UNIT 1- MECHATRONICS, SENSORS AND TRANSDUCERS

1.1. INTRODUCTION TO MECHATRONICS SYSTEMS:

Mechatronics is a word originated in Japan in 1980s to denote the combination of technologies which go
together to produce industrial robots. The word, mechatronics, is composed of "mecha" from mechanism and
the "tronics" from electronics. In other words, technologies and deeloped products will be incorporating
electronics more and more into mechanisms, intimatel! and organicall!, and ma"ing it impossible to tell where
one ends and the other begins.
#ccording to the Mechatronics $orum, %& a formal defamation of Mechatronics is "the s!nergistic integration
of Mechanics and Mechanical 'ngineering, 'lectronics, (omputer technolog!, and IT to produce or enhance
products and s!stems." ).*olton defmes Mechatronics as "# mechatronic s!stem is not +ust a marriage of
electrical and mechanical s!stems and is more than +ust a control s!stem, it is a complete integration of all of
them." # graphical representation of Mechatronics, as shown in $igure 1.1, illustrates integrated and inter-
disciplinar! approach of nature.
'en though man! people beliee that the presence of mechanical, electrical, electronic components, and
computers ma"e a s!stem mechatronics, others do not feel the same as there is nothing wrong with the
indiidual identit!. .ence, the term mechatronics should be used to represent a different meaning, namel!, "a
design philosoph!," where mechanical, electrical, electronic components, and IT should be considered together
in the design stage itself to obtain a compact, efficient, and economic product rather than designing the
components separatel!. The concept of mechatronics is er! important toda! to meet the customers/ eer
increasing demands and still remain competitie in the global mar"et. # mechatronic engineer must be able to
design and select mechanical deices, sensors and actuators, analog and 0.digital circuits," microprocessor-
based components, and control deices such as logic gates to design modern s!stems.
1.1.1. Elements of Mechaton!cs S"stems
1arious elements in t!pical mechatronic s!stems are shown in $igure 1.2 and are described here under.
1
3i4 #ctuators and 5ensors
3ii4 5ignals and (onditioning
3iii4 6igital 7ogic 5!stems
3i4 5oftware and 6ata #c8uisition s!stems
34 (omputers and 6ispla! deices.
#!$ Sensos an% Act&atos:
1. 5ensors and actuators mostl! come under mechanical s!stems. The
actuators produce motion or cause some action.
2. The sensors detect the state of the s!stem parameters, inputs and outputs.
9. The arious actuators used in mechatronic s!stem are pneumatic and h!draulic actuators, electro-mechanical
actuators, electrical motors such as 6.( motors, #.( motors, stepper motors, seromotors, and pie:oelectric
actuators.
;. The arious t!pes of sensors used in mechatronic s!stem are linear and rotational sensors, acceleration sensors,
force, tor8ue, and pressure sensors, flow sensors, temperature sensors, pro<imit! sensors, light sensors.
#!!$ S!'nals an% Con%!t!on!n':
1. The mechatronic s!stems deal with two t!pes of signals and conditioning= input and output.
2. The input deices receie input signals from the mechatronic s!stems ia interfacing deices and sensors, and
then send to the control circuits for conditioning or processing.
9. The arious input signal conditioning deices used in mechatronic s!stem are discrete circuits, amplifiers, analog-
to-digital 3#I64 conertors, 6igital-to- digital 36I64 conertors.
;. The output signals from the s!stem are send to output>displa! deices through interfacing deices.
?. The arious output signal conditioning deices used in mechatronic s!stem are digital -to- analog 36>#4
conertors, displa! decoders 3664 conertors, amplifiers, power transistors, power op-amps.
#!!!$ D!'!tal (o'!c S"stems:
1. 6igital logic deices control oerall s!stem operation.
2. The arious digital logic s!stems used in mechatronic s!stem are logic circuits, microcontrollers, programmable
logic controllers, se8uencing and timing controls, control algorithms.
#!)$ Soft*ae an% Data Ac+&!s!t!on s"stems:
1. 6ata ac8uisition s!stem ac8uires the output signals from sensors in the form of oltage, fre8uenc!, resistance etc.
and inputting into the microprocessor or computer. 5oftware is used to control the ac8uisition of data through
6#( board.
2. The data ac8uisition s!stem consists of multiple<er, amplifier, register and control circuitr!, 6#( board.
9. The arious data ac8uisition s!stems used in mechatronic s!stem are data loggers, computer with plug-in boards
etc.
#)$ Com,&tes an% D!s,la" %e)!ces:.
1. (omputers are used to store large number of data and process further through software.
2. 6ispla! deices are used to gie isual feedbac" to the user.
9. The arious displa! deices used in mechatronic s!stem are 7'6s , (@T, 7(6, digital displa!s etc.
1.1.-. T",es of Mechaton!cs S"stems:
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Japan 5ociet! for the Aromotion of Machine Industr! 3J5AMI4 classified mechatronics products into following four
categories=
#!$ Class I:
Arimaril! mechanical products with electronics incorporated to enhance functionalit!.
'<amples= B( machine tools and ariable speed dries in manufacturing machines.
#!!$ Class II:
Traditional mechanical s!stems with significantl! updated internal deices incorporating electronics. The e<ternal user
interfaces are unaltered.
'<amples= Modem sewing machine and #utomated manufacturing s!stems.
#!!!$Class III:
5!stems that retain the functionalit! of the traditional mechanical s!stem, but the internal mechanisms are replaced b!
electronics.
'<ample= digital watch, automatic camera.
#!)$ Class I.:
Aroducts designed with mechanical and electronic technologies through s!nergistic integration.
'<amples= Ahotocopiers, intelligent washers and dr!ers, rice coo"ers, and automatic oens.
1.1./. E0am,les of Mechaton!cs S"stems:
'<amples of mechatronics s!stems are as follows=
1. B( C (B( machine tools, ariable speed dries, fle<ible manufacturing s!stems 3$M54 C automated
manufacturing s!stems, automated guided ehicles, rapid protot!ping C robots
2. (omputers dis" dries
9. Ahotocopiers, 7aser printers C fa< machines
;. 1(@J616 dries
?. #utomatic washing machines, dish washer, rice coo"er, automatic oens C modern sewing machines
D. #utomatic teller machine 3#TM4
E. (oin counter
8. #utomatic>digital camera, digital watch
9. #ircraft flight control s!stems such as coc"pit control, landing gear control etc.
10. #utomobile applications include electronic engine management s!stem, collision detection, global positioning
s!stem, antiloc" bra"e s!stem, "e!less entr! s!stem, cruise control, par"ing assistance s!stem and others.
11. Medical diagnostic instruments such as (T scan s!stem, automatic blood testing e8uipment, etc.
12. #utomatic sliding door. ending machines, and garage door openers
19. #erospace applications include launching, satellite solar plate e<tending mechanisms, and man! more
1.1.1. A%)anta'es an% D!sa%)anta'es of Mechaton!cs S"stems:
A%)anta'es:
1. (ost effectie and good 8ualit! products.
2. .igh degree of fle<ibilit! to modif! or redesign.
9. 1er! good performance characteristics.
;. )ide area of application.
?. Freater productiit! in case of manufacturing organi:ation.
D. Aossibilit! of remote controlling as well as centrali:ed monitoring and control.
E. Freater e<tend of machine utili:ation.
D!sa%)anta'es:
1. .igh initial cost.
2. Multi-disciplinar! engineering bac"ground re8uired to design and imp lamentation.
9. Beed of highl! trained wor"ers.
;. (omple<it! in /identification and correction of problems in the s!stems
1.1.2. Meas&ement S"stems:
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1. The word s"stem in mechatronics refers to a group of ph!sical component connected or related in such a manner
as to form as entire unit for performing a specific tas". $or e<ample, this unierse is a s!stem consists of large
number of
2. 5ubs!stems.
9. 5imilarl! human bod! is a s!stem consists of large number of
subs!stems such as brain, nere s!stems, digestie s!stems etc. #ll
mechatronic deices consist of arious s!stems in which some input
data are gien to get specified output. # s!stem can be treated as a
blac" bo< haing an input and output as shown in $igure 1.9 3a4.
;. $or e<ample, an electronic heater ma! be thought of as a s!stem which
has, as its input electric power and as output heat as shown in $igure
1.9 3b4.
?. # meas&ement s"stem inoles the precise measurement and
displa!>recording of ph!sical, chemical, mechanical, electrical or
optical parameters.
D. It proides a means of describing natural phenomena in 8uantitatie terms. Measurement s!stem proides the
input to the control s!stems of mechatronics.
E. # generali:ed measurement s!stem comprises of a sensor>transducer, signal processor, and a displa!>recording
deice as shown in $igure 1.;.
#!$ Senso o tans%&ce:
1. 5ensor or transducer is
a deice which conerts a
ph!sical 8uantit!, propert! or condition into output, usuall! electrical parameters such as oltage, resistance or
capacitance.
2. $or e<ample, a thermocouple is a sensor which conerts changes in temperature into a oltage.
#!!$ S!'nal ,ocesso:
1. 5ignal processor or conditioner receies output signal from sensor or transducer and manipulates or processes into
a suitable input signal to control s!stem.
2. 5ignal processor performs filtering and amplification functions.
9. $or e<ample, the output from the thermocouple is er! small oltage, therefore, amplifier increases the magnitude
of the oltage and the ND 3analog to digital4 conerter changes the analog oltage signal to a coded digital signal.
#!!!$ D!s,la" o eco%!n' %e)!ce:
1. @ecorder records the output from signal conditioner and displa! deice gies the measured ariable in isual or
8uantitatie form.
2. $or e<ample, 7'6s, (@T, 7(6 are the e<ample of displa! deices which gies measured ariable interms of
numbers.
E0am,le of meas&ement s"stem:
(onsider a digital li8uid leel measuring s!stem in a tan" shown in $igure 1.?. This s!stem incorporates float with
resistie potentiometer as a sensor which gies electrical oltage as output depending upon the li8uid leel in the tan".
5ignal processor inoles an amplifier increases the small oltage into higher oltage, BG conerter conerts analogue
oltage to a digital signal, and digital decoder 3664 decodes the digital data into readable format to displa!. 7'6s displa!
the alue of li8uid leel in terms of specific 8uantit!.
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1.1.3. Contol S"stems:
# contol s"stem in mechatronics refers to a group of ph!sical component connected or related in such a manner
as to command direct or regulate itself or another s!stem.
The ph!sical components ma! be of electrical, mechanical, h!draulic, pneumatic, thermal or chemical in nature.
Se)eal 4e" tems 5 elements of the contol s"stem ae:
1. Refeence )a!a6le o In,&t: 5timulus or e<citation applied to a control s!stem from an e<ternal source, usuall! in
order to produce a specified response from the s!stem.
-. O&t,&t: The actual response obtained from the s!stem.
/. 7ee%6ac4: That portion of the output of a s!stem that is returned to modif! the input and thus sere as a performance
monitor for the s!stem.
1. Eo: The difference between the input stimulus and the output response. 5pecificall!, it is the difference between the
input and the feedbac".
2. D!st&6ance: #n! signal other than the reference which affects the s!stem performance.
3. Act&at!n' s!'nal: The difference between the feedbac" signal and reference signal.
8. Contol o 7ee% 7o*a% Elements: Those components directl! connected between the controlled output and the
referenced input.
9. Contolle% O&t,&t: The ariable 3temperature, position, elocit!, shaft angle, etc.4 that the s!stem see"s to guide or
regulate.
:. 7ee%6ac4 Elements: Those components re8uired to establish the desired feedbac" signal b! sensing the controlled
output.
E0am,les of contol s"stem:
1. (onsider an industrial cooler in a food processing unit which is re8uired to maintain the temperature of unit at
particular predefined leel.
2. In this control s!stem, the input is the temperature of the unit at present which is receied from temperature
sensor and the output is the particular predefined temperature of the unit, i.e., the re8uired temperature is set in the
thermostat or controller and the compressor of the cooler unit ad+usts itself b! comparison of input data and
output data to pump refrigerant through eaporator and so produce the re8uired temperature in the unit as shown
in $igure 1.D.
9. This is an e<ample of feedback control in which the sensor signals are feedbac" from the output in order to
modif! the reaction of the pump to switch on or off.
Cons!%e anothe e0am,le of stee!n' contol !n a&tomo6!les.
1. The ehicle direction is controlled b! wheel orientation which is achieed b! controlling steering wheel manuall!.
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2. This automobile steering s!stem consisting of steering wheel, steering gear, lin"ages, and wheel, constitutes a
control s!stem. In this s!stem, the input is the steering wheel position>rotation and the wheel orientation is the
controlled ariable or output.
9. The route of the ehicle is determined b! the drier and b! properl! ad+usting>controlling the steering wheel the
ehicle is maintained to run on the road in the desire direction.
;. The drier monitors and compares the road condition and accordingl! ta"es the decision to control the ehicle
direction through steering wheel.
?. This is also an e<ample of feedbac" control s!stem. The input 3steering wheel position>rotation4 is modified
according to the output 3wheel orientation4 b! isuall! monitoring 3feedbac" data4 the road condition as shown in
$igure 1.E.
Bon-engineering s!stems such as human bod! can also be considered as a control s!stem. Bormal functioning of human
bod! is controlled b! blood pressure and temperature of the bod!. *oth are "ept at constant alue b! means of
ph!siological feedbac" proided b! man! other sub-s!stems. $igure 1.8 3a4 C 3b4 shows the illustration of feedbac"
principle of human bod! blood pressure and temperature control. Therefore, the human bod! is a highl! adanced
feedbac" control s!stem. This feedbac" s!stem ma"es the human bod! relatiel! insensitie to e<ternal disturbances,
thus enabling it to function properl! in a changing enironment.
