CHAPTER 01 PRINCIPLES OF PRESERVATION OF MEAT

Preservation: It is the process by which the freshness or acceptability properties of the

food are maintained.

Aim: 1.To inhibit microbial spoilage
2. To minimize concomitant depreciation in meat quality.

No method of food preservation will improve the original quality of a food product

Principles of preservation of meat:

1. Prevention or delay of microbial decomposition

a. By keeping out micro-organisms (asepsis)
b. By removal of micro organisms, e.g., by filtration
c. By hindering the growth and activity of micro-organisms, e.g., by low
temperature, drying, anaerobic conditions or chemicals.
d. By killing the micro-organisms, e.g., by heat or radiations.

2. Prevention or delay of self-decomposition of food

a. By destruction or inactivation of food enzymes, e.g., by blanching
b. By delay of chemical reactions, e.g., by prevention of oxidation by means of
antioxidant.

3. Prevention of damage caused by insects, animals and mechanical causes.

Contributors of spoilage:

Microbes Bacteria, yeasts and moulds
Action of enzymes that normally occur in meat calpain, cathepsin
Others - Non enzymatic reactions in meat, such as oxidation, mechanical
damage such as bruising and damage from rodents and insects















CHAPTER 02 SPOILAGE OF MEAT AND ITS DETECTION


Deterioration:

Abnormal changes in organoleptic qualities of food/meat

Categories of food deterioration:

Physical
Chemical
Biological

Factors that cause food deterioration include: light, cold, heat, oxygen, moisture,
dryness, other types of radiation, enzymes, microorganisms, time, industrial
contaminants and macroorganisms (insects, mice, and so on).

Sources of contamination of meat :

(i) Hides, skin and feet of animals
(ii) Instruments, knives, meat cutting equipments etc.
(iii) Airborne contamination
(iv) Water used for washing carcass
(v) Meat handlers
(vi) Storage, processing and transportation of meat and its environment

Factors affecting microbial growth on meat :

Two categories


a) Extrinsic factors b) Intrinsic factors

Those factors that can be controlled Those factors that are present
From outside. Intrinsically in meat

(i) Temperature (i) Water/ moisture
(ii) Relative humidity (ii) P
H
(iii) Availability of O
2
(iii) Oxidation Reduction potential
(iv) Physical state of meat (or)
(iv) Presence of nutrients
(v) Presence or absence of inhibitory
Substances.


a) Extrinsic factors :

(i) Temperature :

Based on optimum temperature requirements bacteria are classified as

(i) Psychrophilic - <20
o
c
(ii) Mesophilic - 35-37
0
c
(iii) Thermophilic - >45
0
c

Meat is generally stored at a temperature of -1 to +3
o
C where psychotrophs play a
major role in spoilage.

Critical temperature:

At 5

C where the growth of most of the psychotropic bacteria is reduced to certain level
and growth of all pathogenic organisms is stopped.

RH :

Meat is stored at a temperature of -1 to +3
o
c and a RH of 88-92%. If RH is too high
moisture condenses on the surface of meat resulting in sweating. If RH is too low,
evaporation of surface moisture leading to dehydration and shrinkage.

Availability of O
2
:

Based on the requirement of O
2
for growth, bacteria are classified as

- Aerobic Pseudomonas sp., yeast & moulds
- Anaerobic Clostridium sp
- Facultative anaerobes (i) micro aerobic (ii) micro anaerobic

Physical state of Meat:

- Carcass
- Wholesale cuts
- Retail cuts
- Comminuted/ minced meat

Carcass has less contamination compared to wholesale and others because
comminution/mincing/ cutting increases surface area for microbes to have contact and
spoilage.

b) Intrinsic factors :

Water :

Water is essential for the growth and multiplications of microbes. The amount of water
that is available for microbes to grow is very important than the total water present in
meat.The amount of water that is available for microbial growth is called water activity
(a
w
)

a
w
of pure water is 1.00
Fresh meat is 0.99
Salt solution ( 22%Nacl) 0.86
Saturated salt solution 0.75

R
H =
a
w
x100, if a
w
of cooked meat is 0.99 then RH is 99%

P
H
:

Most bacterial population prefer pH near neutral
Moulds P
H
required is 2-8 (generally prefer acid medium for growth)
Yeasts P
H
of 4.0 to 4.8 is required for growth.

OR potential:

It indicates the oxidizing/ reducing power of meat

Aerobic organisms generally prefer a high OR potential (ie) high
oxidizing activity.
Anaerobic organisms generally prefer a low OR potential.

Presence of nutrients:

Meat is an excellent and abundant source of nutrient for the growth of microbes.

Inhibitory substances: Meat has so such substances but some enzymes can.

Types of microbes in meat:

Gram - + ve Gram ve

Micrococcus sp. Pseudomonas sp
Streptococcus sp Achromobacter sp
Staphylococus sp Acinetobacter sp
Lactobacillus sp Alcaligenes sp
Levconostoc sp Halo bacterium sp
Bacillus sp Moraxella sp
Clostridium sp Escherichia sp
Mycobacterium sp Klebsiella sp


Molds Yeasts

Aspergillus sp Candida sp
Botrytis sp Rhodotorula sp
Fusarium sp Cryptococcus sp
Thamnidium sp
Sporotrichum sp
Penicillium sp





Spoilage and decomposition of meat :

Spoilage :

It is the deteriorative (deleterious) change to the extent that meat or other food products
are unfit for human consumption.

Decomposition:

It is the process of break down of organic matter chiefly, the protein, Carbohydrates and
lipids by the action of bacteria, molds or Yeasts.

When meat is decomposed, it is broken down to various chemical compounds, some of
which may be gaseous and very foul smelling.

Types of spoilage:

1. Microbial spoilage
2. Enzymatic : (i) endogenous meat (ii) exogenous microbial
3. Oxidation fatty oxidation
4. Physical damage/changes

Microbial spoilage:

Surface spoilage:

Microbes produce slime on the surface of meat called sliminess, which is due to the
coalescence of the microbial colonies on the surface of meat.When microbial count
cross/exceed log 7.5-8.0/cm
2
slime is noticed with off odour. Off-odour is noticed when
microbial load is log 7-7.5/cm
2
. It is produced due to breakdown of various
proteinaceous compounds.

Presence of surface Carbohydrates and free amino acids support growth of microbes
up to log 7.5 8.0/cm
2
like pseudomonas sp ; Alcaligenes sp, Flavobacterium sp ;
Coliforms


During growth, they utilize surface o
2
and create anaerobic environment


Anaerobes like clostridium sp. have favorable environment which invade
deep into the tissues.

Putrefaction

leads to breakdown of proteins

Proteoses

Peptides

Amino acids


Indole, skatole, phenol
+
Co
2
H
2
S, NH
3
, CH
4


Putrefactive off odour

3. Oxidation:

Most common deleterious fatty changes in meat is called oxidative rancidity. When
meat is exposed to light and air (o
2
), the USFAs present in the fatty tissues undergo
oxidation. Rate of oxidation depends on the degree of unsaturation.

Poly unsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) linoleic, linoleinc ,arachidonic
Mono unsaturated fatty acids (MUFA) oleic acid

Lipase enzymes are responsible for the lipolytic oxidation occurs in meat. Lipase
breakdown the fat by hydrolysis and produce the free fatty acids which gives rancid
odour. The USFAs when they are subjected to oxidation they produce ketones and
aldehydes gives rancid odour.

Physico-chemical changes in spoiled meat.

(i) change in colour from grey to greenish
(ii) softening in the consistency of meat tissues
(iii) A pronounced repulsive odour
(iv) Alkaline reaction due to the production of NH
3


Heated beef/sour side

When the carcasses after dressing are stored very closely, there is
less heat dissipation, which results in the growth of microbes on the surface of meat
leading to sourness of meat. This can be prevented by leaving enough space between
carcasses. The same condition is called as green struck in rabbits, hares
(or) game animals, when they are stored/stacked together.

Sulphiding/ Pseudomelanosis

it is seen in pork carcasses, due to delayed evisceration. Here, the kidney ( or)
abdominal fat will have a greenish appearance. Kidney and liver will show a black spot
on the surface. Black spots are due to the reaction of H
2
S from gut + Fe from Hb
forming Fe
2
S giving black color .




Bone taint :

Occurs in hip joint of beef and pork carcass and occasionally in the shoulder region of
beef.

Thick/ heavy muscled area like hip and shoulder of beef and pork
+

Thick Fat cover


Delay cooling of meat during chilling process


Anaerobic bacteria from adjacent lymph nodes may proliferate in these
joint

Produce taint / offensive odour due to decomposition of meat.

Prevention:

To prevent bone taint, avoid stress before slaughter. The internal temperature of muscle
should not exceed 4.5
0
c after 48hrs of slaughter. Excess fat should be trimmed. Butcher
should make deep incision on the thick cuts to aid in aeration.Taints in hams/souring
of pork in caused mainly by Clostridium sp

C. sporogenes
C. Putrefaciens
C. putreficum

Phosphorescence:

It is caused by pseudomones phosphorescence. It is seen in chilled meat when it is
stored along with sea foods, as they are source of these bacteria. When the product is
stored in dark, there is scattered luminous appearance on the surface of meat as if the
meat surface is studded with stars. As soon as decomposition starts, phosphorescence
will disappear.

Spots :

(i) Red spots : on the surface of meat due to Serratia marcesens
(ii) Blue spots : by Pseudomonas cyanogens
(iii) Red mold : it is seen on a product called charque a salted dried meat of
south American countries due to Pseudomonas cutiruba

Moulds

They grow at low temperature also -7.5 to -8
0
c

Black spot :
most troublesome condition found in imported meat, due to Cladosporium herbarum. In
beef found in neck, diaphragm, pleura. In lambs neck, inside of thighs, thoracic
/abdominal cavities.

White spot :

It is found on the surface of hip, due to Sporotrichum sp & Chryosporium sp

Whiskers :

It is caused by Thamnidium & Mucor sp. It present on the meat surface & indicates that
meat have been exposed to 0

C or above during storage

Bluish Green moulds : belong to pensicillum sp

Methods of detection of Meat spoilage :

Chemical methods:

a) Measurement of H
2
S production
b) Measurement of mercaptans produced
c) Determination of non-coagulable nitrogen
d) Determination of di- and tri methylamines
e) Determination of tyrosine complexes; TBA
f) Determination indole & skatole
g) Determination free amino acids
h) Determination volatile reducing substances
i) Determination biochemical oxygen demand (BOD)
j) Determination nitrate reduction
k) Determination creatine content
l) Determination dye reducing capacity
m) Measurement of total N
2

n) Measurement of catalase
o) Measurement of hypoxanthine
p) Measurement of ATP
q) Measurement of lactic acid
r) Radiometric measurement of Co
2

s) Ethanol production ( fish spoilage)
t) Change in color

Physical methods

a) Measurement of P
H
changes; surface tension
b) Measurement of refractive index of muscle juices
c) Measurement of UV illuminations ( fluorescence)
d) Determination of alternation in electrical conductivity
e) Determination of surface changes
f) Determination of cryoscopic properties
g) Impedance changes
h) Microcalorimetry


Physicochemical methods

a) Determination of ERV
b) Determination WHC
c) Determination of viscosity
d) Determination of meat swelling capacity

Direct Bacteriological methods

a) Determination of total aerobes
b) Determination of total anaerobes
c) Determination of ratio of total aerobes to anaerobes
d) Determination of one or more of above at different temperatures
e) Determination of G-ve endotoxins Lal Test is done

Lal Limulus amebocyte lysate is an aqueous extract of blood cells (amebocyte) from
horse shoe crab-limulus polyphemus. Lal reacts with bacterial endo toxin or lipo
polysaccharide (LPS) used for the detection and quantifications of bacterial endo
toxins

Organoleptic tests

Based on the senses of smell, touch and vision during spoilage.

Instrumental freshness tests

Chemilluminescene/chemoilluminescence:

Principle

When meat or fish undergoes spoilage, there is emission of light from USFA, and other
lipids which are measured by this instrument.

Torry meter ;

An instrument used to determine freshness of meat especially fish. It measures the
changes in the dielectric property of meat.












