By Mishaal Baksh

Nature versus Nurture in the Sex and Gender Divide: - What really determines our
gender identity?
Abstract:
In this study a number of issues are addressed regarding the origin of gender and how it
influences the life of an individual. The origin was explained using the three main theories
proposed; genetics, natural selection and a persons environment. Arguments were presented in
support of and against each theory accompanied by case studies, further explaining the
advantages and disadvantages of accepted and controversial gender assignments. No conclusive
decision was expected in this study, since there is not decisive proof that there is any one reason
for gender determination in humans.
Introduction:
The Nature- Nurture debate encompasses a wide range of topics that have often been argued and
disagreed upon. Within this realm of debate is a topic that has just emerged from being regarded
as a taboo, what influences our gender? Geneticists and other biological scientists have argued
that genetics and hormones predetermine almost everything about our sexuality and gender
whereas evolutionary theorists, sociologists and psychologists claim environmental and
stereotypical influences are responsible. The three main influences on gender development
include genetics, natural selection and the environment. In each of the above hypotheses a
number of points have proven to contribute to the development of gender in humans but the
proportion of the contribution of each remains uncertain. In order to establish what influences
gender we must first correctly define it and make a clear distinction between sex and gender.
Sex and gender are interdependent but not the same. According to the Med lexicons medical
dictionary: sex is the biological character or quality that distinguishes male and female from one
another as expressed by analysis of the persons gonadal, morphological, chromosomal and
hormonal characteristics. Gender is defined here as the category to which an individual is
assigned by self or others on the basis of sex. This reinforces that a persons sex is just one factor
that can have an impact on their gender but is not the sole direct result of it.
Some examples of characteristics related to gender are as follows. Women tend to do more of the
housework than men or a higher percentage of doctors in the United States are women compared
to in Egypt. Characteristics related to sex however would include Males have testicles whereas
females have ovaries or women can breastfeed whereas men cannot.
Gender is one of the most fluid concepts as it varies inexplicably among cultures and throughout
history. Mainstream western societies have only recently entertained the concept of more than
the neatly divided male and female, heterosexual and homosexual categories. Transgender and
intersex have been terms only introduced in the late 1970s. Many other cultures however have
always recognized gender diversity outside of those binary lines. Examples of these include the
Berdache in North America, the faafafine in the pacific, and the kathoey in Thailand. (WHO,
2012) Among Native American communities such as the Blackfoot and Cree tribes of Canada,
gender is seen as a mesh between the two extremes. They refer to themselves as being two-
spirited acknowledging both male and female qualities.(Jacobs, Thomas, Lang, 1997) In
essence they regard gender as a continuum rather than a divide. This is much like Anne Moirs
approach in the Brainsex research which does the same thing. In this study she employs the use
of a questionnaire to gauge the level of male of female tendencies rather than selecting one. (See
questionnaire in appendix) In later sections each potential contributing factor to gender
orientation will be thoroughly examined including physical characteristics, genetics and
hormonal levels and finally environmental influences.
The majority of the information and statistics presented in this study has been obtained from
secondary sources such as articles, books, online journals, blogs and websites. Only a limited
primary study could be conducted in the form of short interviews. I attempted to use a
questionnaire but no relevant data was obtained.