Gther e<amples of applications of control s!stems include, but
not limited to=
1. Idle speed control s!stem of an automobile
2. Arint wheel control s!stem of a printer
9. Temperature control of an electric furnace or oen ,
;. 5un trac"ing control of solar collector
?. #ircraft rudder control s!stem
D. Fun or missile director
E. Missile guidance s!stem
8. 7aser-guided pro+ectiles
9. #utomatic pilot
1.1.8. O,en-loo, Contol S"stems:
(ontrol s!stems are classified into two groups=
1. Gpen loop control s!stems
2. (losed loop or feedbac" control s!stems
1. O,en loo, s"stems are s!stems in which the output of a s!stem is not used as a ariable to control the s!stem.
2. In other words, open loop s!stems are s!stems in which input to the s!stem is not controlled b! the present
output.
6
9. In an open-loop s!stem, the output of this s!stem is not fed bac" into the input to the s!stem for control or
operation.
;. #n open s!stem is essentiall! a feed forward s!stem. The s!stem is an "open" s!stem because it does not hae a
feedbac" loop in its control as shown in $igure 1.9.
?. There are man! reasons to use open loop control such as simplif!ing the control s!stem, 8uic"er response of the
s!stem, to reduce the possibilit! of oscillation and sometimes to lower cost.
E0am,les of o,en-loo, contol s"stem:
1.The basic elements of this s!stem are an amplifier and a controller as shown in $igure 1.10. The amplifier receies a
low- leel input signal and amplifies it enough to drie the
controller to perform the desired +ob.
2.#s an e<ample consider automatic bread toaster. In this s!stem, when the s!stem is switched GB, the heating element in
the toaster heat the bread for particular preset time and then automaticall! it get switched G$$ and e+ects the bread. .ere
there is no feedbac" of data of whether the bread is toasted properl! or not.
9.#nother e<ample of an open-loop control s!stem is a
chemical addition pump with a ariable speed control
3$igure 1.124. The feed rate of chemicals that
maintain proper chemistr! of a s!stem is determined b! an operator, who is not part of the
control s!stem. If the chemistr! of the s!stem changes, the pump cannot respond b! ad+usting its feed rate 3speed4 without
operator action.
(onsider an e<ample of the use of open-loop control s!stem is in the control of the wing surfaces on a modern fighter
plane. The closed loop implementation would ma"e the control much slower. .oweer, if there is a disturbance on the
output side of the process, control action does not ta"e it into consideration. In order to remoe this limitation, feedbac"
7
has to be proided. Gpen-loop control s!stems are not as commonl! used as closed-loop control s!stems because the! are
less accurate. #ll control s!stems operated b! preset timing mechanisms are open-loop.
A%)anta'es an% %!sa%)anta'es of o,en-loo, contol s"stem:
A%)anta'es:
1. 5imple and cost effectie construction.
2. 'as! maintenance because of no comple< electronic circuits.
9. Food stabilit!.
;. Food reliabilit!.
?. Huic"er response.
D. Bo calibration problem.
E. (onenient when output is difficult to measure or economicall! not feasible.
D!sa%)anta'es:
1. 7ess accurate.
2. Aresence of non-Iinearities causes malfunctioning.
9. 5low because of manual control.
;. Gptimisation in control not possible.
?. 5!stem is affected b! internal and e<ternal disturbances.
1.1.9. Close%-loo, Contol S"stems:
1. Close%-loo, s"stem uses on a feedbac" loop to control the operation of the s!stem.
2. In closed loop or feedbac" control the controller notices what actuall! ta"es place at the output end and dries the
plant in such a wa! as to obtain the desired output.
9. (losed-loop control s!stems are the t!pe most commonl! used because the! respond and moe the loads the! are
controlling 8uic"er and with greater accurac! than open-loop s!stems.
;. The reason for 8uic"er response and greater accurac! is that an automatic feedbac" s!stem informs the input that
the desired moement has ta"en place.
The basic la!out of a feedbac" or closed-loop control s!stem is shown in $igure 1.19.
The essential elements of this s!stem are=
1. The plant is the s!stem or process through which a particular 8uantit! or condition is controlled. This is also called the
controlled s!stem.
2. Measuring unit= sensors, estimators and signal conditioners are the part of measuring unit.
9. The control elements are components needed to generate the appropriate, control signal applied to the plant. These
elements are also called the "controller.I
;. (omparison element or 'rror +unction= where the desired s!stem outputs and the measured or estimated outputs are
compared to generate the error signal. 'rror signal is the difference between the reference alue and the measured alue.
?. (orrection element or actuator= produces a change in the plant or process to correct the controlled plant.
D. The feedbac" elements are components needed to identif! the functional relationship between the feedbac" signal and
the controlled output.
*elow are seeral terms associated with the closed-loop control s!stems.
1. The reference point is an e<ternal signal applied to the summing point of the control s!stem to cause the plant to
produce a specified action. This signal represents the desired alue of a controlled ariable and is also called the
"setpoint."
2. # controlled ariable is the process ariable that is maintained at a specified alue or within a specified range. The
controlled output is the 8uantit! or condition of the plant which is controlled.
9. The feedbac" signal is a function of the output signal. It is sent to the summing point and algebraicall! added to the
reference input signal to obtain the actuating signal.
;. The actuating signal represents the control action of the control loop and is e8ual to the algebraic sum of the reference
input signal and feedbac" signal. This is also called the "error signal."
?. The manipulated ariable is the ariable of the process acted upon to maintain the plant output 3controlled ariable4 at
the desired alue. D. The disturbance is an undesirable input signal that upsets the alue of the controlled output of the
plant.
8
In this s!stem, the actual output is fed bac" and compared with the desired response. The resulting error is the basis for
the application of a control signal to the plant. The controller generates the control signal on the basis of the error. If a
Mechanical signal has to be applied to the plant, it is generated b! an actuator from the output of the controller. In this
arrangement, the control signal ta"es the actual controlled ariable into account including disturbances if an!. The plant is
drien 3b! the control signal4 until the error is reduced. This is the principle of feedbac" control in which feedbac" is
negatie.
$rom the aboe description it is clear that a closed-loop control s!stem must be capable of the following=
1. #ccepting an order that defines the desired result
2. 6etermining the present conditions b! some method of feedbac"
9. (omparing the desired result with the present conditions and obtaining a difference or an error signal
;. Issuing a correcting order. 3The error signal4 that will properl! change the e<isting conditions to the desired result
?. Gbe!ing the correcting order
E0am,les of close%-loo, contol s"stem:
$ew e<amples are alread! discussed in the preious topics such as industrial cooling control s!stem and automobile
steering control s!stem. Jet, another e<ample for closed-loop control s!stem is room heating s!stem in western countries
K$igure 1.1;L. The thermostat 3input4 calls for heat. The heating coil 3output4 produces heat and distributes it. 5ome of the
heat is "fed bac"" to the thermostat. )hen this "feedbac"" raises the temperature of the room to that of the thermostat
setting, the thermostat responds b! shutting the s!stem down until heat is again re8uired. In such a s!stem, the feedbac"
path, input to output and bac" to input, forms what is called a "closed loop."
In this s!stem, the arious
elements are=
1. Alant or process - the heating of room b! electrical coil
2. (ontrolled ariable - the room temperature
9. @eference input - the desired room temperature
;. (omparison element - the electronic logic (ircuit
?. 'rror signal - the difference between the current and re8uired temperatures
D. (ontroller - the switch
E. (orrection element- the thermostat
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8. /Measuring element- the temperature sensor attached with thermostat
A%)anta'es an% %!sa%)anta'es of close%-loo, contol s"stem:
1. (losed loop control, with the appropriate sensor, proides much greater stabilit!.
2. (losed loop control will also gie much better repeatabilit!.
9. (losed loop control oercomes temperature and h!steresis effects.
;. (losed loop control can perform a tas" faster than open-loop.
?. Food reliabilit!.
D. Gptimisation in control is possible.
D!sa%)anta'es:
1. Fenerall! closed-loop control s!stems are complicated in construction.
2. (ost of the s!stem is higher.
9. 5ometimes closed loop control s!stems ma! become unstable.
1.1.9. Comparison between Open-loop and Closed-loop Systems
# comparison would show the following differences between open loop and closed loop control s!stems.
I
1.1.1;. A&tomat!c Contol S"stems:
#n automatic control s!stem is a preset closed-loop control
s!stem that re8uires no operator action. Most of the closed-loop control s!stems are automatic in nature. This assumes the
process remains in the normal range for the control
5!stem. 1arious applications of automatic control s!stems are e<plained under.
E0am,les of a&tomat!c contol s"stem:
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e0am,le 1: A&tomat!c tan4-le)el contol s"stem:
1. $igure 1.1? shows an e<ample of automatic tan"-leel control s!stem.
2. The control s!stem maintains water leel in a storage tan".
9. The s!stem performs this tas" b! continuousl! sensing the leel
in the tan" and ad+usting a suppl! ale to add more or less
water to the tan". The desired leel is preset b! an operator, who
is not part of the s!stem.
;. The leel transducer measures the leel within the tan" b! using
float and potentiometer arrangement as shown in $igure 1.1? 3a4.
The leel transducer sends a signal representing the tan"
leel i.e. feedbac" to the leel control deice 3motor drie4.
?. This feedbac" is compared with a desired leel to produce
the re8uired control action that will position the leel
control as needed to maintain the desired leel.
D. The leel control deice computes how far to open the
suppl! ale to correct an! difference between actual and
desired tan" leels. $igure 1.1? 3b4 shows the bloc"
diagram of this s!stem representing the signal flow to
arious elements including feedbac".
In this s!stem, the arious elements
are=
Alant or process- the water storage
tan", (ontrolled ariable- the
storage tan" leel ,Manipulated
ariable - the flow rate of the water
supplied to the tan", @eference input-
the desired tan" leel ,(omparison
element - the leel controller
'rror signal- the difference between the current and re8uired water leel , (ontroller- the leel controller
(orrection element- the leel control ale, Measuring element- the leel transducer
E0am,le -: A&tomat!c tem,eat&e contol s"stem fo l&6!cat!n' o!l:
1. $igure 1.1D shows another e<ample of temperature control s!stem for lubricating oil.
2. $igure 1.1D3a4 shows a schematic diagram of the lube oil cooler and its associated temperature control s!stem.
7ubricating oil reduces friction between moing mechanical parts and also remoes heat from the components.
#s a result, the oil becomes hot.
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9. This heat is remoed from the lube oil b! a cooler to preent both brea"down of the oil and damage to the
mechanical components it seres.
;. The lube oil must be maintained within a specific operating band to ensure optimum e8uipment performance.
?. This is accomplished b! controlling the flow rate of the cooling water with a temperature control loop.
D. The temperature control loop consists of a temperature transducer, a temperature controller, and a temperature
control ale.
E. The lube oil temperature is the controlled ariable because it is maintained at a desired alue 3the setpoint4.
(ooling water flow rate is the manipulated ariable because it is ad+usted b! the temperature control ale to
maintain the lube oil temperature.
8. The temperature transducer senses the temperature of the lube oil as it leaes the cooler and sends an error signal
that is proportional to the temperature controller.
9. Be<t, the temperature controller compares the actual temperature of the lube oil to the setpoint 3the desired alue4.
10. If a difference e<ists between the actual and desired temperatures, the controller will ar! the control air signal to
the temperature control ale.
11. This causes it to moe in the direction and b! the amount needed to correct the difference.
12. $or e<ample, if the actual temperature is greater than the setpoint alue, the controller will ar! the control air
signal and cause the ale to moe in the open direction. This results in more cooling water flowing through the
cooler and lowers the temperature of the lube oil leaing the cooler.
$igure 1.1D 3b4 represents the bloc" diagram of temperature control s!stem for lubricating oil . The lube oil cooler is the
plant in this e<ample, and its controlled output is the lube oil temperature. The temperature transducer is the feedbac"
element. It senses the controlled output and lube oil temperature and produces the feedbac" signal. The feedbac" signal is
sent to the summing point to be algebraicall! added to the reference input 3the setpoint4. The actuating/ signal passes
through the two control elements= the temperature controller and the temperature control ale.
The
temperature control
ale responds
b! ad+usting the
manipulated ariable
3the cooling water flow
rate4. The lube oil
temperature changes in
response to the different water flow rate, and the control loop is complete.
E0am,le /: A&tomat!c ,os!t!on!n' s"stem fo a m!ss!le la&nche:
#nother e<ample of automatic control s!stem is automatic positioning s!stem for a missile launcher. $igure 1.1E
illustrates this s!stem with bloc" diagram. This is a feedbac" s!stem designed to position the launcher 8uite accuratel! on
commands from potentiometer. Aotentiometer sends a signal bac" to the amplifier which functions as an error detector. If
there is error e<ist, it is amplified and applied to a motor drie which ad+ust the output shaft position until it agrees with
the input shaft position and ma"es the error to :ero alue. .ere the input is the desired angular position, the output is the
actual angular position, and the control s!stem consists of the potentiometer power, amplifier and motor gearing between
the motor and missile launcher, and the missile launcher.
12
E0am,le 1: A&tomat!c
s,ee% contol s"stem
of a DC moto:
#n automatic speed control
s!stem of a 6( motor is
illustrated in $igure 1.18. The
function of this s!stem is to
maintain the output speed of
the motor relatiel! constant irrespectie of the tor8ue ariation. .ere a tachometer is used as a
transducer which transforms speed to oltage and is also used as a feedbac" element. )hen the output speed differs from
the desired speed, the comparison element deelops an error signal which ad+usts the field current of the motor in order to
restore the desired output speed.
E0am,le 2: A&tomat!c
shaft s,ee% contol
s"stem:
$igure 1.19 3a4 shows the schematic of an automatic shaft speed control s!stem.