CHAPTER 03 HURDLE CONCEPT - METHODS OF PRESERVATION OF MEAT -
TEMPERATURE CONTROL CHILLING AND FREEZING



Factors affecting preservation/spoilage of meat are:

1. Extrinsic factors - Temperature
Humidity
O
2
supply

2. Intrinsic factors - Moisture/water content

Methods of preservation:

The various principles employed in preservation of meat are

Temperature control
Moisture control
Direct microbial inhibition

Food Thermometer:

Temperature control:

Temperature control



Cold preservation Thermal processing




Storing above
freezing point

Storing below
freezing point

Pasteurization
heat treatment -72-
75C(pasteurized
meat products need
low temperature
storage)

Sterilization
commercial sterility
heat treatment - 100C


Refrigeration /cold preservation:

Storage above freezing point of meat/chilling:

It refers to storing the meat above the freezing point of meat i.e. -1 to -1.5

C, e.g., +5

C
or 0 - 2

C

Superchilling:

The term super chilling is sometimes used of chilling to temperatures just above or
below the freezing point, e.g., -2

C to +2

C

Quick chilling:

Quick chilling refers to a rapid lowering of carcase temperature starting not later than 1
hour after slaughter and avoiding freezing.

Factors to be considered during refrigeration storage of meat are:

I. Characters of chilling room - Temperature
Air speed
RH
II. Carcass factors - Specific heat of the carcass
Size
Fat cover
Space between carcasses

Chilling Process: Chilling process can be arbitrarily divided into

I. Initial chilling process
II. Terminal chilling process
III. Subsequent holding

Initial chill:

After completion of slaughter the internal temperature of animal carcass is between 30 -
39

C so it must be removed to store the carcass. Pork, lamb veal carcasses are chilled
in chill coolers at temperature between -1

C to 0

C. Poultry and fish are generally chilled

by immersion in ice water. In general the temperature of carcasses should not be more
than 7

C offals not greater than 3

C. Air speed of the chill room should be 0.75m/s (to

avoid cold shortening)

Factors affecting chilling rates are - Specific heat of carcass
- Carcass size
- Amount of external fat
- Temperature of chilling room
- RH of chilling room
- Number of carcasses
- Space between carcasses
Beef:

In conventional chillers /coolers, beef carcasses usually require 48 hrs. of time to reach
the internal temperature of 5

C or less. Coolers with high velocity may decrease chilling

time by 35%. RH of chilling room is kept high to decrease excessive carcasses
shrinkage due to moisture loss. Sufficient space between carcasses to assure rapid
heat dissipation.

Poultry:

Chilling is done by immersion in ice water. It is a rapid method of chilling. According to
USDA, internal muscle temperature should be decreased to less than 5

C or less within
8 hrs of slaughter. This rapid chilling of hot carcasses of chicken and turkey causes a
condition called cold shortening i.e when pre-rigor meat /carcass (before onset of rigor)
is chilled below 15-16

C, there is severe contraction of muscles.

Contraction is caused by sudden release of ca
++
into the sarcoplasm and
may cause a physical shortening of 80% of original length of unrestrained muscles.
Beef and lamb carcasses are more susceptible. To avoid cold shorting Electrical
stimulation is done. ES accelerates glycolysis, proteolytic activity and cause physical
disruption of muscle fibre.

Fish: Rapid chilling by ice water immersion

Final chilling/ terminal chilling and subsequent holding:

During terminal chilling, temperature of chill room is maintained between -1 to 3

C with
air speed of 0.75m/s. During holding stage, meat/carcasses are maintained at a
temperature of -1 to 3

C and air speed should be 0.5m/s and RH should be maintained

around 90% (88 - 92%). After 12-24hrs of chilling, beef carcasses are removed from
chill coolers and placed (up to 7-10 days for conditioning) in holding room maintained at
0 - 3

C until they are fabricated or shipped to users.

In case sheep carcasses initial chilling and holding cabinet are same as
beef. Pork carcasses after 24hrs of chilling are directly subjected to cutting operations.
Chilling and holding rooms are maintained in dark condition to prevent light that
accelerates the oxidation of fat. Beef and sheep carcasses contain more saturated fatty
acids whereas fish, poultry and pig carcasses contain more USFAs. These USFAs are
more prone for oxidative rancidity during chilling.

Factors affecting storage life under refrigeration are

- Initial microbial load
- Temperature of storage
- Humidity
- Presence/absence of protective covering
- Meat animal species
- Type of product stored

Under ideal home refrigeration conditions the meat should be consumed within 4 days
of purchase after that freeze the meat.

Physical changes in chilled meat (effect of chilling):

1. Shrinkage: It is the loss of weight of meat/ carcass due to evaporation of surface
moisture. Shrinkage is normally 1.5 - 2% but varies depending upon the storage
condition and carcass condition. If carcass cut into small pieces the surface area
is increased results in increased shrinkage. The RH should be more to decrease
shrinkage (88-92%).
2. Sweating: when chilled meat is kept at room temperature, the water vapor gets
condensed on the surface of meat where water droplets are seen.
3. Loss of bloom: bloom is the attractive color and appearance of fresh
meat/carcass when viewed through the semitransparent layer formed by the CT,
fat and muscle, is called bloom. When surface of meat/carcass is moist, there is
swelling of connective tissue due to absorption of moisture. So it become opaque
and gives a dull appearance. This is loss of bloom, which affects with
acceptability of meat. Loss of bloom is due to dehydration and oxidation of fat.
Loss of bloom can be prevented by maintaining balance between temperature,
air speed and RH.
4. Drying

Storage of meat below freezing point/freezing:

It is an excellent method of preservation of meat. It results in few undesirable changes
in qualitative and organoceptic properties than other methods. Most of the nutritive
value is retained.

Two factors that contribute to preservation of meat during freezing are

i) low available water
ii) very low temperatures prevent the microbial growth

Very low temperature Inhibits metabolism and causes cold shock thus kills or inhibits
the growth of the microbes.

Freezing rats:

- Freezing rates affect physical and chemical properties of meat

- Freezing rate is influenced by - Temperature of freezing medium
- Movement of freezing medium
- Packaging material used
- Composition of meat products to be frozen.
Freezing methods:

Two methods of freezing are employed
i. Slow freezing
ii. Quick freezing

Slow freezing:

It is also known as sharp freezing. In this method, the foods are placed in refrigerated
rooms at temperatures ranging from -4

C to -29

C. Freezing may require from 3 to 72

hours under such conditions.

Quick freezing:

The lower temperatures used -32

C to -40

C freeze foods so rapidly that fine crystals

are formed and the time of freezing is greatly reduced over that required in sharp
freezing.

Slow freezing

Quick freezing
1.Temperature of the meat is reduced to -
20

C in 3hrs to 72 hrs

1.Carcass temperature of -20

C is
reached within 30 min.
2.Formation of large pleiomorphic ice
crystals

2. Small, filamentous ice- crystals are
formed that are not sharp.
3.Most of the ice-crystals are extra cellular
in nature
3. Intracellular and extra cellular ice
crystals are formed at the same rate and
less opportunity for the ice- crystals to
grow in size.

4.Huge quantity of drip loss 4.Very less or minimal drip loss

5. Due to long time of freezing microbes
may get adjusted to the temperature.
5.Due to fast freezing there is thermal/cold
shock to microbes

6.More mechanical damage during
freezing and refreezing
6. Mechanical damage is very less.

Different methods of freezing of meat:

1. Still air freezing
2. Plate freezing
3. Cold air blast freezing
4. Liquid immersion and liquid spray
5. Cryogenic freezing

1.Still air freezing:

Air is the medium of heat transfer. Heat exchange is by convection. Meat freezes very
slowly. Temperature in commercial still air freezers is -10

C to -30

C

2.Plate freezing:

Heat transfer medium is metal i.e. the metallic shelves kept in contact with freezer
plates i.e. product is pressed between the plates. Trays containing meat products or
product itself are placed in direct contact with metal freezer plates Principle of heat
transfer is by conduction. Temperature of plate freezer is maintained between -10 to -
40

C. It is slightly faster than still air freezing. It is used for uniform rectangular packs or
blocks.

3.Blast freezing:

It is the most common commercial method of freezing of meat and meat products. Air is
the medium of heat transfer. Temperature of blast freezers is -30

C to -40

C. Air speed
of 5 m per sec (1000 ft per min) is maintained. Blast freezers will handle many shapes
and sizes and also batch and continuous operations.

4.Cryogenic freezing / Liquid immersion & liquid sprays:

Most widely used commercial method for freezing poultry, especially turkeys. Packaged
produce is immersed in a tank or spray of refrigerant, normally calcium chloride or
propylene glycol solution is used as freezing liquid. When the surface of products are
frozen (crusted), the products are transferred to freezer room for subsequent frozen
storage. There are problems with leakage of refrigerant into packs. Cryogenic freezing
utilizes very low temperatures to freeze product rapidly. Calcium chloride brine solution
circulates from a tank through plate fin coils. These coils are above a stainless steel belt
that carries the meat product through a chamber. The moist product freezes instantly to
the belt as it makes contact and later pops off at the end where the belt turns under to
begin to return.

5.Liquefied gas:

Liquefied non toxic gas is sprayed in the vicinity of the product on a conveyor, etc;
freezing occurs as the gas is vaporized. Liquid Nitrogen boils at -196

C. Liquid carbon
dioxide sublimes at -78

C. These two are widely used as cryogenic refrigerants in

cryogenic systems. Cryogenic spirulators have gained widespread acceptance in recent
years as a rapid freezing technique in the beef patty industry. The process is very rapid.
The rapidly frozen foods may referred to as IQF (individually quick frozen). It is an
excellent method for small articles, e.g., chicken cut up parts or portions. With large
particles there are problems surface cracking when the centre expands on freezing after
the crust has set. This is relatively expensive method.

Physical and chemical changes in frozen meat (effect of freezing):

The freezing point of meat lies between -1 to -1.5

C; at -1.5

C, 35.5% of the muscle

water is ice; at -5

C, 82% is ice; and at -10

C, 94% is ice. When the meat is frozen

slowly the largest ice crystals are formed between the temperatures of -0.5

C and -4

C;
this temperature range is known as the zone of maximum ice formation. Micro biological
growth ceases at about -10

C but most of bacteria are resistant even at the lowest cold

storage temperatures. The microbiological quality of frozen food cannot be better than it
was before freezing.

1.Bone darkening:

This change occurs mostly in young chickens but rarely observed in ducks, geese,
turkeys and old chickens. When young chickens especially fryers are thawed, the
muscles adjacent to bones exhibit a bloody appearance in the uncooked state. During
cooking the red color changes to dark grey or brown and in severe cases to black. This
red color is due to Hb that has leached from marrow of relatively porous bones of young
chickens. During cooking the leached Hb is oxidized and converted to met Hb causing
dark discoloration. Nutritive value, flavor and taste are not affected only appearance is
affected but it can be avoided by precooking at 70

C

2.Freezer burn:

Freezer burn is the result of sublimation of ice from unprotected surfaces of meat, etc.
In the early stages there are small white spots or greyish areas sometimes called as
freezer scorch and is caused by loss of moisture from the outer tissues. This
discoloration disappear when the meat thaws out and the meat surface rehydrates. It is
harmless but the appearance, eating quality is adversely affected. This can be
prevented by using suitable packaging or cryogenic freezing.

3.Weeping or drip

Weeping denotes the presence of a watery, blood stained fluid which escapes from
frozen meat when it is thawed and consists mainly of water, together with salts,
extractives, protein and damaged blood corpuscles. It is an undesirable feature and is
caused partly by the rupture of the muscle cells and tissues by crystals of ice, and partly
by irreversible changes in the muscle plasm. The drip can be minimized if thawing is
very slow. The faster the meat is frozen, the lower the drip losses.

4.Thaw rigor:

Freezing the meat early in rigor or before rigor commences, when residual ATP is still
present, leads to thaw rigor i.e. strong contraction with toughening when the meat is
thawed. If the frozen meat is stored for long time, the ATP gradually disappears and
thaw rigor diminishes. Freezing after rigor gives no special problems.

5.Durability of frozen meat

Frozen meat stored too long becomes dry, rancid and less palatable, the most important
change being the breakdown of the fat into glycerine and free fatty acids, with the
production of rancidity. The physical state of the muscle plasm (albumen and globulin)
is considerably altered. They become insoluble and do not regain their solubility when
the meat is thawed.

