ORI GI NAL RESEARCH

Hydration kinetics of direct expanded tef our breakfast

cereals in water and milk
W. K. Solomon
1,2
1
Department of Food Technology and Process Engineering, Haramaya University, Haramaya, Ethiopia
2
Department of Consumer Sciences, University of Swaziland, Luyengo, Swaziland
Keywords
Breakfast cereals, Eragrostis tef, extrusion,
hydration
Correspondence
W. K. Solomon, Department of Consumer
Sciences, University of Swaziland, Swaziland.
Tel: +268 251 76373002; Fax: +268 252 74441;
E-mail: [email protected] (or)
[email protected]
Funding Information
No funding information provided.
Received: 28 March 2013; Revised: 13 June
2013; Accepted: 17 June 2013
Food Science & Nutrition 2014; 2(1): 39
45
doi: 10.1002/fsn3.80
Abstract
Hydration kinetics of tef our breakfast cereals extruded at barrel temperatures
of 110, 130, and 150C was investigated by hydrating them in water and whole
milk at 25C (1C). The normalized Weibull model described the rehydration
characteristics of the extrudates in water and milk adequately (R
2
= 0.980.99).
Water absorption rate was signicantly (P < 0.05) inuenced by barrel temper-
ature where extrudates processed at 150C barrel temperature exhibited high
water absorption rate followed by those extruded at 130 and 100C, respec-
tively. Hydration rate and equilibrium moisture content were higher for sam-
ples hydrated in water than those in milk. In view of the values of the shape
parameter b, the hydration process is predominantly controlled by diffusion
(b = 0.400.51) for samples extruded at 110C whereas external resistance to
mass transfer dominated (b = 0.600.73) those extruded using 150 and 130C.
Extrudates processed at 130 and 150C exhibited better hydration character-
istics. Thus, these temperature ranges could be used to produce extruded
products from tef.
Introduction
Tef (Eragrostis tef) is an important cereal crop indigenous
to Ethiopia comprising about 20% of cereal production
providing the major daily calorie for the vast majority of
the population (Umeta and Faulks 1988; Ketema 1997;
Bultosa and Taylor 2004). Tef seed is a millet-like, tiny, and
prolate spheroid with average length and width of 1.01 and
0.59 mm, respectively (Zewdu and Solomon 2007). The
proximate composition (% d.b.) of tef seed is reported to
be 9.413.3 protein, 73 carbohydrate, 1.983.5 crude ber,
2.03.1 fat, and 2.73.0 ash (Bultosa and Taylor 2004).
Despite its major contribution, the processing techniques
and the types of food products made from tef remain tradi-
tional. Recently, however, there is growing interest to
develop new products from tef using modern processing
techniques like extrusion cooking to harness its potential.
Extrusion-cooked direct expanded breakfast cereals
have cellular-like structures mainly formed by air pockets
surrounded by walls of gelatinized starch that contribute
to texture and hydration capacity (Bhattacharya 1997;
Machado et al. 1998). Breakfast cereals are commonly
consumed by soaking in milk (Sacchetti et al. 2003, 2005)
where the product readily takes up moisture resulting in
undesirable changes, especially in the most desirable and
primary quality attributes like crispiness, brittleness, and
crunchiness due to the plasticization effect of water (Fon-
tanet et al. 1997; Machado et al. 1999; Sacchetti et al.
2003; Lewicki 2004; Gondek and Lewicki 2006). In view
of this, the hydration characteristic of breakfast cereals
and other dried food products is recognized as an impor-
tant quality attribute and recently has received increasing
interest (Machado et al. 1997, 1998, 1999; Sacchetti et al.
2003, 2005; Lucas et al. 2007).
2013 The Authors. Food Science & Nutrition published by Wiley Periodicals, Inc. This is an open access article under the terms of
the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits use, distribution and reproduction in any medium,
provided the original work is properly cited.
