Fruit Growing in The Tropics

Agrodok 5
Fruit growing in the tropics

Ed Verheij

This publication is sponsored by: ICCO

Agromisa Foundation and CTA, Wageningen, 2006.

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in any form, by print, photocopy,
microfilm or any other means, without written permission from the publisher.

First edition: 1992
Third, completely revised, edition: 2006

Author: Ed Verheij
Illustrator: Barbera Oranje
Design: Eva Kok
Printed by: Digigrafi, Wageningen, the Netherlands
Language editor: Ninette de Zylva

ISBN Agromisa: 90-8573-056-2
ISBN CTA: 978-92-9081-344-6

Foreword 3
Foreword
The previous editions of this Agrodok, published in 1992 and 1999,
gave a general introduction into fruit growing in the tropics and de-
scribed 8 major crops. Working on this revision, the general introduc-
tion quickly filled the entire Agrodok! And if the major fruit crops are
to be dealt with anew, each crop will no doubt require an Agrodok of
its own. In fact it may be better to publish regional crop manuals,
rather than trying to cram information for various parts of the tropics
into a single booklet.

The aim of this revised text is to foster your interest in and under-
standing of fruit growing. Traditional knowledge has been combined
with insights gained through research work. No recipes are given for
growing specific fruit crops. The contents are directed at home gar-
deners, growers who depend for (part of) their income on the sale of
fruit, extension workers and others who support gardeners and grow-
ers.

Acknowledgement
I am greatly indebted to Chris Menzel, Horticulturist at the Queen-
sland Department of Primary Industries, Australia, who reviewed the
manuscript and made welcome editorial suggestions. His comments
made me reconsider what can be done to improve flowering, leading
to a revision of this key issue. Johannes van Leeuwen of the National
Research Institute of the Amazon (INPA) in Manaus, Brazil and
Bennie Bloemberg, who devoted some 30 years to development work
in East Africa, proposed improvements of the manuscript and gathered
much-appreciated information. I gratefully acknowledge the help of
Janhein Loedeman in reshuffling and shortening text in the final
stages.

Wageningen, August 2006
Ed Verheij

Fruit growing in the tropics 4
Contents
1 Introduction 6
1.1 No flowers, no fruit 6
1.2 Importance of trees and fruits 7
1.3 Reasons NOT to grow fruit 9
2 Cropping systems for fruit 11
2.1 The home garden 11
2.2 Orchards and plantations 12
2.3 Small is beautiful 13
2.4 Summary 14
3 Form and function 15
3.1 Single-stemmed and branched fruit crops 15
3.2 A closer look at single-stemmed fruit crops 19
3.3 Form and function of branched fruit trees 22
3.4 Summary 34
4 Propagation 35
4.1 Seedlings or clonal plants? 35
4.2 Outline of cloning methods 37
4.3 Concluding remarks 40
5 Training: pruning and bending 41
5.1 Definition; the limited role of pruning in tropical fruits 41
5.2 Cutting increasingly large portions of a shoot/branch 42
5.3 Summary 46
6 Control over the growth rhythm 47
6.1 Increasing stress for better flowering 47
6.2 Fitting crop care operations in the growth cycle 50
6.3 Forcing synchronous flushing/flowering 52

Contents 5
7 Pollination and fruit set 55
7.1 Flowering habit 55
7.2 Pollination 56
8 Crop protection 59
8.1 Limiting use of pesticides 60
9 Harvesting 64
9.1 Mature or ripe fruit? 64
9.2 Harvest methods, harvest indices 65
9.3 Handling and marketing 68
10 Layout and establishment of the orchard 69
10.1 Tree spacing 69
10.2 Orchard establishment 71
Appendix: Horticultural traits 74
Further reading 78
Useful addresses 80
Glossary 82
Index 87

1 Introduction
1.1 No flowers, no fruit
So you are interested in growing fruit! Perhaps you already grow fruit
in a home garden or in an orchard, or you intend to do so. This Agro-
dok is written to make you feel at home amidst the different fruits
crops you see around you. More than 60 fruits are mentioned in the
text. The Index at the end lists the botanical names and the pages on
which you can find more information about these fruits. There is also
an Appendix with particulars about the flowers (in connection with
pollination), the fruit, the seed and the common methods of propaga-
tion.
No flowers, no fruits! Scanty flowering is the main reason for disap-
pointing crops in the tropics. Hence the flowering habit of a fruit crop
is extremely important. Flowering habit is linked with tree habit, as
explained in Chapter 3. A few very common fruit crops pineapple,
banana, papaya, (also palms) have the growth habit of a single large
shoot. These fruits as a rule flower and fruit well if they grow well. So
they respond to the common measures to stimulate growth watering,
manuring, crop protection that every farmer knows about. But the
large majority of the fruit crops branch freely issuing hundreds or
thousands of shoots. Each of these trees branches in its own typical
way. These freely branching trees get the most attention in this Agro-
dok, because they are the problem crops that often flower poorly.
The main reason for scanty flowering is simple: the tree forgets to
form floral buds because it is too busy making new shoots. In fact
most branched fruit crops require a period of stress in the form of a
cold or dry season to put a stop to shoot growth in favour of laying
down floral buds. And if the natural stress is inadequate as is the
case in large parts of the tropics for many fruit crops in most years,
you will need to check shoot growth yourself. In such tree crops,
therefore, measures to limit shoot growth and measures to stimulate
growth should be alternated according to the seasons. Thus the grower

Introduction 7
of these fruits needs special skills and has to apply them at the right
time. The aim is to achieve a better BALANCE between vegetative
growth and reproductive growth (the course of events from the initia-
tion of floral buds to ripening of the fruit). This is the subject of Chap-
ter 6.
Pruning, discussed in Chapter 5, is one of the skills employed in
branching trees. But in the tropics the results of pruning are all too
often negative. The main reason is that pruning leads to compensatory
regrowth, which sets back the formation of floral buds. Thus pruning
is important mainly when trees flower and fruit abundantly, so that
shoot growth needs to be stimulated rather than flowering,
Without flowers no fruit. But also: without pollination no fruit set!
There are exceptions to this rule, but flowers generally need to be pol-
linated, preferably by cross-pollination, to set fruit. Fruit crops differ
greatly in the types of flowers they bear and in the way pollination and
fruit set is effected. This important subject is dealt with in Chapter 7.
1.2 Importance of trees and fruits
Big trees and small trees
Trees are the natural vegetation in large parts of the tropics, in particu-
lar, in humid regions. The importance of trees stems partly from their
large size and perennial character. Trees shape the landscape and
frame buildings; they cast their shade over man and beast. They pro-
tect the soil against the hot sun, heavy rain and strong winds, espe-
cially during seasons when there are no annual crops in the fields. The
roots explore deep soil layers, recycling water and nutrients that can-
not be reached by the roots of field crops. In these ways, trees amelio-
rate their immediate environment.
There is increasing evidence that trees protect and exploit the envi-
ronment more effectively than annuals. Evergreen trees have the ad-
vantage over seasonal crop plants in that the canopy of leaves is pre-
sent throughout the year. Agrodok 16: Agroforestry, explains the role

of trees in more detail, both in the environment and in the farming sys-
tem.
As a fruit grower you harvest fruit, not leaves and wood. Unfortu-
nately, the so-called harvest index that is the share of fruit in the
total amount of organic matter produced is often quite low, espe-
cially for most freely branching fruit trees. The tomatoes, eggplants,
cucurbits, etc. of the vegetable grower may not exploit the environ-
ment nearly as well as the tree fruits, but they yield many more tons of
fruit per ha than most trees. Perhaps you should grow vegetables...
People think it natural that trees grow to a large size, but in fact trees
grow big because poor flowering and fruiting leave enough energy for
ever more shoots to grow. As a fruit grower your aim should be to
produce fruit with a minimum of wood! If you could make a tree bear
a full crop in relation to its size each year, starting within a few
years from planting, it would never grow big. Imagine a mature
mango tree the size of a coffee bush: think of the ease of pruning, crop
protection, selective harvesting... For the fruit grower SMALL IS
BEAUTIFUL. This is the conclusion of Chapter 2, in which the differ-
ent cropping systems for fruit are compared.
Cloning is the first step towards control over tree size, as explained in
Chapter 4: Propagation. In Chapter 9, Harvesting, it is argued that
large tree size and top quality fruit do not go together: harvesting each
fruit when it is at its best is impossible and avoiding blemishes is dif-
ficult.
Who eats fruit and why?
In Africa fruit is often considered as food for the birds (Swa-
hili:chakula cha ndege) and it is left to children to compete with the
birds; a man it is said should drink beer. In Central and South
America, people are usually more fruitminded. Asians generally have
a great appreciation of fruits.

Introduction 9
The regard for fruit appears to be related to the propagation methods.
Until recently fruit trees in Africa were commonly raised from seed;
hence there were no named varieties or cultivars (banana being an im-
portant exception). Asia, on the other hand, is the area of origin of
several important cloning methods, enabling growers to propagate su-
perior varieties. Appreciation of the distinct taste of each variety de-
veloped through the ages. Home gardens flourish, people are familiar
with home preservation and cooking methods, and aware of the health
benefits traditionally attributed to each fruit. But for all that most peo-
ple in Asia must make do with far less fruit than they would like to
eat.
1.3 Reasons NOT to grow fruit
This booklet is meant to put across new ideas to gardeners, growers
and extension workers. The intention, of course, is to encourage you
to grow fruit. Nevertheless it is only fair to briefly list reasons not to
grow fruit as well, even though you have probably thought of these
reasons yourself.
No doubt you took into account that it takes years before you can har-
vest the first crop. And when the trees come into bearing they may fail
to flower, or to set fruit, or that the fruit may drop prematurely. But,
supposing the trees are doing fine: have you considered the risk of fire
scorching your trees? And what about pilferage, birds, bats and rats
eating the fruit, not to say anything about losses due to other pests and
diseases?
The fruit grower faces a lot of uncertainty in producing a crop and, if
there is a good crop to be picked, there is still the uncertainty of the
market. There is truth in the saying that producing a fruit crop is the
lesser half of the problem, post-harvest handling and marketing repre-
senting the larger half...
Hopefully you have given proper thought to all these risks, problems
and possible setbacks, because this Agrodok cannot do it for you! For

one thing, the contents are limited to fruit production. Some aspects,
such as out-of-season production, are related to marketing, but mar-
keting as such is not dealt with. Local markets and customary ar-
rangements with middlemen vary so much and the market situation
changes so rapidly when the production of a new fruit increases, that
marketing advice should be based on local conditions.
In Chapter 8 the principles of controlling pests and diseases are dis-
cussed with some examples. Finally, if you have considered all the
above objections and still are about to plant fruit trees, you will find
recommendations in Chapter 10: Layout and establishment of the or-
chard.

Cropping systems for fruit 11
2 Cropping systems for fruit
Fruit is produced in almost every farming system. Some fruits are col-
lected in the natural vegetation (in the wild). In shifting cultivation
systems, fruit trees are often planted along with the field crops after a
plot has been cleared. During the first year or two of the next fallow
period the resurging natural vegetation is slashed to enable the fruit
trees to survive and bear fruit. In this way Amazon Indians enrich the
fallow vegetation with a range of indigenous fruit crops, such as canis-
tel, Amazon tree grape, pejibaye and other palms.
2.1 The home garden
From the more permanent plot around the hut of the shifting cultivator
to the home garden of the settled farmer is only one step. The original
meaning of the word garden (as well as hortus from which horti-
culture is derived) is fence or enclosure. Horticultural crops are
grown within the enclosure, field crops outside it. The enclosure offers
protection so that the family, not passing goats and school children,
can gather the harvest. There are a great many garden crops. They are
grown on a small scale partly because they are perishable and to-
gether they fill the garden throughout the year, making protection all
the more necessary.
Protection is easiest if the garden surrounds the house: the home gar-
den. This also facilitates crop care. Many husbandry techniques, ex-
plained in textbooks but rarely seen in the field, such as watering by
hand, composting, mulching, pruning, trellising and simple crop pro-
tection measures, are common in the home garden. Protection and care
ensure that the home garden supplies small quantities of fruits, vege-
tables and herbs to supplement the diet, but also medicinal products,
some fodder for the animals, and amenities such as wooden posts and
bamboos.

2.2 Orchards and plantations
Near the growing towns some home gardens developed into market
gardens and further specialisation led to new professions: vegetable
grower, fruit grower, nurseryman, etc., all producing primarily for the
market.
However, of the many different fruit crops in home gardens only a few
are found in orchards producing for the market. The reason is both
simple and shocking: fruit growers cannot grow these crops profitably,
because they produce too little and/or too erratically, and it takes too
many years bvefore they bear fruit! Why plant an orchard of durians if
you have to wait up to 10 years for the trees to produce a worthwhile
crop? And look at the mango trees in your area: people notice a single
tree full of fruit, but tend to overlook 10 others that hardly bear any
fruit. In fact the mango, one of the most important fruit crops, bears so
erratically that it is difficult to estimate what a normal yield is. On
the other hand, pineapple and banana are so productive that investors
are prepared to finance large-scale plantations of these fruits. This is
shown in figure 1 where home gardening is compared with the more
commercial cropping systems.

Figure 1: Cropping system, crops and yield levels. All cultivated
fruit crops are grown in home gardens, but only those that bear
good crops are found in more commercial cropping systems.

