].
The use of microorganisms in human food has been practiced since ancient times. Yeast
has been used in baking and brewing for thousands of years. Cultured dairy products,
such as yogurt, cheese, sour cream, and buttermilk, contain millions of cells of lactic acid
bacteria and are another example of the microorganism application in human food.
However, the first modern effort to produce microbial cells for human food or animal feed
emerged in Germany during World War I, when Baker's yeast, Saccharomyces cerevisiae,
was produced [4]. In the period between World War I and World War II, several
processes were developed in Germany and Finland to produce fats and fodder yeasts
from sulfite-containing wastewater. During World War II, extensive research was
undertaken in Germany to produce food by torula yeast, Candida utilis, from sulfite-
containing wastewater [4, 5].
However, the modern history of SCP stemmed from research work by the petroleum
industry in the late 1950s on the removal of wax and sulfur fractions from crude oil using
microorganisms. It was found that certain microorganisms can assimilate only the
paraffinic hydrocarbons, and these microorganisms in the effluent of the dewax process
contain over 50% of high-quality cell protein, rich in amino acids [5]. This observation
resulted in one of the most attractive research projects to produce materials suitable for
animal feed substitute or a nutritional source for human food during the 1960s to 1980s.
N-paraffins and gas oil (contains 1020% linear paraffins) were the original substrates
chosen for SCP production. The trace of n-paraffins left in the SCP using n-paraffins or gas
oil substrate has suspected carcinogenicity, however, and may build up in the tissue of
animals fed by these SCP. This problem caused resistance of customers to buy animals
fed with the SCP. Under this circumstance, methanol was chosen as a substitute because
[10] (1) it has high solubility in water; (2) it possesses low explosion hazard; (3) it is
readily available with high purity; (4) it needs less oxygen for metabolism than n-
paraffins; and (5) it has a lower cooling load than n-paraffins.
Although methanol can be used as a substrate to produce SCP from bacteria, yeasts, and
molds, most of the research on methanol SCP was focused on the production of bacteria
[1022]. The major advantages of bacteria over yeasts can be summarized as follows [4,
5, 10]: (1) bacteria have a high protein content, with the dry cell containing up to 80%
crude protein; (2) they have a high doubling rate; and (3) they do not possess toxicity or
pathogenicity. Bacteria are much smaller than yeasts, however, which makes them more
difficult to separate and break. This difficulty results in a high production cost, a problem
that must be solved to develop an economical commercial production process.

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8.2.2
Commercial Production Technology
During the 1960s to 1980s, many companies spent a considerable amount of money on
research and development in an attempt to develop commercial processes for the
production of bacteria from hydrocarbon substrates [5, 8, 1322]. Most of these companies
are chemical and petrochemical companies that have very little direct interest in the
animal feed or human food business.
ICI [2226], Phillips Petroleum [19, 21], and Hoechst [15] are some of a few companies
that have worked on commercial process development for bacteria production using
methanol substrate. However, only ICI has built a 60,000 ton per year plant at
Billingham, England. It produces SCP for animal feeds with the bran name Pruteen [4].
The bacterium chosen for the ICI process is Methylophilus methylotrophus, which utilizes
methanol as a source of carbon and energy and ammonia as a source of nitrogen [3, 5,
10]. Figure 1 [4, 5, 10, 2326] shows a schematic flowsheet for the production of SCP
using a methanol substrate.
Bacterium seeds, water, and methanol are fed into an inoculation tank. Sterilized air and
nutrients are then injected into the fermenter along with an inoculum of cultivated
bacteria. Ammonia is added as a nitrogen source and for pH control. Continuous
fermentation produces a steady stream of bacteria, which are sent into a flocculation tank
after filtration and centrifugal separation. The concentrated effluent from the flocculation
tank is further dewatered by a series of decanter centrifuges. SCP destined for human
consumption must undergo an additional step to remove the nucleic acids contained in
the cells by one of the following techniques [4]: (1) acid hydrolysis, (2) cell disruption, (3)
chemical extraction, (4) alkaline hydrolysis, or (5) enzymatic treatment. Finally, the
concentrated product stream is dried and processed into granules, pellets, or powder and
then packed for sale. The overall yield is 1 ton protein for every 1.8 ton methanol
consumed in the process.
The development of the commercial process encountered two major engineering
problems [10, 2426] that had to be solved to reduce the production cost to an economical
level. The first problem was the design of a new type of fermenter, which is the heart of
the entire process. The conventional, mechanically stirred fermenter has the following
drawbacks [10]: (1) it cannot be extrapolated to large (over 1000 m3) unit size without
loss of efficiency; (2) it can cause severe economic penalties for the single-stream
concept adopted in SCP production; (3) it has high energy demands associated with
cooling, aeration, and agitation; and (4) it has a low process air utilization efficiency
because of the need to maintain a high driving force for oxygen transfer. To overcome
these drawbacks ICI developed a "pressure cycle fermenter" [10, 2328]. This type of
fermenter, as shown in Figure 2, consists of vertical columns connected at

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Figure 1
Methanol SCP production process.
(From Refs. 4, 5, 10, and 2326.)

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Figure 2
ICI pressure cycle fermenter.
(From Refs. 10 and 2328.)
the top and bottom by horizontal sections. The lower horizontal section and the vertical
columns are full of fermentation culture, and air is injected into the base of one of the
vertical columns to form bubbles. The bulk density of the column contents is reduced in
comparison with that in the other column, and the liquid is thus caused to circulate
around the system by an airlift effect. This vertical column contains a two-phase mixture
of air and culture with a porosity of up

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to 50%. Most of the oxygen transfer takes place in this section. The transfer rate
decreases as the culture flows to the upper horizontal section of the fermenter when the
air becomes exhausted, and the hydrostatic pressure decreases. Carbon dioxide
desorption increases toward the top of the fermenter. The spent air is disengaged from
the culture, which flows into the downcomer section and is then directed into the vertical
column, picking up fresh air and completing the pressure cycle.
The second engineering problem was the separation of bacteria from the supernatant
fluid [10, 2328], because the bacteria used are about 1 m in size and have a density
close to that of water. Consequently, recovery by conventional centrifugal separation
would require a very large installation that would be extremely expensive. Therefore, the
development of a viable SCP process would be prevented without an economical recovery
system. The ICI process includes stages of agglomeration and preseparation techniques
to tackle this problem. The resulting wastewater and residual substrates are purified and
recycled. The agglomerated bacteria cell concentrate can then be further dewatered by
conventional centrifugal separation. Of the ingoing solids 99% are recovered as a cell
cream comprised of 25% solids. A high concentrate of the centrifuge cream product is
required since the final drying is, by an order of magnitude, the most expensive
dewatering step.
8.2.3
Nutritional Value
The structures of bacteria are extremely complex. Nitrogen in particular is distributed in
many types of chemical structures, including proteins (amino acids), peptides, nucleic
acids, and amino sugars [3, 4]. The amino acid content of bacteria is the best indicator of
the overall nutritional utility to animals and humans. Component analyses and the amino
acid content of methanol SCP, fish meal, soybean meal, and nonfat dried milk (NFDM) are
listed in Tables 1 and 2, respectively [4, 10]. The protein content of methanol SCP is
about 80%, which is much higher than that of the other types of food meals.
Furthermore, the overall quality of methanol SCP is very good. As a result, it has often
been sold at a premium over alternative protein sources.
8.3
Sewage Treatment
Methanol is used in the point source tertiary sewage treatment facility as an oxidizable
organic substrate to provide energy to the bacteria used in the biological nitrification-
denitrification process. This process is often the best process available for the removal of
nitrogen for the following reasons: (1) high potential removal efficiency, (2) high process
stability and reliability, (3) relatively

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Table 1 Component Analysis of Methanol SCP and Food Meal (% of
Total)
Component Methanol SCP Fish meal Soybean meal NFDM
Moisture 5.0 10.4 13.0 3.2
Crude protein 79.8 62.3 45.7 36.2
Ash 8.2 16.3 3.6 7.9
Crude fiber 0.5 5.9
Fat 7.0 4.5 1.3 0.8
Carbohydrates 6.0 31.4 52.0
Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0
Table 2 Amino Acid Content of Methanol SCP and Food Meals (g Amino
Acid per 100 g Dry Material)
Methanol SCP Fish meal Soybean meal NFDM
Alanine 5.7 1.2
Arginine 3.7 3.9 4.7 1.3
Aspartic acid 7.1 2.7
Cystine 0.5 0.5 0.8 0.3
Glutamic acid 8.0 7.6
Glycine 4.2 3.2 1.6 0.8
Histidine 1.5 1.5 1.2 1.0
Isoleucine 3.6 2.4 2.1 2.2
Leucine 5.6 3.0 3.3 3.5
Lysine 4.9 4.3 2.8 2.9
Methionine 2.0 1.2 0.5 0.9
Phenylalanine 2.9 2.1 1.9 1.7
Proline 2.5 3.5
Serine 2.8 2.0
Threonine 3.8 2.4 1.6 1.6
Tryptophan 0.7 1.3 0.5 0.5
Tyrosine 2.6 1.8 1.5 1.7
Valine 4.3 2.8 2.3 2.4
Total 66.4 30.4 24.8 37.8

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easy process control, (4) low land area requirement, and (5) moderate cost [29]. The
process is used to reduce excess nitrogen compounds in two steps with the help of
different microorganisms. The excess nitrogen compounds have contributed to the
eutrophication of water. In the first step, ammonia is converted aerobically to nitrate
nitrification). In the second step, nitrate is converted to nitrogen gas in the absence of
oxygen (denitrification). Methanol is chosen as the energy source for the microorganisms
used in the denitrification process because [30] (1) it gives the highest denitrification
rate; (2) it is readily available and its price is relatively cheap; and (3) residual methanol
can be removed from the treated effluent by aeration.
Most of the microorganisms used for denitrification are heterotrophic microorganisms that
oxidize organic compounds, but certain autotrophic bacteria using inorganic energy
sources are also effective for denitrification. A wide variety of facultative microorganisms
are used for denitrification, including Alcaligenes, Bacillus, Pseudomonas, and
Micrococcus. They are readily available in sewage [31, 32]. These microorganisms have
different performance characteristics: some can reduce nitrate to nitrite only, some nitrite
to nitrogen only, and some both nitrate and nitrite to nitrogen.
The reaction of nitrogen compounds in the denitrification process proceeds as follows [29,
33]
Remove dissolved oxygen in the effluent:
Reduce nitrate ion to nitrite ion:
Convert nitrite ion to nitrogen gas and remove it from the effluent:
Methanol is also used as an energy source for bacterial growth, which requires about
30% of the stoichiometric amount given in these equations. Adding this consideration,
the total amount of methanol required can be estimated from the equation [29, 32, 34]
where:
Cm= required methanol concentration, mg/L
N0 = initial nitrate concentration, mg/L
N1 = initial nitrite concentration, mg/L
D0 = initial dissolved oxygen concentration, mg/L

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A methanol to nitrate-nitrogen mass ratio of 3.0, which results in about 90%
denitrification yield, has been suggested as a design guideline [31].
A biological nitrogen removal system usually includes biological processes for nitrification,
denitrification, and removal of carbonaceous nutrients. The system has a number of
different process options, with various configurations of separation stages and hybrid
processes and with the nitrification, denitrification, and biological oxygen demand
removal arranged in different sequences. The denitrification process itself can also be
divided into two categories: a suspended growth system in which denitrification is
achieved in a mixed reactor, and an attached growth system in which denitrification is
accomplished by microorganisms attached to growth media.
Several critical factors affect the design and operation of a biological denitrification
system.
The denitrification rate is significantly reduced below pH 6.0 and above 8.0, with the
highest rates occurring between 7.0 and 7.5. In other words, a neutral or slightly alkaline
condition is optimal for denitrification [33].
The temperature effect on the growth of microorganisms for biological denitrification can
be expressed as [30, 32]
where:
rm(TC) = maximum specific growth rate at TC
rm(20C)= maximum specific growth rate at 20C
MT
= temperature coefficient, with a value of
1.07 for an attached growth system under
typical operating conditions
T
= temperature for denitrification, degrees
Celsius.
Denitrification occurs between 0 and 50C, with the highest rate occurring around 40C.
High ammonia and calcium concentrations as well as a 0.5 g/m3 nickel concentration are
reported to be inhibitory for denitrification [35]. Methanol does not inhibit the reaction up
to a concentration of 15 kg/m3 of carbon content.
For the past two decades, a biological denitrification process has been mainly practiced in
municipal wastewater treatment facilities in the United States and Japan. In the United
States, plants are located in Washington, D.C., the Central Contra Costa Sanitary District,
California, and Tampa, Florida. In Japan, there are more than 20 small-scale tertiary
treatment plants using this technique. Because of the high cost of operations and the
increasing cost of methanol, alternative methods of nitrogen reduction, such as air
stripping, chlorination, electrodialysis, reverse osmosis, and ion exchange, have been
developed [30]. This could reduce demand for methanol in this application.