Typical male and female characteristics and how we inherit them
Physical characteristics and cognitive skills.
There has always been a clear understanding of what a typical male and a typical female should
look like. It is assumed that they would have a number of accepted characteristics that can be
used to identify them as male or female.
Physiologically, females are born with a vagina and men are born with a penis, male newborns
tend to weigh more than female newborns, males are generally larger and more muscular the
females, males have deeper voices than females do; females are able to get pregnant whereas
males cannot. These physical characteristics cannot be argued as they are the result of sexual
dimorphism however the extent to which some such as weight of newborns or sexual organs
make be expressed is variable. In cases where these characteristics do not snugly fit into the
divide gender identity may become somewhat of a complicated issue.
Stereotypically males and females are supposed to or are thought to be cognitively different, that
they approach tasks and situations in different manners. What occurs within the human brain is
inarguably responsible for a host of behavioral patterns some even as a result of hormonal
secretions.
Among these differences some have been proven and medically explained but others are still up
for debate. Some researchers from Northwestern University showed in their study that young
boys and girls utilize different parts of the brain when performing language related tasks. New
born girls display keener sensitivity to sounds and touch and odors than new born boys. New
born girls are show more willingness to communicate and hold eye contact for longer periods
than new born boys.
At approximately four months old female babies recognitions of people and places in
photographs and pictures whereas male babies cannot. (Moir, 2009) The male brain is
approximately 10% larger than the brain of females, however, after applying a body mass to
head size ratio or the body to weight ratio, the female brain is actually greater. (Dubrach, 1998)
Over the years, there have been many reports indicating a correlation between brain size and
intelligence suggesting that human male brains were superior to female brains. (Halpern, 2000)
The argument persists however that if brain size was the most significant factor for determining
intelligence, the earth would be governed by elephants or whales and not humans. Magnetic
resonance imaging has revealed that the male brain contains more white matter and cerebrospinal
fluid (CSF) than the female brain, and that the female brain contains a relatively higher
proportion of gray matter (Gur et al., 1999). Gur speculated that an increased in white matter
may enable men to transfer information to further regions within the brain, thereby contributing
to their spatial efficiency, while the increased gray matter in women's brains may allow for a
greater capacity for processing. Looking at some basic functions and also intelligence studies
behavioral studies indicate some biological differences.
Intelligence between the sexes is examined in patterns of ability as opposed to overall intellectual
functioning. (Kimura, 1992). Basic cognitive abilities such as attention and perception occur at
the earliest stages of information processing seem to differ between the sexes and thus aid in the
analysis of differences in more complex cognitive functions. There are also variations in the all
of the sensory systems. Males appear to be more adapted to dynamic visual acuity which allows
them to detect slight movements within the field of vision. Males have also continuously shown
an advantage in visual-spatial abilities such as aiming at stationary of moving targets and
throwing and intercepting projectiles. (Kimura, 1992) In the questionnaire that Anne Moir has
developed in her study to identify what gender the brain is are questions pertaining to the points
related below.
Males rely on different methods for navigation than women do. Women generally prefer to use
landmarks and guides whereas males are more adept to employing the use of a map which has
directional points and geometric shapes. Men also are better at quantitative problem solving
inherent in the usual stereotype that men are better at math than women. They also find it easier
to manipulate and object or an image to produce a visual interpretation. This value is assessed in
Anne Moir question with the question of if one can produce a three-dimensional image in their
head from simply looking at a blue print from an architect.
Elaborating on the point above concerning gender differences in brain function in language and
communication, we look at evidence from functional magnetic resonance imaging tests. Females
are consistently shown superior verbal skills, including earlier development of language and
speech and longer attention spans. (Kruger, 2001) Females also excelled at memory retention
and retrieval tasks and fluency (word association, colour recognition), (Halpern, 2000) manual
dexterity and perceptual speed such as visually identifying and matching items.(Shaywitz, 1995)
