7 Ways to Avoid Shrinkage Defects 1

Doug White, Elkem Metals Inc., Boca Raton, Fla.

Several factors in ductile iron melting and pouring can be controlled to maximize yield
and reduce shrinkage. Whether dealing with a problem part or a need to improve current
yields, these methods can help reduce shrinkage defects and lead to more consistent
casting quality.
1. Maximize the Graphite Precipitation Expansion Effect Without Nodule
Flotation
One of the first steps in avoiding shrinkage problems in ductile iron melting is to select
a suitable carbon equivalent !"# that avoids the flotation of graphite nodules leading to
shrinkage. $he chart in %igure & advises the total carbon plus one'third silicon should
not exceed (.)). $he diagram was developed as a general rule for sections varying from
*.) in. to &.) in. %or very thin sections, such as in manifolds, the !" may be higher. %or
thicker sections, it must be lower to avoid nodule flotation and an increased risk of
shrinkage. When carbon precipitates from liquid iron during freezing, an expansion
effect occurs. Shrinkage will be minimized at the highest possible carbon content, where
the iron freezes in the eutectic mode, +ust below the content where primary graphite
precipitates and nodule flotation occurs. $he ,ritish !ast -ron .esearch /ssociation, as
part of a research pro+ect for the /merican %oundry Society, produced a table providing
the maximum carbon for various silicon values to avoid flotation of graphite nodules for
various section thicknesses of different shapes $able &#.
Fig. 1. Use this chart to determine the preferred carbon equivalent in your
ductile iron
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Table 1. Maximum % Cabon to !"oi# $o#ule Flotation
2. Time the Caron Precipitation Expansion Effect Correctl!
0enerally, shrinkage is reduced as the carbon percentage increases, provided that
freezing involves simultaneous precipitation and graphite growth contained within
austenite shells. -f the percent carbon becomes too high and primary graphite starts the
solidification process, a great deal of the expansion effect available from graphite
precipitation is consumed early during freezing. $he rapid precipitation of graphite as it
floats in the liquid metal can result in insufficient graphite expansion effect during the
later stages of freezing, within the last isolated pools of iron to freeze.
%igure 1 shows plots of the maximum carbon equivalent data for square bars, flate
plates and modulii, with three curves shown for three silicon levels. $he lines have been
extended to the !" eutectic of (.2. $his shows all thicker sections that must be at or
below (.23 !" to avoid primary graphite precipitation, nodule flotation and higher
shrinkage.
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Fig. %. These chats sho& the maximum CE to a"oi# no#ule 'lotation 'o s(uae bas,
mo#ulii an# 'lat )late sections 'o thee silicon le"els )oue# at %,**+F. The cu"es ae
exten#e# to sho& the section thicknesses &hee the CE must be eutectic o slightl,
belo&.
!arbon precipitation as graphite nodules is required at the start of freezing to ensure the
carbon does not take the iron carbide form as edge chill. $oo much early graphite
precipitation must be avoided, or too little graphite precipitation will occur during the
end of freezing, when the gating system and risers can no longer deliver more liquid to
compensate for contraction.
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4igher silicon leads directly to higher nodule count, more ferrite and early carbon
precipitation. $o minimize shrinkage, the !" should be on target with the maximum
carbon content and the minimum silicon content. "nough silicon should be used to
avoid carbides and strengthen the ferrite to meet properties but not excessively more.
$oo much silicon can lead to excessive initial expansion effect with too little occurring
in the last iron to freeze. 5ormally excessive nodule count that leads to shrinkage has a
structure where the nodule size appears identical throughout, as all the nodules started
forming early during freezing %ig. 2#.
"xcessive inoculant addition rate or the use of bismuth to increase nodule count can
lead to high nodule counts with uniform sizes. 4igh nodule counts can be useful to turn
off shrinkage, but only if a wide nodule size distribution can be produced. $his implies
graphite precipitation proceeds at a steadier pace from the start to the end of freezing
and not too fast during the first part of freezing.
6agnesium content also should be controlled. "nough magnesium should be used to
produce good nodules, but an excess of magnesium can lead to slag defects or spiky
graphite formation, in addition to shrinkage problems.
". #eep $ase %ulfur Content Consistent
$he base sulfur content of iron can have a large impact on nodule count and size
distribution. %or very thin castings prone to carbides, some metalcasting facilities will
intentionally operate with a higher base sulfur. $hese nodules appear to be similar in
size and may lead to shrinkage problems if the nodule count becomes too high,
especially in heavier sections. %or reproducible nodule count, the base sulfur content
must be uniform from one treatment to the next. 7arge variations in the base sulfur, such
as when converting between gray and ductile iron, could lead to variable nodule counts
and nodule size distributions and shrinkage propensity.
&. '(oid )on* +old Periods
Fig. -. .ighe silicon lea#s #iectl, to highe no#ule count, moe 'eite an# moe eal,
cabon )eci)itation. /ee) the )ecent silicon stea#, at the minimum le"el, using 0ust
enough to a"oi# cabi#es.
/s base iron is held, carbon is lost and the state of nucleation changes over time. /fter
holding for 2* minutes at tapping temperature, the subsequently magnesium'treated and
inoculated iron will become slightly more shrinkage prone and strongly more carbide
prone. 7adle and stream inoculation may not eliminate the carbides. $his effect was
observed in a metalcasting facility using medium frequency furnaces, with one furnace
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melting and the other furnace delivering iron for tundish treatments. Six tundish
treatments were made over one hour to drain the furnace, before switching to the next
furnace. /s a consequence, the first three treatments were conducted as desired and the
last three treatments produced carbides within the structure, despite the use of powerful,
continuous stream inoculation with high potency inoculants.