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8.4
Solvent/Cosolvent
8.4.1
General Considerations
Solvent is designated as part of a solution that is in excess and is an organic compound
used to dissolve, suspend, or change the physical properties of other materials. The
purpose of solvents is to convert a substance into a form suitable for a particular use. The
importance of the role of solvents is brought out most clearly by the fact that many
substances exhibit their greatest usefulness when in solution [36, 37]. Generally, solvents
are aromatic or aliphatic hydrocarbons, alcohols, aldehydes, ketones, amines, esters,
ethers, glycols, glycol ethers, or alkyl or aromatic halides that boil at 75220C [36].
Methanol was one of the earliest organic solvents used in physical and chemical studies.
Methanol, like other alcohols, is referred to as latent solvent, whose hidden solvent
qualities are brought out by the addition of an active solvent. The presence of a latent
solvent increases the tolerance of an active solvent for a nonsolvent. Therefore, latent
solvent is also called an extender, because it increases the volume of a solution without
decreasing the solvent power [37]. Some important physical properties for methanol as a
solvent are listed in Table 3 [3740].
8.4.2
Major Applications
The major applications for methanol as a solvent are in three areas: (1) it is used as a
process solvent for extraction, washing, drying, and crystallization in various chemical
processes; (2) it acts as a cosolvent in various formulations of paint and varnish
removers; and (3) it is also used as a solvent in automobile wind-shield washer fluid for
the removal of ice and insects. All these applications are mature, and their growth rates
should not exceed the gross national product [2].
8.4.2.1
Process Solvent in Chemical Manufacturing Processes
Separating and Purifying Acetylene [4144]
Currently, more than 85% of acetylene in the world is produced by the pyrolysis of
natural gas or liquid hydrocarbons in various converters. The cracked gas produced in
these converters has less than 10% in acetylene content. It contains predominantly a
mixture of hydrogen, carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, unreacted hydrocarbons, higher
acetylenes, and inert gases.
The isolation of acetylene from the gas mixture is complicated because of the unstable
and explosive nature of acetylene. To avoid operational hazards, most commercial
processes employ absorption-desorption techniques using one or more selected solvents
to recover hydrocarbon-derived acetylene. Chilled methanol is the extraction agent
chosen by Montecatini as the solvent in their acet-

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Table 3 Physical Properties of Methanol
Physical properties Numerical value
Autoignition temperature 385C at 760 mm Hg
Boiling point 64.7C at 760 mm Hg
Coefficient of expansion 0.00119 per C at 20C
Critical compressibility 0.224
Critical density 0.272 g/cm3
Critical pressure 81.12 kg/cm2
Critical temperature 240C
Critical volume 3.6829 cm3/g
Density 0.7914 g/cm3
Dielectric constant 32.35 at 20C
Dispersion 5.3 103 at 20C
Evaporation rate (ether = 1) 6.3
Explosive limits
Lower 6.0 vol% in air
Higher 36.5 vol% in air
Flash point
CC 12C
OC 16C
Heat of formation
Liquid 57.012 kcal/g-mol at 25C
Vapor 48.08 kcal/g-mol at 25C
Heat of fusion 16.4 kcal/g-mol at 97C
Heat of vaporization 8.44 kcal/g-mol at 64.7C
Melting point 98C
Molecular weight 32.04
Refractive index 1.3286 at 20C
Solubility in water Completely miscible at 20C
Solubility of water in solvent Completely miscible at 20C
Surface tension 22.55 dyn/cm at 20C
Vapor density (air = 1) 1.11
Vapor pressure 96.3 mm Hg at 20C
Viscosity 0.5945 cp at 20C
Source: From References 3740.
ylene recovery process. Furthermore, methanol is also used by Huels as the solvent to
remove liquified higher acetylenes to prevent them from polymerizing and causing
unnecessary complications when acetylene is used as a raw material in various chemical
synthesis processes.

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Removing Acid Gas and Sulfur for Gas Purification [4549]
The Rectisol and Amisol processes, which were developed in Germany by Lrgi, are
physical and physical-chemical absorption processes using organic solvents to remove
acid gas and sulfur, respectively, from various gas streams. Both processes use methanol
as the physical absorption solvent; the Amisol process also uses monoethanolamine
(MEA) as the chemical absorber to improve the overall purification efficiency. The MEA
used in the Amisol process is not pertinent to our topic. Only methanol used in the Retisol
process is discussed here, and the discussion is also applicable to the physical absorption
by methanol used in the Amisol process.
Methanol is the preferred solvent because it has very high solubility for carbon dioxide
and hydrogen sulfide at low temperature and elevated pressure, and they are readily
released from the methanol when the pressure is reduced. The operating temperature
and pressure of the absorber are about 0C and 150 psig, respectively, and it is necessary
to cool the process gas to the absorbing temperature.
The principal advantages claimed for the Rectisol process are as follows: (1) The energy
requirement is lower than that required in the conventional monoethanolamine process
for acid gas removal. This is because the solution is cooled by pressure reduction in the
regeneration step, and the gas feed is refrigerated by efficient heat exchange with the
outgoing purified and acid gas stream. (2) It is capable of removing all undesired
impurities in a single process. (3) The purified gas obtained from the process has a very
low water content. However, the Rectisol process also has several disadvantages: (1) the
flow scheme is very complicated; (2) methanol has an appreciable vapor pressure even at
low temperature, causing relatively high vaporization loss of the solvent; and (3) the
purified gas contains more than 1% CO2, even after multistage treatments, final
purification by more efficient methods is necessary if gases of low CO2 concentration are
required.
Currently, there are more than 100 commercial plants employing the Rectisol process for
the treatment of synthesis gas or town gas streams to remove carbon dioxide and
hydrogen sulfide.
Poly(vinyl Alcohol) (PVA) Manufacture [5052]
Poly(vinyl alcohol), a polyhydroxy polymer, is the largest volume, synthetic water-soluble
resin produced in the world. It is commercially produced by using poly(vinyl acetate) as a
starting material by a base-catalyzed alcoholysis reaction. Methanol is the solvent chosen
in the alcoholysis reaction. It is an important factor controlling the degree of
polymerization. The alcoholysis reaction is carried out in a highly agitated slurry process;
a fine precipitate forms

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as the poly(vinyl acetate) converts to PVA. The product is then washed with methanol
and is filtered and dried.
8.4.2.2
Cosolvent in Paint and Varnish Removers [5358]
The main function of a paint and varnish remover is to remove all traces of the coating
with minimal labor and time requirements. It should also leave the substrate intact and
suitable for immediate reprocessing or refinishing. Because of the continuous
improvement in paints, modern paints are more resistant to chemical removers.
Therefore, an effective paint and varnish remover should possess the following
characteristics: good stripping ability, lack of corrosiveness to substrate, freedom from
noxious and toxic chemicals, long shelf life, low volatility, inertness to metals, and short
waiting time for refinishing.
The most widely used removers are based on methylene chloride, which is the most
versatile stripping agent commonly available. A typical remover based on methylene
chloride has several components, including solvents, cosolvents, activators, corrosion
inhibitors, evaporation retarders, thickeners, emulsifiers, and wetting agents. Methanol is
the most widely used cosolvent, which has strong activating effect, adding the versatility
of the remover in attacking coating as well as increasing the rate of stripping. Generally,
a cosolvent is present at 510 wt% in a remover.
8.4.2.3
Solvent in Automobile Windshield Washer Fluid [2, 6970]
One of the most substantial uses for methanol as a solvent is in automobile windshield
washer fluid. The major function of the fluid is for ice and insect removal. It usually
contains 1050% of methanol in water, depending upon the temperature in the area.
However, because of the mild winters for the past few years in the United States, the
largest single market globally, the demand for windshield washer fluid has been reduced.
8.5
Antifreeze
8.5.1
Historical Development
Antifreeze is a material added to water-containing fluids to lower their freezing points.
The largest single use for antifreeze is to protect internal-combustion engines against
freezing and the resulting damage to the engine water jacket and radiator [7173].
Antifreeze also finds other small-volume uses in refrigeration systems, heat-transfer
systems, hot-water heating systems, snow-melting systems, ice-skating rinks, automatic
sprinklers, solar energy units, building air-conditioning systems, hydraulic systems,
deicing fluids, water-based paints, pharmaceutical products, and freeze-drying apparatus.
Chemical antifreezes include

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brines, alcohols, glycerols, and glycols. Since 1960, ethylene glycol has held the majority
of the antifreeze market share because of its availability and superior performance. It has
been produced in the United States since 1920 and in Europe for over 50 years [7173].
Methanol is a chemical that has a very good freezing point depression ability. It can
depress the freezing point by 54.5C for a 5050 wt% methanol-water solution [74]. It
also has good thermal properties and is inexpensive and readily available. Therefore,
methanol, a by-product of wood distillation, was one of the most frequently used
antifreezes before 1920. Synthetic methanol was first used as an antifreeze in the early
1930s. It was soon recognized as the best of the low-boiling antifreezes, being more
efficient than its close competitor, ethanol. During the same period, prepacked,
formulated brand name antifreezes made from methanol were first introduced into the
market. Except during World War II, methanol increased its market penetration to a high
point in the early 1950s, after which it was replaced by ethylene glycol-based antifreezes
and its market share gradually declined. By 1960, ethylene glycol-based antifreezes had
more than 80% of the market share. Currently, methanol-based antifreezes are used in
some stationary engines and are also required in older engines, which have a small share
of the antifreeze market [7173].
8.5.2
Applications
The major use of methanol as an antifreeze is at present in desiccant-antifreeze
applications for natural gas processing [7578]. The methanol-containing desiccant-
antifreeze is used in both gas-collecting areas and natural gas pipelines. The amount of
methanol used in this application depends on temperatures and climatic conditions.
Methanol consumption for this use was about 202217 thousand t for North America in
1990 [75]. The future consumption for methanol in this area will depend essentially on
the development of new natural gas reserves and gas-processing plants. Usually, the gas
stream is countercurrently contacted with the liquid desiccant-antifreeze agent in a
bubble tower to remove water from the gas and to vaporize some desiccant into the gas
to prevent subsequent solid formation at low temperatures [78].
There are several other applications for methanol-based antifreezes:
1. Methanol acts as antifreeze in peroxide emulsions used in suspension polymerization of
poly(vinyl chloride), poly(vinyl acetate), and acrylic-styrene resin. The methanol content
is about 520 wt% in the emulsion [7983].
2. Low-concentration methanol was added as a deicer into gasoline and liquid
hydrocarbons. Sales of this antifreeze also depend on the temperature and weather
conditions [75, 8486].