39
Previous studies on the quality of extruded breakfast
cereals and snacks focused mainly on the effect of operating
conditions on some physicochemical and functional prop-
erties and sensory qualities. High extrusion temperature
has been reported to result in less compact, porous, and
better expanded products (Anderson and Hedlund 1990;
Ilo et al. 1996; Lo et al. 1998; Sacchetti et al. 2004; De Pilli
et al. 2005), which have better hydration properties. Water
absorption index (WAI) and water solubility index (WSI)
are regarded as measures of hydration capacity (power),
and high extrusion temperatures were found to generally
increase WAI and WSI (Kirby et al. 1988; Ollett et al. 1990;
Sacchetti et al. 2004; Ding et al. 2006), thereby increasing
the water absorption. The degree of gelatinization of starch,
which is also linked to the water absorption capacity (Gam-
bus et al. 1999; Cheyne et al. 2005), increased with increase
in extrusion temperature (Kirby et al. 1988; Ilo et al. 1996;
Ding et al. 2005).
Describing and modeling the kinetics of moisture
uptake by breakfast cereals could lead to a better under-
standing and control over the mechanisms underlying the
sorption process and the ability of the product to rehy-
drate that could help in process optimization (Machado
et al. 1997, 1998, 1999; Sacchetti et al. 2003; Lucas et al.
2007). Nonetheless, limited studies have been carried out
in this regard. Previous hydration kinetic studies on
breakfast cereals indicated that water absorption rate
increases with increase in hydrating media temperature
(Machado et al. 1998, 1999) and decreases with increase
in fat and total solid content of milk used as hydrating
medium, and amount of coating sugar (Machado et al.
1997, 1999; Sacchetti et al. 2003). These studies indicated
that the rate of moisture uptake depends on the physico-
chemical properties and structural characteristics of prod-
ucts, which in turn are inuenced by the extrusion
processing conditions. In view of few studies in the past,
limited information is available in the literature on the
inuence of extrusion operating conditions on the kinet-
ics of moisture uptake by breakfast cereals. Sacchetti et al.
(2005) reported that the hydration rate of cereal-based
breakfast cereals increased with increase in extrusion tem-
perature from 100 to 110C. However, studies over a
wider span of processing conditions covering the ranges
in which breakfast cereals are produced are required. Par-
ticularly, there is limited information on extruded prod-
ucts made from tef our. The effect of barrel temperature
(110, 130, and 150C) on the rehydration kinetics of tef
our extrudates in water for DZ-01-196 cultivar was
investigated (Solomon 2008). However, different cultivars
due to their proximate composition behave differently
during hydration. Moreover, breakfast cereals are com-
monly consumed after hydrating in milk. Thus, hydration
studies in milk are important. The objectives of this study
were to investigate the effect of hydration medium and
barrel temperature on the hydration characteristics and to
model hydration kinetics of breakfast cereal made from
tef our (DZ-01-99 cultivar) in water and milk.
Material and Methods
Sample preparation
Flour from tef grain (variety DZ-01-99) grown at the
Debre Zeit Agricultural Research Center, Ethiopia, during
the 20052006 cropping season was used. The proximate
composition of the our used in this study (g/100 g) was
found to be 10.69, 2.50, and 2.52 for crude protein, crude
fat, and ash, respectively (Kebede 2006).
Extrusion process
Extrusion was carried out using a pilot scale co-rotating
twin screw extruder (model Clextral, BC-21 No. 124, Fir-
miny, France) having 25 mm screw diameter. The barrel
has a smooth 300 mm useful length and consists of three
100-mm-long modules. The temperature of the modules
is regulated by electrical heating and water cooling sys-
tem, and the temperature at each zone was controlled by
a Eurotherm controller (Eurotherm Ltd., Worthing, UK).
The our was fed to the extruder inlet using a twin screw
volumetric feeder (type KMV-KT20) and water at ambi-
ent temperature was injected into the extruder via an inlet
port by a positive displacement pump (DKM-Clextral).
The extruder die has four circular openings where the
diameter tapers from 5 to 2 mm in a length of 9 mm.