The potentiometer is used to set the oltage to be supplied to the differential amplifier. The differential amplifier is used
as a comparison element which amplifies the feedbac" signal and compares the feedbac" alue and reference alue.
The amplified error signal is fed to the 6( motor to ad+ust the speed of the rotat ing shaft. The digital tachometer is used
as a transducer to measure the speed of the rotating shaft and it is fed bac" to the amplifier. $igure 1.19 3b4 illustrated the
13
wor"ing signal flow of this s!stem in bloc" diagram.
1.1.11. Se+&ent!al Contolles:
1. In man! situations, arious operations of a plant or process ta"es place in particular order . # se8uential control
inoles se8uential e<ecution of well defined operations that are performed in a prescribed order . 'ach operation
or actiit! is called step.
2. 'ach step ma! be an open or closed loop continuous process or een a se8uential sub-process.
9. $or e<ample, while using automatic camera the arious basic steps in se8uence are switch on, batter! chec", auto-
focus the image, auto flash on>off, ta"ing the image, saing the image and then switching off the camera.
;. 'ach step of the prescribed se8uence usuall! re8uires a switching of the e8uipment configuration and ma! be
triggered b! time or an eent 3push of a button, completion of an earlier tas" etc.4.
The se8uential controller ma! be classified into two t!pes=
1. 'ent- based and 2. Time-based.
a4 In e)ent 6ase% contolles, the ne<t eent or step cannot be performed until the preious eent or step is
completed.
b4 In time-based controllers, the series of operations are se8uenced with respect to time. 'ent-based controllers are
more reliable than time-based controllers. Traditionall! such a control could be obtained b! an electrical circuit
with sets of earn-operated switches or rela!s which are wired up in such a wa! as to gie the desired se8uence.
c4 Bow-a-da!s, microprocessor or computer controlled s!stems are used
instead of hard-wired circuits with the se8uencing being controlled b!
software programs. Industrial se8uential controllers ma! emplo! rela!
or semiconductor logic,
d4 More complicated operations are handled b! Arogrammable 7ogic
(ontrollers 3A7(s4. #s an e<ample of se8uential controllers consider
automatic domestic washing machine s!stem as shown in $igure 1.20
in which arious processes such as pre-wash c!cle, main wash c!cle,
rinse c!cle and spin c!cle are performed in a particular se8uence as
follows.
3i4 # pre-wash c!cle in which the clothes in the drum are gien a wash in cold
3ii4 # main wash c!cle wherein the clothes are washed in hot water,
3iii4 # rinse c!cle where the clothes are rinsed with cold water a number of
preset time, and
3i4 # spin c!cle in which the spinning of drum ta"es place to drain the water
from clothes and the drum.
The arious processes of the washing machine as stated aboe are gien in
the $igure 1.21.
1. These processes were carried out using cam operated switches in
earlier da!s. In cam operated switch mechanism, the contour of the
cam is in such a manner that the different switches are actiated at
different times.
2. The se8uence of instructions used was a function of set of cams
used. In modem automatic washing machine, the cam operated
switches are replaced with the microprocessor based controllers
where the .software programs are fed to perform arious se8uential
operations.
9. In addition to the microprocessor controller, arious sensors, and
driers are used to effectiel! and automaticall! carr! out these
operations.
;. The timer installed in the s!stem determines the time for which the
c!cles to be actiated.
14
?. The arious sensors such as leel sensor, position sensor, temperature sensor, speed sensor proide input signal to
the microprocessor.
The wor"ing of modern automatic washing machine is e<plained under with the help of bloc" diagram
shown in $igure 1.22.
Ste, 1.< =e- *ash c"cle:
In this c!cle an electricall! operated ale opens to allow cold water into the drum for a period of time determined b! the
output from the microprocessor. # leel sensor is used to chec" whether the drum is filled to preset leel )hen the water
reaches a preset leel the sensor gies output to the microprocessor which in turn stops the water suppl! to the drum b!
switching off the current to the ale. Bow the clothes in the drum are gien a starting wash with cold water. #fter
completing cold wash for preset time microprocessor operates the drain pump to drain the water from the drum.
Ste, -: Ma!n *ash c"cle
)hen the pre-wash I5 completed, the microprocessor actiates an electricall! operated ale to opens and allows cold
water into the drum for a period of time. The leel is sensed b! leel sensor and the water shut off when the re8uired leel
is reached in the drum. Bow the microprocessor actiates the switch to suppl! current to electric heater to heat the water
for main wash. The temperature sensor gies input to the microprocessor, after reaching particular preset temperature, to
switch off the current to the heater. Then the drum motor is actiated b! the microprocessor to the predetermined time
with slow speed and switched off after completion. $inall! the microprocessor operates the drain pump to drain the water
from the drum.
Ste, /: R!nse c"cle:
)hen the main wash is completed, the
microprocessor gies an output for the rinse
c!cle, it opens the ale to allow cold water to the drum and closes when it reaches a preset leel. 6rum motor is operated
to rotate the drum and the drain pump
is operated to drain the water after preset time. This se8uence is repeated for a number of times.
Ste, 1: S,!n c"cle:
The microprocessor switches on the drum motor and is signaled to rotate at a higher speed than the rinsing c!cle. 6ue to
the centrifugal action the water drains out from the clothes.
1.1.1-. M!co,ocesso 6ase% Contolles:
15
1. Microprocessors are essential to man! of the products we use eer! da! such as T1s, cars, radios, home
appliances and of course, computers. Microprocessor-based controllers are also called as microcontrollers.
Microcontroller is a digital integrated circuit which seres as a heart of man! modern control applications.
2. Microprocessors and microcontrollers are similar but the architecture of both differs in the applications domains.
Microprocessors are emplo!ed for high speed applications such as des"top and laptop computers where as the
micro controllers are emplo!ed in automation and control applications such as microwae oens, automatic
washing machines, dish washers, engine management s!stems, 616 pla!ers etc.
9. Microcontrollers are embedded inside some other deice 3often a consumer product4 so that the! can control the
features or actions of the product. Therefore, it is also called as embedded controller.
;. *ecause of its relatiel! low cost, it is a natural choice for design. It performs man! of the functions traditionall!
done b! simple logic circuitr!, se8uential control circuits, timers or a small microcomputer. Microcontrollers are
generall! compact in construction, small in si:e, fle<ibilit! and
consume less power.
?. # microcontroller generall! has the main (A% core, @GMI
'A@GM > @#M and some accessor! functions 3li"e timers, pulse
width modulator, #I6 conertor and I>G controllers4 all
integrated into one chip. Microcontroller is a computer on a chip
that is programmed to perform almost an! control, se8uencing,
monitoring and displa! function.
D. #nother more adaptable form of microcontroller is the
programmable logic controller 3A7(4. $igure 1.29 shows the
basic structure of a A7(. The A7( is a microprocessor based
controller consists of the (A%, memor! and I>G deices.
E. These components are integral to the A7( controller.
#dditionall! the A7( has a connection for the programming unit, and printer. The (A% used in A7( s!stem is a
standard (A% present in man! other microprocessor controlled s!stems. The choice of the (A% depends on the
process to be controlled.
8. Memor! in a A7( s!stem is diided into the program memor! which is usuall! stored in 'A@GM>@GM, and the
operating memor!. The @#M memor! is necessar! for the operation of the program and the temporar! storage of
input and output data. Input>output units are the interfaces between the internal A7( s!stems and the e<ternal
processes to be monitored and controlled.
9. Arogramming unit in the A7( s!stems is a essential component and are used onl! in the deelopment>testing stage
of a A7( program, the! are not permanentl! attached to the A7(. Arogramming unit can be a dedicated deice or
a personal computer.
E0am,le 1: A&tomat!c camea:
The modem automatic camera using film has the features of automatic
focusing and e<posure. The basic elements of the microprocessor
based control s!stem used in an automatic camera for focusing and
e<posure are shown in $igure 1.2;.
The wor"ing of auto focusing and aperture control for auto-e<posure is
e<plained as follows=
A&to foc&s!n':
The auto focusing is achieed b! using range sensor. )hen the s!stem
is switch on to actiation mode, the camera is pointed at the ob+ect to
ta"e the snap. The microprocessor ta"es the input signal from the range
sensor. This signal is processed to send output signal to the lens
position drie to moe the lens for achiee auto focusing. The
microprocessor gets the feedbac". signal about the lens position from
the range sensor which is then used to modif! the lens position to get
the desired position of focus.
A,et&e contol fo a&to-e0,os&e:
The light sensor is used to achiee aperture control for auto-e<posure. )hen the shutter switch is pressed to the initial
position the microprocessor calculates the shutter speed and aperture settings/ based on the input from light sensor. It then
16
gies output signal to the iew finder. )hen the shutter switch is pressed to the final position the microprocessor gies
signal to the aperture control drie to open the shutter to the re8uired position. The shutter is "ept open for the preset
amount of time and then closed. #fter photograph has been ta"en, the microprocessor sends an output signal to the motor
drie to adance the film for the ne<t snap.
E0am,le -: En'!ne mana'ement s"stem:
'ngine management s!stem is used in man! of the modern cars
such as *en:, Mitsubishi, $ord, and To!ota etc. This s!stem uses
man! electronic control s!stems inoling microcontrollers. The
ob+ectie of the s!stem is to ensure that the engine is. Gperated at
its optimum settings. Most of the modern medium range cars use
;-stro"e
;-c!linder 5I engine as the name implies it consists of ; c!linders,
each of which has a piston and a connecting rod which are
connected to a common cran" shaft. $igure 1.2? illustrates the
se8uence of operations of the ;-
stro"e spar" ignition engine.
1. #t the beginning of the suction stro"e, the piston is at the top most position and is read! to moe downwards. #s
the piston moes downwards, a acuum is created inside the c!linder. 6ue to this acuum, air fuel mi<ture from
the carburetor is suc"ed into the c!linder through inlet ales till the piston reaches the bottom most position.
2. 6uring the suction stro"e, e<haust ale remains in closed condition and the inlet ale remains open.
9. 6uring the compression stro"e, both the inlet and e<haust ales are in closed condition and the piston moes
upwards from bottom to top to compress the air fuel mi<ture. It leads to an increase in pressure and temperature of
the mi<ture instantaneousl!. #t the end of the stro"e, the spar" plug ignites the mi<ture which increases the
pressure of the mi<ture suddenl!.
;. The sudden rise in pressure of the mi<ture e<erts an impulse on the piston and pushes it downwards. Thus, the
piston moes from top to bottom and produces power. This stro"e is "nown as a power stro"e.
?. 6uring the e<haust stro"e, the piston moes from bottom to top, the e<haust ale is opened and the inlet ale is
closed. The burnt gases are pushed out through the e<haust ale when the piston moes upwards. Then the c!cle
is repeated.
*asic elements of an electronic engine management s!stem are shown in $igure 1.2D. The s!stem consists of man!
sensors for obsering ehicle speed, engine temperature, oil and fuel pressure, airflow etc. These sensors suppl! input
signals to the microprocessor after suitable signal conditioning and proide output signals ia driers to actuate
corresponding actuators.
1. The power and speed of the engine are controlled b! ar!ing the air-fuel mi<ture and spar" ignition timing.
2. The engine speed sensor is an inductie t!pe sensor attached with the fl! wheel. It consists of a coil and sensor
wheel.
17
9. The inductance of the coil changes as the teeth of the sensor wheel pass it and so results in an oscillating oltage.
;. The ignition coil supplies the electrical signal to the spar" plug to produce a spar" which ignites the mi<ture.
?. The feedbac" signal from a spar" plug is sent to a microprocessor to ad+ust the timing if it is wrong.
D. The solenoid drier attached to the carburetor is used to control the air-fuel mi<ture supplied to the c!linder based
on input receied from an engine temperature sensor and throttle position sensor. .ot wire anemometer is used as
a sensor for measuring mass airflow rate.
E. The basic principle is that the heated wire will be cooled as air passes oer it.
8. The amount of cooling is dependent on the mass rate of flow.
9. The engine temperature sensor is generall! a thermocouple which is made of bimetallic strip or a thermister.
10. The oil and fuel pressure sensors are diaphragm t!pe sensors. #ccording to the pressure ariation, the diaphragm
ma! contract or e<pand and actiate strain gauges which produce oltage ariation in the circuit.
11. The arious driers such as fuel in+ector driers, ignition coil driers, solenoid driers are used to actuate
actuation according to the signals b! arious sensors.
1.-. SENSORS AND TRANSDUCERS:
Sensos ae %e)!ces which produce a proportional output signal 3mechanical, electrical, magnetic, etc.4 when e<posed to
a ph!sical phenomenon 3pressure. temperature, displacement, force, etc.4. Man! deices re8uire sensors for accurate
measurement of pressure, position, speed, acceleration or olume.
Tans%&ces ae %e)!ces which conerts an input of one form of energ! into an output of another form of energ!. The
term transducer is often used s!non!mousl! with sensors. .oweer, ideall!, the word /transducer/ is used for the sensing
element itself whereas the term /sensor/ is used for the sensing element plus an! associated signal conditioning circuitr!.
T!picall!, a transducer ma! include a diaphragm which moes or ibrates in response to some form of energ!, such as
sound. 5ome common e<amples of transducers with diaphragms are microphones, loudspea"ers, thermometers, position
and pressure sensors. 5ensors are transducers when the! sense one form of energ! input and output in a different form of
energ!.
7o e0am,le, a thermocouple responds to a temperature change 3thermal energ!4 and outputs a proportional change in
electromotie force 3electrical energ!4. Therefore, a thermocouple can be called a sensor and or transducer.