Page 275
3. Methanol is also added to the lines of artificial snow machines when they are not in
use to prevent the machines and lines from freezing damage [75].
4. Methanol-containing antifreeze is also used as a snow and ice remover when it is
sprayed on the road [87, 88].
5. Methanol is also used as low-temperature heat-transfer fluid in indirect refrigeration
systems [89].
8.6
Miscellaneous
There are several miscellaneous methanol applications that cannot be categorized in the
previous sections and are described here.
Methanol is used as a reagent in some specialty chemical processes:
1. Synthesis of new o-chloro, p-chloro, and p-bromoanisole-sulfonylamino acid
derivatives, which are active against several microorganisms [90].
2. Preparation of pyridine compounds, RCONHCH(CCL3)ZR1 (R = 3- or 4-pyridyl; R1 =
alkyl, alkenyl, pyridyl, PhCH2CH2, and so on; Z = O or S), which can be used as
bactericides [91].
3. Synthesis of substituted phenylthioamidines, which are useful as inhibitors of ADP and
as antimicrobials [92].
4. Preparation of a-acetylenic derivatives of a-amine acids, which are useful as central
nervous system stimulants, antibacterial agents, and irreversible inhibitors of glutamate
decarboxylase [93].
5. Preparation of exo-3'4'-O-benzylidine-3''-dimethylchartreusin and its salts as antitumor
and antibacterial agents [94].
6. Synthesis of 4-acetylamino-3-nitrobenzenesulfonylamino acid and dipeptide derivatives
[95].
7. Preparation of 1,2,4-triazine-3-methanamines used as herbicides, insecticides, and
fungicides [96].
Methanol is used in the steel industry [97]. Methanol has been proposed as a synthesis
gas source in the direct reduction of iron or to sponge iron (containing 90% of Fe) by
removing most of the oxygen at a temperature of about 850C. Molten iron is not
produced in this process but is formed in the conventional blast furnace route of iron core
reduction. This process has gained popularity because it requires a smaller capital
investment and produces a superior quality product than the traditional blast furnace
route. Currently, natural gas is the primary reductant used, but methanol is considered
when coal, natural gas, or fuel oil is not readily available at the iron ore mine mouth.
Methanol has also been considered as a substitute for reductant coke in blast furnaces.
Methanol can be injected directly into the furnaces or cracked to syn-

Page 276
thesis gas. In this application, methanol is competing against coke as well as fuel oil and
natural gas. Prospects for methanol use in blast furnaces do not look favorable since blast
furnace capacity is expanding primarily in energy-rich countries, where natural gas is
probably the favored replacement for coke.
There has been intensive interest in transporting coal by slurry pipeline [98108] as an
alternative to unit trains in the United States and Japan since early 1970s. There are
several coal slurry pipelines operated in the United States, such as the Black Mesa
Pipeline, Nevada Power, Energy Transportation Systems, Inc., and the Ohio Pipeline.
These pipelines use water as transporting fluid. In the late 1970s, methanol was
proposed as an alternative slurry medium for coal pipelines because (1) part of the coal
could be converted to methanol at the mine mouth, ensuring the availability of slurry
media; (2) converting coal to methanol can lower the average sulfur content of the slurry,
which can reduce the air pollution problems encountered by most power plants; and (3)
methanol has a higher load-carrying ability than water, and methanol itself can also be
used as fuel. There are several disadvantages to the coal-methanol slurry: (1) a
methanol slurry must be stored in a closed vessel compared with the agitated silos used
for the coal-water slurry; (2) the separation of fine bone-dry coal from the methanol
slurry must be handled in an inert atmosphere to avoid fire and explosion; and (3) 3
million ton/year of methanol is needed to transport 5 million ton/year of coal by a coal-
methanol slurry pipeline. This requires a dedicated mine mouth methanol plant, which
means it would require higher capital investment than a coal-water slurry pipeline of
similar capacity.
References
1. L. E. Wade, R. B. Gengelbach, J. L. Trumbley, and W. L. Hallbauer, Methanol, Kirk-
Othmer Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology, 3rd ed., John Wiley & Sons, New York, Vol.
15, 1980, pp. 398415.
2. R. J. Hawkins, R. J. Kane, W. E. Slinkard, and J. L. Trumbley, Methanol, Encyclopedia of
Chemical Processing and Design (J. J. McKetta and W. A. Cunningham, eds.), Marcel
Dekker, New York, 1988, pp. 418483.
3. J. R. Pellon and A. J. Sinskey, Genetic engineering for food and additives, Food
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Page 283
9
Global Outlook:
Supply, Demand, and Marketing
James R. Crocco
Crocco & Associates, Inc., Houston, Texas
9.1
Introduction
In 1991, tremendous optimism was held by the people involved in a number of industries
around the globe concerning the prospects for oxygenated and reformulated gasolines
mandated by the 1990 Clean Air Act Amendments in the United States. The first phase
was to take place in November 1992, covering the 4 winter months in 39 metropolitan
areas in the United States. The goal was to reduce seasonal carbon monoxide tail pipe
emissions.
Beginning in 1991, the refining and gasoline industries started to stockpile large amounts
of methyl tert-butyl ether (MTBE), which was to be the work-horse oxygenate, together
with some ethyl tert-butyl ether and ethanol. This stockpiling took place for about 18
months, and as the first season began in late 1992, it became very apparent that there
were high inventories of oxygenates available, and combined with new production
scheduled to come on-line shortly, there would be sufficient quantities to carry through
this first season. In a rush to obtain sufficient oxygenates, especially MTBE, the refining
and gasoline industries were willing to pay practically any price for this gasoline
ingredient.
It is rather apparent that methanol demand will follow the lead of its most significant
derivative, MTBE. MTBE production will continue to increase at substantial levels for the
foreseeable future.

Page 284
The following is the current outlook for global methanol supply and demand divided into
the major regions, estimated for 1992 with forecasts through 1995.
9.2
Regional Outlook
9.2.1
North America
Formaldehyde production in the United States in 1992 registered a 9% increase versus
the previous year (Table 1 and Fig. 1). Of course, formaldehyde production had been on
the decline during the recession. It is not believed that 1992 represented a normal year
for formaldehyde since a large amount of home building and repair was necessitated by
Hurricane Andrew in August and also by numerous tornadoes and hailstorms later in the
year. Methanol use for gasoline blending (M85) and other direct fuel uses is expected to
increase in the United States as a large number of new, flexible-fueled vehicles come into
the market, especially in California. It is believed that by 1995 there could be more than
20,000 of these vehicles. Also, "neat" or 100% methanol is being used increasingly as a
replacement for diesel fuel in buses, and it is estimated that by the middle of this decade
the city of Los Angeles alone could have well over 500 such units.
Table 1 Forecasted North American Methanol Supply and Demand Balance (Hundreds t)
Demand Estimated, 1992
Forecast
1993 1994 1995
Formaldehyde 1680 1714 1748 1783
Dimethyl terephthalate 201 203 205 207
Acetic acid 600 600 600 600
MTBE 1950 2850 3750 4700
Methyl methacrylate 195 198 198 198
Gasoline, fuels 17 40 78 130
Solvents 282 290 299 307
Others 1157 1176 1191 1210
Total demand 6082 7071 8069 9135
Nameplate production capacity 7644 7654 9154 9154
Capacity at 90% 6880 6889 8239 8239
Forecasted surplus/(shortage) at 90% 798 (182) 170 (896)
Source: From 1992 Methanol Annual.

Page 285
Figure 1
Forecasted North American methanol demand by product group.
9.2.2
Western Europe
In the forecast shown in Table 2 and Figure 2, we were somewhat generous for Western
European formaldehyde production, increasing it at about 4% for the total 3 year period.
We are assuming that economic conditions will improve in some of the larger Western
European countries, such as Germany, and that some of the other countries will
experience stronger economic growth. The large increase in methanol demand for acetic
acid between 1994 and 1995 assumes that Hoechst will complete construction of a new,
large acetic acid plant in Germany in 1994 and experience full production the following
year. It is very possible, however, that this facility could be delayed to outside the
forecast period. Otherwise, methanol demand for other uses falls in line with general
expectations.
9.2.3
Far East and Asia
This region of the world is still experiencing strong economic growth, at least compared
with other regions (Table 3 and Fig. 3). Therefore, we are somewhat optimistic on
continued methanol demand for the production of formaldehyde and also dimethyl
terephthalate. There will be some acetic acid production ex-

Page 286
Table 2 Forecasted Western Europe Methanol Supply and Demand Balance (Hundreds t)
Forecast
1993 1994 1995
Formaldehyde 2411 2435 2469 2512
Acetic acid 365 365 365 575
MTBE 953 1003 1013 1028
Solvents 167 172 174 179
Others 1007 1022 1040 1056
Total demand 5169 5314 5378 5667
Nameplate at 90% 2673 2673 2673 2673
Forecasted surplus/(shortage) at 90% (importability) (2496) (2641) (2705) (2994)
Figure 2
Forecasted Western European methanol demand by product group.

Page 287
Table 3 Forecasted Far East and Asia Methanol Supply and Demand Balance (Hundreds T)a
Forecast
1993 1994 1995
Formaldehyde 1798 1816 1912 1961
Acetic acid 270 358 380 385
MTBE 231 386 420 430
Solvents 183 196 201 206
Others 1079 1149 1144 1173
Total demand 3934 4326 4497 4625
Nameplate at 90% 2797 3022 3184 3184
Forecasted surplus/(shortage) at 90% (importability) (1137) (1304) (1313) (1441)
a There are current supply contracts to the Far East from Canada and Saudi Arabia for about 1.1
million ton methanol per year. The Far East is in fact a net methanol exporter for the moment.
Figure 3
Forecasted Far East and Asia methanol demand by product group.

Page 288
pansion in the region, primarily for use as a process solvent for the production of purified
terephthalic acid, and MTBE production is expected to increase principally in Japan and
Korea.
9.2.4
South America
The big impact on methanol demand in South America has been the fairly new
requirement for blending into gasoline in Brazil. In late 1989, Brazil started to import
large quantities of methanol as a replacement for fuel ethanol. The world sugar market
became rather strong, and Brazilian sugar growers preferred to concentrate on the global
market at higher returns than provide feedstock for fuel ethanol production to power the
4 million alcohol-fueled vehicles. However, there are strong indications that this fuel
requirement is dwindling in the face of lower world sugar prices, making ethanol
feedstocks more readily available. Otherwise, we anticipate that forecasted (Table 4 and
Fig. 4) South American methanol demand for the study period will remain at more or less
traditional levels, except for the possibility of a new MTBE plant coming on-line in
Trinidad in 1995. This facility could also be postponed to outside the forecast period.
Table 4 Forecasted South American Methanol Supply and Demand Balance (Hundreds t)
Forecast
1993 1994 1995
Formaldehyde 197 201 205 211
MTBE 247 247 247 297
Solvents 25 26 28 29
Others 36 36 39 40
Total demand 989 944 853 911
Capacity at 90% 1376 1624 2713 2803
Forecasted surplus/(shortage) at 90% (exportability) 387 680 1860 1892

Page 289
Figure 4
Forecasted South American methanol demand by product group.
9.2.5
Middle East and Africa
A number of additional MTBE plants are scheduled to be built in Saudi Arabia and
elsewhere around the Arabian Gulf by the middle of this decade. If they all materialize,
then methanol demand for this outlet will grow quite dramatically, reducing export ability
from the region. However, our forecast only goes to the year 1995 and includes those
projects we consider most realistic (Table 5 and Fig. 5). Note that our supply forecast is
based on 90% of nameplate production for the region. It is well known that many, if not
most, of the existing methanol-producing facilities in the Middle East are able to operate
above their nameplate capacity, and in fact, some of them have already been rerated
upward to allow for some of this increased efficiency. Therefore, it is very possible that
the Middle East and Africa can and will have additional methanol export ability to that
indicated. On the other hand, because of increased MTBE capability in the region, we still
anticipate reduced methanol export availability overall.

Page 290
Table 5 Forecasted Middle East and Africa Methanol Supply and Demand Balance (Hundreds t)
Forecast
1993 1994 1995
Formaldehyde 197 200 201 202
MTBE 191 191 573 964
Others 81 82 85 86
Total demand 518 522 910 1304
Nameplate at 90% 3065 3065 3065 3659
Forecasted surplus/(shortage) at 90% (exportability) 2547 2543 2155 2355
Figure 5
Forecasted Middle East and Africa methanol demand by product group.

Page 291
9.2.6
Central and Eastern Europe
Between 1990 and 1991 we factored in a decrease in total methanol demand for Central
and Eastern Europe of about 10% (Table 6 and Fig. 6). It can be seen that we anticipate
only a very small increase in overall methanol demand from 1992 to 1995. Actually, this
could prove to be somewhat on the optimistic side, since many of these countries are still
experiencing serious economic downturns. A number of new methanol-derivative facilities
are planned, such as MTBE, but the ability of these countries to arrange secure financing
is very doubtful, at least at this time. Also, there remain large amounts of methanol
feedstocks in Siberia, but the ability to finance expanded methanol production is also a
serious hurdle. We understand that the one methanol-producing facility in the Ukraine,
with a nameplate capacity of 500,000 t per year, may be closed permanently because of
the high cost of feedstock originating in Siberia.
9.2.7
Worldwide
Total global methanol demand for the study period from 1992 to 1995 is expected to
increase by approximately 26%, or 8% per year (Table 7 and Figs. 79). On the surface,
this appears rather strong. However, it is led by anticipated dramatic increases in
methanol demand for the production of MTBE. This
Table 6 Forecasted Central and Eastern Europe Methanol Supply and Demand Balance (Hundreds t)
Forecast
1993 1994 1995
Formaldehyde 1059 1076 1094 1113
Acetic acid 172 172 172 172
MTBE 363 363 363 363
Others 629 641 653 663
Total demand 2403 2432 2462 2489
Nameplate at 90% 4482 4482 4482 4482
Forecasted surplus/(shortage) at 90% 2079 2050 2020 1993

Page 292
Figure 6
Forecasted Central and Eastern European methanol demand by product group.
Figure 7
Forecasted world methanol demand by product group.