Cropping systems for fruit 13
Some fruits are only found growing in the wild; all cultivated fruits
are grown in home gardens, but only a few have made it as orchard or
plantation crops. Looking more closely at figure 1 it is clear that the
crops suited to production in orchards or plantations are not only high-
yielding; they also need only a short period from planting to full pro-
duction, and they remain small. Pineapple and banana, the 2 plantation
crops, show these properties in the extreme.
2.3 Small is beautiful
High yield and early production are associated with small tree size.
For the fruit grower SMALL IS BEAUTIFUL! This point is empha-
sised throughout this booklet, because traditionally people want their
trees to grow BIG. After all the distinctive feature of a tree is its size.
Big, or rather tall, is indeed beautiful for the forester. However, as a
fruit grower you are after fruit, not wood.
Apple growing in the Netherlands provides a striking example of the
move towards smaller fruit trees. From 1930 to 1970 the average
number of trees per ha increased from 100 to 2,500 (the spacing de-
creased from 10m x 10m to 3.20m x 1.25m). In these 40 years the
mean yield in the country increased from 8 to 32 ton per ha!
If trees remain small you need a lot more trees per ha, but this draw-
back is offset by rapid attainment of full production. Moreover, small
trees are so much easier to manage: pruning, crop protection, harvest-
ing, etc. can all be done much more efficiently. Early bearing, easy-to-
manage, small trees should bring down the cost of fruit production, so
that the grower can make a profit even at much lower market prices,
enabling many more people to buy fruit.
Whereas control over tree size is essential for the commercial fruit
grower, it is also beneficial for home gardeners. Just imagine your one
large mango tree being replaced by 3 or 5 more fruitful small mango
trees of different varieties! (But these trees may be too small to sit in

their shade...) Ways to control tree size will be discussed in later chap-
ters, with emphasis on the first step, clonal propagation (Chapter 4).
2.4 Summary
Fruits play a role in almost all farming systems. Some fruits are col-
lected in the wild, a variety of fruit crops are used to enrich the vege-
tation of fallow fields in shifting cultivation, and the widest variety of
fruit crops is found in home gardens. Only a minority of tropical fruits
are suited to commercial production in orchards. The largest commer-
cial enterprises, such as corporate plantations, are virtually limited to
pineapple and banana. Commercial fruits crop heavily and regularly;
usually they come into bearing quickly and the trees remain small.
Progress in fruit growing relies strongly on methods to limit tree size,
because small trees tend to be more productive than large ones and are
much easier to manage, leading to lower costs of production. The prin-
cipal method to achieve this is by vegetative propagation.

Form and function 15
3 Form and function
3.1 Single-stemmed and branched fruit crops
There are a few fruit crops that come to the fore wherever the growing
conditions permit their cultivation: papaya, coconut, pineapple and
banana. The growth habit of all these plants resembles a single, giant
shoot. That is why we call them single-stemmed plants (although,
strictly speaking, this is not correct see Box). This shoot grows con-
tinuously, the growing point at the shoot tip forming leaves and inflo-
rescences in orderly succession.
Papaya and coconut form flowers in the axil of every leaf, pineapple
and banana flower at the shoot tip after sufficient leaves have been
produced to sustain fruit growth.

The form of these single-stemmed crops implies that if they grow
faster they will also flower and fruit sooner. Moreover, leaves and fruit
grow to a larger size when growing conditions are favourable. For the
grower these are relatively simple crops, because they respond well to
crop care (watering, manuring, crop protection). If only you make sure
that the plants grow well they will produce high and predictable
yields. Because the growing point is always active, fruit can be har-
vested at any time of the year. So it is not surprising that these crops
are grown wherever possible; they are important to rich and poor.

Different forms of branching
Banana and pineapple form suckers, which are in fact branches. However,
suckers do not much affect form and functioning of the mother shoot, so here
we just consider both crops (and suckering palms such as date palm and peji-
baye) as single-stemmed plants. You may have seen papaya plants that
through some mishap have formed a few branches. Because each of these
branches resembles the unbranched papaya in form and functioning, we still
include such plants in the single-stemmed category.
Branching of the true branched fruit crops is of a different order. They branch
to adapt their form to the available space (branches grow towards the light).
Vines are the champions in this respect; they have no fixed form at all. The
form of a vine depends on the support it finds in searching for light.

Continuous and intermittent growth
The single-stemmed fruit crops are only a small, but extremely impor-
tant, minority. By far most fruit crops are freely branching trees. The
shoots of most of these branched species do not grow continuously but
intermittently. Shoots extend during a flush, rapidly unfolding a num-
ber of leaves. Before long the shoot stops growing, no longer issuing
young leaves and matures into an apparently resting twig.
Single-stemmed crop plants can grow continuously because as soon as
they have a full set of leaves the leaf area remains the same, each new
leaf replacing a withering leaf. Nearly all water and nutrients needed
by a tree are taken up by young roots. That is why roots cannot stop
growing; otherwise there soon would be no young roots anymore. The
fairly constant leaf area of single-stemmed plants can be supplied with
water and nutrients if the roots grow at a steady pace.
The roots of branched trees would have to grow ever faster if the
number of shoots and leaves increases unchecked. This is impossible
and may explain why most branched trees grow intermittently rather
than continuously. During a flush the number of leaves increases so
fast that the root system cannot keep up. After the flush, however,
growth of the roots continues and leaf fall gradually reduces the leaf
area. So after a period of (many) months, the tree is again able to sup-
port a flush. As a result the shoot: root ratio in branched trees is not
steady, but fluctuates. Under favourable growing conditions there may
be a rapid succession of flushes, so that branching becomes quite
complex within a few years, as shown in figure 2.
Which buds will flower?
For the fruit grower the most striking feature of branched fruit crops is
that flowering and fruiting have no well-defined place in the growth
habit, in contrast to the single-stemmed crops.
A papaya or coconut that grows reasonably well flowers in every leaf
axil once the juvenile period is over, but it is impossible to say which
of the hundreds or thousands of twigs on a mango tree are going to

flower and fruit. The tree may flower profusely in one year and hardly
at all in another. Consequently bearing of branched trees is unpredict-
able and much lower on average than in single-stemmed fruit crops.
Since growth comes first, stimulating growth is unlikely to improve
flowering and fruiting. For instance: watering a mango tree during the
dry season to avoid stress will lead to more flushing at the expense of
flowering. Figure 2 shows the rapid increase in branching of a mango
tree growing in ever-wet conditions; the tree did not flower at all.

Figure 2: Branching of a mango tree in Madagascar over 2
years from planting. All flushing shoots were measured and re-
corded, but in May 1966 only on two branches. Dots show the end
of the previous flush.

Shoots and buds
In this book we use the terms shoot and twig for the young branches. As soon
as the youngest leaves on the shoot have matured, the shoot becomes a twig.
A twig bears only mature leaves (the oldest leaves may already have fallen). A
twig only grows by becoming a thicker branch, but some buds on a twig may
break to produce flowers or new shoots during a later flush.
In fruit growing flower bud is often used as opposed to leaf bud, to indicate
the bud that in due course will break into an inflorescence, bearing one or
more flowers. Here we use the term floral bud, because In common usage
flower bud stands for a flower just before it opens.
Stress and seasonal yield
While the grower of single-stemmed fruit crops does his best to make
sure that his crops do not suffer stress, for intermittently growing
branched fruit trees a period of stress is in fact welcome or neces-
sary. A period of unfavourable weather, like a cold or dry season, stops
shoot growth and gives the twigs time to initiate floral buds. Low
temperature is more effective than drought, as can be shown by com-
paring fruit crops such as citrus, mango and avocado, which grow in
the subtropics as well as in the tropics (see Box).
Citrus, mango and avocado in the tropics and subtropics
For all three crops, a rule of thumb is that in the tropics the trees grow twice
as fast and yield only half as much as in the subtropics. In the tropics the dry
season often does not check shoot growth effectively, resulting in large trees
and insufficient twig rest to ensure good flowering and fruiting. In the subtrop-
ics, winter does stop shoot growth; moreover it stimulates formation of floral
buds, resulting in small, profusely flowering trees. But in the subtropics in-
clement springtime weather often leads to poor fruit set. And if fruit sets well
this may lead to overbearing and shortage of shoots that flower next year, re-
sulting in biennial bearing.

Thus, although the crops are the same, the problems faced by the grower are
quite different; in several respect they are quite the opposite. Think twice be-
fore you adopt recommendations based on experience in the subtropics!
Seasonal stress imposed by climate and soil conditions results in si-
multaneous flowering of all trees of a crop (or cultivar). Consequently
the fruit of most branched trees has a short market supply season,

whereas the fruits of single-stemmed plants are available throughout
the year.
The striking differences between single-stemmed and branched fruit
crops in fruiting and in the required crop care are summarised in Table
1. In the following Sections we shall discuss each of these groups in
more detail, also considering differences within each group.
Table 1: Comparison of single-stemmed and branched fruit crops
Single stemmed crops:
e.g. banana, papaya, coconut
Branched crops:
e.g. mandarin, guava, mango
Growth continuous Growth intermittent
Shoot : root stable Shoot : root fluctuates
Yield - high Yield - low
- predictable - erratic
- year-round - seasonal
Improved growing conditions raise fruiting
more than growth.
Improved growing conditions generally
stimulate shoot growth at the expense of
flowering/fruiting.
Advice: stimulate growth, minimise stress Advice: use seasonal stress to BALANCE
shoot growth with flowering/fruiting
3.2 A closer look at single-stemmed fruit crops
The four single-stemmed fruit crops mentioned before, fall into two
groups: papaya and coconut produce flowers in the axil of every leaf;
banana and pineapple flower at the shoot tip. Growth and flower-
ing/fruiting are closely linked in all these plants: if they are growing
well the yield will be high. Under adverse conditions however, impor-
tant differences between the two groups come to light.
Flowering in the leaf axils
Papaya and coconut have to keep up a steady rate of growth to be able
to produce flowers and fruits in every leaf axil. If growing conditions
deteriorate, for instance during a cold or dry season, growth goes on as
best it can at the expense of flowering and fruiting. In other words:
under stressful conditions flowering and fruiting are sacrificed for the

sake of the tree. Therefore these crops require favourable growing
conditions throughout the year; they are confined to the tropics.

If you look at the trunk of a papaya tree you see the scars of the leaves
that have fallen. The small leaves formed during an adverse season
leave small scars close together, quite distinct from the large, well-
spaced scars of leaves formed during a favourable growing season. If
the papaya is a few years old you can read its life history, its periods
of happiness and stress, from the leaf scars on the stem, as shown in
figure 3. The form reflects the way in which the tree functions.

Thus the first task of the
papaya grower is to reduce
stress to a minimum, for
instance by watering during
the dry season, by planting
the trees on a ridge if the
soil is poorly drained, or by
providing shelter on a wind-
swept plain.
In an orchard spacing of the
plants is important. If papa-
yas or coconuts are planted
close together the leaves
cannot spread out freely and
are forced in a more upright
position. The resulting nar-
row leaf axils hinder the
development of flowers and
fruits. Lack of space, like a
period of stress, sets back
flowering and fruiting much
more than vegetative
growth. Coconut palms are often spaced so far apart that they can be
intercropped, because nut production drops sharply if the palms are

Figure 3: Leaf scars on a papaya
trunk

planted too close together. Hence these species are designed for unre-
stricted growth, both with respect to time and space.
Flowering at the shoot tip
If a banana plant is stressed by drought or cold weather, leaf produc-
tion slows down and, if the stress persists, the new leaves gradually
become smaller. Unlike the papaya, this does not directly affect fruit
yield. The main effect of a period of slower growth is that appearance
of the bunch is delayed: you have to wait longer to harvest the fruit.
Similarly, if you cut a banana leaf now and then to use as an umbrella
or to wrap up your food, you postpone the harvest rather than reducing
it. The same applies to the pineapple, a drought-resistant crop that can
virtually suspend growth in dry conditions.
The leaves of closely spaced bananas or pineapples also assume a
more upright position. The crowding results in a more slender plant
and smaller fruit, but that loss can be made good by the larger number
of plants per ha. The small pineapples preferred in international trade
are produced by reducing the planting distance.
Terminal flowering banana and pineapple adapt much better to ad-
verse conditions than papaya or coconut. The harvest is delayed but
not necessarily reduced by a period of stress. This is why both crops
are also popular in the subtropics; in the tropics they grow up to eleva-
tions of around 1600 m. Flowering at the shoot tip enables these crops
to cope fairly well with stress and crowding.
Other single-stemmed crops
The palms are by far the largest group of single-stemmed perennial
crop plants. Oil palm, pejibaye, arecanut and date palm are examples
of important crops with the same growth habit as coconut. There are
also palms, for instance sago palm, which flower at the shoot tip like
banana; sisal is another example of this growth habit.
Table 2 summarises the main characteristics of the two groups of con-
tinuously growing fruit crops.

Table 2: Characteristics of the two groups of single-stemmed fruits
Flowering habit in leaf axils:
growth and flowering com-
bined
at the shoot tip:
flowering after completion of
growth
Examples papaya, coconut pineapple, banana
Response to stress growth continues at the
expense of fruiting
growth slows down and
fruiting is delayed
Adaptation to:
- climate thrive only under minimal
stress
can adapt to drought or cold
- close spacing plants grow taller, yield per
ha declines
plants grow taller, smaller
fruit size, but more fruits per
ha
Conclusion growth habit inflexible;
designed for undisturbed
growth in time and space
growth habit flexible;
fruiting does not suffer much
from seasonal stress or
close spacing
3.3 Form and function of branched fruit trees
Intermittent and continuous growth
The large group of branched fruit trees is very diverse. We have al-
ready seen that branching is commonly associated with intermittent
shoot growth, scanty flowering and seasonal fruiting. That branching
and intermittent growth are closely related is shown by the changes in
the growth habit during the course of the life of branched trees, espe-
cially if grown from seed.
As a rule the seedling grows continuously, but intermittent growth is
seen as soon as the first side shoots are formed. With increasing
branching the interval between flushes tends to become longer and
more twigs generally remain at rest during a flush. From a distance the
tree may seem to be in full flush, but if you look closely you will see
that many twigs are at rest. (These resting twigs may be the ones that
are going to flower!) Trees propagated vegetatively tend to grow in-
termittently from the start, but as branching becomes more complex,
you will notice similar changes in flushing pattern as in trees grown
from seed.

Some woody plants are able to grow continuously and flower in leaf
axils on the growing shoot, like the single-stemmed papaya. The
clearest examples are vines, such as passionfruits and grape. In their
search for light their shoots grow on and on until with increasing
branching growth of the shoots slows down. Breadfruit and coffee
are examples of tree crops showing continuous growth in combination
with flowering in the leaf axils. Jackfruit and durian also have shoots
that tend to grow continuously, but these trees flower on the main
branches and trunk (cauliflory). Whereas intermittently growing
shoots (in flushes), stop growing even under ideal conditions, con-
tinuous shoot growth is brought to a stop by adverse conditions, such
as drought or a load of growing fruits, as in coffee and passionfruit.
In this Section we focus on intermittently growing trees, because the
majority of the fruit crops, including nearly all important ones, belong
to this group. However, continuously growing fruit crops are occa-
sionally mentioned too.
Shoot growth patterns
Growth of the flushing shoot may follow a go stop rhythm, stop-
ping abruptly by abortion of the growing point, as in cocoa and often
in citrus shoots. More often the growing point forms a resting terminal
bud, covered in bud scales, as in mango. In the resting bud the grow-
ing point continues to lay down leaf initials, which will unfold when
the bud breaks during the next flush. Flushing can also follow a fast
slow rhythm, growth slowing down to a snails pace after the rapid
unfolding of leaves at the start of the flush, until it picks up again in
the next flush (rambutan, nutmeg). In this case the resting bud is usu-
ally naked, not covered by bud scales.

