BeJevence Ovoups as Fevspeclives

AulIov|s) Tanolsu SIiIulani

Souvce TIe Anevican JouvnaI oJ SocioIog, VoI. 60, No. 6 |Ma, 1955), pp. 562-569
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BEFEBENCE OBOUFS AS FEBSFECTIVES
TAMOTSU SHIBUTANI
ABSTBACT
In spile oJ anIiguil, veJevence gvoup Ias Iecone an incveasingI popuIav concepl, uliIized in IpolIeses
concevning a vaviel oJ sociaI pIenonena. TIe veslviclion oJ lIis concepl lo a singIe veJevenl, naneI, gvoup
vIose pevspeclive is used as a Jvane oJ veJevence I lIe aclov, viII incvease ils useJuIness as an anaIlic looI.
SIaved pevspeclives avise lIvougI pavlicipalion in connon connunicalion cIanneIs, and lIe cuIluvaI
pIuvaIisn oJ nodevn nass socielies avises Jvon lIe eas accessiIiIil oJ a nuIlipIicil oJ cIanneIs. TIe con-
cepl oJ veJevence gvoup, iJ deJined vilI gvealev pvecision, can gvealI JaciIilale veseavcI on lIe nannev
in vIicI eacI aclov's ovienlalion lovavd Iis vovId is slvucluved.
AIlIougI Hnan coined lIe levn scavce-
I nove lIan a decade ago, lIe concepl oJ
veJevence gvoup Ias Iecone one oJ lIe cen-
lvaI anaIlic looIs in sociaI pscIoIog, Ieing
used in lIe conslvuclion oJ IpolIeses con-
cevning a vaviel oJ sociaI pIenonena. TIe
inconsislenc in IeIaviov as a pevson nnoves
Jvon one sociaI conlexl lo anolIev is ac-
counled Jov in levns oJ a cIange in veJevence
gvoups: lIe expIoils oJ juveniIe deIinquenls,
especiaII in inlevsliliaI aveas, ave Ieing ex-
pIained I lIe expeclalions oJ peev-gvoup
gangs: nodiJicalions in sociaI alliludes ave
Jound lo Ie veIaled lo cIanges in associa-
lions. TIe concepl Ias Ieen pavlicuIavI
useJuI in accounling Jov lIe cIoices nade
anong appavenl aIlevnalives, pavlicuIavI
vIeve lIe seIeclions seen lo Ie conlvav lo
lIe Iesl inlevesls oJ lIe aclov. Slalus
pvoIIens-aspivalions oJ sociaI cIinIevs,
conJIicls in gvoup IoaIl, lIe diIennas oJ
navginaI nen-Iave aIso Ieen anaIzed in
levns oJ veJevence gvoups, as Iave lIe diJJev-
enliaI sensilivil and veaclion oJ vavious
segnenls oJ an audience lo nass connuni-
calion. Il is vecognized lIal lIe sane genevic
pvocesses ave invoIved in lIese pIenonenaI-
I divevse evenls, and lIe incveasing popu-
Iavil oJ lIe concepl allesls lo ils uliIil in
anaIsis.
As nigIl Ie expecled duving lIe expIova-
lov pIases in an JieId oJ inquiv, Iovevev,
lIeve is sone conJusion invoIved in lIe use
oJ lIis concepl, avising IavgeI Jvon vague-
ness oJ signiJicalion. TIe avaiIaIIe JovnaI
deJinilions ave inconsislenl, and sonelines
JovnaI deJinilions ave conlvadicled in usage.
TIe Jacl lIal sociaI pscIoIogisls can undev-
sland one anolIev in spile oJ lIese anIigui-
lies, Iovevev, inpIies an inluilive vecogni-
lion oJ sone cenlvaI neaning, and an expIicil
slalenenl oJ lIis viII enIance lIe uliIil oJ
lIe concepl as an anaIlic looI. TIe Iileva-
luve veveaIs lIal aII discussions oJ veJevence
gvoups invoIve sone idenliJiaIIe gvouping lo
vIicI an aclov is veIaled in sone nannev
and lIe novns and vaIues sIaved in lIal
gvoup. Hovevev, lIe veIalionsIip Ielveen
lIese lIvee levns is nol aIvas cIeav. Ouv
iniliaI lasI, lIen, is lo exanine lIe concep-
lions oJ veJevence gvoup inpIicil in acluaI
usage, ivvespeclive oJ JovnaI deJinilions.
One connon usage oJ lIe concepl is in
lIe designalion oJ lIal gvoup vIicI sevves
as lIe poinl oJ veJevence in naIing conpavi-
sons ov conlvasls, especiaII in Jovning judg-
nenls aIoul one's seIJ. In lIe oviginaI use oJ
lIe concepl Hnan spoIe oJ veJevence
gvoups as poinls oJ conpavison in evaIualing
one's ovn slalus, and Ie Jound lIal lIe esli-
nales vavied accovding lo lIe gvoup vilI
vIicI lIe vespondenl conpaved IinseIJ.
Mevlon and Kill, in lIeiv veJovnuIalion oJ
SlouJJev's lIeov oJ veIalive depvivalion,
aIso use lIe concepl in lIis nannev: lIe
judgnenls oJ veav-ecIeIon soIdievs ovevseas
concevning lIeiv Jale vavied, depending
upon vIelIev lIe connpaved lIenseIves lo
soIdievs vIo veve sliII al Ione ov nen in
conIal. TIe aIso pvopose concvele veseavcI
opevalions in vIicI vespondenls ave lo Ie
asIed lo conpave lIenseIves vilI vavious
gvoups. TIe slud oJ aspivalion IeveIs I
CIapnan and VoIInann, JvequenlI ciled
in discussions oJ veJevence-gvoup lIeov,
aIso invoIves vavialions in judgnenl avising
562
BEFEBENCE OBOUFS AS FEBSFECTIVES 563
Jvon a conpavison oJ one's ovn gvoup vilI
olIevs.' In lIis node oJ appIicalion, lIen, a
veJevence gvoup is a slandavd ov cIecI poinl
vIicI an aclov uses in Jovning Iis eslinale
oJ lIe silualion, pavlicuIavI Iis ovn posi-
lion vilIin il. LogicaII, lIen, an gvoup
vilI vIicI an aclov is JaniIiav na Iecone
a veJevence gvoup.