Page 293
Table 7 Forecasted World Methanol Supply and Demand Balance (Hundreds t)
Forecast
1993 1994 1995
Formaldehyde 7,342 7,442 7,629 7,782
Acetic acid 1,407 1,495 1,517 1,732
MTBE 3,935 5,040 6,366 7,782
Solvents 749 776 796 813
Others 4,027 4,149 4,372 4,228
Nontabulated countries 210 215 220 225
Total demand 19,343 20,867 22,609 24,356
Nameplate production capacity 23,637 24,172 27,062 27,822
Capacity at 90% 21,273 21,755 24,356 25,040
% Utilization at nameplate 81.8 86.3 83.5 87.5
% Utilization at 90% nameplate 90.9 95.9 92.8 97.3
particular demand alone is expected to grow by a total of approximately 98% or about
25% or more per year. Other derivative growth factors are expected for formaldehyde,
for a total of approximately 6%, acetic acid for a growth of about 23%, and methyl
methacrylate for about 28%, although starting from a low base. Gasoline and fuels
outlets for methanol are expected to expand dramatically in the United States (from a
low base), but declines are anticipated for Brazil, resulting in an overall decrease in
methanol demand for fuels uses of about 7%. All other chemical end uses are expected
to perform according to traditional patterns.
We now review the status of current global methanol-producing capability as of the end
of 1992 (Table 8) and the possibility or probability of new capacity coming on-line within
the next 34 years (Fig. 10).
We categorize the potential and probability of future methanol-producing capacity as
follows [1]:
Category A refers to plants currently under construction or those that appear to have
finalized all important details and are expected to begin construction very soon (Table 9).

Page 294
Figure 8
Forecasted world methanol demand by region.
Figure 9
Forecasted world methanol supply and demand balance.

Page 295
Table 8 Estimated 1992 World Methanol Production Capacity
Country Company Feedstock/processa Nameplate capacity (hundreds t)
USA Air Products NG/ICI 180
Ashland NG/Lrgi 390
Beaumont Methanol NG/Lrgi 850
Borden NG/ICI 600
Coastal NG/ICI 80
Enron NG/Lrgi 375
Georgia Gulf NG/ICI 420
Hoechst Celanese NG/Lrgi 550
Lyondell NG/ICI 680
Quantum Resid/Lrgi 600
Sand Creek NG/Lrgi 80
Tennessee Eastman Coal/Lrgi 195
Texaco NG/Lrgi 300
Canada Celanese NG/ICI 750
Methanex NG/ICI 518
Novacor NG/ICI 900
Mexico PEMEX NG/Lrgi 172
Germany BASF OG/BASF 240
DEA Resid/Lrgi 450
Leunawerke Resid/Lrgi 660
Veba Resid/Lrgi 260
Italy OMV NG 120
Netherlands Methanor NG/ICI 740
UK ICI NG/ICI 500
Burma State NG/Lrgi 150
China State, various Various 700
India Assam OG/MGC 32
Deepak Naphtha/ICI 100
FCI Fuel oil/Haldor-Topse 40
Gujarat NG/Lrgi 100
Indonesia Pertamina NG/Lrgi 330
Iran State NG/Dutch 100
Japan MGC NG/MGC 270
Malaysia Petronas NG/Lrgi 660
New Zealand Fletcher Challenge D-1 NG/ICI 430
Petrocorp D-2 NG/ICI-Davy (MTG) 450
(continued)

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Table 8 Continued
Table 8 Estimated 1992 World Methanol Production Capacity
Country Company Feedstock/processa Nameplate capacity (hundreds t)
Argentina Casco NG/ICI 22
Atanor NG 15
Resinfor NG 50
Brazil Alba RG 32
Metanol NG/ICI 70
Prosint RG 118
Chile Cape Horn NG/Kellogg 750
Trinidad TTMC NG/ICI 450
Algeria Almer NG/ICI 110
Bahrain Gulf PIC NG/ICI 425
Israel Dor OG 55
Libya SIRTE NG/ICI 660
Saudi Arabia Ar-Razi Nos. 1 and 2 NG/MGC 1,320
Ibn-Sina NG/ICI 770
South Africa AECI Coal/UHDE 20
SASOL Coal 6
Bulgaria State 60
Czechoslovakia State 100
Poland State NG/OG 200
Romania State NG/ICI 400
CIS State NG/ICI 1,650
State Various 2,140
Yugoslavia State/Zagreb NG/Lrgi 180
MSK/Kikinda NG/ICI 200
Total world 23,775
a NG, Resid, OG, RG.
Category B are those facilities that have progressed well into the engineering stage, that
appear to have financing arranged, and that, in our opinion, are good possibilities for
completion (Table 10).
Category C are those plants that are only under consideration and/or in the initial stage
of planning and have not progressed into the final engineering stage or arranged
financing (Table 11).

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Figure 10
Forecasted global methanol production outlook.
9.3
Major Traditional Methanol Derivatives
The major traditional derivatives for methanol are described here.
Formaldehyde is a very traditional outlet for methanol. It is used in resins for building
materials, engineering plastics, and many other applications. Historically, global methanol
demand for formaldehyde was very close to or above 50%, but this ratio is decreasing
because of the advent of other products. Increases in formaldehyde demand generally
kept pace with economic development in various regions, but in recent years this
condition has changed somewhat. Although increases in formaldehyde production in the
United States and Western Europe appear to keep pace with traditional patterns, in the
Far East and Asia formaldehyde production is expanding at higher levels because of the
strong wood products industry in that region of the world. Concern about the toxicity or
carcinogenic effects of formaldehyde have stabilized production in some regions, whereas
in others there appears to be only minimal concern, for example in the Far East. Overall,
in our opinion, the use of methanol for the production of formaldehyde will continue to
increase according to the global patterns of the past, or at about 2% per year depending
on the location and economic conditions. However, should there be any serious
recessions in the world, housing production and therefore formaldehyde use would be
reduced, at least for that significant outlet.
The carbonylation of methanol to produce acetic acid was developed in the 1970s by
Monsanto, and BP Chemicals has now taken over this process and development. It is the
most efficient route to acetic acid, and because of this it

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Table 9 Category ''A" Methanol Plants
Country Company Location
Quantity
(hundreds
t/year)
Status
USA Fortier Louisiana 570 Converting American Cyanamid ammonia plant, 1994
Ashland Louisiana 70 Debottleneck 1993
Georgia Gulf Lousiana 90 Debottleneck 1994
Terra Meth California 10 Based on municipal waste, 1994
Terra Int. Oklahoma 150 Preliminary plans
Canada Novacor Alberta 100 Debottleneck 1994
Trinidad Caribbean Point Lisas 550 Under construction 1993
TTMC Point Lisas 500 New 1995
VenezuelaMetor/JapaneseJose 730 Under construction 1994
Argentina Resinfors 100 Debottleneck 1995
Australia BHP/ICI
Near
Melbourne
50
BHP/ICI entered into an arrangement to build a small
methanol plant to prove new technology; this stalled for
awhile but it is now proceeding
Norway Statoil
West
Coast
830 Engineering 1996
New
Zealand
Fletcher
Challenge
Methanol
Waitara 450 Additional distillation 1994
Chile Cape Horn
Punta
Arenas
250 Debottleneck 1995
Qatar
Total/Int.
Octane
660 Proceeding 1996
Total 5110

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Table 10 Category "B" Methanol Plants
Quantity
(hundreds
t/year)
Status
USA Various Various 300
We are aware of a number of plans in various stages
to construct some small methanol plants in
nontraditional locations, and some are based on unique
feedstocks
VenezuelaEcofuel/Pequiven Jose 660 Still alive/proceeding
Qatar Penspen 660 Proceeding
Nigeria Penspen 750 Planned/proceeding
Mobil 850 Planned
Standard 700 Planned
Petrochemicals/MG
Total 3920

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Table 11 Category "C" Methanol Plantsa
Quantity
(hundreds
t/year)
Status
USA Various Various 1000
Various plans for a number of facilities including one
worldscale attached to a steel mill
VenezuelaMitsui/Eastman Jose 700 On hold
Argentina
Petroquimica
Austral
Tierra del
Fuego
700 Has been discussed for more than 10 years
China 200 Some preliminary plans
India 200 Some preliminary plans
Indonesia PT Humpuss Bontang 700
Doubtful at this point because of high infrastructure
cost and feedstock value
Pertamina Sulawesi 700
Doubtful at this time because of high infrastructure
costs
Algeria Total/Sonatrach 700 Preliminary plans hampered by political situation
Iran Galadari 700 Tied into an MTBE plant; preliminary
Saudi
Arabia
SABIC/Ar-Razi Al-Jubail 700 Preliminary plans
Total 6300
a There are some preliminary plans for additional methanol-producing capacity in such countries as
Mexico, Brazil, Angola, Colombia, and practically any other country that has natural or associated gas.
We do not include them here because they have not, in our opinion, progressed beyond the initial idea
stage and/or are looking for partners.

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is our opinion that methanol demand for the production of acetic acid is rather recession
proof. If there is any future need to rationalize the acetic acid industry, the first plants to
be shut down would probably be those that are less efficient than the methanol process.
A new world-scale acetic acid facility came online a few years ago in the United Kingdom.
We know of other smaller facilities that may come on-stream in the next few years in the
former Soviet Union and one that recently started up in South Korea. Hoechst AG intends
to build a new methanol-based acetic acid facility in Frankfurt, Germany, which could be
on-stream about 19951996 and would have the capability of consuming an additional
approximate 240,000 t/year of methanol. Also, later in this decade, Tennessee Eastman
may expand their acetic anhydride and acetic acid production in Kingsport, Tennessee. In
addition, Hoechst Celanese expects to expand their acetic acid production at Bayport,
Texas in a few years. Some other small acetic acid production could come on-line in other
parts of the world to supply expanded production of purified terephthalic acid. The acetic
acid industry is comparatively small, which makes it much more stable and sensitive to
supply-demand balances. Therefore, we expect longer term acetic acid production to
keep pace with expanded demand throughout the world, but there could be a surplus of
acetic acid in the middle of the 1990s and the full potential of this methanol derivative
may not be felt until later.
Undoubtedly, MTBE is the fastest growing petrochemical in the world. Its primary use is
only as a blending component for gasoline. Pioneers in the field were Huels in Germany
and Snamprogetti in Italy, but many other technologies have been developed. The
demand for MTBE in the United States increases very dramatically as lead phasedown in
gasoline reaches almost 100%. Those producers of more traditional octanes, such as
toluene, tend to retain their products for their own gasoline pool, taking octane off the
merchant market. This deficiency is now being supplied by MTBE. However, at least in
the United States, MTBE is not viewed any longer as an octane ingredient or booster. It
has now become a very integral part of a clean air strategy because by blending up to
15% of MTBE into gasoline, total aromatics, benzene, and olefins can be decreased along
with Reid vapor pressure. The oxygen content of gasoline can be increased to allow more
efficient combustion, especially at high altitudes and in serious air quality nonattainment
regions of the country. This makes MTBE much more valuable as an oxygen booster in
gasoline than as an octane component in the United States. Although Western Europe is
somewhat behind the United States in lead phasedown and lead-free gasoline, these
developments are now occurring in that region of the world in significant proportions to
increase greatly the future demand for octane and, therefore, MTBE. We forecast greatly
increased methanol demand for MTBE during the next 5 years