Shoot growth is called determinate if during a flush only leaves un-
fold that had already been laid down in the bud. If the shoot tip con-
tinues to form new leaves, the flush is prolonged and shoot growth is
said to be indeterminate. Several fruit crops bear both determinate
shoots (short shoots, called spurs in pomegranate, apple, pear, plum)
and indeterminate shoots (long shoots, called whips in plum and cus-

tard apples). Indeterminate shoots may be seen as a step towards con-
tinuously growing shoots. You can observe the various flushing pat-
terns on your own trees.
Fitting flowering/fruiting in with shoot growth
Branched trees have a much more flexible habit of growth than single-
stemmed plants. Unfortunately for the fruit grower, however, this
flexibility is gained at the expense of flowering and fruiting. The natu-
ral function of fruiting is to provide the seeds needed to produce the
next generation. So it is not surprising that branched trees have made
adaptations to ensure seed production as best they can in spite of lib-
eral shoot growth. Two strategies are common: shoot growth and re-
productive growth take place at different times or in different loca-
tions.
Separation in time
Intermittently growing fruit crops use the time between flushes for
floral development: apart from a few exceptions, they lay down floral
buds on the resting twig. Hence, these crops combine flower-
ing/fruiting with free branching by separating the two: shoot growth
and floral development take place at different times.
Floral buds may be formed in leaf axils or at the tip of the resting
twig. As these floral buds break, they may either produce only an in-
florescence, or a flushing shoot with inflorescence(s). Figure 4 depicts
the four possibilities with examples. Note that quite a few fruit crops
flower both in the leaf axils and at the tip, or directly on the twig as
well as on the new shoots.

As shown in figure 4, guava flowers in leaf axils of the flushing shoot.
However, these flowers were already initiated before the bud on the
resting twig flushed. Inside the bud that is about to break you can see
under the microscope the leaf initials which will expand during the
flush, but also the first signs of floral development in axils of these
tiny leaf initials. In other words: the events that lead to flowering on
new shoots commonly start on the resting twig.


Figure 4: Flowering on twigs and shoots, at the tip and in leaf axils,
with examples. Note that many fruit crops form flowers in more
than one position. *) Flowering only on leafless parts **) Breaking
buds form a rosette of leaves and a cluster of flowers.
Flowering in separate locations
Custard apples, pomegranate, apple, pear and plum all lay down floral
buds on the resting twig; they also have both long (indeterminate) and
short (determinate) shoots. The growth of the short shoots terminates
early, allowing these spurs more time to initiate flowers. Although
flowering occurs on long twigs too, flowering and fruit set are much
better on the spurs. Hence these crops combine separation of shoot
growth and floral development in time with preferential flowering in
special locations.


Figure 5: Young durian tree with horizontal feathers and one vig-
orous upright branch. By cutting that branch you keep the tree
small and foster the growth of more fruitful branches.
Coffee is an example of flowering on special, continuously growing
shoots. Coffee has quite distinct shoot types: one or more upright
shoots (orthotropic shoots), each with numerous horizontally grow-
ing side shoots (plagiotropic shoots). Only the plagiotropic shoots
bear flowers. Several fruit crops have a tendency towards plagiotropy,
be it not as extreme as in coffee. Durian, for instance, has mainly hori-
zontal (plagiotropic) branches and usually one or several sturdy up-
right (orthotropic) branches. The distinction between the horizontal
feathers and upright vigorous branches is quite clear in young trees,
as shown in figure 5. Unlike coffee, both types of branches bear fruit,
but the orthotropic branches mainly contribute to tree size and the pla-
giotropic branches mainly add to the crop.

Durian has more or less distinct shoot types, but the most striking fea-
ture is that its flowers are formed on the underside of the branches
close to the tree trunk. Flowering on the tree trunk and main branches,
called cauliflory, is a very effective way of allocating shoot growth
and floral development to different locations. It sets shoot growth free:
durian and jackfruit shoots grow more or less continuously, while the
shoots of cocoa grow in frequent flushes.

The above examples of durian, custard apples, etc. show that com-
bined strategies to better separate flower formation and shoot growth
are common. Nevertheless, poor flowering remains the main factor
limiting yield of branched fruit crops. This applies in particular to
crops that lay down floral buds on resting twigs. These crops form a
large and important group. Although the behaviour of these crops is
still poorly understood, an approach towards improved flowering is
outlined in the following paragraphs.
Floral buds on resting twigs
In spite of the fragmentary information it appears that adequate flow-
ering depends largely on two conditions:
? Synchronous flushing
? No flushing shoots before and during the formation of floral buds.
Synchronisation of flowering
Synchronous flushing means that the tree goes through distinct phases
for shoot growth and floral development. If a large proportion of the
twigs produces new shoots simultaneously, these shoots mature at the
same time, becoming resting twigs that in due course should produce a
synchronous flowering flush. Indications are that flowering is more
profuse if not just individual twigs, but the entire tree gets into floral
mode. Such a concentrated bloom also favours pollination and fruit
set. The resulting clear-cut annual crop cycle greatly facilitates tree
management, as it establishes a proper time for fertilising, pruning,
crop protection treatments, harvesting, etc. (see Chapter 6).

Synchronisation results from stress imposed by the environment. Tree
species differ greatly in the severity of stress required to ensure syn-
chronous shoot growth and synchronous flowering. A degree of syn-
chronisation is the rule, even in the humid tropics, where a brief dry
spell or a cooling shower after a few hot days are the main upheavals
in the weather. Some rubber clones even shed their leaves in response
to a change of weather that most people do not notice. Spondias spe-
cies (ambarella, mombin) stand leafless following a brief dry spell.
Loss of leaves enables the roots to trigger a synchronous flush, be it a
flowering flush or a flush of shoots. Other fruit crops at home in the
humid tropics, such as rambutan and mangosteen, often bear fruit
twice a year, but not sporadically throughout the year. (However, de-
pending on the timing of the stress, bloom and consequently the har-
vest period(s) may shift considerably from year to year.)
Fruit crops that thrive in a monsoon climate require much more stress
to force synchronous flushing. If grown in a humid environment they
grow even more vigorously, continuous haphazard flushing suppress-
ing the formation of floral buds. This is what happened to the mango
tree in figure 2 and explains the frequent growth of new shoots and the
absence of flowers. The only fruit crops that seem to bear just as well
when growing in a non-synchronous way are sapodilla, soursop and
nutmeg.
Although a degree of synchronisation is the rule, synchronisation is
often far from perfect. It is not unusual to see a tree in full flush and a
neighbour that is at rest, as in figure 6, or a single branch in flush
while the others are at rest, or scattered flushing of shoots throughout
the wet season. The non-synchronous flushing shown in figure 6 is
likely to be repeated at harvest time, as is the case in figure 7!


Figure 6: Rambutan in the dry season, the tree in front flushing,
the one behind at rest

Figure 7: Bearing rambutan tree (right) and flushing tree without
fruit (left)

Prevent shoot growth when floral buds are to be formed
Because synchronisation of flushing is far from perfect in the tropics,
there is a risk of shoot growth shortly before and during the period
that floral buds are laid down. Shoot growth while the tree is switch-
ing to floral mode should be prevented. It is generally assumed that
floral development proceeds without interruption, leading from the
first signs of floral initiation to bloom in 3 8 weeks, depending on
the species. There are some perhaps even many exceptions to this
rule (see Box). But the few indications we have suggest that twigs
should rest for 2 4 months before bloom. If floral development does
take 3 8 weeks, this leaves a month or two of twig rest before the
start of floral development.

If you observe flushing and bloom of fruit trees around you for a few
years, you can find out for yourself whether or not late shoot growth
leads to poor flowering.
From bud to flower: some exceptions to the rule
For several reasons floral development may take much longer than 3 8
weeks. Development may simply proceed slowly; in clove it takes more than 6
months. Also, twigs often rest much longer than necessary to lay down floral
buds. As long as few leaves are shed the roots may not trigger bud break,
even though floral buds are ready. Another important reason is bud dormancy,
which is the inability of buds to break, although growing conditions are favour-
able. Floral buds of coffee go dormant as soon as they are formed. Drought
gradually breaks the dormancy, and finally a shower triggers bloom of all floral
buds that are no longer dormant.

Fruit crops from the temperate zone (apple, pear, plum, peach, grape) have
buds that go dormant in the course of the growing season. Winter chilling
breaks the dormancy and bloom follows when the temperature rises in spring.
When these crops are grown in the tropics bud break tends to be delayed and
inadequate. Dormancy-breaking chemicals can be used to improve bud break;
some of these chemicals are also used to put an end to prolonged twig rest
(see Chapter 6).

Stress imposed by the environment
In the subtropics seasonal stress affects fruit crops much more clearly
than in the tropics. A cold season enforces a strict annual crop cycle,
also on fruit crops that are grown in the tropics as well, such as citrus,
avocado, mango, longan, lychee, loquat, jujube, pomegranate and
casimiroa. During the winter there is no shoot growth. This leads to a
general flush dominated by flowers when the temperature rises in
spring (the cold season apparently also stimulates the formation of
floral buds). When fruit set is good, the burden of growing fruits sup-
presses flushing, so that a post-harvest flush is needed to provide the
twigs that will carry the floral buds for next years crop. Thus the cold
season and a good crop together leave little room for excessive shoot
growth. This is a good thing: in principle shoot growth is needed only
to renew the fruiting wood; more shoot growth increases tree size at
the expense of fruit production.
In the tropics environmental stress comes mainly in the form of
drought. It is impossible to consider the entire range from humid to
arid conditions here. But just consider a typical monsoon climate with
wet and dry seasons of near-equal duration. In this situation shoot
growth occurs mainly during the wet season, starting with a synchro-
nous flush following the onset of the rains. Synchronisation may get
lost with further flushing of shoots in the course of the wet season.
The dry season soon brings shoot growth to an end. Presumably floral
buds are laid down on the resting twigs around this time, for most
branched fruit crops flower during the dry season. Depending on the
time needed from bloom to harvest, the fruit ripens towards the end of
the dry season or early in the wet season, the period with the greatest
assortment of fruit in the market.

Now compare the crop cycles in the subtropics and tropics.
? In the subtropics release from stress results in springtime flowering;
fruit grows during the growing season (summer); if the crop is
good, shoot growth is restricted to a post-harvest flush in autumn.
? In the tropics not only floral initiation, but also flowering and most
fruit growth take place during the stress period (drought). The flush
early in the wet season coincides more or less with the post-harvest
flush, leaving most of the growing season for largely unwanted
and increasingly non-synchronous shoot growth.
Thus it is clear that in a monsoon climate it is not easy to satisfy both
conditions for good flowering: synchronous flushing and no late shoot
growth. In a drier climate irrigation can be used to control the annual
crop cycle; in a more humid climate the crop cycle tends to be even
less well defined. What you as a grower can do to strengthen synchro-
nisation and to prevent late flushing is discussed in Chapter 6.

Environmental stress does not only come in the form of drought. In
most tropical regions the (early) dry season also happens to be the
cool season. The drop in temperature may be just a few degrees centi-
grade and as it coincides with drought it is difficult to say how effec-
tive it is. Thailands reputation as a fruit growing nation rests on the
cool air of the Asian landmass flowing far south, adding to the dry
season stress. As a result many fruit crops flower in spring as far
down as Bangkok.
Low light levels due to overcast skies appear to contribute much to
environmental stress. In Gabon overcast weather during the dry sea-
son, caused by the Gulf Stream in the nearby Atlantic, leads to profuse
flowering of mango and butter fruit. Depletion of nitrogen in the soil
after the rains may also curb shoot growth. All four stress factors,
drought, cool weather, overcast skies and low nitrogen levels, are at
play in the successful production of the subtropical lychee and maca-
damia near the equator in the East African highlands, in a climate with
two dry and two wet seasons.

As shown in the above examples, success with branched fruit crops
often depends on a favourable combination of stress factors rather
than growth factors! Stress imposed by climate and soil conditions
(particularly the availability of moisture) varies so much that specific
fruit growing recipes are needed per country or region.

As a grower you are only concerned with the local environment, but
you face another complication: large variations in stress from year to
year. The dry season is not as reliable as the cold season and interrup-
tion by rain may be very detrimental, the more so because effects
carry over into the next year. An extreme example is given in the Box.
Although such a complete failure of the dry season is exceptional,
treatments to enhance natural stress in order to prevent late flushing
are no luxury (see Chapter 6).

Variability of rainfall during the dry season
Rainfall during the dry season in an orchard near Franceville, Gabon

Year(s) June July August
____________________________________________________
1979-86, average 37 25 59 mm
1984 160 119 294 mm

The normal dry season did not occur in 1984 and oranges and mandarins did
not flower. The crop failure in 1984 is bad enough, but it also disturbed the
annual growth rhythm: in the absence of fruit all the trees energy went into
vigorous and prolonged shoot growth. Consequently few twigs were suffi-
ciently mature to flower in 1985.
So too much rain in the dry season not only led to crop failure in 1984, but
also to a light crop in 1985. Moreover hard pruning was needed to restrict tree
size. If an annual crop fails you start with a clean slate in the next year. When
a tree crop fails (and also when the crop is heavy) the negative effects carry
over into next years crop!