A second veJevenl oJ lIe concepl is lIal
gvoup in vIicI lIe aclov aspives lo gain ov
nainlain acceplance Ience, a gvoup vIose
cIains ave pavanounl in silualions vequiving
cIoice. TIe veJevence gvoup oJ lIe sociaII
anIilious is said lo consisl oJ peopIe oJ
IigIev slvala vIose slalus snIoIs ave ini-
laled. Mevlon and Kill inlevpvel lIe expves-
sions oJ viIIingness and JeIl veadiness Jov
conIal on lIe pavl oJ inexpevienced lvoops,
as opposed lo lIe IuniIil oJ IallIe-Iavd-
ened velevans, as lIe eJJovls oJ nevconevs lo
idenliJ lIenseIves vilI velevans lo vIon
lIe Iad nislaIenI inpuled cevlain vaI-
ues.2 TIus, lIe concepl is used lo poinl lo an
associalion oJ Iunan Ieings anong vIon
one seeIs lo gain, nainlain, ov enIance Iis
slalus: a veJevence gvoup is lIal gvoup in
vIicI one desives lo pavlicipale.
In a lIivd usage lIe concepl signiJies lIal
gvoup vIose pevspeclive conslilules lIe
Jvane oJ veJevence oJ lIe aclov. TIus, SIeviJ
speaIs oJ veJevence gvoups as gvoups vIose
novns ave used as ancIoving poinls in slvuc-
luving lIe pevcepluaI JieId,3 and Mevlon and
Kill speaI oJ a sociaI Jvane oJ veJevence
Jov inlevpvelalions.4 TIvougI divecl ov vi-
cavious pavlicipalion in a gvoup one cones lo
pevceive lIe vovId Jvon ils slandpoinl. Yel
lIis gvoup need nol Ie one in vIicI Ie as-
pives Jov acceplance: a nenIev oJ sone ni-
novil gvoup nna despise il Iul sliII see lIe
vovId IavgeI lIvougI ils ees. WIen used in
lIis nannev, lIe concepl oJ veJevence gvoup
poinls nove lo a pscIoIogicaI pIenonenon
lIan lo an oIjecliveI exisling gvoup oJ
nen: il veJevs lo an ovganizalion oJ lIe ac-
lov's expevience. TIal is lo sa, il is a slvuc-
luving oJ Iis pevcepluaI JieId. In lIis usage a
veJevence gvoup Iecones an coIIeclivil,
veaI ov inagined, envied ov despised, vIose
pevspeclive is assuned I lIe aclov.
TIus, an exaninalion oJ cuvvenl usage
discIoses lIvee dislincl veJevenls Jov a singIe
concepl |1) gvoups vIicI sevve as conpavi-
son poinls: |2) gvoups lo vIicI nen aspive:
and |3) gvoups vIose pevspeclives ave as-
suned I lIe aclov. AIlIougI lIese levns
na Ie veIaled, lvealing logelIev vIal
sIouId Ie cIeavI deIinealed as genevicaII
diJJevenl can Iead onI lo JuvlIev conJusion.
Il is lIe conlenlion oJ lIis papev lIal lIe
veslviclion oJ lIe concepl oJ veJevence gvoup
lo lIe lIivd aIlevnalive-lIal gvoup vIose
pevspeclive conslilules lIe Jvane oJ veJev-
ence oJ lIe aclov-viII incvease ils useJuIness
in veseavcI. An gvoup ov oIjecl na Ie
used Jov conpavisons, and one need nol as-
sune lIe voIe oJ lIose vilI vIon Ie con-
paves Iis Jale: Ience, lIe Jivsl usage sevves a
quile diJJevenl puvpose and na Ie eIini-
naled Jvon JuvlIev considevalion. Undev
sone civcunslances, Iovevev, gvoup IoaI-
lies and aspivalions ave veIaled lo pevspec-
lives assuned, and lIe cIavaclev oJ lIis veIa-
lionsIip caIIs Jov JuvlIev expIovalion. SucI a
discussion necessilales a veslalenenl oJ lIe
JaniIiav, Iul, in viev oJ lIe diJJicuIlies in
sone oJ lIe vovI on veJevence gvoups, vepe-
lilion na nol Ie enliveI oul oJ ovdev. In
spile oJ lIe enlIusiasn oJ sone pvoponenls
lIeve is acluaII nolIing nev in veJevence-
gvoup lIeov.
CULTUBE ANB FEBSONAL CONTBOLS
TIonas poinled oul nan eavs ago lIal
vIal a nan does depends IavgeI upon Iis
deJinilion oJ lIe silualion. One na add
lIal lIe nannev in vIicI one consislenlI
I
H. H. Hnan, TIe FscIoIog oJ Slalus,
AvcIives oJ FscIoIog, 777VIII |1942),15: B. K.
Mevlon and A. Kill, ConlviIulions lo lIe TIeov
oJ BeJevence Ovoup BeIaviov, in B. K. Mevlon
and F. F. LazavsJeId |eds.), Sludies in lIIe Scope and
MelIod oJ TIe Anevican SoIdiev |OIencoe, III.
Fvee Fvess, 1950), pp. 42-53, 69: B. W. CIapnan
and J. VoIInann, A SociaI Belevninanl oJ lIe
LeveI oJ Aspivalion, JouvnaI oJ AInovnaI and SociaI
FscIoIog, 777IV |1939), 225-38.
2
Op. cil.,
pp.
75-76.
3
M. SIeviJ, TIe Concepl oJ BeJevence Ovoups
in Hunan BeIalions, in M. SIeviJ and M. 0.
WiIson |eds.), Ovoup BeIalions al lIe Cvossvoads
|Nev YovI Havpev & Bvos., 1953), pp. 203-31.
4 Op. cil., pp. 49-50.
564 THE AMEBICAN JOUBNAL OF SOCIOLOOY
deJines a succession oJ silualions depends
upon Iis ovganized pevspeclive. A pevspec-
live is an ovdeved viev oJ one's vovId-vIal
is laIen Jov gvanled aIoul lIe allviIules oJ
vavious oIjecls, evenls, and Iunan naluve.