Effect of freezing on pathogenic micro organisms and parasites

Some bacteria are destroyed by freezing, but low temperatures merely inhibit the
growth of the microbes. Anthrax bacilli can withstand a temperature of -130

C, while
salmonella can withstand exposure to -175

C for three days, and tubercle bacilli can

withstand -10

C for 2 years, the virus of foot and mouth disease can remain viable for
76 days. Freezing is however, a valuable method for the treatment of meat affected with
certain parasitic infestations. Pork affected with Cysticercus cellulosae can be rendered
safe if held for 4 days at -10.5

C to -8

C. Beef affected with Cysticercus bovis is killed by

keeping it for 3 weeks at -6.5

C or for 2 weeks at not more than -10.5

C. Trichinella
cysts in pork are destroyed by holding the carcase for 10 days at -25

C.










CHAPTER 04 HURDLE CONCEPT - METHODS OF PRESERVATION OF MEAT -
TEMPERATURE CONTROL THERMAL PROCESSING


Thermal processing / heat processing

It involves pasteurization and sterilization and sometimes smoking

Sterilization:

Sterilization is the complete destruction or elimination of all viable organisms in/on a
food product being sterilized. Sterilization destroys yeasts, molds, vegetative bacteria,
and spore formers, and allows the food processor to store and distribute the products at
ambient temperatures, with extended shelf life.

Food substances become absolutely sterile only when no vegetative microorganisms or
spores are present. Absolute sterility seldom exists in commercially canned products.
Practically, complete sterilization will lead to deterioration in product quality and
nutrients . Hence, in practice, commercial sterility is targeted.

Commercial sterility refers to the destruction of spoilage organisms and their spores
such that a product will not undergo spoilage, even under indefinite storage period. The
product is being optimally processed so that under normal conditions, the product will
neither spoil nor endanger the health of the consumer and also retain the organoleptic
properties and nutrients.

The basic principles of sterilization technology as applied to food processing are :

1. The processed product must be free from microorganisms capable of producing
food-poisoning toxins and those microorganisms that cause food spoilage during
product shelf life, until it is consumed.
2. Clostridium botulinum spores are capable of growing in low-acid (pH>4.6)
products during storage and hence must be heat treated to the equivalent of at
least 121.1C for 3 min (an Fo value of 3) to achieve a 12-decimal reduction of
the microorganism.
3. The processing conditions should be applied to the slowest-heating point referred
to as cold point. This facilitates the assumption that, when the slowest heating
part is sterilized, by exposing it to the required timetemperature profile, the rest
of the product will be sterilized.

Canning:

In commercial canning, carefully selected and prepared foods contained in a
permanently sealed container are subjected to heat for a definite period of time and
then cooled. In most canning process, the heat destroys nearly all spoilage organisms
and the permanent sealing of the container prevents infection. Canning is a very
effective means of preservation. It destroys spoilage and pathogenic organisms.



Thermal Death Time:

It is the shortest time necessary to kill a given number of organisms at a specified
temperature. By this method, the temperature is kept constant and the time necessary
to kill all cells is determined.

Determination of Thermal Death Time (Heat Resistant)

In order to decide a time and temperature combination to destroy an organism present
in food, it is necessary to know its heat resistance in that food which can be determined
by thermal death time (TDT) and its associated concepts. Thermal death time is the
time necessary to kill a given number of organisms at a specified temperature. By this
method, the temperature is kept constant and the time required to kill all the cells is
determined. The procedure for determining TDT is to place a known number of cells or
spores in a sealed container such as a tube, can, capillary tube or a flask and then
expose them to a specific temperature, in an oil bath for a required time period. At the
end of the heating period, containers are removed and cooled quickly in cold water. The
cells or spores are removed and plated on the respective growth media to find out how
many of them have survived this heat process. The experiment is continued at the same
temperature by drawing samples at different time intervals and finding the survivors in
each sample by plate count. If you now plot the data as log number of survivors against
time you get a straight line as shown in Fig. 4. The graph produced is called a survivor
curve, which is useful to calculate the D values for a spore or a vegetative cell.

Thermal death point:

It is the lowest temperature necessary to kill a given number of organisms in a fixed
time, usually 10 minutes.

D value:

This is the decimal reduction time, or the time required to destroy 90% of the organisms.
The destruction of vegetative bacteria by heat is logarithmic and follows a first order
reaction.

D value is the decimal reduction time or the time required to kill 90% of the bacterial
population or the time in minutes required for the survivor curve to traverse one log
cycle as shown in Fig.









D values are frequently written with a subscript that defines the temperature, for
example, D
121
is the time required to kill 90% of a population of microorganisms at
121C. D values are invaluable for comparing the relative heat resistance of organisms
and calculating process times at a specific temperature. For example the most heat
resistant spores of thermophilic bacteria, Bacillus stearothermophilus, have a D value at
121C between 4.0-5.0 minutes compared to the D value of 0.01-0.07 for spores of
mesophilic bacteria, B. coagulans at the same temperature. Heat resistance of
microorganisms and their D values vary considerably which are given in table. Another
interesting feature during heat processing is the effect of increasing temperature on the
D values. D value or the heat resistance of an organism decreases as the temperature
increases. Therefore, you would expect to have a different D value at each temperature.
Now if we determine the D values at different temperatures and plot them against their
temperature on a semi-log paper, again we get a straight line that passes through log
cycles as shown in Fig.









The graph produced is called thermal death time curve where each log cycle represents
a z value. The z value refers to the temperature change (C) which results in a tenfold
(1 log) decrease or increase in the D value. The z value provides information on the
relative resistance of an organism to different destructive temperatures and can be used
to determine the equivalent D values at different temperatures. Supposing an organism
has a z of 15C and a D value of 5 minutes at 121C. We can use the z value to find the
D value at any other temperature above its maximum growth temperature. If we raise
the temperature from 121 to 136C (121C + z value 15C), then the D value for the
organism is 0.5 minutes that is the one log cycle decrease in D value. Similarly if we
lower the temperature to 106C (121C - z value 15C), then D equals to 50 minutes
that is the one log cycle increase in D value. The z value can be calculated using the
following equation

z = (T
2
T
1
)/ (logD
1
logD
2
)

Where D
1
and D
2
are the D values at temperatures T
1
and T
2
respectively.
The z values normally ranges from 5-8C for vegetative cells and 6-16C for spores of
bacteria.

F value / Farenheit value:

F value is the time in minutes required to destroy the spores / vegetative cells of a
particular organisms at 121

C. F Value represents, a measure of the ability of the heat

process to reduce the number of spores or vegetative cells of a given organisms in a
container.

Heating process is neither uniform nor instantaneous. In order to compare the lethal
effects of different processes, it is necessary for us to have some common currency to
describe them. One parameter is F value which is the time in minutes required to
destroy the organism in a specified medium at 121C. The integrated lethal value of
heat received by all points in a container during processing is designated as F
s
or F
o.
This represents a measure of the capacity of a heat process to reduce the number of
spores or vegetative cells of a given organism per container. F
o
may be derived as
follows:

F
o
= D
121
(log x log y)

Where x and y are the number of cells in the initial and the final population, respectively.
For example, the widely accepted minimum lethality for a heat process applied to low
acid canned foods is that it should produce 12 decimal reductions in the number of
surviving Cl. botulinum spores at 121C. This is known as the 12D concept or
botulinum cook or commercially sterile. If D
121
of Cl. botulinum is 0.21 minutes then a
botulinum cook will have a Fo = 0.21(log1 log 10
-12
) = 0.21 x 12 = 2.52 minutes. The
effect of applying a process with Fo to a product in which every can contains one spore
of Cl. botulinum (x = 1) will be that a spore will survive in one can out of every 10
12
thereby, making the product safe and stable at room temperature.
Materials used for canning:

Containers for heat-preserved food must be hermetically sealed and airtight to avoid
recontamination from environmental microflora. Most of the thermally preserved
products are kept in metal containers (cans), Others are packed in glass jars or plastic
or aluminum/plastic laminated pouches.

Cans or Tins:

Tinplate consists of steel plate which is electrolytically coated with tin on both sides. The
steel body is usually 0.22 to 0.28mm in thickness (98.5% steel and 1.5% tin). The tin
layer is very thin (from 0.38 to 3.08 m). In addition, the interior of the cans is lined with
a synthetic compound to prevent any chemical reaction of the tinplate with the enclosed
food. A phenolic meat lacquer / a sulphur resistant lacquer is used to avoid staining of
the surface of certain food stuffs called sulphiding. An alternative method of avoding
sulphiding is now being extensively used for meat packs and consists of chemical
treatment of the inside of the can to form an invisible film, the solution used being a
strong alkali bath containing phosphates and chromates.

Tin cans consist of two or three elements. In the case of three-piece steel cans, they are
composed of the body and two ends (bottom and lid). The body is made of a thin steel
strip, the smaller ends of which are soldered together to a cylindrical shape. Two-piece
steel cans have a lid similar to the three-piece cans but the bottom and body consist of
one piece, which is moulded from a circular flat piece of metal into a cup.

Aluminium is frequently used for smaller and easy-to-open cans. Aluminium cans are
usually deep-drawn two-piece cans, i.e. the body and the bottom end are formed out of
one piece and only the top end is seamed on after the filling operation. The advantages
of aluminium cans compared to tin cans are their better deep-drawing capability, low
weight, resistance to corrosion, good thermal conductivity and easy recyclability. They
are less rigid but more expensive than steel plate cans.

Glass jars:

Glass jars are sometimes used for meat products but are not common due to their
fragility. They consist of a glass body and a metal lid. The seaming panel of the metal lid
has a lining of synthetic material. Glass lids on jars are fitted by means of a rubber ring.

Retortable pouches:

Retortable pouches which are containers made either of laminates of synthetic
materials or laminates of aluminium foil with synthetic materials, are of growing
importance in thermal food preservation. Thermo-stabilized laminated food pouches,
have a seal layer which is usually PP (polypropylene) or PP-PE (polyethylene) polymer,
and the outside layers are usually made of polyester or nylon. From certain laminated
films, for instance, polyester / polyethylene (PETP/PE) or polyamide/polyethylene
(PA/PE), relatively rigid containers can be made. The advantage of the retortable
pouches/laminated containers is their good thermal conductivity which can considerably
reduce the required heat treatment time and hence is beneficial for the sensory product
quality.

Canning:

Various steps involved in the canning process are

1. Selection and preparation of raw materials
2. Blanching
3. Filling of cans
4. Exhausting/vacuumization
5. Sealing of the container/closure
6. Processing/sterilization/retorting
7. Chilling
8. Washing of cans
9. External lacquering
10. Labeling
11. Storage/maturity

Selection and preparation of raw materials:

Meat should be handled hygienically and under strict temperature control so that
contamination is avoided and the multiplication of microbes is prevented.
The long term storage of meat intended for canning should be preserved under a
temperature of -12C to 18C. A variety of process like grading, trimming, cutting,
washing, canning, mincing are applied. Addition of emulsifiers and other supplements
should be carried effectively and rapidly. Most of canned product are salted because it
reduces the resistance of bacterial spores and thereby reducing cooking time.





Blanching:

Products like meat, vegetables and fruits are selected or blanched in water at a
temperature of 87C to 95C or exposed to steam.

Blanching is done to removal of respiratory gases which would reduce vacuum in the
can. It inhibits the enzymatic action which can reduce quality and nutritive value of
meat. To Shrink of the product or to decrease in surface area and to clean the product.

Filling of the cans:

Filling of the cans is the critical part of canning process which can be done mechanically
or by hand which should be done carefully. Two types of can filling
1.hand filling
2.mechanical filling

Hand filling:

Hand filling is geneally employed due to their configuration, for products which are
susceptible for damage during mechanical filling.

Mechanical filling:

It can be done by a wide variety of semi/fully automatic mechanical fillers. In mechanical
filling, mostly commmunited products and products which have fine particle sizes are
filled in.

Exhausting:

It is an essential operations for the following reasons

Removal of air from the container before it is closed
To prevent expansion of the contents during processing which may force the
seams.
To remove the O2 which accelerates the intensive corrosion of the container.
To create vacuum when the container is closed.
Preventing the oxidation and preservation of Vit-C content
To produce concave ends so that any internal pressure may be detected and can
be rejected.