Extrusion was carried out at 110, 130, and 150C barrel
temperature, 17% (w.b.) feed moisture content, 9 kg/h
feed rate, and 140 rpm screw speed. The operating condi-
tions were selected based on a preliminary study and rec-
ommended values in the literature (Bouvier 2001). The
extruded samples, cut to specic length, were dried in a
hot air cabinet dryer at 150C for 10 min to improve the
crispiness (Bouvier 2001; Kebede 2006). The initial mois-
ture content of the extrudates was 3.8% (d.b.).
Hydration tests
About 2 g samples were kept in empty beakers and con-
ditioned to the rehydration temperature of 25C in a hot
air oven before each test (Hung et al. 1993; Maskan
2002). After conditioning, 100 mL distilled water or
whole milk at 25C was poured into the beakers and then
placed in a constant temperature water bath (Model 25;
Precision Scientic Inc., Chicago, IL) set at 25C (1C).
The rehydration temperature falls in the ranges used in
earlier moisture uptake studies of breakfast cereals (Mach-
40 2013 The Authors. Food Science & Nutrition published by Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
Tef Extrudate Hydration W. K. Solomon
ado et al. 1997, 1998, 1999; Sacchetti et al. 2003; Lucas
et al. 2007). The chemical composition of milk used was
determined and was found to be 2.73, 3.92, 13.79 g/100 g
for fat, protein, and total solids, respectively. At time
intervals ranging between 5 and 120 min (depending on
soaking duration), the beakers were removed from the
water bath and drained, and the samples were weighed
using an analytical balance (CP 124S, Data Weighing Sys-
tems, Inc., Gottingen, Germany) with 0.1 mg accuracy.
The samples were then dried in a hot air oven at 130C
for 4 h based on preliminary studies and in reference to
Gondek and Lewicki (2006) to determine the moisture
content. Each test was repeated four times to determine
the mean values.
Data analysis
The probabilistic normalized Weibull model (eq. 1) has
been found to adequately describe the hydration charac-
teristics of a variety of dry food products including break-
fast cereals (Ilincanu et al. 1995; Cunha et al. 1998;
Machado et al. 1998, 1999; Sacchetti et al. 2003, 2005;
Marabi and Saguy 2004).
Mt M
0
M
e
M
0
1 exp
t
a

b

(1)
where M(t) is moisture content at time t, M
e
is equilib-
rium moisture content after prolonged soaking, M
0
is ini-
tial moisture content, a is the scale (rate) parameter, b is
the shape parameter, and t is soaking time. The scale
(rate) parameter represents the time needed to accom-
plish approximately 63% of the moisture absorption pro-
cess whereas the shape parameter is a behavior index
which is linked to the mechanism controlling the water
absorption process (Machado et al. 1997; Cunha et al.
1998).
The parameters b, a, and M
e
in the model were deter-
mined by nonlinear regression using JMPIN 5.0.1 statistics
software (SAS 2002, JMP Version 5; SAS Institute Inc.,
Cary, NC). The degree of t of the model was evaluated
based on the values of coefcient of determination (R
2
)
and root mean square error (RMSE) (eq. 2) and by exam-
ining the distribution of the residuals.
RMSE

P
N
i1
M
exp;i
M
est;i

2
N
v
u
u
u
t
(2)
where M
exp
and M
est
are experimental and estimated
moisture content, respectively, and N is the number of
data points.
Results and Discussion
Hydration phenomena
The rehydration data of extrudates processed using different
barrel temperatures and hydrated in water and whole milk
are presented in Figure 1. Water absorption occurred at a
higher rate in the early stages (6090 min) of the rehydra-
tion process followed by decreasing rate and nally tending
to cease at prolonged soaking time indicating the rehydra-
tion approached equilibrium condition. This trend was sim-
ilar for samples extruded using 130 and 150C barrel
temperatures. For samples extruded using barrel tempera-
ture of 110C water absorption continued steadily till the
end of the hydration time and approaching equilibrium
required more time. Water absorption rate depends on the
difference between the water content at a given time and at
saturation, which is the driving force. As hydration pro-
ceeds, the water content of the extrudates increased, thereby
decreasing the driving force and consequently the water
absorption rate. The process ceases when the extrudates
attain the equilibrium moisture content. Similar characteris-
tic water absorption trends have been reported for ready-
to-eat and puffed breakfast cereals immersed in water or
milk (Machado et al. 1997, 1998, 1999; Sacchetti et al.