Programs such as luminosity and Dr. Kawashima aim to assess and improve these skills in
gender specific manners. Before actually beginning the program certain questions are asked
including sex, age and occupation. Upon completion of this information the program is then
tailored to your respective responses.
Are we just our genes?
Humans are genderless at the point of conception but are all genetically female at
conception.(Ryder and Sigelman, 2010) In order for a blastocysts or embryo to be genetically
male a Y chromosome must be introduced in the correct sequence and location. At this stage, this
is the only separation between the two. The Y chromosome contains hundreds of thousands of
genes completed different from those contained in the X chromosome. These X and Y genes
have been identified as a rather strong predictor of differences between the identities of men and
women as they influence not just appearance but human behaviors and to a large extent human
intelligence. (Mc Avoy, 2010)
Examining the genetic argument from a reductionist view, evidence suggests that chromosomal
orientation is in fact crucial to the sexual development of humans. Humans are born with 23
pairs of chromosomes. As mentioned above the X and Y chromosomes determine a persons sex.
The most common genotype for the normal female and the normal male is 46XX and 46XY
respectively. It would be simple to only have these two results however this is not the case. A
few births per thousand some individuals are born with a single sex chromosome 45X or 45Y or
some with three or more sex chromosomes such as 47XXX, 47XYY or 47XXY. These are
referred to as sex polysomies. The rarest of abnormalities includes males with the XX and
females with the XY. This is usually due to translocation or mutation of a tiny section of the sex
determining region of the Y chromosome. Sex determination and sex differentiation are the two
processes responsible for the biological differences in men and women. Sex determination
controls the pathway designation. Sex differentiation is the major process in the development of
the respective sexual organs and proportions of sex hormones produced. The complications exist
when these conditions arise, is the phenotype that will be expressed by these abnormal
genotypes. The Y chromosome is dominant and as such an individual with example four X
chromosomes and one Y chromosome will be phenotypically a male. This same individual
without the Y chromosome and the influence of a testis-determining factor, ovaries will develop.
(WHO, 2012)
Certain conditions arise from these allelic abnormalities. Of these some of them affect gender to
a large extent as opposed to sexual orientation. These include Hermaphroditism, Klinefelter
syndrome and congenital adrenal hyperplasia. Hermaphroditism is the condition when an
individual is born with mature testicular and ovarian tissue. Both male and female secondary
sexual characteristics can also develop making it difficult for them to understand their true
sexuality. Klinefelter syndrome is where there are two X chromosomes and one Y chromosome.
The result is the abnormal development of testis causing hypogonadism and usually infertility.
Other abnormalities developed from this disease include a hormonal imbalance of testosterone
which leads to incomplete development of secondary male sex characteristics. Lastly Congenital
adrenal hyperplasia is an inherited disease demonstrated in both males and females. This is the
leading reason for the development of intersexuality in females with the 46XX. These women
develop and outwardly male appearance. The prime cause in a deficiency of a hormonal steroid
called cortisol. The disorder is present 1 in 5000 and results in incomplete sexual differentiation
and increased androgenic effects. (WHO, 2012) When cortisol is not secreted in the required
amounts the adrenal cortex via negative feedback increases the secretion of adrenocortical
hormone. A study on CAH which is an enzyme deficiency that overproduces male sex
hormones in girl fetuses, showed that girls with CAH tend to prefer "boy toys," show more
interest in sports, have better spatial ability, and show less interest babies than girls without
CAH.( Berenbaum,) Researchers have begun to examine the contribution of hormones to
behavior and learning. Girls who were known to have been exposed to high levels of
testosterone, due to congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH), appear to demonstrate better spatial
skills than other girls and they are more likely to behave aggressively --similar to boys (Collaer
& Hines, 1995).
The above explanations of the genetic basis behind intersex and hermaphrodite individuals
solidifies the reasoning that genetics is the basis upon sexual identity however it does not explain
the choices that these individuals make when deciding which gender to adopt. This is partly
where the environmental argument presents itself. The environment that surrounds a person is
what influences that person and to a large extent the expression of their genotype in their
phenotype.