There are three methods of removal of air.

1.Heat exhaust
2.Meachanical exhaust
3.Steam injection

Heat exhaust:
Contents of the can are filled cold and heated immediately before sealing. The effect is
to release air or gas trapped in the product.

Mechanical/vacuum
The contents of the can filled cold and is sealed in a vacuum closing machine. A can
being subjected to a vacuum during the seaming operations.

Steam injection:
This method involves injecting a blast of steam into the head space as the lid of the can
is being positioned for sealing.

Sealing of the container:

A sealing of the can after evacuation is achieved by curling the edge of the lid over the
can containing a resilient sealing compound. The sealing material is often synthetic
rubber compound must retain its resilience over the temperature range from below room
temperature to above 130C. In modern can processing machine the sealing operation is
about a second. There are two sealing operations viz

1. Seaming operations
2. Herematic seal operations

Processing and sterilization:

After exhausting and closing, the containers must be heated for an accurately
predetermined time and temperature in an atmosphere of saturated steam in heated
water or occasionally in an air steam mixture. The heat treatment takes place in retorts
(Static/agitate) or in large hydrostatic retorts.
Except in aseptic canning the food is being processed in a hermetically sealed
container must be heated throughout by the conduction / convection of heat from an
external heat source. High viscosity foods & solid foods such as meat and fish are
heated by conduction.
A serious problem associated with conduction heating is time when small
volumes of product at the can container sterilized, the peripheral portions are severely
over cooked. To avoid this, agitations during cooking and the presence of head space
not only minimizes the uneven treatment but effectively the temperature and time
required for safe processing. The agitation is achieved by rotational end-over-end or
axial movement of the retorts (cookers).
Canning in smaller retorts is called batch method. The sealing cans usually not
more than a few thousand per batch are manually loaded into the retort on trays or in
metal baskets. The cooking takes place under steam pressure. After cooking the steam
is exhausted from the retort and the cans removed from cooking either by sinking them
in water lands or spraying with water. This method requires considerable labour and
occupies very large space. To overcome this continuous lines able to handle hundreds
of can per min are used today.

Cooling:

After the conclusion of heating process the cans are cooled as rapidly as
possible to avoid seam strain and thereby prevent over cooking of foods. The cans
should be cooled to an average temperature of 37C.


External washing:

After cooling the sides of the cans become greasy. Hence washed with mild soap water
then rinse with cold water. If surface of the cans is greasy external lacquering cannot be
done.

External lacquering:

It is done to prevent external corrosion. Commercial external lacquering is known as
Enamel with a synthetic or vegetable resin.

Labeling:

Company name
Date of manufacture
Expiry date
Nutritional contents

Storage:

It can be stored at ambient temperature. All the cans are observed for 7-10days to
check whether any change in the cans.




























CHAPTER 05 HURDLE CONCEPT - METHODS OF PRESERVATION OF MEAT -
TEMPERATURE CONTROL HIGH PRESSURE PROCESSING

HPP is a non thermal and mild preservation technology that allows preserving
the natural characteristics of meat products to a high extent. But destroys pathogenic
and spoilage micro organisms, the possible applications of HPP in meat processing
include optimization of HPP conditions to inactivate target microorganisms for which
product and commercial presentation and to enhance the shelf life, development of new
products based on cold jellification and coagulation of proteins pressure assisted
freezing and thawing , tenderization, improving the quality of pale , soft , exudative and
DFD meats , post packaging intervention and meat separation. The most popular
application of HPP are to produce pasteurized ready to eat meat, cooked and dry cured
meat products.

Basic principles of HPP:

During HPP the packaged food usually under vacuum in a flexible package is
placed in a pressure vessel containing a pressure transmitting liquid and submitted to
pressure ranging from 100-900 MPa. The pressure is produced by a hydraulic pump
(indirect system) or by piston (direct system) and is isostatically transmitted inside the
pressure vessel to the food product almost instaniously and uniformly. During high
pressure applications pressure leads to increased ionization because water molecules
arrange more compact round electric charges. This results in more or less pronounced
negative and reversible Ph shifts dependent on the chemical nature of the food.

Effect of HPP on endogenous enzymes involved in meat quality:

Enzyme system responsible for muscle protein degradation or various exo and
endo proteases. Inhibition of calpain activity by high pressure prevents the degradation
of cytoskeletal proteins such as desmin, reducing the water holding capacity of muscle
i.e increasing the drip loss. The application of high pressure to fresh meat enhances
the endogenous cathepsin and proteolytic activity involved in meat conditioning,
probably due to the release of protease from lysosomes to the cytoplasm and by
denaturation of the tissue protein.

Effect of HPP on meat proteins and texture:

The HP treatment of pre-rigor meat for few minutes at 100 200 MPa induces
meat tenderization. Further combined pressure heating treatments (150MPa 55 to
60C, 30 min) are effective in contrasting cold shortening effects due to prerigor
excision combined with exposure to low temperatures. HP can affect molecular
interactions and protein conformation, leading to protein denaturation, aggregation or
gelation.

Effect of HPP on lipid oxidation in meat and meat products

HPP promotes lipid oxidation in meat products. Catalysis of lipid oxidation seems
to take place during pressurization and has been related to the release of non-haem
iron and membrane damage. The effect of HPP on oxidative stability of lipids in meat
depends on applied pressure with a value between 300 400 MPa constituting the
critical pressure to induce catalysis. Hence pressure induced oxidation may limit the
usefulness of this technology for meat based products unless oxygen free packaging is
used or antioxidants are added.

Effect of HPP on microbial inactivation:

The inactivation of micro organisms by HPP is the result of a combination of factors
including changes in the cell membranes, cell wall, proteins and enzyme mediated
cellular functions. The inactivation by HPP depends on the type of micro organisms and
its growth phase, the pressure applied, pH and water activity. Gram negatives and cells
in growth phase are more sensitive than gram positives and cells in stationary phase.
The cell death rate increases with increasing pressure but it does not follow first order
kinetics and a tail of inactivation is sometimes present. Pasteurization treatment in the
range of 300 600 MPa for a short period of time inactivates the vegetative pathogenic
and spoilage micro organisms ( 4 log units)

Regulatory aspects of HPP in meat processing:

USDS FSIS has issued a letter of no objection in 2003 for the use of HPP as an
effective post packaging intervention method in controlling Listeria monocytogenes in
ready to eat meat and poultry products for US companies. In the European community
HPP foods are classified as novel foods meaning equivalent to traditional food already
on the market.



























CHAPTER 06 HURDLE CONCEPT - METHODS OF PRESERVATION OF MEAT -
MOISTURE CONTROL - DRYING



Preservation of Meat by Moisture control

Different foods are preserved by drying which is based on the fact that microorganisms
and enzymes need water in order to be active. Air drying of muscle foods as a means
for preservation has been practiced for centuries. Low moisture foods generally do not
contain more than 25% moisture and have an water activity <0.6

Different methods of preservation by moisture control are:

1. Dehydration/drying
2. Freeze drying/freeze dehydration or AFD
3. Intermediate moisture foods
4. Curing & Smoking.

1. Dehydration / drying:

Standardized during II World war
Hot air drying is done
Meat is usually cooked before drying
The final moisture content after drying should be approximately 4% for beef & pork.

Condition for drying (maintained at 60

C)

The temperature should not exceed 70C
Optimal air speed at the rate of 600ft/min
RH 40% is muntained.
The Tray volume should not exceed 2lb/ft square.

Moisture content of dried meat ranges from 3.5 - 7.5%. The Product should be packed
in 0
2
, air and moisture impermeable packaging material.

Processing

Meat slicing


Pre-Cooking (Precooked dried meat has better preservation as inherent
enzymes are destroyed by cooking)


Mincing


Drying


Packing


Any dried product do not undergo microbial spoilage but they undergo Chemical
spoilage e.g. of chemical spoilage is Maillard Reaction. The reaction occurs between
sugars and the carbonyl group of amino acids or proteins. This is also known as non-
enzymatic browning. They develop a brown color and is bitter in taste.

To use This dried meat is put in water Rehydrated so that they absorb moisture and
get proper taste and texture. Freeze dried meat has better rehydration capacity
compared to dehydrated meat.

2. Freeze drying / Cryophilization / lyophilization

Drying is done under frozen condition


Pre-Cooking


Freezing


Subjected to fast freezing(Very small ice ice crystals are formed)


Moved to drying chamber
Drying is done under vacuum(1-1.5mmHg at T.C of 43

C)


The ice crystals are formed without forming water and are directly converted into
vapour. This process is called sublimation



Dried meats have a honey comb structure as crystals are vapourized and leave a
halo.


Moisture of AFD meat is <2% or less ( i.e. 2-8% moisture 0.10-0.25a
W
)
Shelf life 24-28 months

These products undergo chemical spoilage but not microbial spoilage, the end product
is porous and very easy to rehydrate.




Disadvantages of dehydrated meats except AFD:

1.Pronounced shrinkage of solids
2.Migration of dissolved constituents to the surface when drying solids
3.Extensive denaturation of proteins
4.Case hardening : The formation of relatively hard, impervious layer at the surface of a
solid, caused by one or more of the first three changes that slows the rate of both
rehydration and reconstitution.
5.Formation of hard, impervious solids when drying liquid solution
6.Undesirable chemical reactions in heat-sensitive materials
7.Excessive loss of desirable volatile constituents
8.Difficulty of rehydration as a result of one or more changes.

3.Intermediate Moisture Foods:

Intermediate moisture foods are characterized by a moisture content of around 15-20%
and the a
W
is between 0.60 and 0.85.



IMFs






Traditional IMFs Newer/Developed IMFs
Low a
w
are achieved by low a
w
of 0.60-0.85 is achieved
i. Absorption by addition of humeratants
ii. Adsorption
iii. Additives like sugars and salts eg. Glycerols
eg; Dried fruit Glycols
Frozen food Sortritol
Sugars, syrups Sucrose
Cereals, honey Sorbate
Jams, fruit juices

Water content is reduced to an extent such that, there is no available water for microbial
spoilage, but maintains texture and eating quality of meat so that the meat can be
consumed without rehydration. The a
W
of meat is 0.99 and IMMs are having the a
W
-
0.60-0.86. Staphylococcus aureus is the only bacterium of public health importance that
can grow at a
w
values near 0.86, an IMF can be prepared by formulating the product so
that its moisture content is between 15 to 50% , adjusting the a
W
to a value below 0.86
by the use of humectants and adding an antifungal gent to inhibit the yeast and mold
which an capable of growing at a
W
values as above 0.70. Additional storage stability is
achieved by 0.70pH



Preparation:


Meat


Meat cubes (1cm
3
)


Immersed in infusion solution( Immersion solution should be 11/2 times of meat)


Heated for 15 min at 70C


Kept in room temperature for equilibration for 15hrs at room temperature



Meat chunks are taken out and surface drying of meat pieces occurs


Packed in O
2
, moisture impermeable packaging material.

Shelf life of Several months at room temperature.

Pet foods are also prepared by this method or by component blending.

Meat and meat products


Ground and mixed with liquid ingredients


Slurry is cooked/heat treated and later mixed with the dry ingredient( salt, sugar,
dry solids and room)


Additional cook or heat process may be applied prior to extrusion and packaging


Extruded material may be shaped in the form of patties/ packaged in loose form

Pemmican:

- Is an adaptation of pemmican, an Indian trial and winter storage food made of
buffalo meat and
- Pemmican is the name given to the chicken-based IMF.


Composition of Pemmican:

Components Amount ( wt.basis%)

Raisins 30
Water 23
Peanuts 15
Chicken(freeze dried) 15
NFDM 11
Peanut, butter 4
Honey 2

Humectants :

Humectants 15 commonly used in pet food manufacture are
-Propylene glycol
-Polyhydric alcohols(eg. Sorbitol)
-Polyethylene glycols
-Glycerol
-Sugars( Sucrose, fructose, lactose, Glucose and corn syrup)
-Salts ( Nacl,KCl,etc.)