2003, 2005; Lucas et al. 2007; Solomon 2008).
Samples extruded using barrel temperature of 150C
exhibited higher water absorption rate followed by those
extruded at 130 and 110C, which is apparent from the
slope of the tted lines particularly in the early stages
(about the rst 6090 min) of the rehydration process
(Fig. 1). This trend was similar while hydrating samples
both in milk and in water. The trend observed in this
study is in agreement with Solomon (2008) where tef ex-
trudates processed at 150C exhibited higher hydration
rate than those extruded at 130 and 110C. Sacchetti et al.
(2005) also reported that extrudates processed at 110C
extrusion temperature exhibited higher hydration rate
Temperature (C)
0.0
2.0
4.0
6.0
0 100 200 300 400
Time (min)
M
o
i
s
t
u
r
e

c
o
n
t
e
n
t

(
g
/
g
150 w 150 m 130 w 130 m
110 w 110 m est
i
n
t

w
t
)
Figure 1. Experimental and estimated rehydration curves in water
and whole milk at different barrel temperatures (m, milk; w, water).
2013 The Authors. Food Science & Nutrition published by Wiley Periodicals, Inc. 41
W. K. Solomon Tef Extrudate Hydration
than those extruded at 100C. Gelatinization, which is the
conversion of starch to a cooked and digestible material
by the application of heat and water, is one of the impor-
tant effects extrusion has on the starch component of
foods (Ilo et al. 1996; Cheyne et al. 2005; Ding et al. 2005,
2006). Water is absorbed and bound to the starch mole-
cules inducing change in the starch molecule structure.
The fact is that high extrusion temperature increases the
degree of starch gelatinization (Ilo et al. 1996; Bhattach-
arya 1997; Ding et al. 2005; Singh et al. 2007), and water
absorption rate and water absorption capacity by gelati-
nized starch are higher than those for raw starch (Gambus
et al. 1999; Cheyne et al. 2005), explaining the high water
absorption rate exhibited by extrudates processed at barrel
temperature of 150C followed by those extruded at 130
and 110C, respectively. Earlier studies also revealed that
high extrusion temperature reduces melt viscosity
(Fletcher et al. 1985; Ilo et al. 1996; Lo et al. 1998; Ding
et al. 2006), resulting in more expanded, less compact,
and more porous breakfast cereals and snacks having air
cells due to release of superheated steam (Fletcher et al.
1985; Anderson and Hedlund 1990; Ilo et al. 1996, 1999;
Bhattacharya 1997; Guha et al. 1997; Ding et al. 2005; De
Pilli et al. 2005), leading to less resistance to mass transfer
and hence increased rate of water absorption.
It is also worth noting that water absorption rate in
water is signicantly higher than that in milk. This is evi-
dent from the trends and slopes of the tted lines (Fig. 1),
which were found to be signicantly higher in water than
those in milk. The lower water absorption rate of extru-
dates hydrated in milk could be attributed to the solids in
milk, which block the pores of the extrudates, thereby
reducing water absorption rate. Moreover, the fat compo-
nent in the milk could also inuence water absorption by
accumulating on the surface of the extrudates (Machado
et al. 1999). Hindrance to water absorption could be
aggravated further due to the hydrophobic nature of fat
adhered to the extrudates (Machado et al. 1998).