$igure 1.2E illustrates a sensor with sensing process in terms of energ! conersion. The form of the output signal will
often be a oltage analogous to the input signal, though sometimes it ma! be a wae form whose fre8uenc! is
Aroportional to the input or a pulse train containing the information in some other form.
1.-.1. Class!f!cat!on of Sensos:
5ensors are generall! classified into two t!pes based on its power re8uirement=
1. ,ass!)e an% act!)e: In actie sensors, the power re8uired to produce the output is proided b! the sensed ph!sical
phenomenon itself 3'<amples= thermocouples, photooltaic cells, pie:oelectric transducers, thermometer etc.4
whereas the passie
se nsors re8uire e<ternal
power source
3'<amples= resistance
I thermometers,
potentiometric
deices, differential
transformers, strain gage etc.4. The actie sensors are also called as self-generating transducers. Aassie sensors
wor" based on one of the following principles= resistance, inductance and capacitance.
2. 5ensors can also be classified as analog or digital based on the t!pe of output signal.
18
9. #nalog sensors produce continuous signals that are proportional to the sensed parameter. These sensors generall!
re8uire analog-to-digital conersion before sending output signal to the digital controller 3'<amples=
potentiometers, 716Ts 3linear ariable differential transformers4, load cells, and thermistors, bourdon tube
pressure sensor, spring t!pe force sensors, bellows pressure gauge etc.4.
;. 6igital sensors on the other hand produce digital outputs that can be directl! interfaced with the digital controller
3'<amples= incremental encoder, photooltaic cells, pie:oelectric transducers, phototransistors, photodiodes etc.4.
Gften, the digital outputs are produced b! adding an analog-to-digital conerter to the sensing unit . If man!
sensors are re8uired, it is more economical to choose simple analog sensors and interface them to the digital
controller e8uipped with a multi-channel analog-todigital conerter.
#nother wa! of classif!ing sensor refers to as primar! or secondar! sensors.
Arimar! sensors produce the output which is the direct measure of the input phenomenon. 5econdar! sensors on the other
hand produce output which is not the direct representation of the ph!sical phenomenon. Mostl! actie sensors are referred
as primar! sensors where as the passie sensors are referred as secondar! sensors.
$urthermore, sensors are classified b! their measurement ob+ecties. Table 1.1 lists the arious t!pes of sensors for
arious measurement ob+ecties. #lthough this list is b! no means e<haustie, it coers all the basic t!pes.
Quantity to be measured Type of sensors
7inearl@otational displace met 7inearl@otational ariable differential
transformer 3716T IR16T4
Gptical encoder
'lectrical tachometer
.all effect sensor
(apacitie transducer
5train gauge elements
Interfero meter
Magnetic pic"up
F!roscope
Aro<imit! Inductance sensor
'dd ! current sensor
.all effect sensor
Ahotoelectric sensor
(apacitance sensor
$orce, tor8ue, and pressure 5train gauge
6!namometerslload cells
Aie:oelectric load cells
Tactile sensor
%ltrasonic stress sensor
1elocit!, and acceleration 'lectromagnetic sensor
%ltrasonic sensor
Tacho generators
@esistie sensor
(apacitance sensor
Aie:oelectric sensor
Ahotoelectric sensor
'lectron tube
$low Aitot tube
Grifice plate
$low no::le
1enturi tubes
@otameter
%ltrasonic flow meter
Turbine flow meter
'lectromagnetic flow meter
7eel $loat 7eel 5ensor
Aressure 7eel 5ensor @esistie sensor
1ariable (apacitance sensor
Aie:oelectric sensor
19
Ahotoelectric sensor
Temperature Thermocouples
Thermistors
Thermodiodes
thermo transistors
@esistance temperature detector 3@T64
Infrared thermograph!
7ight Ahotoresistors
Ahotodiodes
Ahoto transistors
Ahoto conductors
(harge-coupled diode
1.-.-. =efomance Tem!nolo'":
1. Stat!c chaacte!st!cs:
5tatic characteristics of an instrument are the parameters which are more or less constant or ar!ing er! slowl! with
time.
The following characteristics are static characteristics.
a) Range
'er! sensor is designed to wor" oer a specified range i.e. certain ma<imum and minimum alues. The design
ranges are usuall! fi<ed, and if e<ceeded, result in permanent damage to or destruction of a sensor. $or e<ample, a
thermocouple ma! hae a range of -100 to 12D0M(.
b) pan
It represents the highest possible input alue which can be applied to the sensor without causing unacceptabl!
large inaccurac!. Therefore, it is the difference between ma<imum and minimum alues of the 8uantit! to be
measured.
c4 5pan N Ma<imum alue of the input - Minimum alue of the input
d) !rror
'rror is the difference between a measured alue and the true input alue. 'rror N Measured alue - True input
alue
e) "ccuracy
# er! important characteristic of a sensor is accurac! which reall! means inaccurac!. Inaccurac! is measured as
a ratio of the highest deiation of a alue represented b! the sensor to the ideal alue. The accurac! of a sensor is
inersel! proportional to error, i.e., a highl! accurate sensor produces low errors.
f) ensiti#ity
5ensor sensitiit! is defined as the change in output per change in input. The factor ma! be constant oer the
range of the sensor 3linear4, or it ma! ar! 3nonlinear4.
g) $ysteresis
.!steresis is defined as the ma<imum differences in output for a gien input when this alue is approached from the
opposite direction. It is a phenomenon which shows different outputs when loading and unloading. 5impl!, h!steresis
means that both the loading and unloading cures do not coincide. $igure 1.28 shows that the dei ation of unloading from
loading condition due to h!steresis effect.
20
%) &inearity
7inearit! of a sensor refers to the output that is directl! proportional to input oer its entire range, so that the slope of a
graph of output ersus input describes a straight line. If the response of the s!stem to input # is output #, and the response
to input * is output *, then the response to input ( 3N input # O input *4 will be output ( 3 N output # O output *4.
i) Non-linearity
Bon-linearit! of a sensor refers to the output that is not proportional to input oer its entire range, so that the slope of a
graph of output ersus input describes a cure. Bon-linearit! error is the deiation of output cure from a specified
straight line as shown in $igure 1.29.
') Repeatability and reproducibility
Repeatability ma! be defined as the abilit! of the sensor to gie same output reading when the same input alue is
applied repeatedl! under the same operating conditions.
"4 Reproducibility ma! be defined as the degree of closeness among the repeated measurements of the output for the
same alue of input under the same operating conditions at different times.
l) tability
5tabilit! means the abilit! of the sensor to indicate the same output oer a period of time for a constant input.
m) Dead band(time
Dead band of a sensor is the range of input alues for which the instrument does not respond. The dead band is
t!picall! a region of input close to :ero at which the output remains :ero.
n4 Dead time is the time ta"en b! the sensor from the application of input to begin its response and change.
o) Resolution
@esolution is defined as the smallest change that can be detected b! a sensor . It can also be defined as the
minimum alue of the input re8uired to cause an appreciable change or an increment in the output.
p) )ero Drift
Drift is the ariation of change in output for a gien input oer a period of time. )hen ma"ing a measurement it is
necessar! to start at a "nown datum, and it is often conenient to ad+ust the output of the instrument to :ero at the
datum. The signal leel ma! ar! from its set :ero alue when the sensor wor"s. This introduces an error into the
measurement e8ual to the amount of ariation or drift. Pero drift ma! result from changes of temperature,
electronics stabili:ing, or aging of the transducer instrument are the parameters which are ar!ing with time.
2.The following characteristics are d!namic characteristics.
21
*) Response time
The time ta"en b! a sensor to approach its true output when sub+ected to a step input is sometimes referred to as
its response time. It is more usual, howeer, to 8uote a sensor as
haing a flat response between specified limits of fre8uenc!.
This is "nown as the fre8uenc! response, and it indicates that if
the sensor is sub+ected to sinusoidall! oscillating input of
constant amplitude, the output will faithfull! reproduce a signal
proportional to the input.
r) Time constant
It is the time ta"en b! the s!stem to reach D9.2Q of its final
output signal amplitude i.e. D2.9Q of response time. # s!stem
haing smaller time constant reaches its final output faster than
the one with larger time constant. Therefore possesses higher
speed of response.
s4 @ise time=
It is the time ta"en b! the s!stem to reach D9.2Q of its final
output signal.
t4 5etting time
It is the time ta"en b! a sensor to be within a close range of its
stead! state alue.
1.-./. D!s,lacement Sensos:
6isplacement sensors are those sensors which measures the ariation
of position of a bod!. 6isplacement sensors are designed to gie a
8uantitatie measurement of the displacement being measured.
Measurement of displacement is the basis of measuring position,
pro<imit!, elocit!, acceleration, stress, force, pressure, thic"ness etc. The arious displacement sensors commonl! used
in mechatronics s!stems are=
1. Aotentiometer displacement sensors
2. 5train gauge .displacement sensors
9. (apacitie displacement sensors
;. Inductie displacement sensors 3716T4
1.-./.1. =otent!omete %!s,lacement sensos:
Aotentiometer is a primar! sensor which conerts the linear motion or the angular motion of a shaft into changes
in resistance, It is a t!pe of resistie displacement sensor. 7inear potentiometers are sensors that produce a
resistance output proportional to the linear displacement or position./ 7inear potentiometers are essentiall!
ariable resistors whose resistance is aried b! the moement of a slider oer a resistance element. @otar!/
potentiometers are sensors that produce a resistance output proportional to the angular displacement or position.
The! can be either wire-wound or conductie plastic, and either rectangular or c!lindrical.
$igure 1.90 illustrates the basic principle of a linear potentiometer. The linear potentiometer emplo!s an
electricall! conductie linear slide member 3also called wiper4 connected to a ariable wire wound resistor
3winding4 that changes resistance to be e8uated to the linear position of the deice that is monitored. #s the
sliding contact moes along the winding, the resistance changes in linear relationship with the distance from
one end of the potentiometer. To measure displacement, a potentiometer is t!picall! wired as a "oltage
diider" so that the output oltage is proportional to the distance traeled b! the wiper. # "nown oltage is applied to
the resistor ends. The contact is attached to the moing ob+ect of interest. The output oltage at the contact is proportional
to the displacement. The resolution is defined b! the number of turns per unit distance, and loading effects of the oltage
diider circuit should be considered.
# rotar! potentiometer emplo!s a rotar! slide member connected to a ariable wire wound resistor that changes resistance
to be e8uated to the angular position of the deice that is monitored 3$igure 1.914. Gther principles of operations are same
as that of linear potentiometer.
22
The potentiometer can be used as a oltage diider to obtain a manuall! ad+ustable output oltage at the slider 3wiper4
from a fi<ed input oltage applied across the two ends of the resistance wire winding.
$igure 1.92 3a4 and tb4 shows a potentiometer circuit with a resistie load and circuit with e8uialent fi<ed resistors
respectiel!. The oltage across R& can be calculated b!=
Gne of the most common uses for modern low-power potentiometers is as audio control deices. *oth sliding pots 3also
"nown as faders4 and rotar! potentiometers commonl! called "nobs4 are regularl! used to ad+ust loudness, fre8uenc!
attenuation and other characteristics of audio signals.
The following factors to be considered while selecting the potentiometers=
1. Gperating temperature
2. 5hoc" and ibration
9. .umidit!
;. (ontamination and seals
?. 7ife c!cle
D. 6ither
A%)anta'es an% %!sa%)anta'es of ,otent!ometes
A%)anta'es:
1. 'as! to use
2. 7ow cost
9. .igh-amplitude output signal
;. Aroen technolog!
?. @ugged construction
D. 1er! high electrical efficienc!
E. #ailabilit! in different forms, ranges and si:es
D!sa%)anta'es:
1. 7imited band width
2. $rictional loading
9. Inertial loading
;. 7imited life due to wear
1.-./.-. Sta!n 'a&'e %!s,lacement sensos:
1. The strain gauge displacement sensor consists of a structure attached with the strain gauge that elasticall! deforms
when sub+ected to a displacement as shown in $igure 1.99.
23
2. 5train gauge is attached to the ob+ect b! a suitable adhesie. #s the member is stressed, the resulting strain
deforms the strain gauge attached with the structure, this causes an increase in resistiit! of the gauge which
produces electrical signal proportional to the deformation.
9. The change of resistance is er! small and is usuall! measured using a )heatstone bridge circuit where the strain
gauge is connected into the circuit with a combination of four actie gauges for full bridge, two gauges for half
bridge, or a
;. 5ingle gauge for Huarter *ridge. In the half and 8uarter circuits, the bridge is completed with precision resistors.
?. $igure 1.99 3b4 shows the basic configuration, where the strain gauge is one leg of the bridge i.e. 8uarter bridge.
#s stress is applied to the bonded strain gauge, a resistie change ta"es place and unbalances the )heatstone
bridge. The change in the resistance of a bonded strain gauge is usuall! less than 0.?Q.
D. This changes of the resistance per unit resistance +,IR) is proportional to the strain '. It is gien b! the relation,
E. # wide ariet! of gauge si:es and grid shapes are
aailable. The metallic strain gauge consists of a er!
fine wire or metallic foil arranged in a grid pattern.
8. The grid pattern ma<imi:es the amount of
metallic wire or foil sub+ect to strain in the parallel
direction. The cross sectional area of the grid is
minimi:ed to reduce the effect of shear strain and
Aoisson strain.
9. The grid is bonded to a thin bac"ing, called the carrier.
which is attached directl! to the test specimen.
10. The ma+orit! of strain gauges are bonded foil types-
aailable in a wide choice of shapes and si:es to
suit a ariet! of applications and t!pical
e<amples are shown in $igure 1.9;.
11. The! consist of a pattern of resistie foil which is
mounted on a bac"ing material. The! operate on the
principle that as the foil is sub+ected to stress, the
resistance of the foil changes in a defined wa!.