Mycostats commonly used ones are
- Propylene glycol
- K-sorbate
- Na-benzoate
- The P
H
of these products may be as low as 5.4 and as high as 7.0

Infusion Solution:

High osmotic pressure solutions contain more solutes so two way infusion occurs.
(i.e) Solutes enter meat and water comes out from meat so equilibration of water
activity occurs.

10% Nacl
0.5% antimycotic agent ( K-sorbate/Na-benzoate)
33-40%-Propylene glycole/glycer.

The following general techniques are employed to change the water activity in
producing an IMF:
i. Moist infusion: Solid food pieces are soaked and/or cooked in an appropriate
solution to give the final product the desired water level ( desorption).
ii. Dry infusion: Solid food pieces are first dehydrated and then infused by
soaking in a solution containing the desired osmotic agents ( adsorption)
iii. Component blending: all IMF components are weighed, blended, cooked and
extruded or other wise combined to give the finished product the desired a
w.

iv. Osmotic drying: foods are dehydrated by immersion in liquids with a water
activity lower than that of the food. When salts and sugars are used, two
simultaneous counter current flows develop; solute differs from solution into
food, and water diffuses out of food into solution.

CHAPTER 07 HURDLE CONCEPT - METHODS OF PRESERVATION OF MEAT -
MOISTURE CONTROL - CURING


Curing


Modern meat curing is the application of salt, nitrate or nitrite ions, seasonings and
other additives to meat to develop unique properties and resistance to rapid
deterioration.

Meat Curing ingredients:

Meat curing ingredients are salt, nitrite, several reductants, alkaline phosphates
and seasonings. Two main ingredient must be used for curing are salt & nitrite and
other above said ingredients are added to accelerate curing, stabilize color, modify
flavor & texture and reduces shrinkage during processing .

a) Salt :

- It included in all meat-curing formulas.
- It functions to solubilize proteins and develop desirable flavor.
- It acts as a dehydrating agent, osmotically lowering the water content of the
product and bacterial organisms thus limiting their ability to thrive and reproduce.

b) Nitrate / Nitrite : (either as potassium/sodium salt)

- Used to preserve desired meaty flavor
- Retards lipid oxidation thus prevent warmed over flavor(WOF)
- To fix the characteristic bright reddish pink color in cured meat
- Nitrate is converted to nitrite by microbes or by a reducing agent ascorbate.
- Nitrite is the active meat curing agent. It prevents Botulism and has bacteriostatic
property.

Both nitrite and nitrate are toxic to humans when consumed at levels higher
than allowed in cured meat products.

c) Reductants: (compounds capable of donating electrons)

- Added in meat product to accelerate color development
- Nitrate must be reduced to nitric oxide and ferric ions of muscle pigments must
be reduced ferrous ions before proper color development occurs.
- Most commonly used reductants are sodium salt of ascorbic acid or iso
ascorbic (erythorbic) acid
- Ascorbate commonly known as Vitamin C inhibits the formation of
nitrosamines(cancer causing agents) in cured meats.


d) Alkaline phosphates (food grade):

- No direct role in the curing reaction
- To decrease the shrinkage in cured and smoked meat products
- They increase the water-binding capacity of meat and reduce shrinkage during
subsequent processing.
- Phosphates also retard development of oxidative rancidity and may improve
texture.
- The phosphates approved for use are disodium phosphate, monosodium
phosphate, sodium meta phosphate, sodium poly phosphate, sodium tripoly
phosphate, sodium pyro phosphate, sodium acid pyro phosphate, dipottasium
phosphate, mono potassium phosphate, potassium tri poly phosphate, potassium
pyro phosphate

e) Sugars

- A secondary ingredient in the curing formula, counteracts the astringent quality of
the salt
- It enhances the flavor of the product
- Provides the substrate for the formation of acid, thus lowering the pH of the cure
- Sugar enhances the growth of micro organisms that reduce the nitrate to nitrite
- Most frequently used sugars are sucrose and dextrose

f) Seasonings:

- Seasonings like spices, herbs, vegetables, and sweeteners are often
incorporated with curing ingredients.
- They do not enter the curing reaction but do impart flavors.
- Spices commonly used in seasoning various meats are pepper, cinnamon, clove,
nutmeg.

Methods for incorporation of cure ingredients:

- Several techniques are used, but proper distribution of cure ingredients thought
the entire product is necessary
- Improper distribution of cure ingredients results in poor color development
Bone sour in hams & gray areas in the inside of other products are examples
of problems from improper distribution of the cure mixtures.

a) Dry curing
Immersion curing
b) Pickle curing
Artery pumping

Injection curing stitch pumping

Multiple stitch pumping




a) Dry curing :

- Curing ingredients are rubbed in dry form over cut surfaces
- The cuts are then placed in refrigeration on shelves or in containers and allowed
to cure.
- For large cuts such as hams, cure should be applied more than once during the
curing period and the cuts must be over hauled, turned over & restacked.
- Since dry cure is slow (cure penetration is about 2.5cm/wk) and requires large
amount of hand labor and hence it is now used only on specialty items such as
Country cured hams and bacons.

b) Pickle curing :

Pickle curing is curing of meat and meat products immersed in a solution composed
of curing ingredients dissolved in water (pickle).

(i) Immersion curing:

- Widely used in the preparation of smoked meat products.
- The cuts (meat) are immersed in the pickle solution
- It is a slow method of curing, since extended periods are required for the pickle to
diffuse through the entire product.
- Only specialty products like neck bones, tails, pigs feet and salt pork are cured in
this manner.

(ii) Injection curing:

- Injection if the pickle solution directly into the meat to shorten the produce of
curing is called injection curing.
- Injection curing may be performed by several methods

(i) Artery pumping
(ii) Stitch pumping
(iii) Multiple stitch pumping

i) Artery pumping :

- Pickle solution is directly pumped into the vascular system ( arteries)
- Artery pumping requires utmost care not to rupture the arteries with excessive
pumping pressure.
- Mostly used in curing of hams.

ii) Stitch pumping

- Very popular method used on any type of meat cut
- Pickle is injected through a hollow needle into various parts of the cut, especially
the thickest parts and near the joints.



iii) Multiple stitch pumping :

- It is a variation of stitch pumping
- Pickle is injected simultaneously and automatically through a series of hollow
needles.

Diffusion and binding of pickle in the meat cuts depend on the mechanical forces
such as tumbling/massaging. Tumbling and massaging means subjecting the
products to agitation, which helps disrupt tissue structure and hasten distribution of
cure ingredients.

- Massaged smoked meat product have higher yields because of improved water
binding capacity.
- They are more tender because of hydrated state of proteins and loss of structural
integrity.


Chemistry of cured meat color

One purpose of curing of meat is to develop as attractive stable color and for this the
chemistry of color fixation is highly important.

Nitrates & Nitrites are the principal compounds used in curing of meat and products to
obtain the cured meat color.

NO
3
to NO
2
: If nitrate is used in the mixture, it should be first converted to nitrite, which
is in turn reduced to nitric oxide.

Nitrate


Nitrite


Reduced heat
Myoglobin (+) Nitric oxide Nitric oxide Nitrosyl
Myoglobin processing haemochromogen


(Basic reaction occurring during color development)


Nitrate ( No
3
-
)

Nitrate reducing bacteria

Nitrite ( No
2
-
)

Nitric oxide

- Mostly nitrite is used in commercial curing mixtures to eliminate the process for
nitrate reduction and for rapid color development.
- Nitrate is used less and less usually only on long cured products


Deoxymyoglobin
( purplish red ) Fe
2+
Oxygenation Oxymyoglobin(bright
red ) Fe
2+
Deoxygenation
Heat
Oxidation
Nitric Reduction
Oxide
Reduction Oxygenation

Oxidation
Hemo chrome
(greenish brown
to grayish
pink)Fe
2+
Nitric oxide
myoglobin
( red) Fe
2+
( nitrite) Metmyo globin
( brown) Fe
3+

Protein
Denaturation Oxidation
(heat)
Reduction












Light
Oxidation
Nitric Oxide + reduction










Formation of cured meat pigment
Nitric Oxide
Met myoglobin
(brown) Fe
3+
Hemi chrome ( or)
Denatured Metmyoglobin
( brown) Fe
3+

Nitrosyl
Haemochromogen
(pink) Fe
2+

Since nitrite is a very efficient oxidizing agent for myoglobin, the initial reaction is
probably the conversion of myoglobin and oxymyoglobin to metmyoglobin.

Nitric oxide then combines with the heme portion of the metmyoglobin to produce
nitric oxide met Mb

Nitric oxide Met Mb must be reduced to NO. Mb ( desired pigment) It involves
addition of an e
-
with to Fe3+ of heme, converting it to Fe2+, natural reduction is
slow, hence ascorbates speed up the reduction, by donating e
-
to ferric state ( Fe3+)
of the heme. Use of reductants reduce the time for cured meat color development
from several days to several hours.

The final reaction is formation of Nitrosyl hemochromogen. It involves denaturation
of the protein portion of the myoglobin, leaving the heme structure intact with nitric
oxide. The denturation is caused by the heat in cooking process.

The color of the denatured pigment ( Nitrosyl hemochromogen is more stable than
that of the native pigment. Nitrosyl hemochromogens is a heat stable pigment and
does not undergo further color change upon additional cooking of cured products.

Excessive amounts of nitrite in cured also may cause a greening of cured meat
pigment called nitrite burn due to oxidation of cured meat pigment. It is common in
fermented sausages & pickled pigs feet since nitrite is highly reactive in an acid
environment, nitrite burn is common in fermented sausages & pickled pigs feets as
they are high in acidity.

Public health aspects of nitrite usage


- Nitrite is toxic if consumed in excessive amounts single dose of 15 - 20 mg/kg
Bodyweight is lethal.
- Nitrite acts as the source of carcinogenic compounds known as nitrosamines
- residual level of 200ppm of nitrite has been adopted as safe.
- 40 - 80ppm- nitrite has been adopted as the minimum level required to inhibit
clostridium botulinum spores in meat products
- Nitrite react with amines (secondary amines NR
2
H) to form nitrosamines.