Modeling rehydration kinetics
The results of nonlinear regression including the scale
(rate) parameter, a, the shape parameter, b, and equilib-
rium moisture content, M
e
in equation (1), and the
degree of t in terms of R
2
and RMSE are presented in
Table 1. The results revealed that the normalized Weibull
model adequately described the rehydration characteristics
of tef our breakfast cereals in water and milk with high
R
2
(0.980.99) and small RMSE values. Besides the quan-
tied values of R
2
and RMSE, the adequacy of the model
was evaluated by the residual plot (Fig. 2). The residuals
were found to be randomly distributed, demonstrating
that the model adequately described the rehydration
kinetics of the extrudates. Earlier studies have also shown
that the normalized Weibull model adequately described
the rehydration kinetics of puffed breakfast cereals and
other dried products (Ilincanu et al. 1995; Cunha et al.
1998; Machado et al. 1998, 1999; Sacchetti et al. 2003,
2005; Marabi and Saguy 2004; Solomon 2008).
The value of a, which represents the time required to
achieve 63% of the maximum moisture uptake (1 e
1
),
was determined to be 2309.7, 150.59, and 123.47 min for
samples extruded at 110, 130, and 150C, respectively, indi-
cating that the samples hydrated in water and extruded at
barrel temperature of 150C had a high water absorption
rate followed by those extruded using 130 and 110C barrel
temperature. The trend was similar for extrudates hydrated
in milk (Table 1). Similar trends of the effect of extrusion
temperature on the hydration rate of breakfast cereals have
been reported (Sacchetti et al. 2005). The value of a was
Table 1. Parameters and degree of t in normalized Weibull model at different barrel temperatures.
Temperature (C)
In water In milk
a (min) b M
e
R
2
RMSE a (min) b M
e
R
2
RMSE
110 2309.7 0.40 6.48 0.994 0.0424 381.65 0.51 3.22 0.981 0.084
130 150.59 0.73 5.88 0.986 0.1863 335.63 0.60 5.05 0.979 0.1605
150 123.47 0.73 6.05 0.992 0.1497 229.22 0.66 4.81 0.976 0.1684
M
e
, equilibrium moisture content; a, scale (rate) parameter; b, shape parameter; RMSE, root mean square error.
0.6
0.0
0.6
0.0 2.0 4.0 6.0
Predicted MC
R
e
s
i
d
u
a
l
s
Figure 2. Plot of predicted moisture contents versus residuals.
42 2013 The Authors. Food Science & Nutrition published by Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
Tef Extrudate Hydration W. K. Solomon
found to be higher in milk than that in water (Table 1),
demonstrating that the water absorption rate of samples
hydrated in milk is less than that in water. This is also evi-
dent from the trends of the tted lines (Fig. 1). Higher val-
ues of a indicate low water absorption rate or more time is
required to reach 63% of the equilibrium moisture content
(Ilincanu et al. 1995; Machado et al. 1998). The solids and
fat in the milk coupled with less amount of free water could
hinder the mass transfer process (Machado et al. 1997,
1999), resulting in lower degree of hydration of the extru-
dates hydrated in milk than in water. It was also visually
observed that extrudates hydrated in water swell more and
their structure was lost relatively easily, thereby decreasing
the resistance to mass transfer whereas those hydrated in
milk had a better retention of structure thus decreasing the
water absorption rate. A similar phenomenon was reported
for puffed breakfast cereals hydrated in water and milk
(Machado et al. 1997). The water absorption rate of tef
appeared to be less as compared to commercial puffed corn
breakfast cereals (a = 32 min) (Machado et al. 1997, 1999)
hydrated in water at 25C, cereal-based breakfast cereals
(a = 32.5 to 6.7 min) (Sacchetti et al. 2005), and corn
akes and akes made from a mixture of cereals (a = 15.97
and 60.28 min) (Sacchetti et al. 2003) hydrated in semi-
skimmed milk. This difference could be attributed to the
high bulk density of tef extrudates, which was 1380, 610
and 490 kg/m
3
at barrel temperature of 110, 130, and
150C, respectively (Kebede 2006), compared with most
corn and rice-based commercial breakfast cereals where the
bulk density ranges from 90 to 320 kg/m
3
(Ilo et al. 1996,
1999; Guha et al. 1997). However, the hydration rate of tef
extrudates processed at 130 and 150C was higher than
that of commercial peanut butter breakfast cereals
(a = 503 min) hydrated in water at 25C (Machado et al.