3.4 Summary
The different growth habits discussed in this chapter, together with the
way in which they flower, are summarized in the Box below. No flow-
ers, no fruits; the predictable flowering of single-stemmed fruit crops
is in sharp contrast with the erratic flowering of the branched fruit
crops. Shoot growth and formation of floral buds in separate locations
or at different times are adaptations to give flowering a more secure
place in the growth habit of branched fruit crops. Separation in time is
effective in the subtropics (the winter does it), but in the tropics strong
efforts are needed to synchronise flushing and to prevent flushing
when formation of floral buds is due.
Grouping of fruit crops according to growth habit and posi-
tion of floral buds

1. SINGLE-STEMMED SPECIES
1.1 Continuous growth and floral buds in the leaf axils
papaya, coconut
1.2 Continuous growth, ending in floral bud at the shoot tip
banana,pineapple
2. BRANCHED SPECIES
2.1 Continuous shoot growth and floral buds in leaf axils
breadfruit, passionfruit
2.2 Growing shoots and floral buds separated:
2.2.1 in different locations:
- floral buds on trunk and branches: cauliflory
jackfruit, durian, cocoa
- floral buds (mainly) on specialised twigs
coffee, durian; atemoya, pear; grape.
2.2.2 flushing shoots separated from floral buds in time:
- non-synchronous flushing and floral buds found year-round
sapodilla, soursop, nutmeg
- poorly defined annual crop cycle, triggered by mild stress
rambutan, mangosteen
- well-defined annual crop cycle, imposed by fierce stress
mango, orange, kapok

Propagation 35
4 Propagation
Most tropical fruit trees are still propagated from seed, especially in
home gardens. In fruit growing, vegetative propagation opens the way
for a breakthrough in productivity and efficiency so that production
for the market becomes more attractive.
4.1 Seedlings or clonal plants?
Sexual reproduction leads to SEEDLING VARIATION: although all
seedlings resemble the mother tree in some respects, no two seedlings
are the same. Differences between the seedlings will of course become
even larger if they are grown under different conditions.
In vegetative propagation a part of the mother tree other than the seed,
(e.g. a cutting) becomes a new plant. The genetic make-up of this new
plant is exactly the same as that of the mother tree. Consequently all
cuttings from one mother tree are identical; they have the same char-
acteristics. The mother tree, together with the cuttings, is called a
CLONE. Differences between plants of a clone can only be caused by
different growing conditions.
A clone is a cultivar (short for cultivated variety) and can be named.
This is a great advantage in marketing. Fruit quality is variable and in
many cases hard to judge when purchased. So it is a great leap for-
ward if a Fuerte avocado can be sold, instead of just an avocado.
Seedlings are juvenile; they are unable to flower until they become
mature. A seedling inevitably grows into a sizable tree before it can
bear fruit. This commonly takes 3 to 10 years, depending on the spe-
cies. If cuttings are taken from a mature tree, the new plant, however
small, is mature and may flower even in the nursery.

This is the principal difference between a seedling and a cloned tree.
Early bearing siphons energy into fruit growth that would otherwise

have been used for shoot growth and production of wood. So clonal
trees remain smaller and can be planted close together. More trees per
ha means further increases in the early crops! Taking the cuttings
from a high-yielding mother tree also contributes to increased produc-
tion. Moreover, as discussed in Chapter 2, small trees are much easier
to manage, which greatly reduces the cost of production per kg fruit.

Conclusion:
Clonal propagation is the key to intensification and higher yield: fewer unpro-
ductive years, more trees per ha, higher maximum yield per ha, much higher
mean yield over the orchards lifespan, more efficient management and lower
cost of production.
Clonal propagation also has disadvantages:
? Very few diseases are transmitted through seed, but a special effort
is needed to ensure the health of mother trees to be cloned, because
diseases and pests that infest the tree may be transmitted to cuttings,
layers or bud- and graftwood.
? Seedlings, with their strong taproot and juvenile phase, have a very
robust start in life. Cloned trees have a much weaker root system
and are expected to produce fruit rather than wood. Consequently
an orchard of clonal trees requires intensive husbandry, in keeping
with the intensity of cropping.
? Production of seedlings is cheap compared to clonal propagation,
especially in case of layering, budding or grafting. And because the
cloned trees remain smaller, more trees are needed to plant a given
area.
? Finally, since all plants in a clone have the same genetic make-up, a
new disease or disorder that breaks down the genetic defences is
likely to affect the entire clone. To minimise this risk it is wise to
plant a few different cultivars together (this also facilitates cross-
pollination).
Notwithstanding these disadvantages, progress in fruit growing has
been achieved largely through the use of clonal planting material.
Only a few fruit crops are still grown from seed: papaya, passionfruit,
soursop, cashew.

Propagation 37
The juvenile phase of these crops is very short: less than a year for
papaya and passionfruit and only 3 - 4 years for soursop and cashew.
4.2 Outline of cloning methods
Table 3 shows the common methods of vegetative propagation. Start-
ing with natural forms of cloning, the methods generally become more
complex from top to bottom. It takes far less time to set 100 stem cut-
tings than to prepare 100 air layers. Preparing 100 approach grafts re-
quires even more time and skill.
The table is split into two sections. The top half presents methods in
which plants are propagated on their own roots. In the bottom half a
rootstock provides the root system. Presumably these methods, which
require more skill, originated in Asia several thousand years ago.
Modern refinements are largely based on the many applications of
plastic materials.
Table 3: Cloning methods, with examples, starting with simple
ones at the top.
Propagation on own roots
Asexual seedlings apomixis mangosteen
polyembryony mango, citrus Natural
Adapted shoots suckers banana, pineapple
layers raspberry
runners strawberry
Rooting after separation
(cuttings)
Root cuttings breadfruit, plum
Stem cuttings grape Man-made
Rooting on mother plant Layering guave, blackberry
Air layering longan, lime
Propagation on rootstock

Budding
T-budding citrus, apple
Chip-budding citrus
Patch-budding avocado, rubber
On rootstock in the nursery Tip grafting young, tender stock
Side grafting mature, woody stock Grafting
On mother tree in the field Inarching durian, lansat, jackfruit
Approach grafting mango

Agrodok 19: Propagating and planting trees, is a practical manual for
simple propagation techniques. In addition to propagating from seed it
also describes most methods in the upper part of Table 3: propagation
through cuttings and different forms of layering. There are also suit-
able manuals describing budding and grafting methods (see Further
reading and Agrospecial 1: A nurseryman and his trees.). The more
unusual cloning methods in Table 3 are briefly explained below.
Asexual seedlings
Apomixis is reproduction
by seed without sexual fu-
sion. The seed of the man-
gosteen is not a true seed.
When it germinates the first
root appears at one end of
the seed, the young shoot
at the other end. This situa-
tion is similar to a cutting
striking root; it shows that
the seed corresponds to a
stem piece. As shown in
figure 8 a second root sys-
tem soon emerges at the
base of the shoot.
A normal seed contains a
single embryo, the result of sexual reproduction; it grows into a seed-
ling. Polyembryony implies the presence of more than one embryo.
The extra embryos are formed in maternal seed tissue and therefore
are clonal offspring of the mother tree, so that several seedlings grow
out of a single seed (figure 8, right). In most cases the original (sex-
ual) embryo does not develop, because it is suppressed by the other
embryo(s). That is why many mango and citrus cultivars can be propa-
gated true to kind from seed.

Figure 8: Asexual seedlings. Left
mangosteen, right mango

Propagation 39
Grafting on a mother tree in the field
In approach grafting both rootstock and scion are intact plants. Their
stems are spliced together to unite them. Scaffolding is set up under
the mother tree to hold pots with rootstocks in position close to the
scion branches. This is the most elaborate method, the more so since
the rootstocks require regular watering.

Figure 9: Left: approach grafting with intact rootstock. Right: in-
arching, the rootstock is cut back and inserted in the mother tree
Inarching may be considered as a form of approach grafting. First a
rootstock is raised; grafting consists of cutting back its stem and in-
serting the cut end into the scion tree. In this way a poorly anchored
tree (for instance following root damage by rodents) can be rescued by
planting a few rootstocks around it and inarching these in the trunk. A
form of inarching used in South East Asia to propagate trees in large
numbers is called suckle grafting. The rootstock is bagged and tied to
a sturdy twig of the mother tree. The cut end of the rootstock is in-
serted in a cleft made in the twig (figure 9, right). Because the soil ball
is completely enclosed in the bag, the rootstock needs no watering; in
fact it gets no attention till graft union has been achieved!

4.3 Concluding remarks
Most fruit crops can be cloned in different ways. Budding and grafting
are only used where cuttings or layers do not root, or where the root-
stock offers important advantages such as: restricted tree size (apple),
salt tolerance (avocado), better fruit quality (citrus) or tolerance to
diseases (avocado, citrus). Broadly speaking, simple methods require
more attention to environmental conditions (e.g. shade, humidity) in
the nursery. The more sophisticated methods demand more time and
skill. Therefore the simple methods are more suited to mass propaga-
tion, since they require little labour per plant and the cost of creating a
suitable environment is shared by a large number of plants.
Commercial fruit growers depend on nurseries specialising in only a
few fruit crops and producing the leading cultivars in large numbers at
competitive prices. Such a specialised nursery should also be able to
guarantee the health of the stock. A nursery with small numbers of all
sorts of fruit trees huddled together under a shade tree waiting for a
buyer cannot meet these requirements.

Training: pruning and bending 41
5 Training: pruning and bending
5.1 Definition; the limited role of pruning in
tropical fruits
Pruning is the removal of unwanted
growth in order to stimulate desired
growth: something is removed to obtain
a certain response. It follows that you
cannot judge pruning solely by the
looks of the tree immediately after
pruning or by the amount of cut wood
lying under the tree. The quality of
pruning can only be judged after the
plant has had time (say: a growing sea-
son) to respond.
With experience you can predict the
response to some extent. However,
growing conditions modify the trees
response to pruning. If tree vigour is
moderate and the tree is going to bear a
good crop the response is more predict-
able. Weak or excessively vigorous
growth and failure to bear make the re-
sponse to pruning more erratic. Experi-
ments (for instance in citrus) usually
show yield reductions following prun-
ing, and no clear-cut advantages.
A shoot or branch can be placed in the desired position by bending.
This is an attractive alternative to pruning, particularly for young trees
that still have to fill the allotted space. The trend to replace pruning to
some extent by bending has led to a much more rapid increase in
cropping volume, for instance in tea (pegging down) and apple (fig-
ure 10). Training is a combination of bending and pruning.

Figure 10: Bending down
vigorous shoots that com-
pete with the leading
shoot.

Vines have to be trained on a supporting trellis. The cheapest way is to
use live posts for a vertical trellis (e.g. for pitahaya), a T-shape trellis
(e.g. for passionfruit) or an overhead pergola (for grape). The over-
head structure can consist of bamboo crossbars that support the wires.
Agrodok 19: Agroforestry, lists tree species that can be trained as live
posts.
People often think that pruning is needed for trees that grow too vig-
orously. This may be true for young trees, but bending vigorous shoots
or imposing stress (as explained in Chapter 6) is usually a better solu-
tion. However, bearing trees in fact need to be pruned when shoot
growth has been weakened by heavy fruit loads, to the extent that (the
quality of) the next crop is endangered. By setting back flower-
ing/fruiting, pruning restores tree vigour and enables the tree to pro-
duce another high-quality crop.

First heavy crops, then pruning
A useful rule of thumb is: pruning encourages renewed growth at the expense
of flowering/fruiting. Thus there is not much scope for pruning until the yield
levels of tropical fruit are greatly improved.
How much new shoot growth is generated by pruning and how flow-
ering and fruiting are affected depends mainly on which portion of the
shoot or branch is cut.
5.2 Cutting increasingly large portions of a
shoot/branch
According to where the shoot, twig or branch is cut, pruning can be
classified as follows (figure 11):
? Tipping or pinching: removal of the shoot tip;
? Cutting back: removal of a substantial portion of the shoot;
? Stubbing: cutting near the point of attachment of the shoot, leaving
only a stub;
? Cutting out or thinning: removing the entire shoot by a cut at the
point of attachment.


Figure 11: Growth response to cutting increasing portions of a twig
Tipping
Tipping, usually called pinching when done with the fingernails,
sounds like the most delicate of pruning methods, but the response is
dramatic. Many buds in the leaf axils below the cut sprout and grow
into (fairly weak) shoots. The result is a sharp increase in branching,
as you can see from the reaction of tea to harvesting and that of
hedges to trimming. An important side effect is that flowering is sup-
pressed: plucked tea bushes and regularly trimmed hedges do not
flower at all. Hormones produced in the shoot tip inhibit sprouting of
the buds in the leaf axils; that is why the response to removal of the
shoot tip is so strong.
When the vigorous shoots of a young grape are trained along the wire
to form the permanent arms, repeated tipping ensures that side shoots
emerge in virtually every leaf axil of these shoots. This is necessary
because the side shoots later become the spurs that will bear the fruit-
ing canes. Excellent growing conditions (generous manuring, timely
watering) are of course needed to sustain the growth of the main arms
and to support the growth of all these side shoots.


Figure 12: Shoot growth following cutting back (left), in comparison
with shoot growth of an unpruned tree (right)
Cutting back
When more wood is removed than just the shoot tip the treatment is
called cutting back. The response changes as a larger portion of the
shoot is cut: fewer side shoots grow out and they are more vigorous,
especially the uppermost ones. The latter grow at a small angle with
the branch; further down the angle gets wider as the shoots get weaker
(see figure 11). Vigorous growth of the shoot tip in young unbranched
trees means a strong flow of hormones inhibiting side shoots. Cutting
back, either in the nursery or after planting, is the way to ensure
branching of maiden trees at the desired height (see figure 12); note
that the leading shoot in figure 10 has also been cut back. Cutting back
is also practiced on so-called whips, very vigorous unbranched shoots,
in young annona and plum trees. Again the objective is to force the
whips to form short side shoots that are more likely to bear fruit, as
shown in figure 13.

Stubbing
Stubbing is making a drastic cut,
leaving only a stub of the shoot or
limb. The general response is the
growth of several shoots of near-
equal vigour. The reason is that on
the stub only underdeveloped,
dormant buds are present. It takes
a bit longer for these buds to
sprout and there is no dominance
of the uppermost bud. Stubbing is
the way to prune ornamental
shrubs, such as hibiscus, since
growth of a number of equivalent
shoots is exactly what is needed.
Sometimes trees are drastically
rejuvenated through stubbing
(also called stumping), e.g. cof-
fee, citrus, peach. In that case,
thinning is needed to leave only
the required number of shoots for
the new framework.
Cutting out
Cutting out or thinning is the removal of complete shoots or branches.
This is the most drastic cut, yet the response of the tree is rather mild.
Often there is no renewed growth at all near the cut, the response is
dispersed over the rest of the tree. Because of its obvious direct effect
and the moderate reaction of the tree, THINNING IS THE PRINCIPAL
PRUNING METHOD. You can see immediately what you have done
and need not worry too much about the after-effects.
Hand the shears to an untrained person and he will start cutting back,
shortening shoots and branches. He neither wants to cut too much nor
too little, but in fact he is maltreating the tree. Cutting back leads to
compensatory growth and stimulates branching; whereas tipping tends

Figure 13: Fruiting side shoots
on a sugarapple whip that was
cut back

to suppress flowering completely, cutting back greatly reduces flower-
ing. Apart from the examples of maiden trees and whips given above,
there is little scope for cutting back in fruit growing. Bad experiences
with pruning of tropical fruit trees are based in part on this cut, while
the alternative, cutting out, is often overlooked.
Cutting out is the way to relieve overcrowding in the tree crown. Tell-
tale signs are inferior fruit quality, poor flowering and fruit set, or
early leaf fall in the interior of the canopy. (If the trees are too close
together, some should be uprooted because pruning cannot solve this
problem.) Thinning is also practiced in the case of excessive flowering
(coffee: cut out some plagiotropic shoots) or excessive fruit set (citrus:
cut out some twigs with large numbers of fruitlets) to maintain the
vitality of the tree.
Removal of ageing, sagging branches to the point where a younger
shoot emerges (usually where the branch bends downwards) is a
common form of thinning in apple, pear and plum. It is a way of reju-
venating the fruiting wood to prevent a decline in fruit quality. Exam-
ples of cutting out in young trees include the removal of upright
branches in durians which will dominate the feathery horizontal
branches (See figure 5) and, in the year after planting, the brushing off
of side shoots emerging too low on the trunk to become permanent
limbs (see Chapter 10).
5.3 Summary
Training of trees and vines consists of pruning and bending. Bending
reduces the need for pruning, thus enabling young trees to expand
more quickly. Pruning plays a modest role in the tropics because it
stimulates compensatory growth of shoots at the expense of fruiting;
this is seldom necessary because most crops are shy bearers. Bad ex-
periences with pruning are partly due to the common practice of cut-
ting back. If bearing trees require pruning, this should nearly always
be cutting out (thinning).