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throughout the world, although the increase may level off somewhat later. New plants
are being constructed and planned for almost any region that has sufficient availability of
the cofeedstock, isobutylene. Large world-scale plants are being considered, which will
use field butanes to produce isobutylene, such as the first facility in Saudi Arabia and the
one in Venezuela that started up early in 1991. Additional dehydro MTBE plants will be
coming on in 1992 and thereafter. In our opinion, by the middle of this decade, MTBE
demand (not production) in the United States alone could reach 2025 million t/year. This
quantity equates to a methanol consumption of 7.09.0 million t/year, or the equivalent of
1013 worldscale methanol plants. However, we expect some of the future potential MTBE
producers, especially those located in more remote regions, to consider building either
small or world-scale methanol plants within their facilities to ensure the alcohol feedstock
and also potentially to supply incremental quantities to world markets.
Formaldehyde, acetic acid, and MTBE represent almost two-thirds of methanol demand
worldwide. The balance of methanol demand is for various other chemicals, such as DMT,
methyl methacrylates, chloromethane, and methyl amines, and also for antifreeze,
dehydration, and solvent purposes. Each one of these outlets is relatively individually
small; therefore we do not review them here. In general, methanol demand for these
various chemicals and solvents uses will expand with regional economic developments,
and this is indicated in our methanol demand tables.
We are not at all enthusiastic or optimistic about significant expanded methanol demand
for direct fuels uses any time in the foreseeable future. Major proponents for the direct
use of methanol as a fuel are currently in the State of California and some other smaller,
isolated locations. The drive is motivated by political and environmental reasons to
reduce air pollution. However, studies are still being made concerning the production of
formaldehyde emissions when using methanol as a fuel for internal combustion engines,
which may not be an acceptable trade-off. In fact, even the politicians and
environmentalists in the State of California appear to be changing their direction away
from methanol (which requires an elaborate and expensive fuel distribution
infrastructure) and toward more easily accessible alternative fuels, such as compressed
natural gas, and also reformulated or clean gasolines, which could theoretically reach
almost 100% of the automobile population in a relatively short period of time. Building
methanol-fueled vehicles would take a considerable amount of time and investment.
Even in Western Europe, where methanol demand reached about 700,00 ton per year in
the mid-1980s for blending into gasoline, this practice has dropped off considerably. The
reason was the drastic decline in crude oil values in late 1985 and early 1986, which
reduced the value of gasoline com-

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pared with that of methanol. Methanol has always been considered an inexpensive
gasoline extender, not an octane booster, and unless methanol is priced at maximum
60% of wholesale gasoline, it will not find an economic outlet in gasoline blending. Many
of the gasoline distribution systems have now become wet, and there are technical and
logistical drawbacks to reviving the practice. Because of the added expense of preparing
distribution systems to accommodate gasoline containing methanol, we expect only very
limited additional methanol blending at best unless crude oil, and therefore gasoline
values, rise dramatically from current levels. In our opinion, when crude oil reaches a
sustained $30 or more per barrel the equivalent price of gasoline will make methanol
blending attractive once more. For methanol use as a direct fuel, crude oil values would
have to reach a sustained $40 or more per barrel.
In summation, except for acetic acid and MTBE, we do not anticipate methanol demand
for the more traditional outlets in chemicals and solvents uses to grow at significant
levels during the study period. For the most part, the growth will be based on regional
and country gross national (domestic) product. In the short term (during the next 5
years), we foresee additional acetic acid production capability springing up around the
world, but questions remain concerning the ability of these new plants to produce at
maximum levels because of market saturation. It is possible, however, that lower cost
acetic acid production for methanol could rationalize some of the more traditional
production from other feedstocks, but this will not occur overnight. As mentioned
previously, MTBE remains the single most attractive demand-growth methanol derivative,
at least for the balance of this decade.
9.4
Methanol Future Potential Chemical Applications
The present chemical outlets for methanol in the more traditional regions are rather well
known and are even reaching maturity, as for formaldehyde and acetic acid to a lesser
degree. There are some distinct chemical uses, however, that could provide new and
alternative outlets for methanol somewhere in the more distant future. Producing various
chemicals from feedstock methanol can result in a better value-added ratio than using
methanol for fuels. Listed here are some of the routes to higher valued chemical
products:
Methanol
Carbonylation: acetic acid, acetic anhydride, methyl acetate, methyl formate
Reductive carbonylation: acetaldehyde, ethanol, ethyl acetate, ethylidene diacetate
Oxidative carbonylation: dimethyl carbonate, dimethyl oxalate

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Formaldehyde
Carbonylation: glycolic acid, glycolic acid esters
Reductive carbonylation: ethylene glycol, glycolaldehyde
Of these, acetic acid synthesis from methanol is at present a commercial reality, as is
acetic anhydride produced by Tennessee Eastman in the United States from coal-based
methanol.
Some of the other products just listed, such as ethanol, ethyl acetate, and ethylene
glycol, can be considered commodity chemicals. Competition is strong in these products
since new plants based on traditional olefin feedstocks have been built in energy-rich
countries and there are plans for expansion. For new technology to justify replacing the
old, it must provide "shutdown" economics for low-growth products, but we do not predict
C1 chemistry will be able to do this in at least 10 years or more.
Toluene can be reached with methanol over a type X zeolite containing cesium and boron
to produce a styrene and ethylbenzene mixture that can be further processed to
specification styrene monomer. However, we do not anticipate this process developing in
the near future because at present styrene monomer capacity based on the traditional
feedstocks of ethylene and benzene at current lower feedstock costs.
The chemistry to produce aromatics from methanol is rather well known. In one process,
light olefins are converted from methanol over an acid catalyst, which are then
oligomerized and cyclized to aromatics. The Mobil methanol-to-gasoline (MTG) process
has a special feature that limits the growth to a C10 by using synthetic ZSM-5 zeolite,
placing the product in the gasoline range. This step also prevents the formation of
aromatic coke precursors. A commercial MTG plant is in operation in New Zealand and
has the ability to supply 33% of that country's gasoline demand, although at high
production costs relative to the availability of cheaper gasoline on the world market.
Although this plant is a technical success, because of the high losses incurred by
producing synthetic gasoline there are additional plans to "clean up" some of the
commercial-grade methanol feedstock and place it on the world chemical market.
We do not anticipate significant technical developments for new methanol-based
chemicals in this century. The primary constraint is stabilized, more traditional raw
material prices, especially ethylene, and slow growth in end-product demand. A
significant increase in petroleum prices, however, combined with a more normal growth
pattern in end uses, could change this scenario sometime in the more distant future. The
desire to obtain better value-added products than for fuels, better catalysts and new
technology, and more research and development will greatly assist the new chemical
outlets for methanol. We

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could very well be standing on the threshold of an exciting revolution in C1 chemistry.
9.5
Single-Cell Protein Manufacture
Methanol can be used as a carbon source for the production of single-cell protein (SCP)
for use as an animal feed supplement. The SCP process nurtures a living organism by
using methanol (carbon), ammonia (nitrogen), and air (oxygen). The end result is a
powdered or granular product that can be used to feed cattle, pigs, poultry, fish, and so
on, in concentrations of 830% SCP (depending on the application) mixed or formulated
with other, more conventional feeds. Some of the more conventional feeds are soya, fish
meal, and concentrated grains. Methanol-based SCP results in a high nucleic acid content,
which makes it unfit for human consumption, although some technology could solve this
problem in the future.
The only large-scale commercial SCP facility in the Western countries using methanol as a
substrate was the 50,000 ton per year plant in England operated by ICI, but this plant
shut down for economic reasons. Phillips Petroleum has a SCP technology called
Provesteen, with a protein content of about 62%, and there are reports they are planning
to build a 10,000 t/year SCP plant in China (People's Republic). Reports indicate the
former Soviet Union at present has a SCP capacity of 1.0 million ton, but using a low-
grade carbohydrate base and normal paraffins, which result in protein contents of 53 and
60%, respectively. SCP based on methanol via the ICI process produces a protein content
of 72%.
SCP production has unlimited worldwide potential under proper conditions. By producing
an animal feed supplement (and extender), more conventional grains and feeds can be
displaced for human consumption. It requires 1.62.0 ton methanol to produce 1.0 ton
SCP, and a large market for methanol could be on the horizon, especially in the less
developed and/or energy-rich countries.
There are two major problems facing the expansion of SCP production from methanol at
this time. The first is the continued availability of traditional feeds at reasonable prices,
and the second could be the relatively high cost of natural gas (i.e., methanol) in the
more developed nations.
There are many dislocations associated with grain production throughout the world,
mostly because of weather conditions and fuel and fertilizer costs. As energy values
increase, which they are certain to do in time, grain will be more expensive. Also, there
are only so many fish in the sea, even if they are a renewable resource. The combination
of weather variances, higher energy costs, and lesser yields from the oceans could
promote SCP expansions.

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At present, it is not commercially practical to produce SCP from methanol, even on a
large scale, at least not in the West. Other SCP-manufacturing plans have been
mentioned for Saudi Arabia, Malaysia, and Indonesia. Turning natural gas into an animal
food supplement via methanol may prove to be an interesting prospect sometime in the
future.
9.6
Sewage Treatment
Methanol can be used for dinitrification of wastewater in the tertiary stage of treatment.
It is used as a carbon source to grow bacteria, which through their normal metabolism
convert NO3N to simple gases that are vented into the air. The water is then released
into a river, stream, or ocean.
This use for methanol is not expected to grow appreciably, since it is desirable only in
certain areas and there are more proven conventional methods for nitrogen removal.
Politics also play a large part in building methanol dinitrification plants, at least in the
United States.
Nitrogen removal from wastewater is usually associated with inland areas or more
pristine locations, for example Florida. Sewage plants located adjacent to large bodies of
water, such as oceans or gulfs, can use these resources to discharge wastewater. Other
areas may require additional processing before wastewater can be discharged into rivers
and streams. It all depends on the environmental considerations and regulations of a
given location. In the United States, funding is available for a methanol dinitrification
plant from the Environmental Protection Agency, provided the applicant can prove this is
the preferred route in view of location, water quality required, and so on, but capital costs
are considerably higher than for more traditional plants.
Methanol is more expensive for nitrogen removal than other carbon substrates, such as
brewery wastes, molasses, and whey. In many cases it is preferred, however, because it
can be utilized to extinction. There are only a few such plants in the United States and
perhaps as many more in the rest of the world.
9.7
Summary
9.7.1
North America
In the past, Mexico was in a more or less break-even situation. Its methanol production
and consumption were rather closely balanced, but occasional export availability found
homes in the United States and Western Europe. In 1986, Mexico liberalized its
international trade policy and allowed consumers to ne-

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gotiate and transact imports directly rather than through the state oil company, PEMEX.
More recently, the federal government of Mexico has moved further toward
decentralization and even to privatization of many companies, but not the state oil
company. This has encouraged Mexican imports of methanol. There had been past plans
to utilize local natural and associated gas to feed one or two new large methanol plants,
but it is our opinion these projects have been postponed indefinitely. However, besides
the plans for two large world-scale methanol plants, there are very preliminary plans of a
more definite nature to build a world-scale MTBE plant in Mexico that will include a small
methanol plant to supply the alcohol feedstock.
Canadian methanol production, especially the two plants located in the Province of
Alberta, were in very serious financial difficulty in the mid-1980s. The cost of the
feedstock natural gas was not considered a value comparable to that of other remote-
area producers, and it is expensive to ship this methanol to deep-water export facilities,
located in Kitimat and Vancouver in British Columbia. Attempts were made to ship
methanol via a products pipeline from Edmonton, Alberta to Vancouver and also via a
liquefied petroleum gas pipeline from Edmonton to Chicago and Windsor, Ontario, but
these tests proved only marginally successful and the methanol that was received was
off-specification and suitable basically only for fuel uses. The two Alberta methanol
producers, Novacor and Celanese Canada, reduced their total costs by renegotiating
feedstock gas contracts and shipping rates both to Canadian export ports and directly to
the United States.
Both Canada and the United States agreed to a free-trade pact that took effect January 1,
1989. Under the terms of the agreement, U.S. import duty on methanol was to be phased
out over a period of 5 years. However, the duty phase-out was accelerated by mutual
agreement, and as of April 1990, all U.S. import duty on Canadian methanol and MTBE
has been eliminated; the reverse is also true for Canadian imports of methanol and MTBE
from the United States.
Great promise is seen for methanol producers in the western provinces of Canada in
supplying their product to a wave of new MTBE facilities coming on-line in the West Coast
states of the United States, a very natural market for Canadian producers. Also, a new
world-scale dehydro MTBE plant came on-line in Edmonton, Alberta in 1992 that finds
lucrative markets on the U.S. West Coast.
According to official statistics [2], Canada is the largest methanol exporters to the United
States, and this is expected to continue well into the future. Methanol arrives in the
United States via tanker ships (even in the U.S. Gulf) and also by direct railcar shipment
across the border into the upper Midwest. In fact, Canadian methanol producers have
been supplying the United States very reli-