1998), which could be attributed to the fat content of the
peanut butter breakfast cereals.
The value of the shape parameter, b, ranged between
0.40 and 0.73 (Table 1), indicating that the process is pre-
dominantly controlled by diffusion for extrudates pro-
cessed at 110C, whereas external resistance to mass
transfer dominated for those extruded at 130 and 150C
(Cunha et al. 1998). Higher values of b (preferably more
than 1) correspond to the lag time for moisture uptake
(Machado et al. 1998) and are desirable with regard to
the maintenance of crispness during rehydration (Mach-
ado et al. 1997). Thus, extrudates processed at 130 and
150C barrel temperature would maintain better crispness
during rehydration.
The equilibrium moisture content, M
e
, generally
increased with an increase in barrel temperature (Table 1),
which is also apparent from the trends observed in Fig-
ure 1. This phenomenon could be attributed to less
expanded, less porous, and dense internal structure of the
extrudates extruded at low temperatures (Fletcher et al.
1985; Anderson and Hedlund 1990; Ilo et al. 1996, 1999;
Bhattacharya 1997; Guha et al. 1997; De Pilli et al. 2005)
that reduces the water-holding capacity. However, extru-
dates processed at 110C barrel temperature and hydrated
in water appeared to have high moisture content
(Table 1). Despite its statistical reliability, this high M
e
value should be considered cautiously. In view of the stea-
dily continued water absorption observed during the
experimentation by samples extruded at 110C and the
associated a value (2309.7 min), it was not possible to
approach equilibrium condition. Therefore, it is possible
to arrive at such a high estimated equilibrium moisture
content value. When the experimental data depart from
equilibrium, the precision of the parameters estimate
decreases and M
e
tends to be overestimated (Cunha et al.
1998; Machado et al. 1998).
The equilibrium moisture content of extrudates
hydrated in whole milk was found to be slightly lower
than those hydrated in water (Table 1). This could be
attributed to the role of the fat and solids, which might
have blocked the pores, resulting in smaller hydration or
water-holding capacity. In earlier studies on rehydration
of puffed breakfast cereals, the equilibrium moisture con-
tent of samples hydrated in water was twice the value of
those hydrated in milk (Machado et al. 1997). Similarly,
the increase in the concentration of total solids and fat
content of milk has been reported to decrease the equilib-
rium moisture content of ready-to-eat breakfast cereals
(Machado et al. 1999), which further explains the inu-
ence of solids and fat content on the hydration (water-
holding) capacity.
Conclusions
The water absorption rate and water absorption capacity
(equilibrium moisture content) increased with an increase
in barrel temperature from 110 to 150C. The normalized
Weibull model adequately described the water absorption
characteristic of tef our breakfast cereals hydrated in
water and milk. Hence, the model could be used for pre-
diction and process optimization purposes, though it
lacks theoretical basis. Water absorption rate and equilib-
rium moisture content were higher for extrudates
hydrated in water than those hydrated in milk. In view of
the values of the shape parameter b (0.400.73), the rehy-
dration process is predominantly controlled by diffusion
for samples extruded at 110C, whereas external resistance
to mass transfer dominated for those extruded using 150
and 130C. Extrudates processed at 130 and 150C barrel
temperature could maintain better crispness during rehy-
dration. Hence, this temperature range might be preferred
for producing tef our breakfast cereals.
2013 The Authors. Food Science & Nutrition published by Wiley Periodicals, Inc. 43
W. K. Solomon Tef Extrudate Hydration
Acknowledgments
The author is grateful to Ashena Bahiru for his assis-
tance in the course of the experimentation. Laike Kebede
is acknowledged for providing the extrudates.
Conict of Interest
None declared.
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