Control over the growth rhythm 47
6 Control over the growth rhythm
As explained in Chapter 3, the large majority of branched fruit crops
lay down floral buds on resting twigs. In many tropical regions these
crops are not exposed to sufficient stress to curb and synchronise
shoot growth. As a result they tend to flower and fruit poorly and this
aggravates excessive, non-synchronous shoot growth, also during the
period when floral buds for the next crop should be laid down.
It was also noted that rather than excessive flushing, extended twig
rest may occur, particularly in older trees. Where this happens, forcing
bud break to obtain an early harvest can be very beneficial.
In this chapter, growing techniques are discussed to overcome this
problem. First, treatments are presented that strengthen and extend the
natural stress, in order to curb late flushing towards and during the
period that floral buds are laid down. Second come techniques to force
bud break, ensuring synchronous flushing. These techniques are also
used to advance flowering in case twigs rest much longer than neces-
sary to form floral buds.
6.1 Increasing stress for better flowering
Traditional soil/root treatments
Traditional methods to reinforce environmental stress include:
? Root pruning
? Removal of the top soil under the tree
? Pouring salty water in a shallow ditch surrounding the tree.
The principle is to strengthen the effects of the dry season, making it
more difficult for the roots to absorb moisture. Roots in the topsoil are
cut with a spade near the drip line of the canopy. Salty water is also
poured along the drip line. Removal of topsoil starts close to the trunk;
the soil is hoed towards the drip line.

These methods are laborious and crude (roots are damaged; salts need
to be washed out during the wet season). A more delicate alternative
might be to remove the mulch under the tree row by raking it to the
drip line. Young, vigorously growing trees in particular may benefit
from this treatment. If the trees have been mulched generously in the
previous years, many roots will be found near the soil surface, just
under the mulch. Exposing these roots towards the start of the dry sea-
son should help to quickly stop shoot growth, after which the mulch
can be spread again.
In Thailand the fluctuating ground water table is used to prune roots.
Towards the end of the wet season the rising ground water table kills
submerged roots.
Girdling
Girdling the tree trunk (also called cincturing) is a widely used tradi-
tional method. A ring of bark 3 to 12 mm wide is removed to block the
flow of carbohydrates from the leaves to the roots. Carbohydrates are
building material for new cells; broken down with oxygen they also
provide energy for the life processes. Stopping this flow hampers root
growth and reduces the supply of water and nutrients to the shoots.
This should suppress further flushing, keeping the twigs at rest so as
not to disturb floral development.

In lychee, 3 mm-wide rings cut with a hacksaw delay flushing by
about 2 months. Wider rings about 1 cm are common in mango
and apple; special knives are sometimes used to cut such wide rings.
Striking improvements in flowering and yield, linked with suppressed
flushing and much shorter shoots, have been obtained in young mango
trees by tying a length of twine tightly in the girdle. The wound should
begin to heal within about 6 - 8 weeks; otherwise the branch or tree
may not recover. Thus girdling is risky and requires experience with
the tree crop concerned. Tying a strip of polythene around the trunk to
cover the girdle speeds up healing of the wound (olive). To reduce the
risk (some of) the major limbs may be girdled instead of the trunk.

Alternatively, you may experiment by cutting 2 semi-circular girdles,
one a bit higher on the trunk than the other, as shown in figure 14.
This is a bit like a common traditional method, also shown in figure
14, to calm down seedling trees that fail to come into bearing: a se-
ries of slashes are made with a machete in a spiral around the trunk.
Girdling is mainly suited to
treating young trees that
should come into bearing. In
that case you are anxious to
obtain the first crop and gir-
dling young trees does not de-
mand much labour. If success-
ful, the fruit load will limit
shoot growth so that the treat-
ment does not have to be re-
peated. Girdling should be
timed to prevent flushing
shortly before and during the
formation of floral buds, say 2
- 4 months before the trees
should flower. Your own ob-
servations about the flushing
pattern in relation to blossom
time should guide you in de-
termining when to girdle.
Pruning
In a few crops removal of the shoots of a flush occurring within the
last few months before bloom is becoming common practice. The ex-
amples are limited to lychee, carambola and some mango cultivars
growing in the subtropics. In the tropics, flushing while floral buds are
supposedly laid down is much more of a problem. Therefore, cutting
out of such an untimely flush deserves to be tried in the tropics too, in
particular for fruit crops that flower on terminal buds, such as mango
and rambutan.

Figure 14: Semi-circular girdling
cuts (left) and slashes spiralling
around the trunk (right)

Growth retardants
Growth retardants are chemicals that inhibit growth-promoting hor-
mones in the plant. They offer a direct way to curb shoot growth. Sev-
eral growth retardants have been used in fruit growing; the only one
that caught on in the tropics is paclobutrazol, tradename Cultar. Pa-
clobutrazol not only inhibits shoots growth, it also promotes flower-
ing, the ideal combination of properties! However, the uses of pa-
clobutrazol are rather limited, because its application is complex. It
works best when applied to the soil, but that makes it difficult to pre-
dict how much will reach the roots. Too high a dose results in malfor-
mation of shoots and inflorescences. Moreover, paclobutrazol is per-
sistent; its effects carry over in the next year, making it even more dif-
ficult to set the right dose in annual treatments. In many countries it
has not been registered for use on fruit crops.
New growth retardants are coming on the market, which supposedly
are safer and simpler to use. Time will tell whether these new products
are indeed better.
6.2 Fitting crop care operations in the growth
cycle
Where the above treatments are successful in establishing a clear-cut
annual crop cycle, it becomes possible to time all the other crop care
operations more precisely. This is shown in the crop cycle for mango
growing in a monsoon climate with wet and dry seasons of about 6
months each (figure 15). The curves represent elements of the growh
rhythm: flowering, flushing of shoots and fruit growth in the course of
the year.
The cycle starts with the dry season flush, in which first flower buds
open, quickly followed by flushing shoots. As indicated at the bottom
of figure 15, irrigation from the start of this flush till the onset of the
rains is a great bonus. It makes application of fertiliser effective (fer-
tilising dry soil is useless), so that the flush and fruit set can be sup-
ported with water and nutrients.

A good crop of growing fruit suppresses flushing as well as root
growth, even if the trees are watered. Early cultivars can be harvested
before the rains start, but late cultivars may need protection against
anthracnose. Early in the wet season another fertiliser dressing will
stimulate the post-harvest flush; pruning should take place before this
flush starts. There may be some more shoot growth, but flushing to-
wards the end of the wet season should be discouraged, for instance
by girdling, to give the twigs time to lay down floral buds for the next
crop.

Figure 15: The growth rhythm of mango in a monsoon climate, and
timing of crop care to strengthen the crop cycle

Making sketches as in figure 15 for your own trees and growing sea-
sons could be very worthwhile. It may help to formulate the ideal crop
cycle in the course of the year and the correct timing of measures to
control growth. For instance, if carambola or rambutan produce two
crops in a year, you may wish to increase the one crop at the expense
of the other. If so, you should be very clear in your mind about what
treatments to try and how to time them. But sketches of course can
only be realistic if you keep a keen eye on the behaviour of your trees
through the seasons.
6.3 Forcing synchronous flushing/flowering
Synchronous post-harvest flush
If the treatments in the previous paragraphs are successful, leading to
good flowering and fruiting, shoot growth will be minimal while the
fruit is growing. This leads to a synchronous post-harvest flush, the
ideal way for a fruit grower to ensure synchronous flushing!
Interruption of irrigation
Growing the crop under irrigation in a relatively dry area offers excel-
lent opportunities to control the annual crop cycle. Shoot growth can
be curbed by withholding irrigation for 5 - 10 weeks. Resumption of
irrigation ensures synchronous bud break and flowering of crops such
as citrus and mango. If the dry season is long, it is even possible to set
part of the orchard dry while the rest is still watered so that this part
can produce an early crop, the rest being harvested later.
Rest-breaking chemicals
Growers in the Philippines discovered that several mango cultivars
flower within a few weeks after being sprayed with potassium nitrate,
a foliar fertiliser, provided that trees are treated after the last flush has
matured. It is not quite clear whether the treatment brings existing flo-
ral buds into bloom, or induces initiation of floral buds. However,
bloom can be advanced by several months. This, and the fact that
mango yields in the country doubled to about 10 ton per ha within 10
years after the use of potassium nitrate caught on, suggests that the

chemical does promote flowering. Although potassium nitrate has
been less effective in other countries and on other fruit crops (and
other mango cultivars), its potential to force flowering is now widely
accepted.
A range of other chemicals has been used to force bud break. In East
Africa thiourea was already used in the 1970s on fruit crops from the
temperate zone, such as apple, pear and plum. Thiourea acts mainly on
leaf buds, whereas potassium nitrate is effective on floral buds. In
Thailand mangoes were treated with thiourea to force a synchronous
flush. As soon as the shoots matured, paclobutrazol was applied to
suppress further shoot growth and to induce flowering.
These other rest-breaking chemicals are not used much, however. It is
hard to set the timing and concentration of the treatments correctly,
since their activity depends on the weather following application as
well as on the condition of the trees. Dieback of shoots following ap-
plication can be quite severe. Moreover, in most countries these
chemicals have not been registered as rest-breaking agents.
Nevertheless rest-breaking chemicals are mentioned here because new
products, such as Waiken and Armobreak, are being tested. These
are applied mixed with a rest-breaking agent and the mixture appears
to be more effective at much lower concentrations of the rest-breaking
chemical. This should make application cheaper and safer (for both
grower and trees).
Defoliation
Perhaps you have seen how a healthy tree, when all its leaves have
been eaten by a plague of caterpillars or locusts, responds with a gen-
eral flush of new shoots. This observation has led to the use of defolia-
tion as a means to force synchronous flushing to start a new crop cy-
cle. Defoliation was first used on fruit crops from the temperate zone,
such as apple, peach and grape. These crops depend on winter cold to
break bud dormancy. In the tropics they only grow in the highlands,
but even in cultivars with low chilling requirements, bud break is usu-

ally poor. At elevations above 1200 m rest-breaking chemicals, men-
tioned above, are sometimes used to force bud break.

At lower elevations apple trees are defoliated to force bud break be-
fore the floral buds have gone dormant. In this way the crop cycle is
shortened to about 6 months so that two crops are produced per year.
Grape produces two crops per year in a similar way. Trees can be de-
foliated by hand, but rest-breaking chemicals are sometimes used to
scorch the leaves; most grape leaves are removed by pruning.

Defoliation exhausts the tree making intensive crop care (irrigation,
manuring, crop protection) essential. Even so the forced trees tend to
age quickly, especially if the crop cycle is shortened. Promising re-
ports of shortened crop cycles in truly tropical crops (guava, mango)
have not been substantiated by wider adoption of the techniques, but
trials with guava have been successful in several parts of the tropics
(see figure 16).

Figure 16: Twig of a young guava tree, tip-pruned, tied down and
defoliated, showing new shoots about to flower along its entire
length

Pollination and fruit set 55
7 Pollination and fruit set
7.1 Flowering habit
Without flowers there will be no fruit. Only pistillate (= female) flow-
ers set fruit. Staminate (= male) flowers produce the pollen needed to
pollinate pistillate flowers. Perfect (= hermaphrodite) flowers have
both pistils and stamens. Figure 17 shows the parts of a perfect flower.

Figure 17: The flower and its parts
Flowers borne singly or in small inflorescences (as in soursop, suga-
rapple, guava) are usually perfect, but inflorescences with many flow-
ers (like those in mango and rambutan) often contain imperfect flow-
ers as well. Strict segregation of the sexes is found in papaya for in-
stance: male and female inflorescences are on separate plants. This
segregation of the sexes on separate trees, which prevents self-
pollination, is called dioecy. Jackfruit and breadfruit are examples of
male and female inflorescences borne on the same tree (monoecy).

In banana and coconut flowers of both sexes are found in the same
inflorescence, the staminate flowers at the tip and the pistillate flowers
at the base. The large mango inflorescence bears both staminate and
perfect flowers.
The flowering habit of the fruit crops in this Agrodok is presented in
the Appendix. Flowering habits are rather varied. There are, for in-
stance, papaya cultivars in which all the plants bear fruit because they
are either female-flowering or bear perfect flowers. You can recognise
these cultivars because the perfect flowers are on long stalks (like
those of male plants) and the fruit is more elongated.
Flowering habit not only varies depending on the cultivar, it also var-
ies from year to year. The percentage pistillate flowers in coconut or
that of perfect flowers in mango may be much higher in one year than
in another, generally it is higher when growing conditions have been
favourable. Growing conditions also influence flower quality. A
healthy tree of moderate vigour bears strong flowers, the stigma being
receptive for pollination over a longer period of time to improve fruit
set.
7.2 Pollination
Flowers need to be pollinated in order to fertilise the ovule(s). The
fertilised ovules become the seeds; they produce hormones that ensure
that the flower sets fruit and that the fruit grows. In a few cases fruits
grow even without the stimulus from the seeds, so-called parthenocar-
pic fruit. Examples include pineapple, banana, and some cultivars of
other fruits, e.g. seedless guava and mandarin.
If the pollen comes from the same flower or from a flower on the
same tree this is called self-pollination. If the pollen comes from a tree
with a different genetic make-up, this is called cross-pollination.
Nowadays many fruit crops are cloned. Since all the plants in a clone
have the same genetic make-up, pollination within a clone is still self-
pollination.