Genes, environment and Darwin in between.
In the origin of species, Charles Darwin offers his theory of natural selection. In this theory he
claims that dominant, beneficial genes are activated and passed on to successive generations
whereas weak, recessive genes are more likely to not be selected for and thus not passed on to
their offspring. He suggested some genes that may be responsible for certain gender behavioral
traits have been passed on through centuries and adopted as the norm today. These include the
primitive gene that make women nurture and care for their young and the gene for aggression
and lower empathy levels in males. Genes like these he argued have contributed to the overall
widely accepted view of what a male and female personality should be to be a successful
species.(Darwin, 1909)
Theories have been proposed that many of the abilities highlighted in the earlier section
pertaining to cognition and behavior would have been crucial to the survival or early human
civilizations. Particularly the hunter gatherer societies, perhaps males developed their brain
navigation preference while exploring unfamiliar terrain to hunt and similarly with women that
forged nearby for food. It is evident that certain civilizations elsewhere would revere certain
qualities and these qualities or traits would be selected for and passed on, in accordance with the
basis of natural selection.
The natural selection argument can be viewed in essence as a transition between extremist views.
It is not stating that genes are solely responsible for a persons gender-related phenotype such as
physical appearance; cognitive abilities etc. but that the genes require an environmental
activation or demand for them to be selected for and expressed.(Gottlieb, 2000) It however again
does not endorse the deduction that a persons environment is the only contributing factor and
genes have a minor role.
The other end of the spectrum deals with the argument that nurture is the main determinant in
gender selection. It is important though to make again another distinction among opinions within
the nurture debate. Within this general view point some persons believe that an individuals
environment imprints on their personality, bringing out certain behaviors and influencing their
gender alignment. They believe that this is completely independent of genetics.(McAvoy, 2010)
Others believe that genetics do play a role such as in the case of persons with abnormal gene
combinations on chromosome 23 but environment has the most impact on gender alignment even
if other genes relating to secondary sexual characteristics may be dominant.(Evans, 2009) In the
case of hermaphrodite individuals for example, they believe that independent of which physical
characteristics were more prominent, weaning those individuals in a certain way alters who they
become and their choice of gender.(WHO, 2012) The third and most popular view is that society
is dynamic and constantly changes. This change involves most people, and especially in western
societies trends are the way we learn what is right and wrong and largely what should be
regarded as the norm.(Mc Queen, 2003) Ideally the third view simply indicates that society
creates stereotypes that we adhere to even in gender. For instance as mentioned in the
introduction only recently it was accepted in western societies that there are more gender divides
than just male and female.(Moir, 2001)
The first opinion is vastly misguided as earlier genetic evidence was clearly presented showing
that sexual differences are determined by genes and a persons sex influences their gender
alignment. The second view is very close to the evolutionist or Darwinian argument, but is still
different. Natural selection indicates that dominant genes passed down through successive
generations will be selected for. This version of the nurture viewpoint however, states that
independent of which genes are dominant a person can select which gender they will assign to
themselves. When genes are expressed in the individuals phenotype despite efforts to change
that phenotype there will always be difficulty to suppress it especially when this expression is in
the hormonal balance or in their personality.
The third view is the most popular and most accepted view within the nurture spectrum of the
debate. Why is it that nursing is often seen as a womans job, although many men enter the
profession or why do boys like to play with trucks, cars and toy gun whereas girls prefer to play
with dolls and toys relating to nurturing play? At a very young age, children are taught how boys
and girls are "supposed" to act.(McAvoy, 2010) Much of this information comes from observing
the endless stream of gender stereotypes that children are exposed to every day. This starts from
the first seconds in a new borns life and persists throughout their life. The first clothes that a
baby is giver are descriptive of its sex. A boy gets blue and the girl gets pink. As toddlers and
younger children parents roughhouse with their boys but refrain from doing so with girls. The
boys are also geared in a direction of wearing trousers and shirts (typical male wear) and
programmed to understand that it is appalling to dress up in female clothing. Also an injured son
is taught not to cry and to act tough whereas in a similar circumstance girls are given more
attention. One that I personally experienced growing up in a household with a brother is that I
was never assigned male chores such as washing the car or mowing the lawn but rather lighter
less intensive chores such as washing the dishes and doing the laundry. The most prominent
public influence that almost dictates what we absorb is the media which moulds stereotypes and
presents it to viewers. In fairytales the male character is active and bold whereas the female
character is docile, emotional and always requires saving. Even commercials are stereotyped,
male commercials are loud and stimulating whereas female commercials are quiet and
presented in a more graceful manner. (Handel, Cahill, Elkin, 2007)
It would be very easy to explain all behaviors through these influences however certain studies
have shown that even in households where gender association and stereotyping are avoided, to
the surprise of the parents some daughters ended up pretending that her trucks were mommy
trucks on the way to pick up their babies from school or that their sons will fill their toy strollers
with action figures and race around making car noises. This variable raises again the question
that can the nature-nature influence actually be divided? (Evans, 2009)
Where do I fit in? said 47XXY
The above stereotypical roles are fine with respect to those persons that fit into the status quo of
the two categories male and female in both physiological and behavioral characteristics. The
outlying individuals however, such as those with genetic diseases like Klinefelter syndrome,
Congenital adrenal hyperplasia, Turner syndrome, Androgen Insensitivity Syndrome, XXX
Females and XXY males do not and as such from birth begin a very confusing journey of gender
identity. Other examples include individuals that have to undergo sexual reassignment surgery or
those who are born with both such as in the case of hermaphrodites. Gender categories such as
transgender and intersex now emerge from these conditions. Implications and challenges are
numerous for differently gendered people. (Refer to Table: 1 in the Appendix.)
Gender Assignment of Intersex Infants and Children
Intersex individuals arise from a range of congenital anomalies such as those described above.
Estimating the number of individuals is difficult for many reasons including that a clear
definition does not quite exist and also many people are not willing to publicly reveal that they
have sexual abnormalities. Organizations and projects have been making a valid attempt to
improve the accuracy of statistics. One such organization is a North- American based
organization produced an estimate that 1:2000 children are born visibly intersex. A large number
of intersex children have undergone some form of medical intervention whether hormonal or
surgical or both. This has been attributed to heath, sociological and ideological reasons. Ethics
and the evolution of the boundaries of ethics have often influenced these decisions.
One such surgical method was having an intersex infant undergo clitoral surgery in order to
normalize them. This was promoted in the 1930s by Hugh Hampton Young in the United
States. At John Hopkins University the gender neutrality argument in favor or surgical sexual
reassignment was born. The theory of psychosexual neutrality at birth has now been replaced by
a model of complex interaction between prenatal and postnatal factors that lead to the
development of gender and, later, sexual identity. (Minto et al., 2004) The easier route seemed
to be to raise intersex individuals as females as opposed to males and as such to feminize the
appearance of genitalia. Minto et al conducted research to assess the success and effects of this
action when these individuals reach adulthood. Several inconsistencies were discovered relating
to the actual proven success of these methods. These included:

There is no evidence that feminizing genital surgery leads to improved psychosocial
outcomes;
Feminizing genital surgery cannot guarantee that adult gender identity will develop as
female; and that
Adult sexual function might be altered by removal of clitoral or phallic tissue.



Below are some case studies of individuals with sexual abnormalities:
Case study 1: gender reassignment.
A Canadian monozygotic twin infant boy lost his penis after a medical accident. In 1967
the parents consulted a psychologist on how to address the matter, and were encouraged
to have their son undergo sexual reassignment surgery. During that time period the
nurture was a more prevalent standpoint. The belief was that gender neutrality at birth
allowed sexuality and thus gender to be made. The plan was for the child to have
psychological guidance and hormonal supplements to basically allow gender to be
socially mediated. The child underwent the surgery and was not told that he was born a
natural male. At the time this was the first case of its time and the scientific literature
report on this case did not explore the emotional experience of the child. The child did
however have great difficulty adapting to life as a female. During puberty, the parents
revealed to him that he had in fact undergone such a surgery. In his later years he made
the decision to live as a male and underwent reconstructive surgery. He had a brief
marriage and approximately one year after his twin died he committed suicide. (WHO,
2012)
Case study 2: Discrimination.
Another example includes discrimination against transgender individuals at its worse.
This example is the Gwen Araujo Murder. Gwen Araujo was born Eddie Araujo, a male
but at a young age developed behavioral characteristics of a young female including
choice of clothing, toys and even applying make-up. Later at an adolescent age she and
her family understood and with immense difficulty accepted the fact that he was in fact
transgendered. On October 3
rd
2002 at the age of 17 she was murdered by male
individuals that she was sexually involved with, after they discovered she was in fact
physically a male. A movie was made in tribute to her and to raise awareness entitled A
girl like me: The Gwen Araujo Story. Horizons Foundation created the Gwen Araujo
Memorial Fund for Transgender Education. The Fund's purpose is to support school-
based programs in the nine-county Bay Area to promote understanding of transgender
people and issues through annual grants. Through this fund, Gwen Araujo's mother and
family speak in schools about transgender awareness and understanding.