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ably for about 15 years, and they are considered a first line of supply, comparable to U.S.
producers.
Formaldehyde production in North America is expected to be rather flat in the near term
but then increase eventually. Actually, although formaldehyde production in the United
States has not been very strong during the past 2 years, and in fact even registered some
declines, Canadian formaldehyde production is rather strong. With the North American
Freed Trade Agreement, Canadian formaldehyde is finding new markets in the northern
portion of the United States, which is pushing back U.S. formaldehyde production. As
usual, diemthyl terephthalate (DMT) production is expected to remain rather stable in
this region of the world. After some debottlenecking, acetic acid production in the United
States should realize some increase, providing additional methanol demand, but it will
also level off. The big winner, as usual, is MTBE. According to Table, methanol demand
for MTBE production during the 4 year study period should expand by a total of about
209%, which equates to almost 33% per year. Indeed, this could prove to be somewhat
on the optimistic side, but a number of announced and even not yet announced MTBE
plants are scheduled to begin construction either this year or next that will be on-stream
during the study period. All in all, for North America we anticipate methanol demand
increasing by about 4.8 million t between 1991 and 1995, for a total increase of 86% or
about 17% per year. This increase will quite obviously be led by MTBE production.
9.7.2
Western Europe
The Western European petrochemical market is a true dichotomy. In some ways
petrochemicals are homogeneous, and in other ways they are not.
In the methanol sector, there is much intraregional trading, especially among European
Community member nations. Geography and topography have much to do with this,
along with past plant shutdowns in some countries, such as Spain, France, and Italy. The
focal point for methanol trading is Germany, the largest producer, importer, and
consumer. Some methanol consumers, especially those in Italy, France, and Spain, are
not pleased with the fact that the German methanol market has a very strong influence
on pricing in their markets. This goes back to previous times, when most methanol
supplies in the Mediterranean area originated in Rotterdam and a differential was
required for the additional freight. Only Libya, with a methanol plant that started up in
the late 1970s, was able to supply the Mediterranean directly without going through
Rotterdam, but for some reason the differential continued for awhile. There is at present
large methanol storage at and around Lavera in southern France, and questions arise why
methanol prices for delivery to this port should be above Rotterdam prices, which are in
turn influenced by the West German market. On the other hand, some

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of the ports in the Mediterranean and also the Iberian Peninsula are small and simply
cannot handle large ships. These destinations justify higher freight rates over Rotterdam
because of the parcel sizes involved and higher port costs and diversions, for example.
Some of the outlying Western European nations, such as the Nordic countries, Spain, and
Italy, rely mostly on methanol imports from so-called deep-sea sources. These sources
are as close as Libya and the former Eastern Bloc and as far away as Saudi Arabia and
New Zealand. There are preliminary plans to build a world-scale methanol plant on the
western coast of Norway that would be supplied by associated gas from a new offshore
crude oil platform. Since the platform has not yet been built, nor has the delivery system
to the mainland, we do not anticipate this plant to come on-stream until sometime in the
middle to later part of this decade. The preliminary plans call for the associated gas to be
delivered to the shoreline commingled with the crude oil and separated at that point. The
plans also include a world-scale MTBE plant to utilize part of this methanol production.
The only other new development in methanol production in Western Europe is that, since
the reunification of Germany, the Leuna Werke plant in former East Germany (now
eastern Germany) falls under Western European methanol-producing capability.
Methanol demand for formaldehyde in Western Europe has been very soft, and it is not
expected to reverse in the near term. However, should the rebuilding of the eastern
countries occur anytime soon, it is very possible that formaldehyde production could
increase proportionately. A new acetic acid plant came on-line at the BP facility at Hull in
the United Kingdom a few years ago. Although it had some initial problems, we
understand it has been running quite well. MTBE production in Western Europe is
expected to level out very soon. There probably are still a few refineries that could utilize
the C4s from their FCC units to produce MTBE, but we do not anticipate any new MTBE
production from dehydro or other sources, with the exception of the new MTBE plant
scheduled for the west coast of Norway that could come on-line in 19961997, outside our
study period. Although we indicate approximately 50,000 t/year of methanol demand
yearly in the study period for gasoline blending, we anticipate that this will occur only in
Germany. There is a very good chance that with the expected increase in methanol
pricing and the stability of crude oil and gasoline values, methanol-gasoline blending
could disappear entirely in Western Europe during the study period. There are some small
gasoline distribution companies, especially in northern Germany, that continue to blend in
small amounts of methanol with cosolvents to keep their gasoline distribution systems
clean and dry, but this might not be so attractive if and when methanol is no longer
economical.

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According to our study, methanol demand for formaldehyde production is expected to
increase by a total of about 4.7% during the study period, or more than 1% per year.
This could be above what some others would forecast, but as mentioned previously, we
are counting on increased formaldehyde demand for eastern Germany and eastern
countries and also because the current recession should be over by the end of 1993. DMT
expansion is expected to remain rather stable as usual. It can be seen from Table that an
additional 200,000 t/ year of methanol is expected to be required in 1995 for the
production of acetic acid. This takes into account the new Hoechst facility that has been
announced for Germany. We will probably have a better idea on this late 1993 or early
1994. Methanol demand for MTBE production is expected to grow at approximately 10%
in total for the 4 year study period. Some new methyl methacrylate production will be
coming on-line in Western Europe, but this increased methanol demand is not very
significant. All told, during the 4 year study period between 1991 and 1995, methanol
demand is expected to increase in Western Europe by 10 million ton, or 10% in total.
Western Europe's dependence on imported methanol is expected to increase in the 4 year
study period from approximately 2.5 to 3.0 million ton, an increase of 20%, and in 1995
total Western European methanol demand will be based on imports of about 53%. We
are rather conservative in our estimates of expanded methanol demand in Western
Europe during the next 4 years. The global recession has been debilitating, and for the
most part methanol demand in Western Europe has reached maturity. As mentioned
previously, however, there is tremendous promise for Western European industry in
general to rebuild the economies of their eastern neighbors. This will not occur until very
firm guarantees can be given to Western industries to invest in the rebuilding efforts with
a minimum of risk.
9.7.3
Far East and Asia
This region of the world is generally widespread geographically, and methanol shipments
and deliveries can range from full ships of 40,000 ton or more to small bulk tanker
deliveries of about 700 ton, to very remote islands where formaldehyde plants might be
located. These logistics provide a challenge to the transportation industry.
Economic and political problems persist in both countries as the Philippines, whereas
other countries, such as Malaysia and Indonesia, are striving to find their place in the sun.
Along these lines, there are current plans to develop a ''golden triangle" between Jahore
Baru, Singapore and the island of Batam in Indonesia, where a number of refineries and
petrochemical facilities are planned to be built within the next 10 years. This
development would provide tremen-

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dous opportunities for the refining and petrochemical industries and could definitely
include expanded MTBE production. We do not show these possibilities in Table simply
because they are only preliminary plans at this time.
On the other hand, some countries, such as South Korea and Taiwan, are becoming more
competitive against Japan and they are increasing their share of many export markets.
Therefore, the economy of some Far Eastern countries could experience continued growth
in the future, but at the expense of Japan, who provided the original role model of
increasing exports. In fact, the global recession has also hit the Far East and Asia.
Currently, Japanese economic growth is rather stagnant and may even develop into
negative numbers. The economies of South Korea, Taiwan, Singapore, and Hong Kong
are growing more slowly than they did during the past 10 years, but they are still ahead
of most other countries in the world. This region of the world is a true economic
dichotomy.
Some years ago, Japan made a very realistic appraisal of the future of its methanol
industry. Decisions were made to close the more expensive producing plants and to
import methanol from various worldwide sources at cheaper prices. These decisions were
inspired by the industry for the good of the industry, and the previous producers still
market imported methanol through their existing networks. The result is a more
competitive methanol position that, it is hoped, carries over to the derivatives and export
markets.
South Korea and Taiwan have followed Japan's lead in this approach, shutting down
expensive methanol production and importing at less expensive world prices. One
exception is the 66,000 ton per year plant commissioned in Taiwan in 1986 that uses
refinery off-gas as a feedstock that might otherwise be flared. But we understand the
plant might now be shutdown permanently, making Taiwan a 100% methanol importer.
In the far East, new methanol production came on-stream in the 1980s in New Zealand,
Malaysia, Indonesia, and Burma. One fact is rather apparent: with the methanol
commitments of some Japanese companies either in a direct equity position or as firm
purchases with other global producers, all this new production will not be able to find a
home in the Far East for many years to come, and exports out of the region are
necessary.
Methanol demand in the Far East is expected to grow only in line with chemical uses in
this decade. Consumption for formaldehyde is and will continue to be the largest single
outlet. Formaldehyde production is expected to grow at moderate to healthy levels in
Japan, Korea, Taiwan, and Pakistan. Consumption of methanol for DMT and acetic acid
should grow with new capacity scheduled, and consumption for all other chemicals is
expected to grow at gross national product levels.

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So far very little interest appears in the methanol fuels area in the Far East, except with
some thought given to blending into gasoline in some countries, such as India. However,
this might not be a good idea without extreme proper care and monitoring, since it is
almost impossible simply to blend methanol into gasoline without proper cosolvents. The
problem is even more critical with older cars because the methanol and alcohols can
"clean out" fuel systems in automobiles and dump the deposits in carburetors. There are
some plans to develop methanol fuel cell technology in Japan, especially for some more
remote islands for power generation. This would eliminate the need to deliver fuel and
residual oil to these locations. A public utility in the southern part of Japan is currently
experimenting with methanol as a fuel. We understand this experiment will last about 18
months and will consume about 2000 ton methanol per month. The test should be over in
the third quarter of 1993. In 1992, MTBE was approved for use in Japan, but only at a
blend of 7% and only in premium gasoline. Some Japanese refineries are now in the
process of installing MTBE plants in their facilities to use C4 from the FCC units.
Practically all the older and less efficient methanol plants have already been shut down in
the Far East. We therefore believe the rationalization process has just about reached
maximum proportions in the Far East, with the exception of one small operating unit in
Japan. There is always the possibility, of course, that rapidly expanding consumption of
methanol or the termination of purchase contracts for methanol produced outside the
region will reduce the surplus in the Far East, but we do not expect this to happen in the
study period. What little is being planned in fuels or other new major potential methanol
outlets will take a long time to reach reality and make a dent in the surplus.
Japan has had the most stable methanol market in the world, and there is one basic
reason: Practically all the major methanol marketers were previous producers who have
shut down plants but retained market share through imports. These markets are tightly
controlled by only a handful of players, some of whom have an interest in the Japanese-
Saudi Arabian consortium. The working relationship is one of mutual cooperation for the
common good, an approach prevalent in the Far East but difficult or illegal to practice in
other regions. However, competition for the Japanese market from outside sources has
become quite strong recently and is expected to increase.
Formaldehyde production continues to remain relatively strong in the Far East and is
expected to expand at about a total of 11% over the 4 year study period. Demand for
formaldehyde products in Japan is somewhat strong, but there have been some
environmental concerns because of the depletion of the rain forest in Malaysia and
Indonesia to supply wood products for Japan. So far this has not become a major
problem, but it could at some point in the future, thereby

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reducing formaldehyde production in the region. We do not take this possibility into
account at this time. DMT production in the region is expected to increase somewhat
higher than originally anticipated. new acetic acid production has and will be coming on in
a few locations, most notably in Korea and Japan, and assuring that production will be
maximized, we calculate expanded methanol demand for acetic acid at above 100% in
the region for the study period. As far as MTBE production is concerned, the only real
production expansion possibilities we show in the study period are those in Malaysia,
Japan, Korea, and Singapore. New methyl methacrylate production will be coming on-
stream in the region, increasing methanol's demand for that outlet.
Methanol demand in the Far East and Asia is expected to increase at approximately 24%
in total during the four year study period, or at more than 4% per year.
No new methanol-producing capability is expected to come on-line during the study
period, unless Petrocorp in New Zealand decides eventually to add even more distillation
and storage capability to "clean up" another 450,000 t/year of crude methanol into
chemical grade. Otherwise, a number of new methanol plants are contemplated for such
locations as Malaysia and Indonesia, but the principals are having difficulty in lining up
financing. On the other side of the coin, we expect reduced methanol production
throughout the Far East because of chronic production problems in Indonesia, Malaysia,
Burma (Myanmar), and Taiwan. Therefore, the combination of increased methanol
demand and less local production can only tend to make the Far East more dependent on
methanol imports from other regions of the world.
9.7.4
South America
According to our best estimation at the present time, the following are some methanol
projects being considered for various countries in South America and the Caribbean area.
Under construction in Trinidad is another plant of 500,000 t/year in Point Lisas, which is
adjacent to the site of the existing methanol plant and ammonia facility. This is the
Caribbean Methanol Corp. project scheduled for completion in late 1993.
Natural gas is available on the northern and eastern shores of Trinidad that has not yet
been commercially developed, and the owners are considering another methanol facility.
At least one other plant could be scheduled for Trinidad, making a total of three in project
and one currently in operation. As far as we are aware there is sufficient gas in Trinidad,
but much of it must be developed and brought onshore to feed any new large gas-
consuming projects, including methanol.