Pollination and fruit set 57
Continued self-pollination in successive generations leads to inbreed-
ing, meaning a narrowing of genetic variation. As a rule this leads to
reduced vigour and fitness. This may be the reason why in many
plants form or function of the flowers makes self-pollination difficult
or impossible, thus favouring cross-pollination. One arrangement is
that the pistil is not receptive at the time that the stamens of that
flower shed their pollen, another that the stamens are too short for the
anthers to shed the pollen on the stigma. Self-pollination is impossible
if the genetic make-up of the pollen is not compatible with that of the
pistil, so that the pollen tube cannot grow down the style towards the
ovules (e.g. pineapple).

Apart from these adaptations to limit self-pollination, plants generally
produce more fruit following cross-pollination. If you grow a single
clone of a fruit crop, nearby seedling trees of that species may provide
the pollen to cross-pollinate the flowers on your trees. However, it is
generally safer to grow a few clones together in your orchard.
A good pollinator has VIABLE pollen that is genetically COMPATI-
BLE with the cultivar to be pollinated and FLOWERS AT THE SAME
TIME. Unfortunately this information is not available for most tropical
fruit crops. Therefore it may be wise to plant at least three cultivars
together and to try to make sure that the flowering periods of these
cultivars overlap. Should one of the three prove a poor pollinator,
chances are that the other two between them can assure cross-
pollination of all three cultivars.
Pollen may be transported by wind, but to carry the pollen from tree to
tree most tropical fruit crops rely on insects (honey bees), a few also
on birds (humming birds for pineapple in South America), or bats
(baobab, durian). The flowering habit and pollen transfer in some mi-
nor fruit crops has not yet been described. Flowering and pollination
of several important fruit crops such as avocado, rambutan, oriental
persimmon are too complex to be explained here. But these aspects
are so important that you should gather the information yourself, ei-

ther from knowledgeable people, publications, or your own close ob-
servation of the flowers on your trees and their visitors.
Dioecy presents a serious problem to the grower, especially where the
crop is grown from seed, as in the case of papaya, salak, rambai,
Amazon tree grape, butter fruit tree and oyster nut. Half the seedlings
will be male, but you cannot identify them until the trees flower, at
which time you can remove the males, leaving only 1 or 2 out of 20
to pollinate the females. It means you have wasted years to raise
these trees and are left with a plantation full of gaps. The only elegant
solution is to adopt clonal propagation: plant a female clone and inter-
plant with a compatible male clone in 5 10 % of the tree positions.
It is clear that cross-pollination is an important issue in fruit growing.
The grower should plant alternate rows of different cultivars or, if the
pollen comes from male trees, interplant these trees in the rows. A
windscreen may be needed to create shelter for the insects during the
flowering season (often hot, dry and windy). A beekeeper can assist by
placing hives in the orchard. Agrodok 32, Beekeeping in the tropics,
gives more information. In some cases the grower has to lend a hand;
hand pollination is often practiced on custard apples, passionfruits and
salak.

The Appendix gives brief information about the way in which pollina-
tion is effected in the listed fruit crops.

Crop protection 59
8 Crop protection
Crop protection practices are linked to the cropping system. The use
of commercial pesticides is by and large limited to orchards and large
plantations. In orchards of small trees, such as mandarin, guava or ap-
ple, pesticides are often used to excess. Intensive crop care drives up
the cost so much that the grower cannot risk crop failure; he tries to
protect his trees with whatever pesticide is recommended (and avail-
able). Routine spraying, without regard for the level of infestation, is
common. In this way the natural checks and balances between pests
and their predators in the orchard are disturbed, so that one treatment
breeds the need for the next one. Moreover, there are serious health
risks: for the grower who handles the materials and is exposed to the
spray drift; for the consumers when they eat the fruit; and for the crea-
tures living in the soil and nearby water courses that become polluted.
Tall trees cannot be treated with small (knapsack) sprayers and even
spraying of medium-sized trees in orchards (e.g. rambutan in Thai-
land, mango in the Philippines) is the exception rather than the rule. If
the orchard consists of a mixture of fruit crops it is hard to avoid pes-
ticide drifting onto non-target trees.
The scattered trees in home gardens, backyards, along field borders
and watercourses do not lend themselves to being sprayed with pesti-
cides. Several traditional crop protection measures are practiced in
home gardens, but mainly on small plants and in nursery work (e.g.
use of wood ash and plant extracts). On the trunks of tall trees in the
garden one often sees collars, made of metal sheeting or thorny
branches, to stop rodents from climbing the trees. Large fruit, such as
jackfruit, may be bagged to protect it against insects, birds and bats.
Smaller fruit (e.g. guava) is sometimes bagged too, in particular to
prevent fruit flies from laying their eggs there. On the whole home
gardeners hope that the rich mixture of plants will make it more diffi-
cult for pests or diseases to become a plague, but they also accept sub-
stantial losses as a fact of life.

8.1 Limiting use of pesticides
It is now realised that the use of pesticides should be drastically re-
duced by:
? Abandoning routine treatments
? Replacing broad-spectrum pesticides by products that kill the target
pest but do not harm other organisms.

This last approach is not easy, because you may find that the choice is
limited to pesticides used in the major cash crops in your area, such as
cotton or coffee. Selective pesticides for your crops may not be avail-
able.
Stopping routine spraying is also a problem: to be able to spray at the
right moment, the grower must first become familiar with pests and
diseases and their life cycles. These life cycles are usually tied to the
seasons and, especially for pests and diseases that complete their en-
tire life cycle on the tree, to the growth rhythm of the tree. Many dis-
eases, for instance, become rampant during the wet season: cankers,
such as pink disease (Corticium salmonicolor) can be found in many
fruit crops throughout the year, but they are spread mainly by rain.
Thus cankers can be controlled to a large extent by cutting out and
burning affected branches before the end of the dry season, so that
there are few sources of infection at the beginning of the rains.

Mango hoppers suck the young shoots and especially inflorescences;
they can ruin even a heavy bloom. Control using insecticides is diffi-
cult and depends on correct timing at the beginning of the flush. This
is only possible if all the trees flush simultaneously. Controlling the
crop cycle to ensure simultaneous flushing, flowering and fruiting
helps to time the treatments of pests whose life cycle is linked to that
of the tree (e.g. tip borers killing young mango shoots, stink bugs
puncturing the flowers of longan, and fruit borers and fruit flies on a
number of crops). The result is better control with fewer treatments,
and minimal disturbance of the natural environment.

Crop protection 61
Limiting the use of pesticides requires increased attention on other
ways to tackle pests and diseases:
? Hygiene
? Biological control: using other organisms to control pests and dis-
eases
? Disease-tolerant or disease-resistant cultivars or rootstocks.
Hygiene
Hygiene comes first. If you buy citrus trees in the nursery infected
with scales or mealy bugs, you fight a losing battle against these pests.
Start clean, stay clean!
The above example of cutting out and burning cankers of pink disease
before the rains come is also a matter of hygiene: clean up, choosing
the right moment. Bagging fruit on the tree, also mentioned above, is
laborious but can be very worthwhile where fruit flies, bats or birds
cause much damage and unblemished fruit commands a high price.
(Certain guava and mango cultivars are harvested and eaten green,
before the fruit fly maggots hatch from the eggs.)

Ants carry immobile insects around (also aphids, leaf hoppers and
some other insects) to young shoots, in order to milk them for the
honeydew that they secrete. Ants also protect these insects against
their natural enemies. So controlling ants is important. Sticky paper
collars fixed around the tree trunk catch the ants (and some other
wingless insects which try to climb the tree). If an insecticide is used
against ants it needs only be sprayed on the trunks.
Hygiene also means checking plants that are alternative hosts for a
pest or disease. This may be difficult, because information is lacking
or because you cannot do much to control alternative hosts. One prac-
tical example is kei apple, a very useful hedge plant in the highlands
but also a host for citrus fruit flies. All the grower has to do is to trim
hedges regularly so that they will not bear fruit. It is advisable to col-
lect fallen fruit because it is often infected by pests and/or diseases.

However, this is a lot of work, because it has to be done frequently
and each time the fruit has to be buried in a pit under a thick layer of
soil.
Biological control
Biological control has great potential, because every organism is sub-
ject to diseases and has natural enemies. Fungi and bacteria as well as
insects suffer from viruses and other bacteria or fungi. Insects are also
preyed upon by predators.
Biological control is expanding, although not as fast as it should.
Tropical fruits also benefit. Citrus growers, for instance, can learn
from their colleagues in the subtropics, where the number of treat-
ments with pesticides has been drastically reduced in favour of bio-
logical agents, restoring natural checks and balances. Leaf miners in
citrus for example, a very stubborn pest in spite of frequent spraying,
are less of a problem where these treatments are minimised. Aphids
have a range of predators: parasitic wasps, larvae of ladybirds, hover-
flies and lacewings. Parasitic wasps and ladybirds are raised and re-
leased in orchards in large numbers to control aphids.
Interesting forms of biological control came to light when trees were
successfully treated with Surround to reduce heat stress and sunburn
in hot and dry conditions. Surround simply consists of fine clay par-
ticles that give the tree a reflective coating when sprayed with water.
Treated trees suffered less from a wide range of pests, including mag-
gots, leafhoppers, caterpillars and psyllids. The white film on the
leaves confuses or repels some insects and acts as a barrier preventing
other insects from laying their eggs. A simple product opening up new
possibilities in crop protection!
Disease-tolerant cultivars
In several fruit crops disease-tolerant or resistant cultivars are becom-
ing available. Even rootstocks can play a role. Rootstocks tolerant to
root rot are recommended for avocado, rootstocks resistant to the
Tristeza virus for citrus. Purple passionfruit can be grafted on seed-

Crop protection 63
lings of yellow passionfruit that are resistant to soil-borne Fusarium
fungi. However, most of these tolerant/resistant cultivars and root-
stocks have their origins in the subtropics. For the truly tropical fruit
crops similar material is generally lacking.

9 Harvesting
9.1 Mature or ripe fruit?
When a fruit is fully grown it is said to be mature. Hence, a mature
fruit does not grow anymore, but it continues to ripen. In some mature
fruits the ripening process includes a brief phase of accelerated ripen-
ing (the climacterium). These climacteric fruits can be harvested at
any time between the mature and ripe stage. If they are harvested as
soon as they are mature, the ripening period can be used to transport
and market the fruit, and then it may still require a few days in the
fruit bowl before it is at its best. Moreover, if the fruit is refrigerated
or kept in controlled atmosphere (for instance on a banana boat) be-
fore the climacterium is reached, ripening is delayed until the fruit
comes out of storage. In this way the so-called shelf-life of climac-
teric fruit can be extended for weeks or months, facilitating long-
distance trade.
Some crops have mature fruits that ripen gradually, at a steady pace
(non-climacteric fruits). These fruits should not be harvested before
they are ripe, because the ripening process stops as soon as they are
picked. The taste, flavour and texture of an unripe fruit do not improve
after harvest. Harvesting at the ripe stage implies that the fruit should
be eaten soon; there is little time for transport, trade and display in the
market/shop. On the other hand the harvest time may range widely,
depending on the preferred quality. For instance, most people like a
sweet mandarin, but if you prefer a more acidic taste you can harvest
much earlier. The slow ripening is sometimes used to store the fruit
(e.g. citrus and grapes) on the tree. Examples of fruit crops in both
groups are given in the Appendix.
Growers are inclined to harvest early, in order to minimise losses by
theft, birds, bats, fruit flies, and so forth. Seasonal fruit is often har-
vested early, in order to be sold before others flood the market. How-
ever, picking immature or unripe fruit is bound to spoil your reputa-
tion, as it puts off those who eat the fruit. Nothing can beat the quality

Harvesting 65
of fruit that has ripened on the tree and is eaten as soon as it is picked;
this is even true for climacteric fruits. It is the home gardener who has
the privilege of enjoying fruit at its best!
Certain fruits, for instance mango, guava and papaya, may be har-
vested green (immature) for use as a vegetable. In this way the useful-
ness of the fruit is extended beyond the normal harvest season.
9.2 Harvest methods, harvest indices
The harvest crowns the work of the grower. But does it really? Clear-
ing the crop on a tree in a single picking is quite common and the har-
vesting methods are far from delicate. Too often, looking at the pro-
duce in the baskets, one wonders: is this what the grower has been
working for all year? Those few quality fruits that are unblemished, at
the right stage of ripeness, and so many fruits with one defect or an-
other?
There are two main reasons why tropical fruit are often of poor qual-
ity:
? Maturity or ripeness is hard to judge
? Harvesting fruit on tall trees is difficult.
Fruit is mature when it is fully grown, but growers do not actually
measure the fruit at intervals to find out whether they are still grow-
ing. A useful guide for the harvest date is the number of days from
bloom to maturity. Growers also have to gain experience in judging
the shape, size, ground colour or sheen on the fruit as indicators of
maturity (see Box).
Ripeness is generally easier to judge than maturity, because the fruit
changes colour, becomes fragrant or emits a hollow sound when
tapped (because the seed cavities are fully formed, for instance in
durians and jackfruits). But as said before, it is also a matter of the
taste. So citrus growers may pick a few fruits at intervals and start the
harvest when the sugar-to-acid ratio is acceptable. There are criteria

for ripeness of the flesh that can be measured with suitable equipment.
Supermarkets, for instance, may only accept fruit that exceeds a cer-
tain specific gravity, sugar-to-acid ratio or soluble solids content.
Maturity indices for mango and durian
Maturity of mangoes is quite hard to judge and if picked when immature the
fruit tastes poorly and shrivels in the end. Growers in South-East Asia take the
number of days from bloom to harvest as a starting point, e.g. 84 days for the
Philippine Carabao, 90 days for the Indonesian Arumanis, and 100 days for
the Thai Nam Doc Mai. They also look at the development of the shoulders
on either side of the stalk and the ground colour of the fruit. If the fruit is ma-
ture the stalk should snap easily following a slight pull. The stalk should be
trimmed so that it does not puncture other fruit in the basket. A copious flow of
resinous sap from the cut also indicates immaturity.
In South-East Asia durians are usually allowed to drop from the tree when
ripe, the trees being very tall. On hearing the thud of a fallen fruit, people
quickly gather it before animals get to it, attracted by the smell. Keen growers
tie the fruit stalk to the branch with a string so that it does not drop; it has to be
collected where it hangs. This method is as laborious as it is ingenious and
shows to what lengths people will go to harvest top quality fruit!
In Thailand good crops greatly reduce tree vigour and picking mature fruit by
hand is feasible because the trees remain small. Skilled pickers use a range
of criteria to judge maturity. Starting with the number of days lapsed since full
bloom, they may also consider: colour, elasticity and separation of the spines;
the odour of the fruit; the sound heard when the fingertips are run through the
furrows between the spines; and changes in the fruit stalk. Whereas ripe,
fallen fruit has to be consumed as soon as possible, the mature fruit of Thai
cultivars is fit for export.
The large size of most tropical fruit trees makes selective harvesting
(several picking rounds to harvest only mature/ripe fruit) impractical.
Moreover, trees and fruit suffer from crude harvesting methods:
? The picker climbing the tree, pulling branches with a hook to get
hold of the fruit
? Harvesting from the ground with a bamboo pole with a basket at-
tached to the top to hold the fruit.