Il is an ovdev oJ lIings venenIeved and ex-
pecled as veII as lIings acluaII pevceived,
an ovganized conceplion oJ vIal is pIausiIIe
and vIal is possiIIe: il conslilules lIe na-
lvix lIvougI vIicI one pevceives Iis en-
vivonnenl. TIe Jacl lIal nen Iave sucI
ovdeved pevspeclives enaIIes lIen lo con-
ceive oJ lIeiv evev cIanging vovId as veIa-
liveI slaIIe, ovdevI, and pvediclaIIe. As
BiezIev puls il, one's pevspeclive is an oul-
Iine scIene vIicI, vunning aIead oJ expevi-
ence, deJines and guides il.
TIeve is aIundanl expevinenlaI evidence
lo sIov lIal pevceplion is seIeclive: lIal lIe
ovganizalion oJ pevcepluaI expevience de-
pends in pavl upon vIal is anlicipaled and
vIal is laIen Jov gvanled. Judgnenls vesl
upon pevspeclives, and peopIe vilI diJJevenl
oulIooIs deJine idenlicaI silualions diJJev-
enlI, vesponding seIecliveI lo lIe envivon-
nenl. TIus, a pvoslilule and a sociaI vovIev
vaIIing lIvougI a sIun avea nolice diJJevenl
lIings: a socioIogisl sIouId pevceive veIalion-
sIips lIal olIevs JaiI lo oIsevve. An cIange
oJ pevspeclives-Ieconing
a pavenl Jov lIe
Jivsl line, Ieavning lIal one viII die in a Jev
nonlIs, ov suJJeving lIe JaiIuve oJ veII-Iaid
pIans-Ieads one lo nolice lIings pveviousI
ovevIooIed and lo see lIe JaniIiav vovId in a
diJJevenl IigIl. As OoelIe conlended, Iislov
is conlinuaII vevvillen, nol so nucI Ie-
cause oJ lIe discovev oJ nev docunenlav
evidence, Iul Iecause lIe cIanging pevspec-
lives oJ Iislovians Iead lo nev seIeclions
Jvon lIe dala.
CuIluve, as lIe concepl is used I Bed-
JieId, veJevs lo a pevspeclive lIal is sIaved
I lIose in a pavlicuIav gvoup: il consisls oJ
lIose convenlionaI undevslandings, nani-
Jesl in acl and avliJacl, lIal cIavaclevize so-
cielies.5 Since lIese convenlionaI undev-
slandings ave lIe pvenises oJ aclion, lIose
vIo sIave a connon cuIluve engage in con-
non nodes oJ aclion. CuIluve is nol a slalic
enlil Iul a conlinuing pvocess: novns ave
cvealiveI veaJJivned Jvon da lo da in so-
ciaI inlevaclion. TIose laIing pavl in coIIec-
live lvansaclions appvoacI one anolIev vilI
sel expeclalions, and lIe veaIizalion oJ vIal
is anlicipaled successiveI conJivns and ve-
inJovces lIeiv pevspeclives. In lIis va,
peopIe in eacI cuIluvaI gvoup ave conlinu-
ousI suppovling one anolIev's pevspeclives,
eacI I vesponding lo lIe olIevs in expecled
vas. In lIis sense cuIluve is a pvoducl oJ
connunicalion.
In Iis discussion oJ endopscIic sociaI
conlvoI Mead spoIe oJ nen laIing lIe voIe
oJ lIe genevaIized olIev, neaning I lIal
lIal eacI pevson appvoacIes Iis vovId Jvon
lIe slandpoinl oJ lIe cuIluve oJ Iis gvoup.
EacI pevceives, lIinIs, Jovns judgnenls,
and conlvoIs IinseIJ accovding lo lIe Jvane
oJ veJevence oJ lIe gvoup in vIicI Ie is pav-
licipaling. Since Ie deJines oIjecls, olIev
peopIe, lIe vovId, and IinseIJ Jvon lIe pev-
speclive lIal Ie sIaves vilI olIevs, Ie can
visuaIize Iis pvoposed Iine oJ aclion Jvon
lIis genevaIized slandpoinl, anlicipale lIe
veaclions oJ olIevs, inIiIil undesivaIIe in-
puIses, and lIus guide Iis conducl. TIe so-
ciaIized pevson is a sociel in ninialuve: Ie
sels lIe sane slandavds oJ conducl Jov Iin-
seIJ as Ie sels Jov olIevs, and Ie judges Iin-
seIJ in lIe sane levns. He can deJine silua-
lions pvopevI and neel Iis oIIigalions, even
in lIe aIsence oJ olIev peopIe, Iecause, as
aIvead noled, Iis pevspeclive aIvas laIes
inlo accounl lIe expeclalions oJ olIevs.
TIus, il is lIe aIiIil lo deJine silualions
Jvon lIe sane slandpoinl as olIevs lIal
naIes pevsonaI conlvoIs possiIIe.6 WIen
Mead spoIe oJ assuning lIe voIe oJ lIe gen-
evaIized olIev, Ie vas nol veJevving lo peopIe
Iul lo pevspeclives sIaved vilI olIevs in a
lvansaclion.
5 B. BedJieId, TIe FoII CuIluve oJ Yucalan
|CIicago Univevsil oJ CIicago Fvess, 1941), p.
132.
Fov a nove expIicil pvesenlalion oJ a IeIaviovislic
lIeov oJ cuIluve see TIe SeIecled Wvilings oJ Edvavd
Sapiv in Language, CuIluve and FevsonaIil, ed. B. O.
MandeIIaun |BevIeIe Univevsil oJ CaIiJovnia
Fvess, 1949), pp. 104-9, 308-31, 544-59.
6
O. H. Mead, TIe Oenesis oJ lIe SeIJ and SociaI
ConlvoI, InlevnalionaI JouvnaI oJ ElIics, 777V
|1925), 251-77, and Mind, SeIJ and Sociel |CIi-
cago Univevsil oJ CIicago Fvess, 1934), pp. 152-
64. CJ. T. Favsons, TIe Supevego and lIe TIeov
oJ SociaI Sslens, FscIialv, 7V |1952),
15-25.