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In early 1991, Pequiven brought on-line a world-scale MTBE plant at San Jose, Venezuela.
There are plans for a second MTBE plant and also for two methanol facilities. A 660,000
t/year methanol plant is currently under construction by Mitsubishi of Japan and Pequiven
of Venezeula. This facility should begin production in 1994. Another methanol plant in the
planning stage would be a joint facility between Pequiven and Ecofuel of Italy.
Petroquimica Austral continues to search for potential backers for a world-scale methanol
plant proposed for the Tierra del Fuego region of Argentina, and Coastal of the United
States is currently involved in discussions. This project has been active for quite a number
of years, and various interested parties have reviewed it and eventually backed out.
As can be seen, there are ambitious plans to build methanol facilities in South America.
Because of the difficulty in putting together financial packages and also the country risk
involved in some of the locations, we doubt very much that all these plans will be
developed.
The great impact on methanol demand in South America is the new requirement for
blending into gasoline in Brazil. In 1989, Brazil started to import large quantities of
methanol as a replacement for ethanol. The world sugar market became rather strong
and Brazilian sugar growers prefer to concentrate on the global sugar market at higher
returns rather than provide feedstock for fuel ethanol production. Since Brazil entered into
this fuel alcohol program approximately 10 years ago, about 4 million cars in the country
are based on fuel ethanol. Therefore, there was a very serious shortfall of automotive
fuel in 1990. Last year, Brazil imported approximately 480,000 ton methanol for these
automotive fuel purposes alone. Additional methanol was imported for the production of
MTBE. During our study period we anticipated that Brazilian methanol imports for MTBE
will continue according to traditional patterns, but we expect a decrease in imports for
fuel purposes. As far as Brazilian fuel methanol imports are concerned, much depends on
conditions at the time. Import licenses are issued only for 36 month periods, and the
quantity allowed depends on how much ethyl alcohol is available from the sugar farmers
and other factors as well. Brazil does not like to use hard currency for needless imports,
although sugar imports provide additional hard currency for methanol imports. In any
case, we anticipate that Brazilian fuel methanol imports will decline over the coming
years.
New MTBE capacity is coming on-line in South America during our study period. We
expect methanol demand in South America for all other uses to grow according to
traditional patterns. It is very interesting to note that, when considering the increase in
methanol demand for MTBE and the decrease in methanol demand for fuel blending in
Brazil, during our study period there will be

Page 315
a net decrease in methanol demand in South America by about 6%. During this period,
new methanol production is expected to come on-stream in Trinidad and Venezuela,
together with a debottleneck in Argentina, which will more than double methanol
production capability in South America. At a production rate of 90% of nameplate, we
anticipate that South America will have increasing quantities of methanol available for
export during the study period, reaching almost 20 million ton in 1995. Primary markets
for this product would be in North America and Western Europe.
9.7.5
Middle East and Africa
It is well known that this area of the world has large methanol feedstocks in the form of
natural, associated, and refinery gas. It is therefore not surprising that about 2 million ton
new methanol production capacity came on-stream between 1983 and 1985 in the
Persian Gulf and North Africa. There is very little current methanol demand in this part of
the world, and most of the production is exported. At the present time, methanol
production in the Middle East and Africa is dominated by Saudi Arabia and Libya. The
plant in Libya started operations in 1978 and was expanded in early 1985. In early 1992,
the Japanese consortium completed construction on a second plant at the Ar-Razi facility
at Al Jubail. In fact, there are some very preliminary plans to build a third methanol plant
at Ar-Razi. In addition to the current methanol facilities in the Middle East, which includes
the plant in Bahrain, we are aware of the following plans for other locations.
1. International Octanes and Fluor Daniel Canada, both of Calgary, Alberta, have plans to
build a joint methanol-MTBE facility in Qatar. The methanol quantity would be
600,000700,000 t/year and MTBE 500,000 t/year. These are preliminary plans only, and
since this project has not progressed to the engineering stage we do not show it in Table.
2. ICI/Penspen of the United Kingdom are proceeding with plans for a world-scale
methanol facility, also in Qatar, that would include an MTBE plant. This would be on-line
in 1994, and we show this possibility in our study period.
3. Metallgesellschaft/Lrgi of Germany also have some very preliminary plans for a world-
scale methanol plant in Qatar, but since they apparently have not progressed very far, we
do not show them in the study period.
4. Some French interests, led by Total, have been considering a combined methanol-
MTBE facility in Algeria together with Sonatrach. Howev-

Page 316
er, the recent political turmoil in that country and the resulting assassination of its
president no doubt have delayed some of these plans.
5. Two of three 700,000 t/year methanol plants are also being considered for Nigeria.
It is very obvious that this region of the world has abundant supplies of methanol
feedstocks. We are aware of some other plans in East Africa.
For the near term, methanol demand in the Middle East and Africa is expected to increase
only in line with traditional uses. However, a large increase is expected in 1994 and 1995
when some of the new MTBE plants are scheduled to come on-line. This will cause Middle
East and Africa methanol demand to more than double during the 4 year study period,
but methanol export availability is expected to continue at relatively high levels.
The first world-scale MTBE plant came on-line in Saudi Arabia in 1988. It is a 500,000
t/year facility operated by SABIC. Neste Oy of Finland and Ecofuel of Italy are also
involved in the project. To our knowledge, a number of additional MTBE plants are
scheduled for the region, which by the mid-1990s could amount to a total additional
MTBE production of over 3 million t/year, requiring more than 1 million t/year of
methanol. We do not name specific projects here, but most of them would be second-
generation field butane projects with nameplate capabilities of 700,000800,000 t/year.
9.7.6
Central and Eastern Europe
Without doubt, tremendous opportunities and challenges are available to Western and
Far Eastern companies in Eastern Europe. For one thing, much of the industry is said to
be highly polluting, very inefficient, and in extremely poor condition. In fact, in some
cases, some of the facilities may have to be torn down complete and rebuilt. This
provides opportunities not only for financial institutions and construction and engineering
companies, for example, but also for the marketing organizations that would be required
to supply product during the time of tearing down and rebuilding. The restructuring of the
former Eastern Bloc countries will certainly be a revolution in all types of industries
throughout the world.
As far as the methanol business is concerned, in the Central and East European countries,
we do not expect any major changes, with a few exceptions. In fact, for the most part we
believe that much of the information available from the former Comecon industries was
rather optimistic in all areas that involved expansion. There are tremendous changes in
the internal trade patterns of the Central and Eastern European countries in that they are
attempting to reduce their own trade between the former Comecon countries and trying
to maximize trade

Page 317
with outside countries. Any internal trade is done for the most part on the basis of hard
currency payments. This is a difficult transition for those former Comecon countries that
relied on the former Soviet Union for supplies of natural resource feedstocks at subsidized
or very low prices or on barter arrangements. They must now get up to speed with global
economic factors and conditions, which is not easy to accomplish.
We do not doubt that methanol consumption in Central and Eastern Europe is at lower
rates than that experienced previously. We show some slight increases in formaldehyde
demand, most toward the end of the study period, when we anticipate increased
economic activity. Some new MTBE facilities are due on-stream in 1993, or possibly 1994,
which will also contribute to overall methanol demand growth. All in all, we anticipate
methanol demand in Central and Eastern Europe to increase by only about 300,000 ton
for a total of 14% for the entire study period.
On the supply side, we are aware of previous plans to construct new methanol-producing
facilities in the former Soviet Union and also in Bulgaria. Until construction on these
projects actually begins, however, we do not include them in our forecast. The reason is
rather obvious: with the current political and economic turmoil in this global region, there
is the real possibility that any production expansion plans could be delayed because of
difficulty in arranging financing, among other problems.
References
1. J. R. Crocco, Methanol global outlook, Proceedings of the 1993 Asian Methanol
Conference, Singapore, May 1993, pp. II18II20.
2. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, Foreign Trade Division, Trade Data
Services.

Page 319
Index
A
Acetaldehyde oxidation, 186
Acetic acid, 15, 187, 302, 309
supply of, 297
Acetic acid, production of, 175, 301, 309
byproducts, 176
catalyst, 175, 176, 177
CO in, 176
methanol in, 176
methanol carbonylation, 176, 178
Monsanto process, 176
reaction mechanism, 177
Acetic anhydride, production of, 186
catalyst, 187
mechanism, 188
Acid resin catalyst, 205
Additives, for methanol fuel, 240
Adiabatic reaction, 101
Adsorption, methanol on surfaces, 32
Agriculture, methanol use in, 17, 253
Air Products, 207
methanol synthesis, 73
Alcohol, as byproduct, 57
Aldol condensation, 200
Alkali ion, modification of zeolites, 193
Alkylation, 190, 193
of alkylbenzenes, 193
of amines, 193195
catalyst, 193, 194
shape selectivity in, 192
Alkylbenzene, 190
AIPO catalyst, 192
Alternate fuel, 16, 215, 217, 235,
outlook, 247
Alumina catalyst, 154, 196
Amberlyst resin catalyst, 206
Amines, alkylation of, 193
catalyst, 194, 195
shape selectivity in, 195
Amino acid derivatives, 275
t-Amyl methyl ether (TAME), 7, 15, 218
production, 204

Page 320
Antifreeze, 273, 274, 302
B
Bacteria, methanol with, 263
BASF:
acetic acid production, 175
formaldehyde production, 183
methanol production, 51, 53, 56, 71
Borsig, 107
Brnsted acid, 134, 192, 196, 197
Butane, 15
oxidation, 175
Butene, 15
oxidation, 175
t-Butyl alcohol, 15
C
C3 plants, 254, 257
C4 plants, 254, 257
CAAA (see Clean Air Act Amendment)
California Air Resources Board (CARB), 216, 217, 226, 240, 247
California clean vehicle program, 244
California Energy Commission, 216
Capacity, of methanol production, 1, 13
CARB (see California Air Resources Board)
Carbonylation, of methanol, 37, 175178, 297
Cesium-copper-zinc oxide catalyst, 207
Chloride poisons, 56
Chlorinated hydrocarbon, in methane, 41
Chloromethane, 302
Clean Air Act Amendment (CAAA), 2, 9, 13, 116, 204, 215, 245, 283
CO:
in acetic acid production, 176
conversion, 10, 12
in methanol synthesis, 53, 54, 57, 61
CO2:
emission, 93, 98, 116, 118, 120, 121
in methanol synthesis, 53, 58, 61, 88, 230
in methyl formate synthesis, 199
in plant growth, 254
Coal gasification, 7480, 99
Cobalt iodide, 176, 203
Cobalt-molybdenum-zinc oxide, 56, 82, 101
Combined reforming, 89, 90, 92, 99
Compressed natural gas, 217, 244, 247
Contamination, by methanol, 46
Copper catalyst, 198
Copper-zinc-alumina catalyst, 5, 56
Copper-zinc oxide catalyst, 5, 52, 55, 60, 73, 84, 110, 201
Crop, 13
D
Davy Technology, 103
Degussa, formaldehyde production, 183
Deicer, 274
Demand:
methanol, 13, 283291
MTBE, 1, 302
oxygenates, 13
Denitrification, 268, 269, 306
Deuterated methanol, 26
Dimethoxymethane, 185
Dimethyl ether, 137, 144, 154, 169
as byproduct, 57, 185
synthesis of, 196, 197
Dimethyl terephthalate, 204, 285, 302, 30 310, 313
Dissociated methanol, 16
Durene, 140, 141, 144
E
Eastman Chemical (see Tennessee Eastman)
Emission:
CO, 10, 12
methanol fuel vehicles, 244
NOx, 10, 12, 14