Harvesting 67

Figure 18: Tripod ladder and long ladder with props
Climbing is rather inefficient because most fruits are borne on the pe-
riphery of the canopy. Picking from the ground proceeds at snails
pace and it is hard to judge the ripeness of the fruit. Ladders are the
appropriate equipment (see figure 18), but long ladders are costly.
Moreover, pickers must learn to handle ladders, in the first place to
reduce the risk of accidents. Long ladders can be propped with 2 poles
hooked crosswise under a rung; this brings fruit at the edge of the
canopy within reach. However, to harvest more fruit, of better quality,
with less effort much smaller trees are needed.

9.3 Handling and marketing
In commercial fruit production, growing the fruit is the lesser half of
the job. The greater half consists of post-harvest handling and market-
ing, implying that your income from fruit depends largely on the
folowing aspects:
? sorting and grading
? washing, protection against infection and deterioration
? packing
? storage
? transport
? trade channels and market outlets
? quality criteria for fresh produce and for supplies to processers.
A discussion is beyond the scope of this booklet.

Layout and establishment of the orchard 69
10 Layout and establishment of the
orchard
This is usually one of the first subjects in books on fruit growing, but
in fact all the other subjects should be clear in your mind before you
start planning the layout of an orchard. You should take into account:
? Differences in vigour between cultivars
? Measures to control tree vigour (drought, root pruning, girdling,
etc.)
? Requirements with regard to cross-pollination.
10.1 Tree spacing
Orchards are traditionally planted on the square, e.g. 10 x 10 m for
mango. This is all right for large seedling trees with their immense
canopies. If smaller tree size allows doubling the number of trees per
ha to 200 (approx. 7 x 7 m), other planting patterns may not be advan-
tageous. But if 400 trees or more can be planted per ha, the trees
should remain so small that you can allow them to form a closed row
or hedge. This means that, at 400 trees per ha, instead of a spacing of
5 x 5 m on the square, a spacing of 6 x 4 m, i.e. ROW CROPPING,
becomes attractive. Sufficient light should penetrate the hedge to pro-
duce good quality fruit even on the lowest limbs.
The square planting pattern is based on the notion that all trees grow
equally well and that you can fairly accurately predict the size of the
mature trees. Both notions are false. There is usually much variation in
tree size, even in a single cultivar. Also, it is quite common for trees to
remain much smaller or to grow much larger than anticipated. A suc-
cession of a few good crops as soon as the tree comes into bearing
greatly helps to limit tree size.
As shown in figure 19 the open fringe around each tree planted on the
square has become an open alley in the row-cropping model. The
closer spacing in the row means that a more vigorous tree can make

up for a weaker neighbour. If growth is disappointing, the trees should
still fill the rows and intercropping in the alleyways can be continued
for a few more years. If tree vigour is excessive, the alleyways serve
as an outlet for some time. And if vigour cannot be controlled, grub-
bing half the trees will result in a new row alignment with a spacing of
8 x 6.25 m.

Figure 19: Planting on the square compared with row cropping,
both at 400 trees per ha and similar variation in tree size
In comparison with square planting row cropping is a very flexible
tree arrangement. Row cropping also lends itself to planting along the
contours of a slope, or across the direction of the prevailing wind on a
windswept site. Row cropping is very much on the increase now that
growers are trying to limit tree size through clonal propagation and
other methods.
When using clonal planting material or named cultivars, it is advisable
to plant several cultivars side by side in the orchard in order to:
? Spread the risk of a cultivar not living up to your expectations
? Facilitate cross-pollination.

Lack of vital information makes it risky to concentrate on a single cul-
tivar. For most crops, the available information about cultivars is
largely limited to the FRUIT: shape, colour, taste, shelf life, etc. How-
ever, for the grower information about the TREE, such as vigour, pro-
ductivity, disease tolerance, is just as important. Textbooks have little
if anything to say about these tree characteristics, in part because they
are strongly influenced by local growing conditions (and in budded or
grafted trees they are determined by the rootstock as well as the culti-
var). Hence, unless there is sufficient local information, the right spac-
ing is a gamble, yield predictions are guesswork and diseases and
pests may play havoc with the trees.
So you have to look around you, consult extension staff, other growers
and nurserymen. If you are not sure, just plant rows 1, 3, 5, 7, etc. with
the main cultivar and, for instance, another cultivar in rows 2, 6, 10,
etc. and a third cultivar in rows 4, 8, 12, and so on. Planting three cul-
tivars in this way will create good conditions for cross-pollination.
Moreover, weak growth in one row may be compensated by more vig-
orous growth in the next row (and if you know this beforehand you
can adjust spacing within the row to the vigour of the cultivar). Crop
care is facilitated because within a row the requirements with regard
to pruning, crop protection, harvesting, etc. are the same.
10.2 Orchard establishment
Tree growth during the early years largely determines when the trees
come into bearing. As explained in Chapter 2, in most instances
growth of bearing trees needs to be curtailed to balance it with fruit-
ing. If this is the case you can only safely boost tree vigour during the
pre-bearing years. A robust tree frame with well-spaced limbs formed
during several, prolonged flushes in the first 2 years, is an asset for
life. It is why looking after the tree during the first few years is em-
phasised here.
Textbooks generally recommend digging large planting holes (e.g. 40
x 40 x 40 cm) well in advance of the planting season, keeping topsoil

and subsoil separate, so that when the tree is planted the topsoil can be
spread over the roots first. This is fine if you have time, but as a rule
labour can be better spent on mulching and/or watering the young
trees.
If the trees are to be tied to a
stake, it is advisable to set out the
stakes first. Plant the tree on the
lee side of the stake and not on
the windward side, so that the tree
will not rub against the stake. Dig
a hole big enough to accommo-
date the roots; for bare-rooted
trees the roots may be spread in a
V-shaped hole extending on both
sides of the stake, as in figure 20.
Make sure that the union of
grafted or budded trees is well
above ground level, also after the
soil has settled, to prevent the
scion from striking root.
Growers often lose interest in their trees during the long years waiting
for the first crop. This is understandable, but it is also a big mistake.
Having invested in good planting material and careful planting, you
should go on investing in your trees. Pamper them with a generous
mulch and if necessary protect them against browsing cattle and
strong wind, provide temporary shade and apply water. If the soil can
be kept moist, the young trees will also respond well to manure or fer-
tiliser.
Young trees need attention almost daily. Climbing weeds need little
time to reach the top of the newly planted tree. Root suckers and side
shoots that emerge too low on the trunk waste the trees energy and
need to be removed. If done early, the side shoots can simply be
brushed off (advantages: little labour required, little growth wasted).

Figure 20: V-shaped planting
hole and stake

Crickets, caterpillars, night-feeding beetles, etc. can quickly finish the
leaves on a small tree. Look closely; often shading material (set up to
protect the young tree against the sun) hides the first indications of
trouble. Frequent inspections can nip infestations in the bud: crickets
and caterpillars can be caught by hand. This may sound primitive, but
a larger cricket or caterpillar is hard to poison with insecticide, be-
cause it eats far less in relation to its body size than a tiny one. Hence,
treatments with insecticides also require frequent rounds for timely
control.
Set your standards high. Do not be satisfied if all trees survive so that
there is no need to fill gaps. Your aim should be uniform, vigorously
growing trees that hold the promise of rich rewards.

Appendix: Horticultural traits
Explanatory notes
Fruit crops are listed alphabetically per family, to show which crops
are closely related, having common characters. The table gives traits
of the flowers (including compatibility in pollination) and the fruit.
Common propagation methods and horticultural status are also given.
The number in the first column corresponds to the bold number in the
Index.
Key

Flower traits
perf Flowers perfect (hermaphrodite)
mix Flowers of different sex (e.g. male or female; male or perfect) in the same inflores-
cence
mono Male and female flowers in separate inflorescences on the same tree (monoecy)
di Flowers of different sex (e.g. male-flowering or female-flowering) on separate trees:
dioecy.
Pollination
x Flowers self-incompatible (cross-pollination essential).
y Self-pollination unlikely (e.g. stigmas not receptive when pollen is shed).
s Flowers self-compatible.
Fruit traits
clim Fruit climacteric, ripens after being harvested mature
n-c Fruit non-climacteric, no further ripening after harvest
par Fruits commonly seedless: parthenocarpy.
Horticultural status
uni Seedlings uniform, showing little variation; trees usually propagated from seed
sel Clonal propagation recommended, but selection has not yet resulted in named
cultivars.
Var Selected mother trees used for propagation (through seed or clones); cultivars be-
ing named.
Cvs Clonal propagation of named cultivars commonly practiced.
Brackets
() Trait applies only to some varieties or cultivars

Table 4: Fruit crops listed alphabetically per botanic family
Nr. Common name Flower traits Polli-nation Fruit traits Hortic. status
Anacardiaceae
1 cashew mix n-c var
2 mango mix s clim cvs
3 ambarella perf sel
4 red mombin perf y (par) sel
5 yellow mombin mix sel
6 marula di sel
Annonaceae
7 cherimoya perf y clim cvs
8 atemoya perf y clim cvs
9 sugarapple perf y clim cvs
10 soursop perf y clim uni
Bombacaceae
11 baobab perf sel
12 durian perf (s/x) clim cvs
Bromeliaceae
13 pineapple perf x n-c par cvs
Caricaceae
14 papaya di x clim cvs
Ebenaceae
15 persimmon (black) mix (di) (par) var
16 persimmon (oriental) (mix) di clim (par) cvs
Flacourtiaceae
17 kei apple di
18 governor plum perf var
Guttiferae
19 mangosteen di uni
Lauraceae
20 avocado perf y clim cvs
Leguminosae
21 tamarind perf s cvs
Meliaceae
22 santol perf y cvs
23 langsat perf par cvs
Moraceae
24 breadfruit mono y clim par var
25 breadnut mono y var
26 jackfruit mono y clim var
27 Amazon tree grape di

Musaceae
28 banana, plantain mix par cvs
Myrtaceae
29 guava per (s/x) clim (par) cvs
30 grumichama perf s? n-c sel
31 pitanga, Surinam cherry perf n-c sel
32 Java apple, wax jambu perf s? n-c var
33 Malay apple, pomerac perf n-c var
34 jambolan perf n-c (par) var
Oxalidaceae
35 carambola perf (s/x) n-c cvs
Palmae
36 pejibaye, peach palm mix y var
37 salak di (mix) var
Passifloraceae
38 giant granadilla perf y clim uni
39 purple passionfruit perf s clim var
40 yellow passionfruit perf y clim cvs
Proteaceae
41 macadamia perf y cvs
Punicaceae
42 pomegranate perf cvs
Rhamnaceae
43 Indian jujube perf x (par) cvs
Rosaceae
44 apple perf (s) clim (par) cvs
45 pear, nashi perf x clim (par) cvs
46 peach, nectarine perf s clim cvs
47 plum perf x (y) clim cvs
48 loquat perf (x) y cvs
49 strawberry perf (y) s n-c cvs
Rutaceae
50 casimiroa, white sapote perf, (x) y cvs
51 kumquat perf cvs
52 grapefruit perf n-c (par) cvs
53 lime mix (x) n-c (par) var
54 mandarin perf (x/s) n-c (par) cvs
55 orange perf n-c (par) cvs
56 pummelo perf (x) n-c cvs
Sapindaceae
57 longan mix cvs

58 lychee mix n-c cvs
59 rambutan di (mix) n-c cvs
Sapotaceae
60 caimito perf s var
61 canistel, egg-fruit perf var
62 mamey sapote, sapote perf clim var
63 sapodilla, chicosapote perf (y) clim cvs
Vitaceae
64 grape perf n-c (par) cvs

Further reading
Barbeau, G., 1990: Frutas tropicales en Nicaragua. Editorial Cien-
cias Sociales, Managua, Nicaragua, 397 pp.

Carlos, Jr., J.T. (Editor), 1990: South Pacific Fruit Production. CTA,
Wageningen, The Netherlands, 142 pp.

Dupriez, H. & P. de Leener, 1998: Trees and multistorey agriculture
in Africa. Land and Life, Belgium & CTA, The Netherlands, 280 pp.
ISBN: 2-87105-101-X and 92-9081-178-1.