12. *onded foil strain gauges can be as small as 1D mm2 and hae a strain sensitiit! or "gauge factor" of 2. .ire
wound gauges are made of round wire of copper nic"el, chrome nic"el or nic"el iron allo!s, about 0.002? in
diameter.
19. The length of wire is 2? mm or less. $igure 1.9? shows the e<ample of wire wound strain gauges.
24
The enironmental considerations focus mainl! on
the temperature of the gauge. 5ince the resistance is
a function of temperature the strain gauges are
susceptible to ariations in temperature. Thus,
if it is "nown that the temperature of the gauge will
ar! due to an! influence, temperature
compensation is re8uired in order to ensure that the force measurement is accurate.
1.-././. Ca,ac!t!)e %!s,lacement sensos:
# transducer that uses capacitance ariation can be used to measure displacement. 'lastic deflection of a
membrane due to the applied force is detected b! a capacitance ariation. # highl! sensitie displacement and
pro<imit! transducers can be constructed because the capacitie transducer senses er! small deflections
accuratel!. (apacitie sensors can directl! sense a ariet! of things such as motion, chemical composition,
electric field and indirectl! sense man! other ariables which can be conerted into motion or dielectric
constant, such as pressure, acceleration, fluid leel, and fluid composition.
# capacitance sensor consists of two metal plates separated b! an air gap. The capacitance ( between terminals
is gien b! the e<pression=
6ifferent forms of capacitie sensor are shown in $igure 1.9D, where one plate of the capacitor inside a probe
which is sealed in an insulator and the e<ternal target ob+ect forms the other plate of the capacitor.
The operating principle is based on either the geometr! 3i.e., the distance d)- or capacitance ariations in the
presence of conductie or dielectric materials. 6istance ariation of parallel plates K$igure 1.9D 3a4L is often
used for pro<imit! or motion detection if the distance change is less than the plate si:e. Transerse displacement
is easil! detected b! oerlap or underlap area of the parallel plates K$igure 1.9D 3b4L. In the distance ariation
motion detectors, when displacement increases to the dimension of the plates, measurement accurac! suffers
from anishing signal leel. #rea ariation is then preferred. #s these plates slide transersel!, capacitance changes
linearl! with motion. Huite long e<cursions are possible with good linearit!, but the gap needs to be small and well-
controlled.
%sed as pro<imit! sensors, capacitie sensors can detect metallic or nonmetallic ob+ects, li8uids, or an! ob+ect with a
dielectric constantR greater than air. The dielectric ob+ect is "ept between the plates as shown in $igure 1.9D 3c4. #s the
dielectric ob+ect moes between the plates, the capacitance changes linearl! with motion.
25
)hile using two plates capacitie sensor, there is a non-linear
relationship between displacement and the change in capacitance e<ist.
This can be oercome b! using three plates capacitie sensor, called
pus%-pull displacement sensor. In this t!pe, the upper pair of plates
forms one capacitor and the lower pair forms another capacitor as shown
in $igure 1.9E. )hen the central plate moes upward, the separation of
upper pair decreases and the separation of lower pair increases.
Therefore, the capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor is gien b!
Gne form of capacitie pro<imit! sensor is shown in $igure 1.98, where one plate of a capacitor is connected to the
central conductor of a coa<ial cable, while the other plate is formed b! a target ob+ect. The operating principle is based on
either the geometr! 3i.e., the distance d4, or capacitance ariations in the presence of conductie or dielectric materials.
A,,l!cat!ons:
This sensor can be emplo!ed for measuring position, displacement, gauging, or an! other similar parameter in a machine
tool.
A%)anta'es:
1. '<cellent linearit! oer entire d!namic range when area is changed 3since stra! electric fields are small4
2. .igh sensitiit!.
9. (apacitie displacement detectors can detect 10-1; m displacements with good stabilit!, high speed,
and wide e<tremes of enironment.
;. The s!stem responds to aerage displacement of a large area of a moing electrode .
?. $reedom of electrode 3plate4 materials and geometr! for demanding enironments and applications.
D. $ractional change in capacitance can be made large.
E. (apacitie sensors can be made to respond to displacements in one direction onl!.
8. The forces e<erted b! the measuring apparatus are electrostatic and usuall! small enough so that the!
can be disregarded.
9. (apacitors are noiseless.
10. .igh accurac! and resolution. # resolution of 2.?<lG-9 can be obtained.
D!sa%)anta'es:
1. The performance of these sensors is li"el! affected due to the enironmental conditions such as dust,
moisture, ibration etc.
2. The metallic parts of the capacitor must be insulated from each other.
26
1.-./.1. In%&ct!)e %!s,lacement senso:
1. The most widel! used ariable-inductance displacement transducer in industr! is 716T 37inear
1ariable 6ifferential Transformer4.
2. It is a passie t!pe sensor. It is an electro-mechanical deice designed to produce an #( oltage output
proportional to the relatie displacement of the transformer and the ferromagnetic core.
9. The ph!sical construction of a t!pical 716T consists of a moable core of magnetic material and three
coils comprising the static transformer as shown in $igure 1.99.
;. Gne of the three coils is the primar! coil or e<citation coil and the other two are secondar! coils or pic"-
up coils.
?. #n #( current 3t!picall! 1 ".:4 is passed through the primar! coil, and an #( oltage is induced in the
secondar! coils.
D. The magnetic core inside the coil winding assembl! proides
the magnetic flu< path lin"ing the Arimar! and secondar! (oils.
E. )hen the magnetic core is at the centre position or null position
the output oltages are e8ual and opposite in polarit! and
therefore, the output oltage is :ero.
8. The Bull Aosition of an 716T is e<tremel! stable and
repeatable. )hen the magnetic core is displaced from the Bull
Aosition, a certain number of coil windings are affected b! the
pro<imit! of the sliding core and thus an electromagnetic
imbalance occurs.
9. This imbalance generates a differential #( output oltage
across the secondar! coil which is linearl! proportional to the
direction and magnitude of the displacement.
10. The output oltage to displacement plot is a straight line within a specified range. *e!ond the nominal range, the
output deiates from a straight line in a gentle cure as shown in $igure 1.;0.
The Rotat!onal .a!a6le D!ffeent!al Tansfome #R.DT$ is used to measure rotational angles and operates
under the same principles as the 716T sensor.
)hereas the 716T uses a c!lindrical iron core, the @16T uses a rotar! ferromagnetic core. # schematic of @16T is
shown in $igure 1.;1.
Calc&lat!on of o&t,&t )olta'e:
. Motion of a magnetic core changes the mutual inductance of two
secondar! coils relatie to a primar! coil
The alue of "l and "2 depend on the amount of coupling between
the primar! and the secondar! coils, which is proportional to the
position of the coil.
)hen the coil is in the central position, "lN"2
1out N 11-12 N 0
Aositie or negatie displacements are determined from the phase of
1out.
A,,l!cat!ons:
716T can be used to measure the displacement, deflection,
position and profile of a wor"piece.
A%)anta'es:
1. @elatie low cost due to its popularit!.
27
2. 5olid and robust, capable of wor"ing in a wide ariet! of enironments.
9. Bo friction resistance, since the iron core does not contact the transformer coils, resulting in an infinite 3er!
long4 serice life.
;. .igh signal to noise ratio and low output impedance.
?. Begligible h!steresis.
D. 5hort response time, onl! limited b! the inertia of the iron core and the rise time of the amplifiers.
E. Bo permanent damage to the 716T if measurements e<ceed the designed range.
8. It can operate oer a temperature range of - 2D?M( to D00M(.
9. .igh sensitiit! up to ;0 1>mm.
10. 7ess power consumption 3less than 1)4
D!sa%)anta'es:
1. The performance of these sensors is li"el! affected b! ibration etc.
2. @elatiel! large displacements are re8uired for appreciable output.
9. Bot suitable for fast d!namic measurements because of mass of the core.
;. Inherentl! low in power output.
?. 5ensitie to stra! magnetic fields but shielding is not possible.
1.-.1. =os!t!on Sensos:
Aosition sensors are those sensors which determine the position of the ob+ect of interest with reference to some
reference point.
Aosition sensors can be either linear or angular. 6ifferent t!pes
of sensors commonl! used for position measurement are=
1. Aotentiometer
2. (apacitie sensors 3for linear position4
9. Inductie position sensors 3716T4
;. .all effect sensors
?. Ahotoelectric sensor
D. Gptical encoder
The first three t!pes are alread! discussed under displacement sensors.
The other t!pes are discussed under.
1.2.4.1. Hall effect sensors:
1. .all 'ffect sensor is a t!pe of magnetic sensor.
2. # .all 'ffect sensor is a transducer that aries its output
oltage in response to changes in magnetic field.
9. In 18E9 'dwin .all discoered that= "when a conductor or
semiconductor with current flowing in one direction was
introduced perpendicular to a magnetic field a oltage could be measured at right angles to the current path". The
oltage is directl! proportional to the number of flu< lines passing through the conductor, the angle at which the!
pass through it, and the amount of current used.
;. )hen a current-carr!ing conductor is placed into a magnetic field, a oltage will be generated perpendicular to
both the current and the field. This principle is "nown as the .all 'ffect.
?. $igure 1.;2 illustrates the basic principle of the .all 'ffect. It shows a thin sheet of semiconducting material 3.all
element4 through which a current is passed.
D. The output connections are perpendicular to the direction of current. )hen no magnetic field is present as shown
in $igure 1.;2 3a4, current distribution is uniform and no potential difference is seen across the output.
E. )hen a perpendicular magnetic field is present, as shown in $igure 1.;2 3b4, a force is e<erted on the current.
8. This force disturbs the current distribution, resulting in a potential difference 3oltage4 across the output . This
oltage is the .all oltage 31.4.
28
The .all oltage is proportional to the ector cross product of the current
3I4 and the magnetic flu< densit! +/).
where &. is the .all coefficient
t is the thic"ness of the .all element,
The .all element is the basic magnetic field sensor. It re8uires signal
conditioning to ma"e the output usable for most applications. The signal
conditioning electronics needed are amplifier stage and temperature
compensation. 1oltage regulation is needed when operating from an
unregulated suppl!. $igure 1.;9 illustrates a basic .all 'ffect
sensor.
The .all effect sensor can also be used to measure fuel leel in a
fuel tan" 3$igure 1.;;4. The float has buo!anc! in the fuel. It floats
up as the fuel becomesR more. The gap between the magnet and hall
sensor will changed. It results in the changing of the output. The springs allow the float to moe onl! erticall!.
A,,l!cat!ons:
1. .all sensors are used for pro<imit! switching, positioning, speed detection, and current sensing applications.
2. .all sensors are commonl! used to time the speed of wheels and shafts, such as for internal combustion engine
ignition timing or tachometers.
9. The! are used in brushless 6( electric motors to detect the position of the permanent magnet.
;. T!pical applications are the detection of a moing part, replacing a mechanical limit switch. #nother common use
is in inde<ing of rotational or translational motion.
A%)anta'es:
1. @elatie low cost compared to electromagnetic switches.
2. .igh fre8uenc! operation is possible.
9. Multiple purpose usage as displacement, position and pro<imit! sensors.
;. 5olid and robust, capable of wor"ing in a seere enironmental conditions as the! are immune to humidit!
contamination.
?. Bo contact bounce problem.
D!sa%)anta'es:
5ensor becomes wea" during offset effects caused b! misalignment of
contact in .all element and pie:o-resistie effects.
1.-.1.-. =hotoelect!c senso:
1. # p%otoelectric sensor is a deice used to detect the distance,
absence, or presence of an ob+ect b! using a light transmitter, often
infrared or 7'6, and a photoelectric receier.
2. Ahotoelectric sensors respond to the presence of all t!pes of
ob+ects, be it larger, small, transparent or opa8ue, shin! or dull,
static or motion.
9. The! can sense ob+ects from distance of a few mm up to 100 m.
;. Ahotoelectric sensors use an emitter unit to produce a beam of light
that is detected b! a receier. )hen the beam is bro"en b! an!
e<ternal ob+ect, a presence is detected.
?. The emitter light source is light - emitting diodes 37'64 that emit light when current is applied.
D. The photo detector or receier contains a phototransistor that produces a current when light falls upon it.
There are two modes of detection for photoelectric sensors.
29
1. Through-beam
2. @etroreflectie
# t%roug% beam arrangement consists of separate emitter and
receier elements located opposite each other as shown in
$igure 1.;?. Therefore the light emitted b! the emitter falls
directl! on the receier. In this mode, an ob+ect is detected
when the light beam is bloc"ed from getting to the receier
from the transmitter.
# retroreflecti#e arrangement places the transmitter and receier at the same location and uses a reflector to bounce the
light beam bac" from the transmitter to the receier as shown in $igure 1.;D. #n ob+ect is sensed when the beam is
interrupted and fails to reach the receier.
The detecting range of a photoelectric sensor is its 0field of #iew0- or the ma<imum distance the sensor can retriee
information from, minus the minimum distance. # minimum detectable ob+ect is the smallest ob+ect the sensor can detect.
More accurate sensors can often hae minimum detectable ob+ects of minuscule si:e.
1.-.1./. O,t!cal enco%e:
1. #n optical encoder is a deice that conerts motion into electrical pulses.
2. These electrical pulses are encoded into re8uired form for the measurement of displacement. 'ncoders hae both
linear and rotar! configurations, but the most common
t!pe is rotar! which is discussed here.
9. Gptical encoders are composed of a glass or plastic
code disc with a photographicall! deposited radial
pattern organi:ed in trac"s, a photoemitter and a photo
detector 3$igure 1.;E4.
;. T!picall! there is also a stationar! mas", with the same
pattern as the rotating codewheel, in the light path from
the emitters to the detectors. #s radial lines in each
trac" interrupt the beam between a photoemitter-
detector pair when the disc rotates, digital pulses are
produced.