CHAPTER 08 HURDLE CONCEPT - METHODS OF PRESERVATION OF MEAT -
MOISTURE CONTROL - SMOKING


Smoking of meat:
Hot smoking (82C)
Cold smoking (43C)
Smoke is generally produced by slow combustion of saw dust derived from hardwoods
(consisting of about 40-60% cellulose, 20-30% hemicelluloses, 20-30% lignin) smoke
inhibits microbial growth, retards fat oxidation, imparts flavour to cured meat. Traditional
methods of smoking are un controlled process, simply burning the wood beneath the
meat. Conventional/advanced smoking method the process is done in a controlled
environment. Speed of smoke deposition, humidity, temperature maintained precisely
by electronic systems so consistent quality in smoked meats can be obtained.
Composition of wood smoke
Composition of wood smoke is a complex, but it may consists of two phases
A dispense, liquid phase containing smoke particles
A dispensing gas phase
Direct deposition of smoke particles makes a negligible contribution to the process but
vapour absorption by surface and interstitial water is much more important.
Alcohol eg. Methanol least important possesses mild wood alcohol (or) bactericidal
effect
Organic acids
vapour phase Formic, Acetic, Propionic, butyric, isobutyric
Particulate phase - valeric, isovaleric, caproic, caprylic, capric
Minor preservative action, coagulation of the surface protein enhanced by acids thereby
producing good skin in frankfurters. Vanillic acid is responsible for a sweet, mellow note
in the aroma of wood smoke.
Carbonyls
Acetone, propanal, Furfural, carbonyls in the vapour phase of smoke react with amino
groups on the surface of food this is known as maillard reaction resulting in colour and
flavour development.
Colour development directly related to smoke concentration and the moisture content
on surface of meat (12 15% moisture on surface resulting in many colour
development). Formaldehyde Bactericidal effect
Phenols
Guiaiacol, 4 methyl guiaiacol, 2-6- dimethylphenol Most effective phenolic
compound in wood smoke imparting flavour. It has antioxidant and bacterio static
property primarily on the surface only.
Polygelic hydrocarbons
Benzpyrene, dibenz (a,b), anthracene etc.
(3,4 Benzpyrene) (1,2,5,6 phenanthracene)
Carcinogenic compounds in smoke both the compounds are formed from lignin
Gases
Co
2
, Co, O
2
(Nitrous oxide + secondary amines Nitrosamine)
To prevent formation of N Nitrosamines erythrbate and Ascorbate added)
Action of smoke
Phenols & poly phenols reacts with sulphydryl groups of the proteins.
Carbonyl groups reacts with amino groups resulting in flavour and colour development.
Both reaction reduces the available aas especially lysine.
Antioxidant property helps to stabilize the fat soluble vitamins.
Wood consists of 60% cellulose, 20-30% hemicelluloses, 20-30% lignin. At the
temperature 590F or above lignin is decomposed yields phenol & its derivatives,
The best quantity smoke is produced at combustion temperature of 650 - 750 F and at
an oxidation temperature of 390 - 480 F)
Combustion temperature at 750 F are desirable for maximum production of phenols but
also favours formation of benzpyrene.
To minimize the production of carcinogenic substances a more practical temperature of
650 F is applied.
The Nature of smoke
Vapour phase more volatile components responsible for characteristic flavour &
aroma
Particulate phase having undesirable polycyclic hydrocarbons & tars.
Methods of Application of smoke
Smoke houses
Traditional old style country smoke houses had little or no control of temperature,
humidity or rate of combustion.
Modern smoke houses are of three types
Natural air circulation
Air conditioned or forced air
Continuous
Natural air circulation
This type is designed so that natural ventilation will occur. Regulation of volume of air is
controlled by the opening or closing of a series of dampers thus providing natural
circulation.
Air conditioned/forced ventilation
This type of smoke houses permits much more precise control of smoking. Air
circulation is controlled by a fan, so the air can be recirculated, exhausted. Thus this
type smoke houses gives uniform air movement and good control of temperature.
Continuous smoke house
The continuous smoke house comprises part at the continuous processing system and
is developed specifically for frankfurter production. It occupies less space and also has
much low labour requirement per unit of finished product. The continuous smoking
system permits better control of shrinkage more specific control of processing time,
temperature, RH. The smoking section of the continuous processing line must be
equipped with supplemental smoke generators to allow cleaning and repair without
shutting down the line.
Liquid smoke
An alternative to natural, manufactured from burning wood under commercial condition
such that selected volatile consistuents can be recovered from the smoke and
concentrated in a liquid form. Liquid smoke is added to the brine or applied as a dip
polishing or sprayed on the product
Advantages
Installation of smoke generator is not required
Composition of liquid smoke is constant
This process is repeatable
Ease of eliminating known carcinogenic compounds that can be found in smoke.
Environmentally more compatible for processing facilities
Application /spraying is faster










































CHAPTER 09 HURDLE CONCEPT - METHODS OF PRESERVATION OF MEAT -
DIRECT MICROBIAL INHIBITION - IRRADIATION



DIRECT MICROBIAL INHIBITION

Preservation of meat foods by direct microbial inhibition includes the use of the
following.

Ionizing radiation
Chemical preservatives
Antibiotics.

Food irradiation is a technology for controlling spoilage and eliminating foodborne
pathogens. The result is similar to pasteurization. The fundamental difference between
food irradiation and pasteurization is the source of the energy used to destroy the
microbes. While conventional pasteurization relies on heat, irradiation relies on the
energy of ionizing radiation.

Food irradiation is a process in which approved foods are exposed to radiant energy,
including gamma rays, electron beams, and x-rays. Irradiation is not a substitute for
good sanitation and process control in meat and poultry plants. It is an added layer of
safety. Radiation may be defined as the emission and the propagation of energy
through space or through a material medium.

The type of radiation of primary interest in food preservation is electromagnetic. The
various radiations are separated on the basis of wavelengths, with shorter wavelengths
being most damaging to microorganisms.

The electromagnetic spectrum may be further divided as follows with respect to these
radiations of interest in food preservation viz.

Micro waves
UV rays
X-rays
Gamma rays

EM radiation is divided into ionizing and non ionizing radiation

Ionizing radiation
Surface pasteurization
Electronic pasteurization
E-beam sterilization/pasteurization


When radiation strikes other material, it transfers energy. This can cause heating, as
with microwave cooking, or if there is enough energy, it can knock electrons out of the
material bombarded, breaking the molecular structure-thus leaving ions (free radicals)
hence the name ionizing radiation.

EMR :

Ionising:

Ionizing radiations are the primary interest in food preservation. Radiations having the
wavelength of 2000A or less is commonly used.

Alpha particles
Beta -rays
Gamma rays
X rays
Cosmic rays

Non Ionising:

UV
IR
Microwaves

Their quanta contain energy to ionize molecules in their paths since they destroy micro
organisms without appreciably raising temperature, the process is termed as Cold
sterilization.

Units of radiation:

Roentgen: is a unit of measure used for expressing exposure dose of x-ray or gamma
radiation

Milliroentgen : is equal to 1/1000 of a roentgen.

Curie : curie is a quantity of radioactive substance in which 3.7x10
10
radioactive
disintegrations occur per second.

1 g. of pure radium possess the radio activity of 1 curie of radium. The new unit for curie
is the Becquerel.
Rad : is the basic unit of radiation. It is defined as being equivalent to the absorption of
100 ergs per gram of matter.
Kilorad:
1 kilard ( krad) is = 1000 rads
1 mega ( Mrad) is = 1million rads

Gray:
Newer unit of absorbed dose is the gray.
1 Gray=100 rads = 11joule per Kg; 1kGy = 105 rads;
1 eV: The energy gained by an electron in moving through 1 volt is designated as ev (
electron volt).
meV : A meV is equal to 1 million electron volts. Both the rad and ev are measurements
of the intensity of radiation.

Characteristics and types of Radiation of interest in food preservation

Ultraviolet light ( UV light):

Powerful bactericidal agent. It is non-ionizing and is absorbed by proteins and nucleic
acids, leading to photochemical changes that cause cell death. Cell death is caused by
lethal mutations on nucleic acids. Since UV light has poor penetration ability, it is very
limited in food applications, where it catalyses oxidative changes that lead to rancidity,
discolorations and other reactions.

Beta rays :

Beta rays may be defined as a stream of electrons emitted from radioactive substances
Cathode rays are similar, except that they are emitted from the cathode of an evacuated
tube. It has poor penetration power. Linear accelerators are among the commercial
sources of cathode rays.

Gamma rays
These are EMR emitted from the exited nucleus of elements such as
60
Co

and
137
Cs
two radio nucleotides often used in food preservation due to their low cost/cheapest
form of radiation.( as they by-products of atomic fission or atomic waste products)
Excellent penetration power
T
1/2
of
60
Co 5yrs, T
1/2
of
137
Cs 30yrs.

Disadvantage :
Radio active source emits radiation in all directions, hence permanent shielding to
protect environment & workers is necessary. Radio nucleotides cannot be turned on
only when needed. High cost and safety concerns associated with disposal.

X- rays
These are produced by the bombardment of heavy- metal layers with high-velocity
electrons (cathode rays) within an evacuated tube. They are essentially the same as
gamma rays in other aspects.

Advantages
Greater flexibility. Mono directional characteristic
Ease with which an electron accelerator can be turned off.
Possibility to transport the radiation source without massive radiation shields.

Microwaves :

When electrically neutral foods are placed in an EM field, the charged asymmetric
molecules are driven first one way and then another. During this process, each
asymmetric molecule attempts to align itself with the rapidly changing alternating current
field. As the molecules oscillate about their axes while attempting to go to the proper
positive and negative pole, inter molecular friction is created and manifested as a
heating effect. Most food research had been carried out at two frequencies i.e 915 and
2450 megacycles. At the microwave frequency of 915 megacycles, the molecules
oscillate back and forth 915 million times /sec.

Principles underlying the destruction of micro organisms by irradiation:

Types of organisms
Numbers of organisms
Composition of suspending men-strum (food)
Presence or absence of oxygen
Physical state of food
Age of organisms

Types of organisms:

G +ve bacteria are most resistant to irradiation than G-ve.
Spore formers are more resistant than non-spore formers with several exceptions
Among spore-formers Bacillus larvae seems to possess high degree of resistance than
most aerobic spore formers
Spores of Clostridium botulinum type A appear to be the most resistant of all Clostridial
spores
Apart from the seven extremely resistant species Enterococcus faecium R53,
micrococci and homo fermentative lactobacilli are among the resistant of non-spore
forming bacteria
Most sensitive to radiation are the Pseudomonads & flavobacters

No. of organisms:

The numbers of organisms have the same effect on the efficacy of radiations as in the
case of heat, chemical disinfection, and certain other phenomena. The larger the
number of cells, the less effective in a given dose.

Composition of suspending men-strum (food)

Microbes in general are more sensitive to radiation when suspended in buffer solutions
than in protein containing media.
Eg; D-values for a strain of Cl.perfringens to be 0.28 in phosphate buffer, while in
cooked meat both the d-value is 3kGy
Proteins exert a protective effect against radiations as well as against certain
antimicrobial chemicals and heat.
Presence of nitrites tends to make bacterial endospores more sensitive to radiation.

Presence or absence of oxygen :

The radiation resistances of microbes is greater in the absence of oxygen then in its
presence. Sulphydryl compounds also increase the radiation resistance like anerobic
environment.


Physical state of food :

Radiation resistance of dried cells are higher than moist cells.
Radiation resistance of frozen cells are greater than non-frozen cells.

Age of organisms:
Bacteria in its lag phase just prior to active cell division are more resistant
Log phase most sensitive.

Sources of ionizing radiation:

Gamma sources of irradiation
X-ray machines
Electron accelerators
Gamma Rays
Energy comes from decay of radioactive isotopes
Cobalt-60 (half life of 5.3 years) & Produced by neutron bombardment
Cesium-137 (half life of 30 years) & By-product of spent nuclear fuel

Application of Radiation:

The most widely used techniques of irradiating food are gamma radiation from
either Co
80
and Cs
137
and the use of electron beams from linear accelerator.

Rad appertization, Radicidation and Radurization of foods:

In 1964 an International group of microbiologists suggested the following
terminology for radiation treatment of foods.

Rad appertization:

Equivalent to radiation sterilization or commercial sterility of canned foods. Typical
levels of irradiation are 30-40 kGY.(or) 3-4 Mrad. The effect of this treatment on
endospores and exotoxins of Cl. Botolinum is of obvious interest. Among Type A,B,D,E
spores type E most radiation sensitive.

Radicidation:

Equivalent to pasteurization of product such as milk. It refers to a reduction in the
number of specific viable non-spore forming pathogens, other than viruses, so that none
is detectable by any standard method. Typical level to achieve this process are 2.5-
10kGY.

Radurization :

It is a lower level of pasteurization that is used to reduce specific spoilage micro
organisms. It refers to the enhancement of the keeping quality of a food by causing
substantial reduction in the number of viable specific spoilage microbes by radiation.
The Dose range is 0.1 to 0.5 Mrad ( 1-5 kGY). Common dose levels are 0.75 to 2.5 kGY
for fresh meat, poultry, seafood, fruits vegetables and cereal grains.
The minimum radiation dose(MRD) in kGy for the radappertization of meat products are

Bacon 23
Beef 47
Chicken 45
Ham 37
Pork 51

Draw backs of application of radiation:

Radappertization :

Some foods undergo color changes and production of off-flavors.
Ex:-Bacon is one product that undergoes only slight changes in color and odor
development following radappertization.
Rad appertization of bacon is one way to reduce nitrosamine.
When bacon containing 20ppm NaNo
2
+550ppm sodium ascorbate and the same
irradiated with 30 kGy, without them added, the resulting nitrosamine levels were similar
to those in nitrite free bacon.