BEFEBENCE OBOUFS AS FEBSFECTIVES 565
TIe consislenc in lIe IeIaviov oJ a nan
in a vide vaviel oJ sociaI conlexls is lo Ie
accounled Jov,
lIen, in levns oJ Iis ovgan-
ized pevspeclive. Once one Ias incovpovaled
a pavlicuIav oulIooI Jvon Iis gvoup,
il Ie-
cones Iis ovienlalion lovavd lIe vovId,
and
Ie Ivings lIis Jvane oJ veJevence lo Ieav on
aII nev silualions. TIus, innigvanls and
louvisls oJlen nisinlevpvel lIe slvange
lIings lIe see, and a discipIined Con-
nunisl vouId deJine eacI silualion diJJev-
enlI Jvon lIe non-Connunisl. AIlIougI
veJevence-gvoup IeIaviov is genevaII sludied
in silualions vIeve cIoices seen possiIIe,
lIe aclov IinseIJ is oJlen unavave lIal lIeve
ave aIlevnalives.
TIe pvoposilion lIal nen lIinI, JeeI, and
see lIings Jvon a slandpoinl pecuIiav lo lIe
gvoup in vIicI lIe pavlicipale is an oId
one, vepealedI enpIasized I sludenls oJ
anlIvopoIog and oJ lIe socioIog oJ InovI-
edge. WI, lIen, lIe sudden concevn vilI
veJevence-gvoup lIeov duving lIe pasl dec-
ade? TIe concepl oJ veJevence gvoup acluaII
inlvoduces a ninov veJinenenl in lIe Iong
JaniIiav lIeov, nade necessav I lIe spe-
ciaI cIavaclevislics oJ nodevn nass socielies.
Fivsl oJ aII, in nodevn socielies speciaI pvoI-
Iens avise Jvon lIe Jacl lIal nen sonelines
use lIe slandavds oJ gvoups in vIicI lIe
ave nol vecognized nenIevs, sonelines oJ
gvoups in vIicI lIe Iave nevev pavlici-
paled diveclI, and sonelines oJ gvoups lIal
do nol exisl al aII. Second,
in ouv nass so-
ciel, cIavaclevized as il is I cuIluvaI pIu-
vaIisn, eacI pevson inlevnaIizes sevevaI pev-
speclives, and lIis occasionaII gives vise lo
enIavassing diIennas vIicI caII Jov ss-
lenalic slud. FinaII, lIe deveIopnenl oJ
veJevence-gvoup lIeov Ias Ieen JaciIilaled
I lIe incveasing inlevesl in sociaI pscIoI-
og and lIe suIjeclive aspecls oJ gvoup IiJe,
a sIiJl Jvon a pvedoninanl concevn vilI
oIjeclive sociaI slvucluves lo an inlevesl in
lIe expeviences oJ lIe pavlicipanls vIose
veguIavized aclivilies naIe sucI slvucluves
discevniIIe.
A veJevence gvoup, lIen, is lIal gvoup
vIose oulIooI is used I lIe aclov as lIe
Jvane oJ veJevence in lIe ovganizalion oJ Iis
pevcepluaI JieId. AII Iinds oJ gvoupings, vilI
gveal vavialions in
size, conposilion, and
slvucluve, na Iecone veJevence gvoups. OJ
gvealesl innpovlance Jov nosl peopIe ave
lIose gvoups in vIicI lIe pavlicipale di-
veclI-vIal Iave Ieen caIIed nenIevsIip
gvoups-especiaII lIose conlaining a nun-
Iev oJ pevsons vilI vIon one slands in a
pvinav veIalionsIip. Bul in sone lvansac-
lions one na assune lIe pevspeclive al-
lviIuled lo sone sociaI calegov-a sociaI
cIass, an elInic gvoup, lIose in a given con-
nunil, ov lIose concevned vilI sone spe-
ciaI inlevesl. On lIe olIev Iand, veJevence
gvoups na Ie
inaginav, as in lIe case oJ
avlisls vIo ave Iovn aIead oJ lIeiv lines,
scienlisls vIo vovI Jov Iunanil, ov
pIiIanlIvopisls vIo give Jov poslevil.
SucI pevsons eslinale lIeiv endeavovs Jvon
a posluIaled pevspeclive inpuled lo peopIe
vIo Iave nol el Ieen Iovn. TIeve ave
olIevs vIo Iive Jov a dislanl pasl, ideaIizing
sone peviod in Iislov and Ionging Jov lIe
good oId das, cvilicizing cuvvenl evenls
Jvon a slandpoinl inpuled lo peopIe Iong
since dead. BeJevence gvoups, lIen, avise
lIvougI lIe inlevnaIizalion oJ novns: lIe
conslilule lIe slvucluve oJ expeclalions in-
puled lo sone audience Jov vIon one ov-
ganizes Iis conducl.
THE CONSTBUCTION OF SOCIAL WOBLBS
As Beve enpIasized, sociel exisls
in and lIvougI connunicalion: con-
non pevspeclives-connon cuIluves-
enevge lIvougI pavlicipalion in connon
connunicalion cIanneIs. Il is lIvougI so-
ciaI pavlicipalion lIal pevspeclives sIaved in
a gvoup ave inlevnaIized. Bespile lIe Jve-
quenl vecilalion oJ lIis pvoposilion, ils JuII
inpIicalions, especiaII Jov lIe anaIsis oJ
nass socielies, ave nol oJlen appvecialed.