There are two basic configurations for rotar! optical encoders, the incremental encoder and the absolute encoder.
Incemental enco%e:
1. Incremental rotar! encoders are preferred when low cost
is important, or when onl! relatie position is needed.
2. The incremental encoder, sometimes called a elat!)e
enco%e,
9. consists of two trac"s and two sensors whose out puts are
called channels # and *, #s the shaft rotates, pulse
trains occur on these channels at a fre8uenc!
proportional to the shaft speed, and the phase
relationship between the signals !ields the direction of
rotation.
;. Incremental encoders often hae a third channel, called
inde< channel, with a single segment slot or reference
!ields one pulse per reolution which is useful in
counting full reolutions.
?. It is also useful as a reference to define a home base or
:ero position.
D. The code disc pattern and output signals #, * and Inde< are illustrated in $igure 1.;8.
30
E. *! counting the number of pulses and "nowing the number of radial lines in the disc, the rotation of the shaft can
be measured.
8. The direction of rotation is determined b! the phase relationship of the # and * pulse trains, i.e.,
9. )hich signal leads the other. $or e<ample, a rising edge of # while *
N
1 ma! indicate countercloc"wise
rotation, while a rising edge of # while * N 0 indicates cloc"wise rotation. The signals from the two channels are
a 1>; c!cle out of phase with each other and are "nown as 8uadrature signals.
10. # drawbac" of the incremental encoder is that there I5 no
wa! to "now the absolute position of the shaft at power-up
without rotating it until the inde< pulse is receied. #lso, if
pulses are momentaril! garbled due to electrical noise, the
estimate of the shaft rotation is lost until the inde< pulse is
receied. # solution to these problems is the absolute
encoder.
A6sol&te enco%e:
1. #n absolute encoder uses k photo interrupters and k code
trac"s to produce a k - bit binar! word uni8uel! representing
2
"
different orientations of the disc, giing an angular
resolution of 9D0M>2
"
3$igure 1.;94.
2. $or e<ample, if there are 8 trac"s, the encoder is capable of producing 2?D distinct positions or an angular
resolution of 1.;0D 39D0>2?D4 degrees. #bsolute encoders contain multiple detectors and up to 20 trac"s of
segment patterns.
9. %nli"e an incremental encoder, for each rotar! encoder position, there is a different binar! output. Therefore,
shaft position is absolutel! determined.
;. The most common t!pes of numerical encoding used in the absolute encoder are gra! and binar! codes.
?. The radial patterns on the trac"s are arranged so that as the encoder rotates in one direction, the binar! word
increments or decrements according to a binar! code.
D. #lthou
g h
natural
binar!
code is
a
possibilit!, the Fra! code is a more common solution. )ith
natural binar! code, incrementing b! one ma! change man! or all of the bits.
E. )ith the Fra! code, onl! one bit changes as the number increments or decrements. The gra! code and natural
binar! code disc trac" patterns for a simple ;-trac" 3;-bit4 encoder are illustrated in $igures 1.?0 and 1.?1.
8. The linear patterns and associated timing diagrams are what the photo detectors sense as the code disc circular
trac"s rotate with the shaft.
31
The gra! code is designed so that onl! one trac" 3one bit4 will
change state for each count transition, unli"e the binar! code
where multiple trac"s 3bits4 change at certain count
transitions. This effect can be seen clearl! in Table 1.2. $or
the gra! code, the uncertaint! during a transition is onl! one
count, unli"e with the binar! code, where the uncertaint!
could be multiple counts.
1.-.2. =o0!m!t" Sensos:
1. 1ro2imity sensors are used to determine the presence 3as opposed to actual range4 of nearb! ob+ects.
2. The! are essentiall! non contact two state deices which gie n-off outputs.
32
9. # pro<imit! sensor often emits an electromagnetic field or beam and loo" for changes in the field. The ob+ect
being sensed is often referred to as the
pro<imit! sensor/s target.
;. 6ifferent pro<imit! sensor targets demand
different sensors.
?. $or e<ample, a capacitie or photoelectric
sensor might be suitable for a plastic target, an
inductie pro<imit! sensor re8uires a metal
target.
5uch pro2imity sensors are classified into seeral t!pes
in accordance with the specific properties used to
initiate a switching action=
I
1. Gptical encoders
2. .all effect sensors
9. (apacitie sensors
;. 'dd! current pro<imit! sensors
?. Inductie pro<imit! sensor
D. Aneumatic pro<imit! sensor
E. Aro<imit! switches
The first three t!pes are alread! discussed under displacement and position sensors. The other t!pes are discussed under.
1.-.2.1. E%%" c&ent ,o0!m!t" sensos:
1. 'dd! current pro<imit! sensors detect the pro<imit! or presence of a target b! sensing the magnetic fields
generated b! a reference coil.
2. 'dd! current sensors detect ferrous and nonferrous metals. The! can be used as pro<imit! sensors to detect
9. presence of a target, or can be configured to measure the position or displacement of a target.
;. #n edd! current is a local electric current induced in a conducti e material b! the magnetic field produced b! the
sensor or actie coil. This is sensed b! a reference coil to create an output signal.
?. )hen the distance between the target and the probe changes, the impedance of the coil changes correspondingl!.
This change in impedance can be detected b! a carefull! arranged bridge circuit as shown in $igure 1.?2.
The edd! currents are confined to shallow depths near the conductie target surface. Their effectie depth is gien b!.
The target material must be at least three times thic"er than the effectie depth of the edd! currents to ma"e the transducer
successful. This is because the transducer assumes that the edd! currents are locali:ed near the surface of a semi-infinite
solid, and the actual edd! current amplitude decreases 8uadraticall! with distance.
A%)anta'es:
1. (ompact in si:e .
33
2. 7ow cost
9. .igh reliabilit!
;. .igh sensitiit! for small displacement.
1.-.2.-. In%&ct!)e ,o0!m!t" senso:
1. Inductie pro<imit! sensors are toda! the most commonl! emplo!ed industrial sensors for detection of ferrous
metal ob+ects oer short distances.
2. Inductie pro<imit! sensors operate under the electrical principle of inductance.
9. Inductance is the phenomenon where a fluctuating current, which b! definition has a magnetic component,
induces an electromotie force 3emf4 in a target ob+ect.
;. #n inductie pro<imit! sensor has four
components, the induction coil,
oscillator, detection circuit and output
circuit as shown in $igure 1.?9.
?. The oscillator generates a fluctuating
magnetic field the shape of a doughnut
around the winding of the coil that
locates in the deice/s sensing face.
D. )hen a metal ob+ect moes into the
magnetic field of detection, edd!
circuits build up in the metallic ob+ect.
E. These edd! currents produce a secondar! magnetic field that interacts with field of the probe, thereb! loading the
probe oscillator. The effectie impedance of the probe coil changes, resulting in an oscillator fre8uenc! shift 3or
amplitude change4.
8. The sensor/s detection circuit monitors the oscillator/s strength and triggers an output signal from the output
circuitr! proportional to the sensed gap between probe and target.
1.-.2./. =ne&mat!c ,o0!m!t" senso:
1. Aneumatic pro<imit! sensor, as shown in $igure 1.?;, uses the principle of a gas no::le to detect the presence of
an ob+ect without an! mechanical contact.
2. 7ow pressure air is supplied through annular conerging no::le surrounding a sensing hole, called output port.
9. Bo::le ma! also be of the conerging-dierging t!pe, if desired. 5ensing hole communicates through hose with
switch chamber,
;. which contains an elastic-diaphragm switch, or other t!pe of pressure- sensitie switch.
?. Bo::le conerts some of the energ! of the suppl! air into "inetic energ!. #s the air stream from no::le impinges
upon an ob+ect to be sensed, a turbulence and bac"
pressure is created.
D. This action then increases the static pressure at
output port, and actiates switch.
1.-.2.1. =o0!m!t" s*!tches:
Aro<imit! switches are used to detect the presence of an
ob+ect. These can be achieed b! the presence of an ob+ect in
order to gie output which is either on or off. These can be
classified in to two t!pes=
3i4 Bon-contact t!pe
3ii4 (ontact t!pe.
The non-contact t!pe switches detect the presence of an
ob+ect without ph!sical contact. '<amples= Magnetic reed
switch, photoelectric sensor, inductie pro<imit! sensor. Ahotoelectric and inductie pro<imit! sensors are alread!
discussed in the preious articles.
Ma'net!c ee% s*!tch:
34
The simplest form of magnetic pro<imit! sensor is the magnetic reed switc%- schematicall! illustrated in $igure 1.??. #
pair of ferromagnetic reeds is cantileered from opposite ends of a glass tube, arranged such that their tips oerlap slightl!
without touching. )hen a magnetic is brought close to the switch, the subse8uent attractie magnetic force pulls the
fle<ible reed elements together to ma"e electrical contact.
@eed switches are faster, more reliable, and produce less arcing than conentional electromechanical switches. 5ome
problems can be encountered with this t!pe of sensor due to contact bounce, structural /ibration, and pitting of the
mating surfaces in the case of inductie or capacitie loads.
These ine<pensie and robust deices are commonl!
emplo!ed as door- and window-closure sensors in securit!
applications.
(ontact t!pe switches are mechanical deices that detect the
presence of an ob+ect and gie output which is either on or
off. '<amples= 7imit switch, micro switch.
Limit switch:
1. The function of a limit switch is to produce
electrical signals corresponding to the position of
the mechanical member to be detected.
2. 7imit switches hae operating heads which
incorporate some t!pe of leer arm or plunger mechanism= the selection of which is application dependent.
9. )hen a limit switch has positie opening of the normall! closed contact it is t!picall! suitable for use in machine
safet! applications.
;. # m!co s*!tch is a generic term used to refer to a small electrical switch that is able to be actuated b! er! little
ph!sical force.
?. Internall! a stiff metal strip must be bent to actiate the switch. This produces a er! distinctie clic"ing sound
and a er! crisp feel. )hen pressure is remoed the metal strip springs bac" to its original state.
D. The defining feature of micro switches is that a/ relatiel! small moement at the actuator button produces a
relatie large moement at the electrical contacts, which occurs at high speed 3regardless of the speed of
actuation4.
E. The! are er! common due to their low cost and e<treme durabilit!, t!picall! greater than 1 million c!cles and up
to 10 million c!cles for hea! dut! models. (ommon applications of micro switches include computer mouse
buttons and arcade game +o!stic"s and buttons.
8. $igure 1.?D shows e<amples of different wa!s that a micro switch can be actiated.
1.-.3. .eloc!t" an% Mot!on Sensos:
1elocit! and motion sensors are used to monitor linear and angular
elocities and detect motion. Motion sensors are commonl! used in
high precision s!stems to monitor the linear or rotar! moement of an
ob+ect with respect to another ob+ect.
Motion sensors are used in securit! s!stems to detect moement in a
monitored space. Motion sensors are used to detect the presence of
people in a room for the purpose of automaticall! turning on lights or
other deices. The arious elocit! and motion sensors commonl! used
are=
1. Incremental encoder
2. Tachogenerator
9. A!roelectric sensors
1.-.3.1. Incemental enco%e:
Incremental encoders, described in under position sensors 3refer page 1.D;4, can be used in for the measurement of angular
elocit!.
35
1.-.3.-. Tacho'eneato:
1. Tachogenerators or tachometers are used to measure the angular elocit! of a rotating shaft or ob+ect.
2. #n electromechanical generator is a deice capable of producing electrical power from mechanical energ!,
usuall! the turning of a shaft.
9. # generator speciall! designed and constructed for
shaft speed measurement is called a tachomete o
tacho'eneato.
;. Tachometers operate on the principle that a drien
motor 3a motor operated as a generator4 produces a
oltage that is proportional to the angular elocit!
of the motor shaft.
?. The proportionalit! constant, &, that is used to
translate mechanical motion into oltage has t!pical
alues of 1 to 90 olts per 1000 @AM.
D. Gne form of tachogenerator is ariable reluctance
tachogenerator. It consists of a ferromagnetic
toothed rotor mounted on the shaft whose speed is to be measured as shown in $igure 1.?E.
E. # magnetic pic" up consists of a small permanent magnet with a coil wound around it. Magnetic pic" up
arrangement is placed near the toothed rotor. #s the rotor rotates, the reluctance of the air gap between pic"up and
the toothed rotor changes and the rise in e.m.f. is induced in the pic"up coil.
8. The output is in the form of pulses and wae shapes. *! counting the number of pulses in a particular time
interal the angular elocit! can be calculated b! using the
following e8uation=
9. Tachogenerators can also indicate the direction of rotation b! the
polarit! of the output oltage.
10. )hen a permanent-magnet st!le 6( generator/s rotational
direction is reersed, the polarit! of its output oltage will
switch. In measurement and control s!stems where directional
indication is needed, tachogenerators proide an eas! wa! to
determine that. Tachogenerators are fre8uentl! used to measure
the speeds of electric motors, engines, and the e8uipment the! power= cone!or belts, machine tools, mi<ers, fans,
etc.
1.-.3./. ="oelect!c sensos:
1. The p!roelectric sensor is made of a cr!stalline material that
generates a surface electric charge when e<posed to heat source.
2. '<ample of cr!stalline material is lithium tantalite. )hen this
t!pe of material is heated below a temperature "nown as (urie
point, a large spontaneous electrical polari:ation is e<hibited
from the material in response to a temperature change.
9. The change in polari:ation is obsered as an electrical oltage signal if electrodes are placed on opposite faces of
a thin slice of the material. $igure 1.?8 3a4 shows that the charges in the p!roelectric material are balanced if there
is no infrared radiation from the heat source falls on the materials surface.