Radicidation:

Irradiation levels of 2-5 kGy has been shown by many is to be effective in destroying
non spore forming and non viral pathogens and to present no health hazard.
Treatment of refrigerated and frozen chicken carcasses with 2.5 kGy was highly
effective in destroying Salmonella.
A radiation dose up to 7 kGy (0.7Mrad) has been approved by the WHO as being Un
conditionally safe for human consumption.
Note: irradiation provides a cold sterlization process that doesnot change physical state
of the food

Radurization:

Shelf-life of shrimp, crab may be extended from 2-6 fold by radurization with doses of 1-
4 kGy.
The ultimate spoilage of radurized, low-temperature stored foods is invariably caused by
one or more of the Acinetobacter Moraxella or lactic acid types.
Radurization of fresh fruits is permitted by at least six countries, with some meats,
poultry and seafood permitted by other countries.
Insect eggs and larvae can be destroyed by 1 kGY
cysticerci of pork tape worm and beef tapeworm is destroyed by 0.2 0.5kGy

Legal status of food irradiation:

Food irradiation is currently permitted by 40 countries and the volume of food treated is
estimated to exceed 500,000 metric tonnes annually worldwide.
US-FDA cleared the use of radiation treatment of hamburger patties to eliminate the
residual risk of a contamination of a virulent E.coli.
EU-EC directive - permits irradiation of only dried aromatic herbs, spices and vegetable
seasonings.
2003 - Codex alimentarious was about to remove any upper dose limit for food
irradiation.
New Zealand, Australia, Thailand, India & Mexico permitted the irradiation of fresh
fruits for fruit fly quarantine purposes.
Pakistan & Brazil adopted codex alimentarious standard that any food may be
irradiated to any dose
NASA is authorized to sterilize frozen meat for astronauts at doses of 44 kGY as a
notable exception.
At least 20 different food packing materials have been approved by the US food & drug
administration (FDA) at levels of 10 to 60 kGY.

1983- FDA permitted spices & vegetables seasonings to be irradiated up to 10kGY.

1985 FDA granted permission to irradiate pork up to 1kGY to control Trichinella
spiralis. Min 0.03 Mrad ( 0.3kGY), Max 0.1 Mrad ( 1kGY)

WHO has given approved for radiation dosages up to 7.0 kGY ( 0.7 Mrad)

Effect of Irradiation on Food quality:

The undesirable changes that occur in certain irradiated foods may be caused directly
by irradiation or indirectly as a result of post irradiation reactions. Water undergoes
radiolysis when irradiated in the following manner:

3H
2
o ----------- radiolysis ----------- H+OH+H
2
o
2
+H
2


In addition, free radicals are formed along the path of the primary electron and react
with each other as diffusion occurs. Some of the products formed along the track
escape and react with solute molecules.

The main drawbacks of the application of irradiation of foods are color changes and/or
the production of off-odours and off-flavours. Raw fresh meats and cured meats turn
brown. Cooked fresh meat turns pink upon irradiation in the absence of 0
2.


Off odours when beef irradiated with levels on the order of 4 Mrad (40kGY) sulfurous
odour predominate. Beyond 4-10 Mrad an odour described as wet dog odour (or) wet-
dog hair odour (due to S-containing carbonyl compounds is most noticeable. Anaerobic
irradiation- minimize off-flavors & odours (i.e) irradiate at sub-freezing temperatures to
reduce or halt radiolysis and to limit the mobility of its consequent reactants. Other than
water, proteins, other nitrogenous substances in foods appear to be most sensitive to
irradiation effect. Among the aas most sensitive are aromatic aas methionine,
cysteine, histidine, arginine, tyrosine. Irradiation of lipids and fats results in the
production of carbonyls and other oxidation products such as peroxides Products of
irradiation are NH
3,
H
2
, CO
2
, H
2
S amides & carbonyls
.











CHAPTER 10 HURDLE CONCEPT - METHODS OF PRESERVATION OF MEAT -
DIRECT MICROBIAL INHIBITION CHEMICAL PRESERVATIVES



Chemical preservatives:

Large number of chemicals have been described that show potential as food
preservatives, only a relatively small number are allowed in food products due to strict
legal standards and limitations.
Nitrites, nitrites and sulfur dioxides are most commonly used in meat products.
Nitrates - 500ppm
Nitrites - 200ppm
SO
2
- 450ppm

According to FDA ( Food & Drug Administration, USA) certain chemicals are designated
as GRAS ( Generally Recognized as safe) and are permitted to the used in meat food.
Those chemical preservative are given below
































CHAPTER 11 HURDLE CONCEPT - METHODS OF PRESERVATION OF MEAT -
DIRECT MICROBIAL INHIBITION - ANTIBIOTICS



Antibiotics :

Antibiotics are secondary metabolites produced by microorganism that inhibit or kill a
wide spectrum of other microorganisms.
Eg; Tetracyclines etc.

Bacteriocins are chemical compounds produced by microorganism that inhibit or kill
other microorganisms, but, unlike antibiotics, they inhibit or kill only closely related
species or different strains of the same species.

Nisin :
It acts on most G+ve bacteria. It is produced by Lactococcus lactis strains, polypeptide
nature, Most widely used antibiotic for food preservation, prevent spoilage of swiss
cheese by C.botulinum, prevent the outgrowth of C. botulinum spores, for canning of
low- acid foods F
0
value of 6-8 is required to inactivate C. botullinum endospores but
Nisin + canning F
0
value is reduced to 3. Based on country standards & foods 2.5 to
100ppm is used


Natamycin ( antifungal) :
It is called as pimaricin/tennecetin/myprozine. It is a polyene by chemical nature
Effective against yeasts and molds and not bacteria. It is isolated from Streptomyces
natalensis. Mechanism bind to membrane sterols and inducing distortion of selective
membrane permeability Since bacteria has no membrane sterols, no action on bacteria
is evinced.

Tetracyclines :
Chortetracylines (CTC) and Oxytetracyclines (OTC) were approved by FDA in 1955 &
1956 respectively, at a level of 7ppm to control bacterial spoilage in un cooked
refrigerated poultry. CTC is more effective than OTC. 7 to 10mg is permitted in foods.
Later they are banned as they are used in various disease treatments.

Subtilin
This antibiotic was discovered and developed by scientists at the western Regional
Laboratory of the USDA. Structurally similar to Nisin, produced by some strains of
Bacillus subtilis, effective against G +ve bacteria, effective in canned food at levels of 5-
20ppm in preventing the out growth of endospores ,mode of action same as Nisin

Tylosin :
It is a non-polyene macrolide antibiotic
More inhibitory than nisin/subtilin.
More effective on G +ve bacteria.
Inhibits protein synthesis by associating with the 50S ribosomal subunits.



CHAPTER 12 PROCESSED MEATS BASIC MEAT PROCESSING PRINCIPLES



Processed muscle foods :

Diversity is one of the many desirable characteristics of processed muscle food.
Processed muscle food are convenient, versatile and whole some and contribute
positively to the diet by providing an excellent source of higher quality digestible protein,
water soluble vitamin (B-complex) and fat soluble (ADEK), minerals (very bio available
heme iron, zinc) and essential fatty acids.
Processed meats consist of
1. Comminuted meat products

Sausages Cooked
Cured
Smoked
Nuggets
Balls
Loaves
Luncheon meats etc

2. Non-comminuted meat products

Ham
Bacon
3. Restructured products

4. Canned products
Processed meats can be manufactured from beef, pork, lamb, venison, chicken,
Turkey and seafood.

Comminuted Meat Products: Sausages are comminuted, seasoned meat products
that also may be cured, smoked, fermented and heat processed.

Sausages: Sausages can be classified by various methods including curing particle
size, degree of chopping, composition, fermentation, addition of smoke and thermal
processing
However USDA system for classifying sausages is generally accepted and sausages
are classified based on six trails:

Whether product is

a) Fresh
b) Cured
c) Cooked
d) Smoked
e) Fermented
f) Dried

Fresh sausages :

Manufactured from fresh or frozen uncured meat. Fresh sausages must be refrigerated
and cooked prior to consumption. Mostly formulated with pork and often beef obtained
from lean and fat trimmings.
Fresh sausages are uncured, ground, seasoned and often stuffed into edible casings.
Should be cooked at least 60
0
C to kill T. spiralis larvae
Fresh sausages may contain up to 30% fat ( fresh beef sausage)
50% fat trimmings ( fresh pork sausage)

Eg : - Fresh pork sausage
Brat wurst
Break fast sausage
Whole hog sausage

Un cooked, smoked sausages:

Same as fresh sausage except that natural hard wood or liquid smoke is applied to the
surface to develop desirable color & flavor.

Egs: -
Smoked pork sausage
Mett wurst
kielbasa
Italian pork sausage & country style pork sausage

Cooked sausages:

Include cured and uncured sausages that are made from comminuted, seasoned
meats
Eg: -
Liver sausage
Brauns chweiger
Beer salami
Cooked salami

Cooked, smoked sausages:

Made from any combination of red meats & poultry and also manufactured only from
poultry
Most cooked sausages are served cold except one called frankfurter served hot by
boiling/ grilling.
Another classification of cooked sausages includes luncheon meats, loaves and jellied
products.
Eg:-
Frankfurter
Mordatella
Cotto salami
Knackwurst
Berliner

Dry and semidry sausages/fermented sausages

Made from fresh meats that are cured and fermented typically by the addition of a
bacterial starter culture that metabolizes an added simple sugar to produce a mild to
very acidic tangy flavor. (Lacto bacillus sp.)
Fermentation results in lowering the P
H
(products of lactic acid) of meat products which
aids in preservation.
Dried sausages are usually not cooked as the combination of fermentation and drying
produces a product that is shelf-stable.
Eg:-
Cervelat, pepperoni, Chorizos, Salami, Lebanon bologna, summer sausage, Cappicola
- ( dry salamis), Thuringer

2. Non comminuted Meats (Cured and smoked) :

These are processed meats that are cured and smoked sometimes as bone-in primal
cuts ( ham, loin, picnic shoulder) or bone less products.

Boneless products include
Canadian style bacon
Boneless ham
Turkey ham
Buffet ham
Honey glazed ham

Bacon is a cured, smoked product produced from pork belly Beef jerky is a cured and
smoked, non comminuted or restructured product. It is a thinly sliced, marinated, dried
product that does not require refrigeration like other cured & smoked non-comminuted
meats.

3. Restructured products

Uncured items that have been produced from raw meat materials that have been
coarsely ground, flaked, or sectioned in some manner and then recombined to form a
product of very uniform composition, shape and sensory characteristics
Can be made from any muscle food
Eg : Restructured roast beef
Flaked & formed steaks & chops
Nuggets used in fat food chains.

4. Canned products:

Heat treated products. No Refrigeration required as they are shelf stable commercially
sterile products, pasteurized products
Eg;
Vienna sausages
Cured boneless ham

CHAPTER 13 PROCESSED MEATS RAW MATERIALS AND NON-MEAT
INGREDIENTS


Raw materials and Non-meat ingredients used in processing

Meat ingredients:

The predominant meat raw material used to manufacture processed meat is skeletal
muscle.
However, other, raw materials are used in processed meats in order to reduce
formulation costs while increasing the value of raw material.

Eg; Organ meats tongues, snouts, livers, hearts
Partially defaulted tissue
Fat
Blood etc.

Properties of raw material :

Binding ability of the raw material is most important to curate adequate protein to
protein interaction necessary to hold meat pieces together to produce the desired
texture, stabilize fat, chemically bond water. Generally skeletal muscle offers the most
desirable combination of all these properties based on the amount of extractable actin
and myosin. Amt. of high Connective tissue containing meats should be closely
monitored and restricted because of the reduced overall functional properties or
functionality of such protein binding, fat sterilization and water binding. Pre-rigor meat is
known to have greater functionality than post-rigor one as actin and myosin are more
extractable and have a greater role in protein functionality compound to post-rigor meat
where acto myosin is more prevalent. Color varies with source of meat, Species,
muscle function.

Non-meat ingredients:

There are numerous non-meat Ingredients that can be used in processed meats. The
most commonly used are :
(i) Water
(ii) Nitrite
(iii) Cure color accelerators
(iv) Salt
(v) Phosphate
(vi) Sweeteners
(vii) Sugars
(viii) Antioxidants
(ix) Mould inhibitors
(x) Flavor enhancers
(xi) Extenders
(xii) Spices, seasonings & flavorings.


Water : Common non-meat ingredients used

Functions:
1.Ingredient distribution Solubilize salt and fast to extract SSP.
2.Solubilization of meat proteins
3.Temperature control - decrease temperature during mincing, grinding etc.
4.Machinability - decrease frictional forces between meat particles & viscosity
of batter
5.Improving various sensory traits
6.Cost reduction

Nitrite:

Most important ingredient incorporated in the manufacture of cured meats.