Conclusion:
It is evident that Gender is influenced by both genetic and environmental conditions however,
the proportion of influence that each has is still largely up for debate. Further research has to be
conducted in order to discover if there is a factor that has the most influence and what it actually
might be.
Developmental biology suggests that a strict belief in absolute sexual dimorphism is incorrect.
Instead, Blackless et al. suggested two overlapping bell-shaped curves to conceptualize sexual
variations across populations. Qualitative variation in the chromosome complement, genital
morphology and hormonal activity falls under the area of overlap among the three viewpoints
addressed, Nature, Nurture and Natural selection.
Such an opinion challenges the need for medical intervention in cases of intersexuality but rather
creates the justification for the acceptance of this overlap and thus of other gender types other
than the strict male or female dichotomy. The case studies above in addition to the statistics
presented in the appendix describe some of the challenges in removing this divide but measures
are slowly being put into practice through organizations and legislature in order to eventually
attain gender equity along the entire continuum.






References:
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th
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gender-divide-a112009
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Appendix:


Are you Male or
Female:Female
.
Are you mostly Left-handed or Right-handed:right-
handed.
What is/was your
occupation:student

Questions (Place X as appropriate) Yes No
1 It's easy for me to sing in tune, singing alone
2 When I was younger, winning was really important to me
3 It's easy for me to hear what people are saying in a crowded room
4 As a child I enjoyed going as high as possible when climbing trees
5 If someone interrupts what I am doing it's difficult to go back to it
6 I find it easy to do more than one thing at once
7 I find it easy to know what someone is feeling just by looking at their face
8 I like to collect things and sort them into categories
9 I solve problems more often with intuition than logic
10 As a child, I loved playing games where I pretended to be someone I knew or a character I had
created

11 At school it was easy for me to write neatly
12 As a child, I enjoyed taking things apart to see how they work
13 I get bored easily so I need to keep doing new things
14 I don't like fast speeds, they make me nervous
15 I enjoy reading novels more than non-fiction.
16 I can find my way more easily using a map rather than landmark directions
17 I keep in regular contact with my friends and family
Sample
Test Questionnaire
It helps to understand your own learning and thinking styles if you know the
balance of your own brain organisation. Simple though they are, the following
questions show large sex differences. Answer them yes or no depending on
how near the answer is to your own behaviour. Inevitably these questions are
generalisations, so please tick the one that most applies to you. The answers will
give you a guide as to how male or female your brain is on the male/female
continuum.
18 As a child, I enjoyed physical sports
19 Imagining things in three dimensions is easy for me. For example: I can see in my mind's eye just
how an architects' drawings or plans will look once built

20 As a child, I loved doing things like 'wheelies' on my bike

Now work out your score and turn over to see how male or female your brain is:
If you answered Yes to questions: 1, 3, 6, 7, 9, 10, 11, 14, 15, 17 score 1 point each.

(No answers to these questions receive 0 points.)


If you answered No to questions: 2, 4, 5, 8, 12, 13, 16, 18, 19, 20 score 1 point each.
(Yes answers to these questions receive 0 points.)

Now total up your scores. Fill in your score out of 20 here:


How to work out how male or female your brain is
The higher your score out of twenty, the more female your brain.
Middle scores show a more mixed brain.
The lower the score out of twenty, the more male your brain.
Very Male
Very Female
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20

Hands are a further marker for brain organisation. Combining the questionnaire results together with the
following finger pattern result may give you a clearer picture of your brain organisation.

Which hand pattern most fits yours?
A large number of studies show that comparative finger length matches brain organisation.
The key digits, counting from your thumb, are the 2nd and 4th digits (your index and ring fingers
respectively). When looking at your own hands, you should view them with the palms towards you and
measure from the crease at the base of your finger.

A typical male brain correlates with:
The index finger (2nd digit) is shorter than the ring finger (4th digit).
A typical female brain correlates with:
The index and ring fingers are the same length; occasionally the index finger is longer
than the ring finger.

Sometimes, however, one hand is the male pattern and the other the female pattern this requires further
research as to the significance for brain organisation.