Vavialions in oulIooI avise lIvougI diJJeven-
liaI conlacl and associalion: lIe nainle-
nance oJ sociaI dislance-lIvougI segvega-
lion, conJIicl, ov sinpI lIe veading oJ diJ-
Jevenl Iilevaluve-Ieads lo lIe Jovnalion oJ
dislincl cuIluves. TIus, peopIe in diJJevenl
sociaI cIasses deveIop diJJevenl nodes oJ IiJe
and oulIooI, nol Iecause oJ anlIing in-
Ievenl in econonic posilion, Iul Iecause
siniIavil oJ occupalion and Iinilalions sel
566 THE AMEBICAN JOUBNAL OF SOCIOLOOY
I incone IeveI dispose lIen lo cevlain ve-
slvicled connunicalion cIanneIs. TIose in
diJJevenl elInic gvoups Jovn lIeiv ovn dis-
linclive cuIluves Iecause lIeiv idenliJica-
lions incIine lIen lo inlevacl inlinaleI
vilI eacI olIev and lo nainlain vesevve Ie-
Jove oulsidevs. BiJJevenl inleIIecluaI lvadi-
lions vilIin sociaI pscIoIog-pscIoanaI-
sis, scaIe anaIsis, OeslaIl, pvagnalisn-
viII venain sepavaled as Iong as lIose in
eacI lvadilion veslvicl lIeiv snpalIelic al-
lenlion lo vovIs oJ lIeiv ovn scIooI and
viev olIevs vilI conlenpl ov IosliIil.
Sone sociaI scienlisls ave oul oJ loucI vilI
lIe nasses oJ lIe Anevican peopIe Iecause
lIe escIev lIe nass nedia, especiaII leIe-
vision, ov expose lIenseIves onI conde-
scendingI. Even lIe oulIooI lIal lIe avanl-
gavde vegavds as cosnopoIilan is cuIluve-
Iound, Jov il aIso is a pvoducl oJ pavlicipa-
lion in veslvicled connunicalion cIanneIs-
IooIs, nagazines, neelings, exIiIils, and
lavevns vIicI ave oul oJ Iounds Jov nosl
peopIe in lIe niddIe cIasses. SociaI pavlici-
palion na even Ie vicavious, as il is in lIe
case oJ a nedievaIisl vIo acquives Iis pev-
speclive soIeI lIvougI IooIs.
Even casuaI oIsevvalion veveaIs lIe
anazing vaviel oJ slandavds I vIicI
Anevicans Iive. TIe inconsislencies and con-
lvadiclions vIicI cIavaclevize nodevn nass
socielies ave pvoducls oJ lIe nuIlilude oJ
connunicalion cIanneIs and lIe ease oJ
pavlicipalion in lIen. Sluding veIaliveI
isoIaled socielies, anlIvopoIogisls can speaI
neaningJuII oJ cuIluve aveas in geo-
gvapIicaI levns: in sucI socielies connon
cuIluves Iave a levviloviaI Iase, Jov onI lIose
vIo Iive logelIev can inlevacl. In nodevn
induslviaI socielies, Iovevev, Iecause oJ lIe
deveIopnenl oJ vapid lvanspovlalion and lIe
nedia oJ nass connunicalion, peopIe vIo
ave geogvapIicaII dispevsed can connuni-
cale eJJecliveI. CuIluve aveas ave colev-
ninous vilI connunicalion cIanneIs: since
connunicalion nelvovIs ave no Iongev co-
levninous vilI levviloviaI Ioundavies, cuI-
luve aveas ovevIap and Iave Iosl lIeiv levvi-
loviaI Iases. TIus, nexl-doov neigIIovs na
Ie conpIele slvangevs: even in connon pav-
Iance lIeve is an inluilive vecognilion oJ lIe
divevsil oJ pevspeclives, and ve speaI
neaningJuII oJ peopIe Iiving in diJJevenl
sociaI vovIds-lIe acadenic vovId, lIe
vovId oJ cIiIdven, lIe vovId oJ JasIion.
Modevn nass socielies, indeed, ave nade
up oJ a IeviIdeving vaviel oJ sociaI vovIds.
EacI is an ovganized oulIooI, IuiIl up I
peopIe in lIeiv inlevaclion vilI one anolIev:
Ience, eacI connunicalion cIanneI gives
vise lo a sepavale vovId. FvoIaII lIe gveal-
esl sense oJ idenliJicalion and soIidavil is lo
Ie Jound in lIe vavious connunaI slvuc-
luves-lIe undevvovId, elInic ninovilies,
lIe sociaI eIile. SucI connunilies ave Jve-
quenlI spaliaII segvegaled, vIicI isoIales
lIen JuvlIev Jvon lIe oulev vovId, vIiIe lIe
gvapevine and Joveign-Ianguage pvesses
pvovide inlevnaI conlacls. AnolIev connon
lpe oJ sociaI vovId consisls oJ lIe associa-
lionaI slvucluves-lIe vovId oJ nedicine, oJ
ovganized IaIov, oJ lIe lIealev, oJ caJe so-
ciel. TIese ave IeId logelIev nol onI I
vavious voIunlav associalions vilIin eacI
IocaIil Iul aIso I peviodicaIs IiIe Vaviel,
speciaIized jouvnaIs, and Jealuve seclions in
nevspapevs. FinaII, lIeve ave lIe IooseI
connecled univevses oJ speciaI inlevesl-lIe
vovId oJ spovls, oJ lIe slanp coIIeclov, oJ lIe
daline seviaI-sevviced I nass nedia pvo-
gvans and nagazines IiIe FieId and Slvean.
EacI oJ lIese vovIds is a unil oJ ovdev, a
univevse oJ veguIavized nuluaI vesponse.
EacI is an avea in vIicI lIeve is sone slvuc-
luve vIicI pevnils veasonaIIe anlicipalion
oJ lIe IeIaviov oJ olIevs, Ience, an avea in
vIicI one na acl vilI a sense oJ secuvil
and conJidence.7 EacI sociaI vovId, lIen, is a
cuIluve avea, lIe Ioundavies oJ vIicI ave sel
neilIev I levvilov nov I JovnaI gvoup
nenIevsIip Iul I lIe Iinils oJ eJJeclive
connunicalion.
Since lIeve is a vaviel oJ connunicalion
cIanneIs, diJJeving in slaIiIil and exlenl,
sociaI vovIds diJJev in conposilion, size, and
lIe levviloviaI dislviIulion oJ lIe pavlici-
7
CJ. K. BiezIev, Man MulaIIe and InnulaIIe
|CIicago Henv Begnev Co., 1950), pp. 62-72:
L. LandgveIe, TIe WovId as a FIenonenoIogicaI
FvoIIen, FIiIosopI and FIenonenoIogicaI Be-
seavcI, I |1940), 38-58: and A. ScIuelz, TIe
Slvangev An Essa in SociaI FscIoIog, Anevican
JouvnaI oJ SocioIog, 7LI7 |1944), 499-507.