;. )hen the material is e<posed to the infrared radiation from the heat source the charges in the p!roelectric
material are not balance and hence there is some e<cess charge in the material as shown in $igure 1.?8 3b4.
36
?. The design can be thought of as a t!pical form of a capacitor circuit. $igure 1.?9 shows the e8uialent circuit of a
p!roelectric sensor. It essentiall! consists of a capacitor charged b! the e<cess charge with a resistance @ to
represent the internal lea"age combined with the input resistance of an e<ternal circuit.
D. $or detection of a human motion or intrusion in the countr! borders, the p!roelectric are sensors used. In such
applications, the sensing element has to differentiate between general bac"ground heat radiation and a moing
heat source.
E. Therefore, a single p!roelectric sensor is not capable to use and dual pyroelectric sensors are used as shown in
$igure 1.D0.
8. In this dual p!roelectric sensor, the sensing element has the one front electrode and two bac" electrodes. )hen
two sensors are connected, both sensors receie the same heat signal and their outputs are cancelled.
9. )hen a heat source moes from its position the heat radiation moes from one of the sensing elements to the
other. Then the current alternates in one direction first and then reersed to the other direction. )hen the amount
of infrared radiation from heat source stri"ing the cr!stal, the electric charge also changes and can then be
measured with a sensitie $'T deice built into the sensor.
1.-.8. 7oce Sensos :
1. $orce sensors are used in man! mechanical e8uipments and aggregates for an accurate determination of forces
applied in the s!stem. The force sensor outputs an electrical signal corresponding to the force applied.
2. $orce sensors are commonl! used in man! applications such as automotie bra"es, suspension, transmission,
speed control, lifts, aircrafts, digital weighing s!stems etc.
9. Most of the force sensor uses displacement as the measure of the force. The simplest form of force sensor is the
spring balance in which a force is applied to the one end of the spring causes displacement of the spring.
;. This displacement is the measure of the force applied. # common force sensor is a strain gauge load cell which is
e<plained under.
1.-.8.1. Sta!n 'a&'e loa% cell:
1. # load cell is an electromechanical transducer that conerts
load acting on it into an analog electrical signal.
2. 7oad cells proide accurate measurement of compressie and
tensile loads. 7oad cells commonl! function b! utili:ing an
internal strain gauge that measure deflection. *ecause the
modulus of elasticit! of a load cell is constant the amount of
strain can be calibrated to determine the force upon the load
cell.
9. T!picall! the force creates the train in the load cell which is
measured b! strain gauge transducer.
;. 5train gauge is attached to the ob+ect or the strained element
where the force is being applied. #s the ob+ect is stressed due
to the applied force, the resulting strain deforms the strain
gauge attached with it. This causes an increase in resistiit!
of the gauge which produces electrical signal proportional to,
the deformation.
?. The measurement of resistiit! is the measure of strain which
in turn gies the measurement of force or load applied on the
ob+ect.
D. The change of resistance is generall! er! small and is usuall!
measured using a )heatstone bridge circuit where the strain
gauges are connected into the circuit.
E. The strain gauges are sering as resistors in the circuit. The
)heatstone bridge circuit produces analog electrical output
signal.
37
8. In a t!pical strain gauge load cell for measuring force, four strain gauges are attached to the surface of the
counterforce and are electricall! connected in a full )heatstone bridge circuit as shown in $igure 1.D1.
9. 7oad cells hae different shapes 3c!lindrical tubes, rectangular or s8uare beams, and shaft4 for different
applications and load re8uirements to ensure that the desired component of force is measures, thus strain gauges
haing different shapes are positioned in arious orientations upon the load cell bod!.
10. The different configurations of strain gauges are alread! discussed under strain gauges displacement sensors.
1.-.9. 7l&!% =ess&e Sensos:
Aressure is an e<pression of the force re8uired to stop a fluid from e<panding, and is usuall! e<pressed in terms of force
per unit area. # pressure sensor measures pressure of gases or li8uids. These sensors generate a signal as a function of the
Aressure applied b! the fluid. Aressure sensors are used in man! applications such as automotie ehicles, h!draulic
s!stems, engine testing etc.
Aressure sensors ma! re8uired to measure different t!pes of pressures=
1. #bsolute pressure where the pressure is measured relatie to the perfect
acuum or :ero-pressure,
2. Fauge pressure where the pressure is measured relatie to the atmospheric
pressure, and
9. 6ifferential pressure where a pressure difference is measured.
The deices which are used to measure fluid pressure in industrial processes
are=
1. 6iaphragm pressure sensor
2. (apsule pressure sensor
9. *ellows pressure sensor
;. *ourdon tube pressure sensor
?. Aie:oelectric sensor
D. Tactile 5ensor
The construction and wor"ing principle of these sensors are e<plained here.
1.2.8.1. Diaphragm pressure sensor:
1. The diaphragm pressure sensor uses the elastic deformation of a
diaphragm 3i.e. membrane4 to measure the difference between an
un"nown pressure and a reference pressure.
2. 6iaphragm is a thin circular elastic membrane made of
generall! silicon as show in $igure 1.D2. #s pressure changed,
the diaphragm moes, and this motion is the measure of
differential pressure.
9. 6iaphragms are popular because the! re8uire less space and
the motion the! produce is sufficient for operating electronic
transducers.
;. The! also are aailable in a wide range of materials for
corrosie serice applications.
?. # t!pical diaphragm pressure gauge contains a chamber
diided b! a diaphragm, as shown in the $igure 1.D9.
D. Gne side of the diaphragm is open to the e<ternal targeted
pressure. 13456 and the other side is connected to a "nown
pressure, 1Ref The pressure difference, 1!25 7 1ref mechanicall!
deflects the diaphragm.
E. The diaphragm deflection can be measured in an! number of wa!s.
38
8. $or e<ample, it can be detected ia a mechanicall!-coupled indicating needle, an attached strain gauge Krefer
$igure 1.D; 3a4L, a linear ariable differential transformer 3716T4 Krefer $igure 1.D; 3b4L, or with man! other
displacement>elocit! sensors. Gnce "nown, the
9. deflection can be conerted to a pressure loading using plate theor!.
10. 5train gauge arrangement consists of four strain gauges with, two measuring the strain in a circumferential
direction while the remaining two measure strains in a radial direction.
11. The four strain gauges are connected to form the arms of a )heatstone bridge. The sensitiit! of pressure gauges
using 716Ts is good and, S therefore, stiff primar! sensors with er! little moement can be used to reduce
enironmental effects. $re8uenc! response is also good.
A%)anta'es:
1. Much faster fre8uenc! response than % tubes .
2. #ccurac! up to T0.?Q of full scale .
9. Food linearit! when the deflection I5 no larger than the order
of the diaphragm thic"ness.
D!sa%)anta'es:
1. More e<pensie than other pressure sensors.
1.-.9.-. Ca,s&le ,ess&e senso:
2. In order to improe the sensitiit!, two corrugated diaphragms are combined b! arranging these in bac"-to-bac"
and sealed together at the peripher! to obtain shell-li"e shape as shown in $igure 1.D?. These are called as
capsules. Gne of the diaphragms is proided with a central reinforced port to allow the pressure to be measured,
and the other is lin"ed to a mechanical element.
9. The difference in pressure between inner and outer surface of the capsule produces displacement.
;. These capsules can also be attached with the 716T as
described in the diaphragm pressure gauge.
1.-.9./. >ello*s ,ess&e senso:
1. The bellows is a one-piece, collapsible, seamless metallic
unit that has deep folds formed from er! thin-walled
tubing. It loo"s li"e a sta"e of capsules. It is more sensitie
than the diaphragm and capsule pressure sensors.
2. The diameter of the bellows ranges from 1.2 to 90 cm and
ma! hae as man! as 2; folds. 5!stem pressure is applied to
the internal olume of the bellows. #s the inlet pressure
aries, the bellows will e<pand or contract.
9. The moing end of the bellows is connected to a mechanical
lin"age assembl!. The deflection can be measured in an!
number of wa!s. $or e<ample, it can be detected ia a
mechanicall!-coupled indicating needle Krefer $igure 1.DD
3a44, a linear ariable differential transformer 3716T4 as
described in the diaphragm pressure gauge Krefer $igure 1.D; 3b44, a potentiometer Krefer $igure 1.DD 3b4L, or with
man! other displacement sensors.
;. #s the bellows and lin"age assembl! moes, either an electrical signal is generated or a direct pressure indication
is proided. $igure 1.DD shows a bellows pressure sensing element along with the potentiometer.
?. The potentiometric bellows pressure sensor proides a simple method for obtaining an electronic output from a
mechanical pressure gauge.
D. The deice consists of a precision potentiometer, whose wiper arm is mechanicall! lin"ed to a bellows or
*ourdon element. The moement of the wiper arm across the potentiometer conerts the mechanicall! detected
39
sensor deflection into a resistance measurement, using a )heatstone bridge circuit. The fle<ibilit! of a metallic
bellows is similar in character to that of a
helical, coiled compression spring. %p to the
elastic limit of the bellows, the relation between
Sincrements of load and deflection is linear. In
practice, the bellows must alwa!s be opposed b!
a spring, and the deflection characteristics will
be the resulting force of the spring and bellows.
1.-.9.1. >o&%on t&6e ,ess&e senso:
1. The bourdon tube pressure instrument is one of
the oldest pressure sensing instruments in use
toda!.
2. It is widel! used in applications where
ine<pensie static pressure measurements are
needed. The bourdon tube consists of a thin-
walled ( shaped tube that is flattened diametricall! on opposite sides to produce a cross-sectional area elliptical in
shape, haing two long flat sides and two short round sides.
9. The tube is bent lengthwise into an arc of a circle of 2E0 to 900 degrees.
;. *ourdon tube is open to e<ternal pressure input on one end and is coupled mechanicall! to an indicating needle on
the other end. as shown schematicall! in $igure 1.DE. Aressure applied to the inside of the tube causes distention
of the . flat sections and tends to restore its original
round cross-section.
?. This change in cross-section causes the tube to
straighten slightl!. 5ince the tube is permanentl!
fastened at one end, the tip of the tube traces a cure
that is the result of the change in angular position with
respect to the center. )ithin limits, the moement of
the tip of the tube can then be used to position a
pointer or to deelop an e8uialent electrical signal to
indicate the alue of the applied internal pressure.
D. The deflection of the *ourdon tube can be measured
in an! number of wa!s.
$or e<ample. it can be detected ia a mechanicall!-coupled
indicating needle Krefer $igure 1.DEL, a linear ariable
differential transformer 37 16T4 as described in the
diaphragm pressure gauge Krefer $igure 1.D; 3b4 L a
potentiometer Krefer $igure 1.DD 3b4L, or with man! other
displacement sensors.
To increase their sensitiit!, *ourdon tube elements can be
e<tended into spirals or helical coils K$igures 1.D8 3a4 and
3b4L. This increases their effectie angular length and
therefore increases the moement at their tip, which in turn
increases the resolution of the transducer.
A%)anta'es:
1. Aortable
2. (onenient to use
9. Bo leeling re8uired
D!sa%)anta'es:
1. 7imited to static or 8uasi-static measurements .
2. #ccurac! ma! be insufficient for man! applications. # mercur! barometer can be used to calibrate and chec"
*ourdon Tubes.
40
1.-.9.2. =!e?oelect!c sensos:
# pie:oelectric sensor is a deice that uses the pie:oelectric effect to measure pressure, acceleration, strain or force.
)hen pressure, force or acceleration is applied to pie:oelectric materials such as 8uart: cr!stal , APT ceramic, tourmaline,
gallium phosphate, and lithium sulfate, an electrical charge is deeloped across the cr!stal that is proportional to the force
applied 3$igure 1.D9 3a44.
)hen pressure is applied to a cr!stal, it is elasticall! deformed. This
deformation results in a flow of electric charge 3which lasts for a period of a
few seconds4.
The resulting electric signal can be measured as an indication of the pressure
which was applied to the cr!stal.
The net electrical charge +*) produced in the cr!stal is proportional to the
deformation of the cr!stal +2) due to the applied pressure and the stiffness of the material +k). 5ince the deformation is
proportional to the applied pressure or force
+1)- the net electric charge is gien b! the e8uation,
*8k92891
where 5 is the charge sensitiit!.
The pie:oelectric sensors are attached with the diaphragm pressure sensing element to measure the pressure as shown in
$igure 1.D9 3b4.
The output electrical signal of the pie:oelectric sensor I5 related to the mechanical force or pressure as if it had passed
through the e*ui#alent circuit as shown in $igure 1.E0. The model of the e8uialent circuit includes the following
com,onents:
( represents the capacitance of the sensor surface itself,
R is the insulation lea"age resistance of the transducer, and
* is the charge generator.
If the sensor is connected to a load resistance, this also acts in parallel with the insulation resistance.
The fundamental difference between these pie:oelectric sensors and
static-force deices such as strain gauges is that the electric signal
generated b! the pie:oelectric sensors deca!s rapidl!. This characteristic
ma"es these sensors unsuitable for the measurement of static forces or
pressures but useful for d!namic measurements.
Aie:oelectric pressure sensors do not re8uire an e<ternal e<citation
source and are er! rugged. These sensors, howeer, do re8uire charge
amplification circuitr! and er! susceptible to shoc" and ibration.
The desirable features of pie:oelectric sensors include their rugged
construction, small si:e, high speed, and self-generated signal. Gn the
other hand, the! are sensitie to temperature ariations and re8uire
special cabling and amplification.
1.-.9.3. Tact!le sensos:
1. Tactile pressure sensors are used to detect the pressure
distribution between a sensor and a target. The! are often used
on the robot grippers or flat tactile arra!s to identif! whether the
finger is in touch with the target ob+ect or not.