By completing the following boxes (place X as appropriate) you will be contributing to this new
research!


Index finger longer
than ring finger
Ring finger longer
than index finger
Index and ring fingers
the same length
LEFT HAND

RIGHT HAND


Background to Brainsex Test
The questions are based on a very large number of sex differences found in the research. Body sex does
not necessarily match brain sex. In my experience many of us have mixed brain we fall on a continuum.



Table 1: Statistics related to Differently Gendered Individuals Globally. (Study conducted in the UK)

Understanding of
differently Gendered
Terminology
Challenges Faced Clinics and
organizations
Medical issues
About 1 in every
11,500 people in the
world are transsexual.
Transsexual people
feel they belong to the
gender opposite to
the one assigned to
them at birth.
73% of trans people surveyed
experienced
some form of harassment in
public
(ranging from comments and
verbal abuse
to physical violence
There is a specialist centre
at the Portman
and Tavistock Clinic.
9 The clinic is reported
to receive around 60 cases
each year from
across the UK a figure
that has grown
sixfold in the last decade.
6.3% of respondents
said they had been
refused medical
treatment because of
their
trans background
Some other people
simply cross-dress
for pleasure or
relaxation and do not
identify themselves as
belonging to the
opposite gender. An
older term for this is
transvestism.
21% stated that they avoided
going out
because of fear of harassment
Additionally, Mermaids is
a well established
charity,
10 set up by parents to
support families in which
there are young
trans people
13.2% felt their
treatment had
been adversely affected
because of health
staff knowing about that
background
(sometimes through
inappropriate
disclosure
Transgender has
different meanings.
In the UK it is usually
an umbrella term for
all people who cross
gender boundaries,
permanently or not.
Many prefer the
adjective trans for
the same thing.
Americans use
transgender
differently.
That is why trans is
better
46% stated that they had
experienced
harassment in their
neighborhoods
The Department of Health
has also
published a booklet
designed and written
by young trans people
themselves,
providing advice and
guidance
80% said they thought
their GP
would like to be more
helpful, but 60% of
those 80% reported that
their GPs
had a lack of appropriate
information
64% of young trans men and
44%
of young trans women
experienced
harassment or bullying at
school, not just
from their fellow pupils but
also from
school staff including teachers.
Gender Recognition Panel
(GRP)- 2350 requests for
legal recognition under.
The Gender Recognition
Act with 97% of
applications being
successful.

28% stated that they had
moved to a
different neighborhood
because of their
transition
The Charing Cross
Gender Identity Clinic
reports that it receives
around 500 new
referrals every year and
has 2,000 patients on
its books at any point in
time. Ministers have
also confirmed to
Parliament that 99 NHS
gender reassignment
surgical procedures
were carried out in the last
year for which
statistics are available

Differently gendered
individuals are required to take
risk assessments for daily tasks
and job recruitment because of
their circumstances and
respective choices.

The 500 per annum figure
for gender
clinic referrals and the
level of 25 gender
recognition applications
per month are
both indicative of the
numbers who are
likely to present for and
complete NHS
care in England and
Wales each year


Table :2 Gender-related Legislature in the United Kingdom and the Caribbean.
The Sex Discrimination (Gender Reassignment) Regulations 1999 extended parts I
and II of the Sex Discrimination Act 1975 to prohibit discrimination in employment
and the provision of vocational training for transsexual people in all stages of their
transition from the gender recorded at birth to the opposite role.
The Court of Appeal ruled in 1999 that it is unlawful for NHS organisations to operate
anything amounting to a blanket ban on the funding of gender treatment.
The Human Rights Act 1998 protects and upholds the rights of trans people in the same
way as for all citizens
The Sex Discrimination (Amendment of Legislation) Regulations 2008 extended Part III
of the Sex Discrimination Act 1975 to render discrimination against transsexual people in
the provision of goods, facilities, services and housing unlawful.
The Equality Act 2006, which sets out the Gender Equality Duty, makes clear that all
requirements relating to the promotion of equality for men and women include
transsexual men and transsexual women.