Functions
Vital bacteriostatic control over the species of C. botulinum
Cured color development and flavor protection
Contributes to flavor stability ( prevention of WOF)

Legal limits
120ppm for bacon
156 ppm for cooked sausages
200 ppm for cured hams, loins

Cure color accelerators

Eg; Sodium ascorbate, Sodium erythorbate, Sodium citrate. These are the ingredients
added to promote the formation of nitrosyl hemochrome.
Functions:
These allow the manufactures to heat process cured meats sooner by minimizing the
time necessary for the nitrite to react with myoglobin. Sodium ascorbate and sod.
Citrate also have antioxidant properties that help to maintain the color and flavor of the
cooked product. Sodium citrate is known to bind metal ions (copper, iron, Cr.) that can
prevent the development of oxidative rancidity.

Limit: Na. erythorbate can be added up to 550ppm
However ( Na erythorbate + Na citrate ) can also be added.

Salt
Mostly common salt Nacl is used
Three basic functions
i)Add or enhance flavor
ii)Solubilization or extract proteins that are essential for improving moisture retention
and in forming the necessary bind and texture in the finished product.
iii)Extend the shelf life of the product.

Levels:

Typically meat products are formulated to contain but ranges from 1.5 to 5.0%
Substitutes:

Processors can elect to substitute Kcl for Nacl.
Major disadvantage of using KCl is bitter taste
Hence limited to 0.5-0.7% on a finished wt. basis

Effect of salt

If more salt added bitter astringent taste so add sugar to counter act. Salt retard
microbial growth & subsequent spoilage in fresh. Enhanced the oxidative effect on
frozen stored fresh sausages.

Phosphates;
(i) Improve water-holding capacity (WHC)
(ii) Increase processing yield and purge accumulation in package is reduced
(iii) Products with phosphates retain more natural juices and added water during heat
processing and subsequent re-heating
(iv) Can increase the pH and ionic strength of comminuted meat which contributes to
WHC.
(v) Phosphates work synergistically with salt to extract myofibrillar proteins to
improve WHC. Phosphates dissociate acto myosin complex which enhances
salts ability to solubilize myosin
(vi) Phosphates chelate (sequester) certain metal ions. This is useful where traces of
Fe & Cu are chelated which catalyses lipid oxidation.
(vii) Have a role in flavor preservation, appearance & color.

Limit: - 0.5% w/w in the finished product.
Eg:- Alkaline phosphates most frequently used

Sweeteners :

It enhance the taste of the product. It has the ability to attract water and develop the
surface color of some products through browning reactions. Sugar reacts with amino
group. of protein during processing browning reaction. Sweeteners vary in the degree
of sweetness and are usually compared to sucrose (cane sugar) which is given a value
of 100. Other sweeteners are - Maltose ( 33-45)
- Corn syrup ( 40-70)
- dextrose ( 70)
- mollases (74)
- honey (100-170)
Limits: Corn syrup - > 2.0 - 2.5% - for sausage and cured pork. Others are self limiting

Sugars :

Variety of sugars like sucrose, dextrose, corn syrup, sorbital are used. Sugars are used
as flavoring agents to counter act the intensity of salt flavor. To provide food for
microbial fermentation in fermented sausages. To impart browning of meat during
cooking ( except sorbitol). Dextrose is added at 0.5-1% level in fermented sausages.


Antioxidants:

To retard the development of oxidative rancidity

Eg : BHA Butylated hydroxy anisole @ 0.01-0.02% of fat content
BHT Butylated hydroxyl toluene

Mould inhibitors:

Mold growth is a common problem in dried meat & meat products

To inhibit mould Potassium sorbate, propylparaben - can be used.

Flavor enhancers :

They are added to impart the flavor & taste
Eg: Mono Sodium Glutamate ( MSG)

Extenders :

Extenders are ingredients which are used to modify the composition of meat products. A
number of ingredient are used as extenders to reduce the cost of the product and to
provide certain functional properties related to product bind, texture and flavor.
Eg :
NFDM Non- fat dry milk
Sodium caseinate
Cereal flavors

Binders : Binders are added into meat products for

water binding
fat emulsification

Eg : Non fat dried milk (NFDM)
Soya products
Refined wheat flour (Maida) etc.

Fillers : Fillers are added only to bind water mostly starch products are added as fillers

Eg : smashed potato
Rice flour
Wheat flour
According to USDA, the level of fillers, Binders and Extenders in meat products either
singly/combinely should not exceed 3.5%. If exceeds those products are called
Imitation products. SPI (soy protein isolate) should not exceed 2% in meat products.
In India no such regulations are prescribed.





Spices, seasoning & flavoring

Spices are aromatic vegetable substances in whole, broken (or) ground which function
as seasonings from which most of the flavoring constituents are released.
Flavorings are extractives that contain flavoring constituents from fruits, vegetables,
herbs, roots, meat, sea foods, poultry, eggs and dairy products who add flavor to foods.

Eg. of spices All spice, aniseed, cardamom, pepper, Chilies, coriander, cloves, cumin
seed, nutmeg, ginger, garlic, mustard, onion paprika, rosemary turmeric etc.

Advantages/uses/purpose of comminuted meat products:

Various advantage/purpose of meat processing are as follows

Convenience
Variety
Value addition/economy
Consumer appeal
Modification in nutritional value

Convenience:

Comminuted meat products are either ready-to-cook or mostly ready to-eat/ready-to-
serve, ready-to-cook products require only less time for preparation and ready-to-eat
products are just warmed for few minutes before consumption. It is convenient to
handle, pack, store and serve.

Variety:

Comminuted meat products provides variety in terms of different types-sausages,
nuggets, balls, loaves etc., different sizes, different flavors, taste, appearance etc.
thereby minimizing the monotony of consuming same type of meat foods.

Value addition :

Since comminuted meat products are usually prepared from cheaper cuts and
trimmings, and finished products fetch higher price, a greater, amount of value is added
to the product compared to the raw material value.

Consumer appeal:

These products come in different sizes, shapes and flavors, hence attract the
consumers more when compared to meat as such.

Modification in nutritional value/composition:

Depending upon the consumers requirements the nutritional value, composition, flavor
etc. can be modified. For obese and older peoples low fat meat products

High BP patients and peoples with cardiac & renal disorders low salt products
For obese Low calories products

Basic meat processing steps for comminuted meat products:

Preparation of comminuted meat products involve the following essential steps

Comminution
Blending
Emulsification
Forming into products
Heat treatment (or) cooking

Comminution:


Comminution is the process of reduction of meat chunks into finer particles. The
degree of comminution depends on the type of product processed.

Comminution also helps in reducing the toughness of meat (old animals), uniform
distribution of ingredients and reducing full cost during cooking.

Comminution is done with the help of meat mincer for coarse ground products (
eg; coarse ground sausages) and bowl chopper for emulsion type products. Emulsion
mill and flaking machine are also used.

Blending:

It is the process of uniform distribution of the ingredient added to the meat. Blending can
be done with vortex mixer and nowadays done with bowl chopper it self.

Emulsification:

Emulsion is a mixture of two immiscible liquids where one liquid is dispersed as droplets
in another liquid.

An emulsion has 2 phases
a continuous phase
a disperse/discontinuous phase
In meat emulsion the continuous phase is water containing salt and proteins and also
called as matrix in which fat droplets are dispersed as droplets in another liquid.

An emulsion has 2 phases
A continuous phase
A disperse/discontinuous phase

In meat emulsion the continuous phase is water containing salt and proteins and
also called as matrix in which fat droplets are dispersed. Hence solid/liquid fat droplets
in the dispersed phase.(size of fat globules 0.1-5m diameter)

Lean meat

Comminution in the presence of salt and chilled water/ice

Extraction of myofibrillar & sarcoplasmic proteins to form stable emulsion

Addition of fat

Chopping (During this process, the fat particles are encapsulated by the extracted
proteins)

Emulsification (Emulsion or batter)

Hence meat is an oil-in-water emulsion where the proteins act as emulsifiers, but it is
not a true emulsion, since it is actually a complex mixture consisting of suspending
particles (collagen fibres myofibrils, cellular organelles), immobilized and free water,
lipid droplets and particles, and hydrated, solubilized and non-solubilized myofibrilllar
proteins. Myofibrillar proteins have more emulsifying capacity and more emulsion
stability.

Emulsifying capacity:

It is the amount of oil/fat that can be emulsified per unit gram of protein.

Forming into products:

In order to give definite shape to the products forming is done.

Sausages -Stuffed into casings
Patties -Moulds are used
Nuggets -Moulds
Balls -Rolled to balls
Loaves -cooked in moulds & sliced

Meat processing/cooking:

Meat products are cooked by
Dry heat
Moist heat
Microwave cooking
Deep fat frying

Cooking is done to

Modify the texture of the product
To stabilize the product shape
Reduce the bacterial load.



CURED MEAT PRODUCTS

HAM:

Ham is produced from ham/thigh cut of pork carcass. Whole cut is taken for the
preparation of the product. Hams are processed either by cooking or smoking or
curing/or cured, cooked and smoked.

Preparation of commercial ham:

Curing pickle: It is nothing but curing ingredients are dissolved in water.

Curing pickle is injected at the rate of 10% of the weight of green ham (unprocessed
ham)
Suppose if ham wt. is 2kg 200ml of pickle is injected to ham
Curing pickle should be prepared in such a way that the final product contain not more
than 2-2.5% of salt and not more than 1.0% sugar, not more than 0.5% Po
4
and not
more than 200ppm (150ppm) nitrite & not more than 500ppm of Na ascorbate.

Hence in 200 ml of curing pickle

40gm salt
20gm sugar
10gm Po
4.


Procedure:

Mostly ham is processed in 3 steps
a) Curing
b) Smoking
c) Cooking

Ham cut

Artery/stitch pumping of ham with pickle at 10% of green wt. of ham. Pumped ham is
kept in cooler for 24 hrs. (for best results ham is kept in pickle at 4
0
c for 5 days)

In practice, 3-7 days in cooler with subsequent overhauling uniform distribution of
pickle. Uniform proper distribution of curing pickle help in

Increased color development
Higher color stability
Increased flavor
Reduced number of uncured spots
Increased water binding
Uniform distribution of salt

Curing in followed by smoking and cooking if both smoking and cooking done together
then the internal temperature should be 65
0
c

Schedule:

Initially smoking at 60
0
c , RH 30-40%. After two hours, temperature increased up to
71
0
c. Later temperature again increased up to 82
0
c until the internal temperature
reaches 65
0
c. Length of smoking depends on
- Size of ham
- Final internal Temp. required
- Air velocity of smoke house
- Cooking schedule employed
- Slicing and packaging
- Store under refrigeration

BACON:


It is the belly cut of the pork carcass. Bacon is processed by curing, smoking &
cooking.
Belly portion

Curing
2 methods dry cure & pickle cure for commercial production of bacon ( stitch
pumping)

Combing (for uniform distribution of cure)

Smoking and cooking (56
0
c-60
0
c)

Cooled to chilling temperature (3-4
0
c)

Removal of rind (skin)

Further cooled to -3
0
c (to get uniform slicing of bacon)

Pressed

Slicing


Packaging


Stored under refrigeration








Restructured meats/Pre fabricated meat:

Restructured/fabricated meat is made from meat trimmings and/or lower-grade
carcasses/cuts. It is similar to real meat in texture, flavor & appearance, but less
expensive. The meat trimmings are broken down to particle size by flaking, shredding,
grinding or chopping and are them bound together into uniform shapes and sizes.

Some natural binding between the meats proteins occurs, but binding is further
accomplished by adding non-meat ingredients such as egg albumen, gelatin, texturized
soy protein, wheat/Milk proteins. The uniformity in size and shape, weight makes it ideal
for fast-food industry and food science establishments.

Meat trimmings & low- grade carcass/cuts

Undergo particle size reduction by sectioning, chunking, flaking, chopping, slicing, blade
tenderization etc.

Binding of meat pieces together by adding salts and phosphate to extract proteins to aid
in binding (or) sometimes non-meat proteins (gums etc.) are also added as binders.
Also meat proteins like fish proteins are added

Extracted and added proteins aid in binding of meat pieces together

Forming (refers to giving definite shape to product done by 2 ways)


Filling in moulds Freezing

Pressing Tempering (to aid in cutting)


Freezing & tempering
Cutting/portioning