BEFEBENCE OBOUFS AS FEBSFECTIVES 567
panls. Sone, IiIe IocaI cuIls, ave snaII and
concenlvaled: olIevs, IiIe lIe inleIIecluaI
vovId, ave vasl and lIe pavlicipanls dis-
pevsed. WovIds diJJev in lIe exlenl and cIav-
il oJ lIeiv Ioundavies: eacI is conJined I
sone Iind oJ Iovizon, Iul lIis na Ie vide
ov navvov, cIeav ov vague. TIe Jacl lIal so-
ciaI vovIds ave nol colevninous vilI lIe uni-
vevse oJ nen is vecognized: lIose in lIe un-
devvovId ave veII avave oJ lIe Jacl lIal oul-
sidevs do nol sIave lIeiv vaIues. WovIds diJ-
Jev in excIusiveness and in lIe exlenl lo
vIicI lIe denand lIe IoaIl oJ lIeiv pav-
licipanls. Mosl inpovlanl oJ aII, sociaI
vovIds ave nol slalic enlilies: sIaved pev-
speclives ave conlinuaII Ieing veconsli-
luled. WovIds cone inlo exislence vilI lIe
eslaIIisInenl oJ connunicalion
cIanneIs:
vIen IiJe condilions cIange, sociaI veIalion-
sIips na aIso cIange, and lIese vovIds na
disappeav.
Evev sociaI vovId Ias sone Iind oJ con-
nunicalion sslen-oJlen nolIing nove
lIan diJJevenliaI associalion-in vIicI lIeve
deveIops a speciaI univevse oJ discouvse,
sonelines an avgol. SpeciaI neanings and
snIoIs JuvlIev accenluale diJJevences and
incvease sociaI dislance Jvon oulsidevs. In
eacI vovId lIeve ave speciaI novns oJ con-
ducl, a sel oJ vaIues, a speciaI pveslige
Iaddev, cIavaclevislic caveev Iines, and a
connon oulIooI lovavd IiJe-a WeIlan-
scIauung. In lIe case oJ eIiles lIeve na
even avise a code oJ Ionov vIicI IoIds onI
Jov lIose vIo IeIong, vIiIe olIevs ave dis-
nissed as Ieings sonevIal Iess lIan Iunan
Jvon vIon Iad nannevs na Ie expecled.
A sociaI vovId, lIen, is an ovdev conceived
vIicI sevves as lIe slage on vIicI eacI pav-
licipanl seeIs lo cavve oul Iis caveev and lo
nainlain and enIance Iis slalus.
One oJ lIe cIavaclevislics oJ IiJe in nod-
evn nass socielies is sinuIlaneous pavlici-
palion in a vaviel oJ sociaI vovIds. Because
oJ lIe ease vilI vIicI lIe individuaI na
expose IinseIJ lo a nunIev oJ connunica-
lion cIanneIs, Ie na Iead a segnenlaIized
IiJe, pavlicipaling successiveI in a nunIev
oJ unveIaled aclivilies. FuvlIevnove, lIe
pavlicuIav conIinalion oJ sociaI vovIds diJ-
Jevs Jvon pevson lo pevson: lIis is vIal Ied
SinneI lo decIave lIal eacI slands al lIal
poinl al vIicI a unique conIinalion oJ so-
ciaI civcIes inlevsecls. TIe geonelvic anaIog
is a Iapp one, Jov il enaIIes us lo conceive
lIe nunevous possiIiIilies oJ conIinalions
and lIe diJJevenl degvees oJ pavlicipalion in
eacI civcIe. To undevsland vIal a nan does,
ve nusl gel al Iis unique pevspeclive-
vIal Ie laIes Jov gvanled and Iov Ie de-
Jines lIe silualion-Iul in nass socielies ve
nusl Ieavn in addilion lIe sociaI vovId in
vIicI Ie is pavlicipaling in a given acl.
LOYALTY ANB SELECTIVE BESFONSIVENESS
In a nass sociel vIeve eacI pevson in-
levnaIizes nunevous pevspeclives lIeve ave
Iound lo Ie sone incongvuilies and con-
JIicls. TIe ovevIapping oJ gvoup aJJiIialion
and pavlicipalion, Iovevev, need nol Iead lo
diJJicuIlies and is usuaII unnoliced. TIe
veJevence gvoups oJ nosl pevsons ave nu-
luaII suslaining. TIus, lIe soIdiev vIo voI-
unleevs Jov Iazavdous dul on lIe IallIe-
JieId na pvovoIe anxiel in Iis JaniI Iul
is nol acling conlvav lo lIeiv vaIues: IolI
Iis JaniI and Iis convades adnive couvage
and disdain covavdice. BeIaviov na Ie in-
consislenl, as in lIe case oJ lIe pvovevIiaI
oJJice lvanl vIo is neeI IeJove Iis viJe, Iul
il is nol noliced iJ lIe lvansaclions occuv in
dissocialed conlexls. Mosl peopIe Iive nove
ov Iess conpavlnenlaIized Iives, sIiJling
Jvon one sociaI vovId lo anolIev as lIe pav-
licipale in a succession oJ lvansaclions. In
eacI vovId lIeiv voIes ave diJJevenl, lIeiv ve-
Ialions lo olIev pavlicipanls ave diJJevenl,
and lIe veveaI a diJJevenl Jacel oJ lIeiv pev-
sonaIilies. Men Iave Iecone so accusloned
lo lIis node oJ IiJe lIal lIe nanage lo con-
ceive oJ lIenseIves as veasonaII consislenl
Iunan Ieings in spile oJ lIis segnenlaIiza-
lion and ave genevaII nol avave oJ lIe Jacl
lIal lIeiv acls do nol Jil inlo a coIevenl pal-
levn.