Fig. 1. Re#uce# shinkage is obse"e# in the MgFe2i allo, teate# &ith lanthanum
3ight4 "s. mischmetal.
$he casting facility learned some of the lost nucleation effect could be restored by
adding crystalline graphite to the iron while replacing carbon losses during holding, but
that one hundred percent graphite electrode turnings were reported to be the best type of
carbon replacement material to eliminate the carbide tendency.
$he rate of loss in carbon and nucleation effect from holding base iron is believed to be
different for various holding furnaces and temperatures.
4olding magnesium'treated iron can induce shrinkage. /fter 1) to 2* minutes of
holding iron in an autopour without any freshly treated iron additions, the state of
nucleation changes and it becomes shrinkage prone. $his change can be detected using
thermal analysis. $he effect can be corrected by additions of proprietary sulfur and
oxygen'coated inoculant.
,. -se %pecial Nodulizers to '(oid %hrin.a*e
4istorically, 6g%eSi alloys have been alloyed with rare earth metals, which are used to
neutralize tramp element effects to avoid edge carbides at low pouring temperatures and
to optimize nodule count. %or many years, mischmetal was the most common type of
rare earth metal added. Special alloys have been developed that use pure lanthanum
rather than the mixture of rare earth elements. /n optimized amount of lanthanum
results in a high nodule count with a different nodule size distribution. $he number of
large, early forming nodules decreases slightly, and the number of medium and smaller
nodules increases, which is an indication that graphite precipitation has been steadier
through freezing, with more expansion effect during the latter stages of freezing.
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Fig. *. .oles #ille# into coes become chill )ins &hen the mol# is 'ille# &ith ion 3le't4.
Clustes o' chill )ins cast insi#e the )at 'oce those aeas to 'ee5e soone so the, ae
shinkage6'ee.
-n a comparison of 6g%eSi alloys using the traditional mischmetal and 6g%eSi alloy
using lanthanum, the ductile iron using lanthanum provided a structure with fewer large
nodules and a high population of medium and small nodules. %igure ( shows gross
shrinkage in the iron treated with mischmetal and none in the iron treated with
lanthanum. !onserving the expansion effect by saving some carbon precipitation to the
latter stages of freezing has a profound effect on shrinkage. / minimized tendency of
iron to shrink can be somewhat correlated with a wide nodule size distribution, highly
skewed to the finer sizes. $his also can be achieved using a proprietary inoculant
containing sulfur and oxygen compounds.
/. 0ncrease Freezin* 1ate 1ather Than 1iserin*
%low and solidification simulation software is useful to predict where shrinkage is likely
to occur in castings. /t that point, metalcasters have the choice to add risering to feed
more liquid iron to the spot where shrinkage is predicted or somehow make that part of
the casting freeze more quickly with chilling techniques. -n large castings, producing
structures with high nodule counts and high nodularity can be a struggle. -n these
situations, using chilling to avoid shrinkage is useful because it also provides an
improvement in the structure. .isers may make the structure worse by prolonging the
freezing time and reduce the iron yield.
Fig. 7. ! metal s)ing insete# into the coe to )o#uce a c,lin#e hea# casting se"es
to )o"i#e a high su'ace chilling #e"ice 3le't4. ! sectione# c,lin#e hea# e"eals the
emnants o' a s)ing that #i# not totall, melt but 'use# to the suoun#ing ion.
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4eavy shrink'prone areas can be chilled in a number of ways. %igure ) shows holes
drilled into the cores and the subsequent cooling pins cast during mold filling. $hese
iron pins serve as radiators to transfer heat from the casting into the sand more rapidly,
to avoid shrinkage in those areas. -n some cases, pins or fins can be added to a pattern.
-f they can8t be included automatically with patterns or coreboxes, they can be drilled
into the pattern and then removed from the casting during or after cleaning.
-n %igure 9, a coiled spring is used to rapidly freeze a section of a casting prone to
shrinkage. $he greater surface area of a spring can chill the iron more rapidly than a
straight wire or bolt. -n some cases, a hole is drilled through the center of the area where
the spring is located, and in other cases, the spring is machined entirely out. -n both
cases, the drilled surface must not reveal shrinkage voids of any size.
!hills also may be embedded into a core as it is produced in order to provide chilling of
the iron. $he metal chills do not melt into the casting but extract heat more quickly from
the shrinkage'prone sections of the casting. 6etal chills must have clean, dry surfaces
and often are coated with a ceramic wash.
Fig. 8. T&o bolts ae 'ome# into a lage geen san# mol# as am6u) insets to 'oce
'aste soli#i'ication into the aea.
-n %igure :, bolts were formed as ;ram'up< type inserts set into the pattern before
creating the mold section to accelerate freezing in a green sand mold.
2. Produce -niforml! %tron*3 1i*id Molds
=uctile iron can be produced without risers if molds are suitably strong. $his normally
means using a nobake rather than a green sand mold. 0reen sand molds must be as
strong as possible to avoid shrinkage induced by wall movement. $his means attention
must be paid to sand properties and molding machine maintenance. %or example, valve
wear on impact machines can result in weaker molds. 6ethods to maintain mold
strength when the pattern has deep pockets should be considered, including adequate
venting of air expelled during impact compaction.
$his article is based on ;/voiding Shrinkage =efects and 6aximizing >ield in =uctile
-ron< published in the 1*&1 /%S ?roceedings.
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