Page 321
Energy, in methanol synthesis, 113
Energy Policy and Conservation Act (EPACT), 215, 245
Energy security, 226
Energy sensitivity, 219
Environmental considerations:
methanol fuel, 228
in methanol synthesis, 116
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), 224226, 247, 306
EPACT (see Energy Policy and Conservation Act)
Equilibrium, methanol synthesis, 54
Ethanol, 283, 288
fuel, 235
from methanol, 200
in methanol, 112
oxidation, 175
Ethylbenzene, 193, 304
Ethylene glycol, 274
Ethyl t-butyl ether (ETBE), 7, 283
Explosion limit, of methanol, 41
Exposure limit, of methanol, 45
F
Fermentation, 261, 263
Fischer-Tropsch reaction, 57
Flexible fuel vehicle (FFV), 221, 235, 239, 246, 284
Formaldehyde, 297
emission, 226, 302
toxicity, 224
Formaldehyde, production of, 180, 284, 285, 297, 308, 309, 312
byproducts, 185
catalyst, 180, 181, 184, 185
dehydrogenation of methanol, 180
mechanism, 183, 186
oxidation of methanol, 180, 181
Formic acid, 224
from methanol, 200
Foster Wheeler, 103
Fuel methanol (see Methanol fuel)
Fuel tax policy, 235
G
Gasoline, reformulated (see Reformulated gasoline)
Gas-to-gasoline (see Methanol-to-gasoline)
GTG (see Methanol-to-gasoline)
H
Haldor-Topse:
methanol synthesis, 56, 71
Harshaw, 185
Health hazard, of methanol, 44
Heat-exchange reforming, 93
Heat recovery, in reforming, 105
Heavy-duty engine, 247
Hoechst, 263, 285, 301
Hoechst Celanese, 301
Huels, 301
Humphreys and Glasgow, 103
Hydrocarbons:
as byproduct, 57, 58
emission, 244
in natural gas, 101
Hydrogen, in methanol synthesis, 53, 54, 61, 114
Hydrogen sulfide, 35
H-ZSM-5, 192
I
ICI, 2, 6, 53, 56, 103, 263, 266, 305
methanol production, 52, 6264, 110
reforming, 95
Impurities, in methanol, 38
Inhibitor, 13
Iodide catalyst:
acetic acid production, 175177
acetic anhydride production, 187, 188
methanol homologation, 203
Iridium catalyst, acetic acid production, 177, 179
Iron-molybdenum oxide catalyst, 180, 184, 185

Page 322
Isobutane, 2, 139, 206
Isobutene, 9, 15, 205, 206, 302
K
Kellogg, 89, 92, 103, 107, 118
methanol production, 52, 62, 110
reforming, 96
Ketene, 186
Ketones, as byproduct, 57
Kopper-Totzek, coal gasification, 75
L
Lead, 301
Lettuce, methanol treatment of, 257
LEV (see Low-emission vehicles)
Lewis acid, 196
Linde, methanol synthesis, 69, 110
Lithium catalyst, 187, 188
Low-emission vehicles (LEV), 216
emission standard, 244
Lrgi, 92, 272
coal gasification, 75, 76
methanol synthesis, 53, 64, 110
M
M85, 10, 221, 244, 284
environmental hazard, 231
specification, 240
M100, 240
Methane:
oxidation, 4, 14
oxidative coupling, 207
Methanethiol, 35
Methanol:
consumption, 1
demand, 283
Africa, 289
Asia, 285
Central Europe, 291
Eastern Europe, 291
Far East, 285
Middle East, 289
North America, 284
South America, 288
Western Europe, 285
dissociated, 16
spill, 43
storage, 42
supply, 283
transportation, 42
Methanol, production of, 3, 51, 110, 307
adiabatic reactor, 73
Air Products, 73
BASF, 51, 53, 56, 71
byproducts in, 57, 111
capacity, 1, 13, 125127, 292
catalyst, 4, 52, 55, 56, 73, 60, 110
catalyst poisoning, 56
chloride poisoning, 56
coal gasification, 74
economics, 6, 122, 123, 129
efficiency, 114
emission of, 118
energy requirement, 113, 114
environmental considerations, 116
equilibrium, 54
feedstock, 3
Haldor-Topse, 56, 71
from heavy oil, 81
history, 51
ICI, 6264, 52, 110
isothermal operation, 69, 72
Kellogg, 52, 62, 110
kinetics, 58
Linde, 69, 110
liquid phase process, 56, 73, 80
low pressure process, 53, 55
Lrgi, 53, 64, 110
methane oxidation, 4, 6, 14
from natural gas, 52
pressure effect, 60, 108
purification, 11
quasi-isothermal operation, 69
quench reactor, 73
reactors, 5
recirculation rate, 61
by steam reforming, 4, 14, 74

Page 323
[Methanol, production of]
sulfur in, 81, 82, 110
from syngas, 4, 14
from synthesis gas, 52, 73
temperature effect, 60
thermodynamics, 53
yield, 57
Methanol, properties of, 23
adsorption on surfaces, 32
chemical hazards, 36
chemical reactivity, 32
chlorinated hydrocarbons in, 41
commercial specification, 38
compatibility with, 37
corrosion by, 36
crystalline form, 16
explosion limit, 41
exposure limits, 45
fire hazard, 41, 42
health hazard, 44
heat capacity, 27
heat of vaporization, 28
intoxication, 44
liquid density, 27
molecular vibration, 29
phosphorus in, 41
physical properties, 23
poisoning, 43
pollution, 45
properties as fuel, 237
solid properties, 26
sulfur in, 41
surface tension, 28
thermal conductivity, 27, 28
toxicity, 43, 255
UV absorbance, 29, 40
vapor pressure, 26
viscosity, 28
Methanol, reaction of, 7
carbonylation, 37, 175178, 297
dehydration, 196198
dehydrogenation, 180, 183, 198200
dissociation, 11
homologation, 200203
catalyst, 201
mechanism, 202
industrial reactions of, 35
with isobutene (see Methyl-t-butyl ether, see also Isobutene)
oxidation to formaldehyde, 180, 183
uptake by plants, 255
Methanol, use of, 7, 14, 303
acetic acid, 15
in agriculture, 13, 17, 253
antifreeze, 12
azeotropes of, 29
cosolvent, 270
in energy industry, 7
extender, 270
future opportunities, 13
as gasoline extender, 303
inhibitor, 13
mixture properties, 29
as nutrient, 17
for plant growth, 253
sewage treatment, 266
single-cell protein, 13, 262266
solvent, 12, 220, 270, 302
in steel manufacturing, 275
waste water treatment, 17
Methanol blend, 10, 309
Methanol fuel, 7, 10, 11, 215, 218, 220, 292, 302, 312, 314
acceptability, 222, 228
additives, 240
cost of production, 232
cost of shipping, 234
demand, 219
distribution, 234
economics, 231
energy security, 226
engine technology, 239
explosivity, 221
fire safety hazard, 222, 224
handling, 240
in heavy duty engines, 247
human toxicity, 223

Page 324
[Methanol fuel]
incremental vehicle cost, 235
lubrication oil for, 239
luminosity, 222
outlook, 249
properties, 237
safety, 223
storage, 234
volatility, 221
Methanol-fueled vehicle, 2, 245, 246
exhaust emission, 244
Methanol-inorganic system, properties, 29
Methanol-organic system, properties, 29
Methanol synthesis (see Methanol, production of)
Methanol-to-gasoline (MTG), 7, 133, 151, 304, 307
catalyst (see ZSM-5 catalyst)
economics, 158
fixed bed process, 157
fluidized bed process, 156, 157
kinetics, 142, 146
Mobil process, 151
production distribution, 139
reaction mechanism, 137
temperature, effect of, 144
thermochemistry, 137
Methanol-to-olefin (MTO), 159
kinetics, 160
Mobil process, 167
MOGD process, 167
MTC process, 168
product selectivity, 160
Methanol-water mixture, 12
properties, 29
Methyl acetate, 187
carbonylation of, 186
Methylamine, 194, 302
Methylated vegetable oil, 218
Methylbenzene, 193
Methyl t-butyl ether (MTBE), 7, 9, 10, 13, 205, 218, 224, 239, 283, 288, 291, 301, 302,
303, 308
demand, 1, 302
production of, 15, 16, 204, 289, 309317
catalyst, 205, 206, 207
mechanism, 205
Methylene chloride, 273
Methyl formate:
as byproduct, 57
synthesis, 198200
Methyl isobutyl ether, 207
Methyl methacrylate, 204, 302
Methylophilbus methylotrophus, 263
2-Methyl-1-propanol, 200, 207
Methylstyrene, 193
Microbial cells, 262
Microorganism, 13, 262
denitrification, 268
nutrient for, 17
for sewage treatment, 268
Mitsubishi Gas Chemical, 71
Mobil:
methanol-to-gasoline (see Methanol-to-gasoline)
methanol-to-olefin (see Methanol-to-olefin)
Molybdenum sulfide catalyst, 201
Monoethanolamine, 272
Monomethylamine, 194
Monsanto:
acetic acid production (see Acetic acid production)
methanol carbonylation (see Acetic acid production)
MTBE (see Methyl t-butyl ether)
MTG (see Methanol-to-gasoline)
MTO (see Methanol-to-olefin)
N
Naphtha oxidation, 175
Natural gas, 101
in methanol production, 52
steam reforming, 80, 84, 99
Nickel-alumina catalyst, 86, 95, 101

Page 325
Nickel-molybdenum oxide catalyst, 101
NOx:
conversion, 10, 12, 14
emission, 244
in methanol synthesis, 116121
in reforming, 93, 98
Nutrient, for microorganism, 17
North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), 219
O
Organization of Petroleum Export Countries (OPEC), 227
Oxygen, in reforming, 89, 93, 96
Ozone, 226
P
Palladium catalyst, 198
Phenylthio amidines, 275
Phillips Petroleum, 263, 305
Phosphorus, in methanol, 41
Photorespiration, 254
methanol in, 255
stress, 259
Photosynthesis, 257
Pillared clay, 192
Plants, methanol metabolism, 255
Pollution, methanol in, 45
Poly(vinyl alcohol), 272
Production of methanol (see Methanol production)
Propylene oxide, 205
Provesteen, 305
Pyridine compounds, 275
R
Reactivity adjustment factor, 217
Reformulated gasoline, 10, 204, 247, 283
Reverse water-gas shift, 54
Rhodium catalyst:
acetic acid production, 175, 176, 179
acetic anhydride production, 187, 188
Ribulose bisphosphate enzyme, 254
S
SAPO-11, 197
SAPO-17, 160
SAPO-34, 160
Sasol process, 133
Scientific Design/Bethlehem Steel process, 200
Selas, 103
Sewage treatment, 261, 266, 306
Shape selectivity, 134, 192, 195
Shell, 82
Silver catalyst, 180, 181
Single-cell protein, 13, 261, 262, 305
nutritional value, 266
production, 263
Snamprogetti, 301
South Coast Air Quality Management District, 216
Specialty chemicals, 275
Specification, methanol, 38
Steam reforming, 4, 14, 87, 90, 92, 99
in methanol synthesis, 74, 108
natural gas, 80, 84, 99, 102
sulfur in, 84, 101
Styrene, 304
Sulfonic acid resin, 205
Sulfonylamines, 275
Sulfur:
in methanol, 41, 110
in natural gas, 101
in reforming, 101
Syngas:
catalyst, 14
from coal gasification, 74
in methanol production, 4, 14, 52, 73
preparation comparison, 98
T
TAME (see t-Amyl ethyl ether)
Tax policy on fuel, 235

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