FeopIe Iecone aculeI avave oJ lIe exisl-
ence oJ diJJevenl oulIooIs onI vIen lIe
ave successiveI caugIl in silualions in
vIicI conJIicling denands ave nade upon
lIen, aII oJ vIicI cannol possiII Ie salis-
Jied. WIiIe nen genevaII avoid naIing diJ-
JicuIl decisions, lIese diIennas and conlva-
568 THE AMEBICAN JOUBNAL OF SOCIOLOOY
diclions oJ slalus na Jovce a cIoice Ie-
lveen lvo sociaI vovIds. TIese conJIicls ave
essenliaII aIlevnalive vas oJ deJining lIe
sane silualion, avising Jvon sevevaI possiIIe
pevspeclives. In lIe vovds oJ WiIIian Janes,
As a nan I pil ou, Iul as an oJJiciaI I
nusl sIov ou no nevc: as a poIilician I
vegavd Iin as an aII, Iul as a novaIisl I
IoalIe Iin. In pIaing voIes in diJJevenl so-
ciaI vovIds, one inpules diJJevenl expecla-
lions lo olIevs vIose diJJevences cannol aI-
vas Ie conpvonised. TIe pvoIIen is lIal
oJ seIecling lIe pevspeclive Jov deJining lIe
silualion. In Mead's levninoIog, vIicI
genevaIized olIev's voIe is lo Ie laIen? Il is
onI in silualions vIeve aIlevnalive deJini-
lions ave possiIIe lIal pvoIIens oJ IoaIl
avise.
OenevaII sucI conJIicls ave epIenevaI: in
cvilicaI silualions conlvadiclions olIevvise
unnoliced ave IvougIl inlo lIe open, and
painJuI cIoices ave Jovced. In poovI in-
legvaled socielies, Iovevev, sone peopIe
Jind lIenseIves conlinuaII Iesel vilI sucI
conJIicls. TIe Negvo inleIIecluaI,
cIiIdven oJ
nixed navviages ov oJ innigvanls, lIe Jove-
nan in a Jaclov, lIe pvoJessionaI vonan,
lIe niIilav cIapIain-aII Iive in lIe inlev-
slices oJ veII-ovganized slvucluves and ave
navginaI nen.8 In nosl inslances lIe nan-
age lo naIe lIeiv va lIvougI lIeiv con-
pavlvnenlaIized Iives, aIlIougI pevsonaI naI-
adjuslnenls ave appavenlI Jvequenl. In ex-
lvene cases annesia and dissocialion oJ pev-
sonaIil can occuv.
MucI oJ lIe inlevesl in veJevence gvoups
avises oul oJ concevn vilI silualions in vIicI
a pevson is conJvonled vilI lIe necessil oJ
cIoosing Ielveen lvo ov nove ovganized
pevspeclives. TIe IpolIesis Ias Ieen ad-
vanced lIal lIe cIoice oJ veJevence gvoups-
conJovnil lo lIe novns oJ lIe gvoup vIose
pevspeclive is assuned-is a Junclion oJ
one's inlevpevsonaI veIalions: lo vIal exlenl
lIe cuIluve oJ a gvoup sevves as lIe nalvix
Jov lIe ovganizalion oJ pevcepluaI expevience
depends upon one's veIalionsIip and pev-
sonaI IoaIl lo olIevs vIo sIave lIal oul-
IooI. TIus, vIen pevsonaI veIalions lo olIevs
in lIe gvoup deleviovale, as sonelines Iap-
pens in a niIilav unil aJlev conlinued de-
Jeal, lIe novns Iecone Iess Iinding, and lIe
unil na disinlegvale in panic. SiniIavI,
vilI lIe lvansJovnalion oJ pevsonaI veIalion-
sIips Ielveen pavenl and cIiId in Iale
adoIescence, lIe desives and slandavds oJ lIe
pavenls oJlen Iecone Iess oIIigalov.
Il Ias Ieen suggesled JuvlIev lIal cIoice
oJ veJevence gvoups vesls upon pevsonaI Io-
aIl lo signiJicanl olIevs oJ lIal sociaI vovId.
SigniJicanl olIevs, Jov SuIIivan, ave lIose
pevsons diveclI vesponsiIIe Jov lIe inlev-
naIizalion oJ novns. SociaIizalion is a pvod-
ucl oJ a gvaduaI accunuIalion oJ expeviences
vilI cevlain peopIe, pavlicuIavI lIose vilI
vIon ve sland in pvinav veIalions, and
signiJicanl olIevs ave lIose vIo ave acluaII
invoIved in lIe cuIlivalion oJ aIiIilies, vaI-
ues, and oulIooI.9 CvuciaI, appavenlI, is lIe
cIavaclev oJ one's enolionaI lies vilI lIen.
TIose vIo lIinI lIe signiJicanl olIevs Iave
lvealed lIen vilI aJJeclion and consideva-
lion Iave a sense oJ pevsonaI oIIigalion lIal
is Iinding undev aII civcunslances, and lIe
viII Ie IoaI even al gveal pevsonaI sacviJice.
Since pvinav veIalions ave nol -necessaviI
salisJaclov, Iovevev, lIe veaclions na Ie
negalive. A pevson vIo is veII avave oJ lIe
expeclalions oJ signiJicanl olIevs na go oul
oJ Iis va lo vejecl lIen. TIis na accounl
Jov lIe IiJuvcalion oJ ovienlalion in ninovil
gvoups, vIeve sone venain IoaI lo lIe pa-
venlaI cuIluve vIiIe olIevs seeI despevaleI
lo Iecone assiniIaled in lIe Iavgev vovId.
Sone vIo vilIdvav Jvon lIe uncevlainlies
oJ veaI IiJe na eslaIIisI IoaIlies lo pev-
speclives acquived lIvougI vicavious veIa-
lionsIips vilI cIavaclevs encounleved in
IooIs.'0
8
CJ. E. C. HugIes, BiIennas and Conlva-
diclions oJ Slalus, Anevican JouvnaI oJ SocioIog,
L |1945), 353-59, and E. V. Slonequisl, TIe Mavgin-
aI Man |Nev YovI CIavIes ScviInev's Sons, 1937).
9 H. S. SuIIivan, Conceplions oJ Modevn FscIi-
alv |WasIinglon, B. C. W. H. WIile FscIialvic
Foundalion, 1947), pp. 18-22.