Epstein, S., 1998: Propagating plants, an organic approach. Fam-
bidzanai Permaculture Centre and Mambo Press, Zimbabwe & CTA,
Wageningen, The Netherlands, 140 pp. ISBN: 0 86922 726 2

Morton, J.F., 1987: Fruits of warm climates. Creative Resource Sys-
tems Inc., Winterville, N.C. USA, 503 pp. ISBN 0 9610184 1 0

Nakasone, H. Y. & R.E. Paull, 1998: Tropical fruits. CAB Interna-
tional, Wallingford, UK, 445 pp. ISBN 0 85199 2544

Samson, J.A.,2nd edition 1986: Tropical fruits. Longman Group UK
Ltd, Harlow, England, 335 pp. ISBN 0 582 40409 6

Suranant Subhadrabandhu & Yaacob Othman, 1995: Production of
economic fruits in South-East Asia. Oxford Un. Press, UK. ISBN 9
67653 0468

Verheij, E.W.M. & R. Coronel (Editors), 1991: Plant resources of
South-East Asia, Vol. 2: Edible fruits and nuts. PUDOC, Wagenin-
gen, The Netherlands, 446 pp. ISBN 90 220 0986 6. (also published in
Thai, Vietnamese, Tagalog and Bahasa Indonesia)

Further reading 79
Verheij, E.W.M. & H. Lvenstein, 2004: A nurseryman and his
trees. AgroSpecial 1, AGROMISA, Wageningen, The Netherlands, 43
p. ISBN 90-77073-82-5

Useful addresses
Horticultural Research Centre, Malaysian Agricultural Research
and Development Institute (MARDI)
POBox 1230, GPO Kuala Lumpur, MALAYSIA
(+60) 3-89437263
www.mardi.my [email protected]

Horticultural Research Centre, Ministry of Agriculture
POBox 810, Marondera, ZIMBABWE
(+263) 79-24122
www.hridir.org/hri/search [email protected]

Department of Horticultural Science, University of Natal
Private Bag X01, Scottsville
3209 Pietermaritzburg, SOUTH AFRICA
(+27) 33-2605969
www.sciag.unp.ac.za [email protected]

Horticultural Research Institute Tengeru (HORTI-Tengeru)
POBox 1253, Arusha, TANZANIA
Tel: Duluti 94

The Green Belt Movement
POBOx 67545, Nairobi, KENYA
(+254) 20-573057/571523
www.greenbeltmovement.org [email protected]

TOFNET, Trees on Farm Network for East and Central Africa
Coordinator: World Agroforestry Centre (ICRAF),
POBox 30677-00100, Nairobi, Kenya
www.tofnet.org [email protected]

Useful addresses 81
WAFNET, West African Fruit Network
Coordination: Plant Genetic Resources Centre
POBox 7, Bunso, E/R, GHANA

Contact for commercial fruit crops:
Institut Senegalois des Recherches Agonomiques (ISRA)
c/o Mr. Demba Sidibe,
BP 34, Ziguimchor, SENEGAL
tel: 991-12-05, fax: 991-12-93
e-mail: [email protected]

Contact for underutilized fruit crops:
National Centre for Genetic Resources and Biotechnology
(NACGRAB)
c/o Prof. C.P.E. Omaliko, Director
POBox 331, Abuja, NIGERIA
tel: (234)9-5235765, fax: (244)9-5233903

Institute of Agricultural Research for Development (IRAD)
c/o Dr Joseph Kengue, Charg de Recherches
BP 2067, Yaound, CAMEROUN
tel: (237) 238549, fax: (237)237571

Global Horticulture Initiative
Interim Administrative Office
c/o AVRDC - The World Vegetable Center
P.O. Box 42, Shanhua, Tainan
Taiwan 74199, R.O.C.
www.globalhort.org/index.html

Glossary
air layering a form of layering in which a ball of soil in a
polythene cover is wrapped around a girdle in
the branch to be layered; after roots grow into
the soil ball the layer can be separated
annual plant a plant that completes its life cycle within one
year
apomixis reproduction by seed formed without sexual
fusion, hence a form of cloning
axil the upper angle between a leaf and the stem
biennial bearing a more or less regular alternation of heavy
and light fruit crops in successive years
biological control crop protection using natural ways to control
a pest or disease, e.g. by natural enemies, or
barriers such as a net to exclude birds
botanical name unique name, given by a botanist, under
which the plant species is known
cambium a layer of meristematic tissue between wood
and bark with cells which divide to form
more wood and bark
cauliflory flowers borne on the trunk and/or large
branches
cincturing see girdling
climacteric fruit a fruit which, if mature, ripens after harvest-
ing
climacterium a spurt in the ripening process of climacteric
fruit
clone a group of plants originating by vegetative
propagation from a single plant and therefore
having the same genotype
compatible of cultivars as pollinators: capable of sexual
union, and thus of forming seeded fruit;
in budding/grafting: capable of forming a
lasting stock-scion union

Glossary 83
cross-pollination placement of pollen on the stigma of a flower
that is not of the same clone
cultivar (cv) a cultivated variety, as distinct from a variety
that exists in the natural vegetation
deciduous a perennial plant that is leafless during a
(brief) part of the year
dichogamy flower in which pollen is released before or
after the stigma is ready to be pollinated, thus
preventing self-pollination
dioecious bearing flowers of a single sex, male or fe-
male, and borne on different plants (dioecy)
dormancy a state of rest of seeds or buds, prohibiting
sprouting even under favourable growing
conditions
embryo the rudimentary plant within a seed
evergreen bearing leaves all year long, because leaf
change is gradual
floral bud bud that is in the process of laying down
flower initials
flower bud unopened flower
flush a brief period of rapid shoot growth, preceded
and followed by a period of quiescence, even
under favourable growing conditions
gene the bearer of a single genetic trait, located on
a chromosome
genotype the genetic make-up of an organism compris-
ing all its genes
girdling removal of a narrow ring of bark from the
tree trunk or the tree limbs to starve the roots;
also called cincturing
harvest index the harvestable produce as a fraction of the
total biomass produced by the crop in a given
year
hermaphrodite bisexual; with stamens and pistil in the same
flower

hormones growth substances, produced in various or-
gans and moving through the plant in small
quantities to direct the growth processes in
dividing cells
inbreeding breeding by sexual fusion of pollen and egg
cells of the same or closely related genotypes
incompatible in pollination: not able to achieve sexual un-
ion; in budding or grafting: not resulting in
lasting union between stock and scion
indeterminate of shoot growth: not limited to expansion of
leaf initials which where already present in
the bud
inflorescence the floral structure consisting of more than
one flower
juvenile phase the period between germination and the first
sign of flowering
marcotting see air layering
monoecious with flowers of a single sex, male or female,
but borne on the same plant (monoecy)
node the point on the shoot where a leaf is borne
non-climacteric fruit a fruit which must ripen on the tree because it
does not ripen after being harvested
orthotropic shoots upright shoots that mainly serve to increase
tree size in trees that also have more horizon-
tally growing (plagiotropic) shoots
ovary the enlarged base of the pistil which contains
the ovules and grows into the fruit
ovules the immature seeds in the ovary before fertili-
zation
parthenocarpy the production of fruit without true fertiliza-
tion and hence without true seed (fruit usually
seedless)
perennial plant a plant living for many years
perfect flower a flower possessing both male (stamens) and
female (pistil) organs

Glossary 85
pesticide a chemical used to control pests; selective
pesticides kill only the target pest, broad
spectrum pesticides kill a wide range of in-
sects
pistil the female part of a flower consisting, when
complete, of ovary(s), style(s) and stigma(s)
pistillate flower a flower with pistil(s) but lacking stamens
plagiotropic shoots shoots growing more or less horizontal and
bearing all or most fruit, contrasting with up-
right (orthotropic) shoots in the same tree
pollen tiny grains discharged by the anthers, contain-
ing the male element
pollination the transfer of pollen to the receptive stigma,
if dry largely by wind, if sticky mainly by in-
sects
polyembryony the growth of two or more embryos in an
ovule, resulting in more than one seedling
emerging from the seed; only one of these
may be a true seedling, the others are clonal
quiescence rest of plant parts, when there is no outwardly
visible signs of growth; in this Agrodok
mainly used for buds between flushes
rootstock the part of a budded/grafted plant below the
union, bearing the roots; above the union is
the scion
scion the part of a budded/grafted plant above the
union; below the union is the (root)stock
self-fertile capable of fertilisation and setting seed after
self-pollination
self-pollination pollination with pollen from the same plant or
plants of the same clone
self-sterile not capable of sexual union and seed produc-
tion after self-pollination
sexual reproduction propagation by seed following pollination of
the flower and fertilization of the egg cell

shoot a young stem bearing immature leaves, at
least near the tip
stamens the male organs of the flower, each consisting
of a filament and an anther
staminate flower a flower bearing only stamens, no pistil
stigma the tip of the pistil that receives the pollen
style the part of the pistil connecting the ovary
with the stigma
sucker shoot emerging from an adventitious bud,
usually on a root or the tree trunk
taproot the root that first emerges from the seed and
normally becomes the main root of a plant
raised from seed
variety a distinct type within a species which occurs
naturally; in cultivation a variety is called a
cultivar
water shoot vigorous sucker with juvenile traits emerging
on or close to the trunk, often following in-
jury (e.g. from pruning)
whip a long unbranched shoot

Index 87
Index
The index lists crops alphabetically by their common names used in
this Agrodok. For each crop the botanic name is given, and if the crop
is still well known by a former botanical name, that name is included
in brackets. Names in italics refer to crops not usually included in the
commodity group fruit and nuts. A bold number is the crops number
in the Appendix.

Common name(s) Botanical name (Former
name)
Page; nr in Appendix
Africado; see Butter
fruit tree

Amazon tree grape Pourouma cecropiaefolia 11,58; 27
Ambarella,
Great hog plum
Spondias cytherea (S. dulcis) 28;3
Apple Malus domestica 13,24,25,30,37,40,41,46,48,
53,54,55,59,61;44
Areca palm Areca catechu
Atemoya Annona cherimola x
A. squamosa
34; 8
Avocado Persea americana 18,24,31,35,37,40,,57,62; 20
Banana, Plantain Musa 6,9,12,13,14,15,19,21,22,34,
37,56,64; 28
Baobab Adansonia digitata 57; 11
Brazil cherry,
Grumichama
Eugenia dombeyi
(Eugenia brasiliensis)
30
Breadfruit, Breadnut Artocarpus altilis (A. commu-
nis)
23,34,37,55; 24
Butter fruit tree Dacryodes edulis 32,58
Caimito, Starapple Chrysophyllum cainito 60
Canistel, Egg-fruit Pouteria campechiana
(Lucuma nervosa)
11,24; 61
Carambola Averrhoa carambola 49,52; 35
Cashew Anacardium occidentale 24,36,37; 1
Casimiroa,
White sapote
Casimiroa edulis 24,31; 50
Cherimoya Annona cherimola 7
Chiku, Sapodilla Manilkara zapota
(Achras zapota)
24,28,34; 63
Citrus Citrus 18,23,24,31,37,38,40,41,45,
46,52,61,62,64
Clove Syzygium aromaticum 30

name)
Cocoa Theobroma cacao 23,27,34
Coconut Cocos nucifera 15,16,19,20,21,22,34,56
Coffee Coffea arabica 8,23,26,27,3,0,34,45,46,60
Custard apples Annona species 24,25,27,58; 7,8,9
Date palm Phoenix dactilifera 15,21
Duku, Langsat Lansium domesticum 23
Durian Durio zybethinus 12,23,26,27,34,37,46,57,65,
66; 12
Egg-fruit: see Canistel
Giant Granadilla Passiflora quadrangularis 38
Governor plum Flacourtia inermis 18
Grape Vitis vinifera 11,23,30,34,37,42,43,53,54,
58,64; 64
Grapefruit Citrus x paradisi 52
Great hog plum: see
Ambarella

Grumichama:
see Brazil cherry

Guava Psidium guajava 12,19,24,54,55,56,59,61,65;
29
Hog plum: see Mombin
Indian jujube Ziziphus mauritiana 24; 43
Jackfruit Artocarpus heterophyllus 23,27,34,37,55,59,65; 26
Jambolan Syzygium cumini
(Eugenia jambolana)
34
Java apple,
Wax jambu
Syzygium samarangense
(Eugenia javanica)
32
Kaki:
see Persimmon

Kapok Ceiba pentandra 34
Kei apple Dovyalis caffra 61; 17
Kechapi, Santol Sandoricum koetjape (S. indi-
cum)
24; 22
Kumquat Fortunella margarita 51
Langsat: see Duku
Lime Citrus aurantifolia 37; 53
Lychee Litchi chinensis 31,32,48,49; 58
Longan Dimocarpus longan
(Euphoria longana)
24,31,37,60; 57
Loquat Eriobotrya japonica 24,31; 48
Macadamia Macadamia integrifolia 32; 41
Malay apple,
Pomerac
Syzygium malaccense
(Eugenia malaccensis)
24; 33

Index 89
name)
Mamey sapote Pouteria sapota
(Calocarpum sapota)
24; 62
Mandarin,
Tangerine
Citrus reticulata (C. nobilis) 12,19,33,56,59,64; 54
Mango Mangifera indica 8,12,13,16,17,18,19,23,24,
28,31,32,34,37,38,48,49,50,
51,52,53,54,55,56,59,6,0,61,
65,66,69; 2
Mangosteen Garcinia mangostana 24,28,34,37,38; 19
Marula Sclerocarya birrea 6
Mombin (red),
Spanish plum
Spondias purpurea (S. dul-
cis)
28; 4
Mombin (yellow),
Hog plum
Spondias mombin (S. lutea) 28; 5
Nashi, Pear (oriental) Pyrus pyrifolia (P. serotina) 24,25,30,34,46,53; 45
Nutmeg Myristica fragrans 23,28,34
Oil palm Elaeis guineensis 21
Papaya Carica papaya 6,12,15,16,19,20,21,22,23,
34,36,37,55,56,58,65; 14
Passionfruit Passiflora 23,34,36,37,42,58,62
Passionfruit (purple) Passiflora edulis f. flavicarpa 39
Passionfruit (yellow) Passiflora edulis f. edulis 40
Peach Prunus persica 30,45,53; 46
Peach palm, Pejibaye Bactris gasipaes
(Guilielma speciosa)
36
Pear (oriental): see
Nashi

Pejibaye: see
Peach palm

Persimmon (black) Diospyros digyna 24; 15
Persimmon (oriental),
Kaki
Diospyros kaki 24,57; 16
Pineapple Ananas comosus 6,12,13,14,15,19,21,22,34,
37,56,57; 13
Pitanga,
Surinam cherry
Eugenia uniflora 31
Plantain: see Banana
Plum Prunus salicina (P. triflora) 24,25,30,37,44,46,53; 47
Pomegranate Punica granatum 24,25,31; 42
Pummelo Citrus maxima 56
Rambutan Nephelium lappaceum 12,23,24,28,29,34,49,52,55,
57,59; 59
Rubber Hevea brasiliensis 28,37
Salak Salacca zalacca (S. edulis) 58; 37

name)
Santol: see Kechapi
Sapodilla: see Chiku Manilkara zapota
(Achras sapota)

Sisal Agave sisalana 21
Soursop Annona muricata 28,34,36,37,55; 10
Spanish plum: see
Mombin

Starapple: see Caimito
Strawberry Fragaria x ananassa 37; 49
Sugarapple, Sweetsop Annona squamosa 45,55; 9
Surinam cherry: see
Pitanga

Sweet orange Citrus sinensis 33,34; 55
Tamarind Tamarindus indica 24; 21
Tangerine: see
Mandarin

Tea Camellia sinensis 41,43
Wax jambu: see
Java apple

White sapote: see
Casimiroa

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