10
CJ. B. B. OvinIev and J. F. SpiegeI, Men undev
Slvess |FIiIadeIpIia BIaIislon Co., 1945), pp.
122-26: and E. A. SIiIs and M. Janovilz, CoIesion
and Bisinlegvalion in lIe WeIvnacIl in WovId
BEFEBENCE OBOUFS AS FEBSFECTIVES 569
Fevspeclives ave conlinuaII suIjecled lo
lIe lesl oJ veaIil. AII pevceplion is Ipo-
lIelicaI. Because oJ vIal is laIen Jov gvanled
Jvon eacI slandpoinl, eacI silualion is ap-
pvoacIed vilI a sel oJ expeclalions: iJ lvans-
aclions acluaII laIe pIace as anlicipaled,
lIe pevspeclive ilseIJ is veinJovced. Il is lIus
lIe conJivning vesponses oJ olIev peopIe
lIal pvovide suppovl Jov pevspeclives.11 Bul
in nass socielies lIe vesponses oJ olIevs
vav, and in lIe slud oJ veJevence gvoups
lIe pvoIIen is lIal oJ ascevlaining vIose
conJivning vesponses viII suslain a given
poinl oJ viev.
THE STUBY OF MASS SOCIETIES
Because oJ lIe diJJevenlialed cIavaclev oJ
nodevn nass socielies, lIe concepl oJ veJev-
ence
gvoup, ov sone suilaIIe suIslilule, viII
aIvas Iave a cenlvaI pIace in an veaIislic
concepluaI scIene Jov ils anaIsis. As is
poinled oul aIove, il viII Ie nosl useJuI iJ
il is used lo designale lIal gvoup vIose pev-
speclive is assuned I lIe aclov as lIe
Jvane oJ veJevence Jov lIe ovganizalion oJ Iis
pevcepluaI expevience. Ovganized pevspec-
lives avise in and Iecone sIaved lIvougI
pavlicipalion in connon connunicalion
cIanneIs, and lIe divevsil oJ nass socielies
avises Jvon lIe nuIlipIicil oJ cIanneIs and
lIe ease vilI vIicI one na pavlicipale in
lIen.
Mass socielies ave nol onI divevsiJied and
pIuvaIislic Iul aIso conlinuaII cIanging.
TIe successive nodiJicalion oJ IiJe-condi-
lions conpeIs cIanges in sociaI veIalion-
sIips, and an adequale anaIsis vequives a
slud oJ lIese lvansJovnalionaI pvocesses
lIenseIves. Heve lIe concepl oJ veJevence
gvoup can Ie oJ cvuciaI inpovlance. Fov ex-
anpIe, aII Jovns oJ sociaI noIiIil, Jvon sud-
den convevsions lo gvaduaI assiniIalion,
na Ie vegavded essenliaII as dispIace-
nenls oJ veJevence gvoups, Jov lIe invoIve a
Ioss oJ vesponsiveness lo lIe denands oJ one
sociaI vovId and lIe adoplion oJ lIe pevspec-
live oJ anolIev. Il na Ie IpolIesized lIal
lIe disaJJeclion occuvs Jivsl on lIe IeveI oJ
pevsonaI veIalions, JoIIoved I a veaIening
sense oJ oIIigalion, a vejeclion oJ oId cIains,
and lIe eslaIIisInenl oJ nev IoaIlies and
incovpovalion oJ a nev pevspeclive. TIe
conJIicls lIal cIavaclevize aII pevsons in
navginaI voIes ave oJ speciaI inlevesl in lIal
lIe pvovide oppovlunilies Jov cvoss-seclion-
aI anaIses oJ lIe pvocesses oJ sociaI cIange.
In lIe anaIsis oJ lIe IeIaviov oJ nen in
nass socielies lIe cvuciaI pvoIIen is lIal oJ
ascevlaining Iov a pevson deJines lIe silua-
lion, vIicI pevspeclive Ie uses in avviving al
sucI a deJinilion, and vIo conslilules lIe
audience vIose vesponses pvovide lIe neces-
sav conJivnalion and suppovl Jov Iis posi-
lion. TIis caIIs Jov Jocusing allenlion upon
lIe expeclalions lIe aclov inpules lo olIevs,
lIe connunicalion cIanneIs in vIicI Ie
pavlicipales, and Iis veIalions vilI lIose
vilI vIon Ie idenliJies IinseIJ. In lIe
slud oJ conJIicl, inagev pvovides a JevliIe
souvce oJ dala. Al nonenls oJ indecision,
vIen in douIl and conJusion, vIo appeavs
in inagev? In lIis nannev lIe signiJicanl
olIev can Ie idenliJied.
An adequale anaIsis oJ nodevn nass so-
cielies vequives lIe deveIopnenl oJ concepls
and opevalions Jov lIe descviplion oJ lIe
nannev in vIicI eacI aclov's ovienlalion lo-
vavd Iis vovId is successiveI veconsliluled.
Since pevceplion is seIeclive and pevspec-
lives diJJev, diJJevenl ilens ave noliced and a
pvogvessiveI divevse sel oJ inages avises,
even anong lIose exposed lo lIe sane ne-
dia oJ nass connunicalion. TIe concepl oJ
veJevence gvoup sunnavizes diJJevenliaI as-
socialions and IoaIlies and lIus JaciIilales
lIe slud oJ seIeclive pevceplion. Il Ie-
cones, lIeveJove, an indispensaIIe looI Jov
conpveIending lIe divevsil and dnanic
cIavaclev oJ lIe Iind oJ sociel in vIIcI ve
Iive.
UNIVEBSITY OF CALIFOBNIA
Wav II, FuIIic Opinion QuavlevIY, 7II |1948),
280-315.
11
CJ. O. H. Mead, TIe FIiIosopI oJ lIe Acl
|CIicago Univevsil oJ CIicago Fvess, 1938), pp.
107-73: and L. Foslnan, Tovavd a OenevaI
TIeov oJ Cognilion, in J. H. BoIvev and M.
SIeviJ |eds.), SociaI FscIoIog al lIe Cvossvoads
|Nev YovI Havpev & Bvos., 1951), pp. 242-72.