2. These sensors are also used in touch screen displa! of laptops, #TM machines, mobiles etc.
9. Most tactile pressure sensors use resistie-based technologies where the sensor acts as a ariable resistor in an
electrical circuit. # small deflection of the diaphragm causes implanted resistors to e<hibit a change in resistance
alue.
41
;. The sensor conerts this change in resistance into a oltage that is interpreted as a continuous and linear pressure
reading.
?. )hen tactile pressure sensors are unloaded, their resistance is er! high. )hen force is applied, their resistance
decreases. Aressure sensitie film is used to create a direct, isual image of the pressure distribution. #ctie
pressure sensor arra!s consist of multiple sensing elements pac"aged in a single sensor.
D. There are man! different forms of tactile sensors. Gne form of
tactile pressure sensor includes upper and lower conductie la!ers
separated b! an intermediate insulating la!er which is formed as a
separating mesh 3@efer to $igure 1.E14.
E. The upper conductie la!er is of negligible resistance. The lower
conductie la!er is formed of a pluralit! of conductie strips 3#-$4
separated b! insulating strips. 'ach conductie strip 3#-$4 has a
"nown resistance.
8. #n electrical signal is applied to the conductie strips 3#-$4 in turn
and the electrical path between the upper and lower
9. conductie la!ers then determined.
10. The electrical resistance of the conductie path establishes the location of the pressure point at which bridging
occurs and from this it is possible to establish the location and si:e of the pressure area.
11. $igure 1.E2 shows another form of tactile sensor.
12. It uses pie:oelectric material of pol!in!lidene fluoride 3A16$4 film. Two la!ers of A16$ films are used and
the! are separated b! a soft film which transmits ibrations.
19. )hen the alternating oltage is supplied in the lower A16$ film it results in mechanical oscillations of the film.
1;. The intermediate film transmits these ibrations to the upper A16$ film. 6ue to the pie:oelectric effect the
ibrations formed cause an alternating oltage to be produced across the upper film. 5o, pressure is applied to the
upper A16$ film and its ibrations affect the output oltage.
1.-.:. (!+&!% 7lo* Sensos:
1. $low measurement is an important process measurement to be considered in operating fluid s!stems. $or efficient
and economic operation of these fluid s!stems, flow measurement is necessar!.
2. Most of the traditional flow measuring methods such as orifice meter, enture meter, and Aitot tube, use the
*ernoulli/s principle which sa!s that the downstream pressure in a pipe line after an obstruction will be lower than
the upstream pressure before. #ccording to *ernoulli/s principle, there is a relationship between the pressure of
the fluid and the elocit! of the fluid.
9. )hen the elocit! increases, the pressure decreases and
ice ersa. To understand orifice and enturi
meters it is therefore necessar! to e<plore the
*ernoulli '8uation.
;. *ernoulli/s e8uation is an e8uation relating the
conseration of energ! between
?. two points on the same streamline. *ernoulli/s
e8uation at two sections #-# and *-*
42
D.
before and after obstruction 3refer to $igure 1.E94 in a
hori:ontal pipe is gien as=
43
Thus, for a gien geometr!, the flow rate can be determined b! measuring the pressure difference +1I - 1:). There are
number of flow measuring deices aailable.
The following er! important and basic deices are described in detail here=
3i4 Grifice meter,
3ii4 1enture meter, and
3iii4 Turbine flow meter
1.-.:.1. O!f!ce mete:
1. The Grifice meter is one of the man! deices used to measure the olume or mass flow rate of fluids flowing in a
closed conduit 3pipe4. The orifice meter is recommended for (lean and dirt! li8uids and some slurr! serices.
2. The Grifice meter consists of an orifice place. #n orifice plate is basicall! a thin plate with a hole in the middl e. It
is usuall! placed in a pipe in which fluid flows.
9. #s fluid flows through the pipe, it has a certain elocit! and a certain pressure. )hen the fluid reaches the orifice
plate, with the hole in the middle, the fluid is forced to conerge to go through the small hole.
;. The point of ma<imum conergence actuall! occurs shortl! downstream of the ph!sical orifice, at the so-called
#ena contracta point 3refer to $igure 1.E;4.
?. *ecause of the conergence, the elocit! and the pressure of the fluid change. *e!ond the ena contracta, the
fluid e<pands and the elocit! and pressure change once again. 5mall access pressure ports, or pressure taps are
re8uired on each side of the orifice plate to allow the measurement of the pressure change across the plate when
the fluid is flowing. *! measuring the difference in fluid pressure between the normal pipe section and at the ena
contracta, the olumetric and mass flow rates can be obtained from *ernoulli/s e8uation. The discharge
A%)anta'es of o!f!ce mete:
1. The relatie cost is low .
2. 'ase of installation and replacement.
9. @e8uires less space as compared with enturirneter.
;. (an be used in wide range of pipe si:es 30.01m to 5.;m).
D!sa%)anta'es of o!f!ce mete:
1. .igh loss of head
2. (o-efficient of discharge has a low alue
9. 5usceptible to inaccuracies resulting from erosion, corrosion and scaling .
;. The iscosit! /effect is high
1.2.9.2. Venturimeter
1. In the enturi meter 3refer to $igure 1.E?4, the fluid is accelerated through a conerging cone of angle 32U1N 21T
2M4.
2. The pressure difference between the section before the conergent cone and the throat is measured which
proides a signal for the rate of flow.
44
9. The fluid slows down in a diergent cone with smaller angle +:<.: N ? to 1?M4 where most of the "inetic energ! is
conerted bac" to pressure energ!.
;. *ecause of the cone and the gradual
reduction in the area there is no "1ena
(ontracta" as in the case of orifice meter.
The flow area is minimum at the throat.
?. Two small access pressure ports are
placed, one at upstream side of the enturi
meter and the other at the throat, to allow
the measurement of the pressure change
across the enture meter.
D. .igh pressure and energ! recoer! ma"es
the enturi meter suitable where onl! small
pressure heads are aailable. The pressure
recoer!, is much better for the enturi
meter than for the orifice plate. #lthough
enturi meters can be applied to the
measurement of gas, the! are most
commonl! used for li8uids.
1.-.:./. T&6!ne flo* mete:
1. Turbine flow meters measure the rate of flow in a pipe. The turbine flow meter consists of a turbine wheel which
has blades around the peripher! of a rotor.
2. The turbine wheel is set in the path of a fluid stream in the pipe.
9. #s the fluid flows through a pipe, it impinges on the on the turbine blades, imparting a force to the blade surface
and setting the rotor in motion.
;. )hen a stead! rotation speed has been reached, flow
through the pipe is proportional to the number of
reolutions per unit of time.
?. The rotational speed can be measured b! an! motion
sensors such as magnetic pic"-up, photoelectric cell, etc.
D. $igure 1.ED 3a4 shows the measurement of rotational speed
from the electrical impulses generated b! interrupting light
directed at a photocell at each turn of the ane. #nother
method of measurement is shown in $igure 1.ED 3b4 which
uses magnetic pic"-up.
A%)anta'es of t&6!ne flo* mete:
1. Medium initial set up cost.
2. #ccurate, reliable. time tested proen technolog!.
D!sa%)anta'es of o!f!ce mete:
1. %sage restricted for clean fluid onl!
2. 7ow to medium pressure drop
1.-.1;. (!+&!% (e)el Sensos:
The measurement of leel of the li8uid in the tan". or an! container is er! essential in man! times. There are number of
deices are used to measure the leel of the li8uid. 7i8uid leel measuring deices are classified into two groups=
45
#a$ D!ect metho%: In this method, the li8uid leel is directl! measured b!
monitoring the li8uid surface. #n e<ample of the direct method is the dipstic" in
!our car which measures the height of the oil in the oil pan. Gther e<ample
includes floats.
#6$ Infee% o !n%!ect metho%: In this method, the li8uid leel is
indirectl! measured b! measuring some ariables related to the height of the
li8uid leel. The most important ariable related to the li8uid leel is weight
which
can be measured b! using load cells.
The weight of the li8uid N
"%=g
where " is the cross-sectional area of the essel,
% is the head of the li8uid,
= is the densit! of li8uid, and
g is the acceleration due to grait!.
$rom this e8uation it is clear that the height of the li8uid anes
proportionall! with the weigh. #n e<ample of the inferred method is a
pressure gauge at the bottom of a tan". which measures the
h!drostatic head pressure from the height of the li8uid.
1.-.1;.1. @a&'e 'lass:
# er! simple means b! which li8uid leel is measured in a essel is
b! the gauge glass method 3$igure 1.EE4. In the gauge glass method, a
transparent tube is attached to the bottom and top 3top connection not
needed in a tan". open to atmosphere4 of the tan". that is monitored.
The height of the li8uid in the tube will be e8ual to the height of water
in the tan"..
1.-. 1;.-. 7loats:
The float method is a direct li8uid leel measurement mechanism.
The most practical design for the float is a hollow metal ball or sphere. .oweer, there are no restrictions to the si:e,
shape, or material used. The design consists of a ball float attached to a rod, which in turn is connected to a leer arm. #
slider attached tc the leer are is in contact with the potentiometer as shown in $igure 1.E8 3a4. #nother arrangement of
reading the leer arm moement is using strain gauge load cell as shown in $igure 1.E8 3b4.
The operation of the ball float is simple. The ball floats on top of the li8uid in the tan". If the li8uid leel changes, the
float will follow. This rotates the shaft and changes the position of the slider. The slider moes across the potentiometer
which gies the electrical output signal related to the height of li8uid. In load cell arrangement, the deflection of leer arm
is sensed b! strain gauge which in turn gies
the electrical output through )heatstone bridge circuit.
1.-.1;./. D!ffeent!al ,ess&e l!+&!% le)el %etecto:
1. The differential pressure detector method of li8uid leel measurement uses a differential pressure cell connected
to the bottom of the tan" being monitored.
2. The higher pressure, caused b! the fluid in the tan", is compared to a lower reference pressure 3usuall!
atmospheric4.
46
9. This comparison ta"es place in the differential pressure cell. $igure 1.E9 illustrates a t!pical differential pressure
detector attached to an open tan"=. The tan" is open to the atmosphere, therefore, it is necessar! to use onl! the
high pressure connection on the differential pressure cell.
;. The low pressure side is ented to the atmosphere. Therefore, the pressure differential is the h!drostatic head, or
weight, of the li8uid in the tan" Bot all tan"s or essels are open to the atmosphere. Man! are totall! enclosed to
preent apors or steam from escaping, or to allow pressuri:ing the contents of the tan".
?. )hen measuring the leel in a tan" that is pressuri:ed or the leel that can become pressuri:ed b! apor pressure
from the li8uid, both the high pressure and low pressure sides of the differential pressure cell must be connected
3$igure 1.804.
1.-.11. Tem,eat&e Sensos:
1. Temperature measurements are most widel! monitored parameter in science and industr!.
2. Temperature is defined as the aerage "inetic energ! of the indiidual molecules that comprise the s!stem. #s the
temperature increases, the molecular actiit! also increases, and thus the aerage "inetic energ! increases.
9. Most often, a simple mercur! thermometer is needed to measure the fluid or process temperature.
;. This uses the principle of e<pansion or contraction of li8uid to measure the change in temperature. Most of the
temperature measuring or monitoring s!stem uses the principle of e<pansion or contraction of li8uids, gases, or
solids. There are also other techni8ues such as change in electrical resistance of conductors and semiconductors,
?. and thermoelectric e.m.f.s used to measure the temperature.
The following are the common methods used to
measure the temperature which are described in detail.
1. *imetallic 5trips
2. @esistance temperature detectors 3@T6s4
9. Thermistors
;. Thermocouples
?. Thermodiodes and transistors
1.-.11.1. >!metall!c St!,s:
1. *imetallic strip thermometers are mechanical
thermometers. The! are widel! used in
industr! for temperature control because of
their robustness, temperature range and
simplicit!.
2. It consists of a bimetallic strip which is made of two dissimilar
metals bonded together with one end fi<ed and the other free. #
bimetallic strip is used to conert a temperature change into mechanical displacement.
9. The principle is that as the temperature changes one strip e<pands
more than the other, causing the pair to bend at the free end. Most
bimetallic strips use a high thermal e<pansion allo!, such as steel or
stainless steel, coupled with a low thermal e<pansion allo! such as
Inar. 5teel and copper, or in some cases brass instead of copper is
also used for bimetallic strips.
;. $igure 1.81 shows the configuration of bimetallic temperature
controlled switch or thermostat.
?. The metal with the higher coefficient of thermal e<pansion is on the
outer side of the cure when the strip is heated and on the inner side
when cooled.
47
D. )hen the temperature of the switch is increased the high thermal e<pansion material is e<pand faster than the
other side low thermal e<pansion material.
E. This causes the strip to bend upward, ma"ing contact so that current can flow. *! ad+usting the si:e of the gap
between the strip and the contact, the temperature can be ad+usted or set.
A%)anta'es of 6!metall!c st!,s:
1. Aower source not re8uired .
2. 7ow cost.
9. @obust construction
;. 'as! to use and can be used upto ?00M(.
D!sa%)anta'es of 6!metall!c st!,s:
1. 7ess accurate
2. 7imited to applications where manual reading is acceptable, e.g. a
household thermometer. /iR .
9.Bot suitable for er! low temperatures because the e<pansion of metals
tend to be too similar, sothe deice
becomes a rather insensitie thermometer.
1.-.11.-. Res!stance tem,eat&e %etectos #RTDs$ :
2. )hen a metal wire is heated the resistance increases. o- a
temperature can be measured using the resistance of a wire.
The@T6 incorporates pure metals or certain allo!s that-increase
in resistance as temperature increases and, conersel!,
9. decreasein resistance as temperature decreases. R
;. @T6s act somewhat li"e an electrical transducer, conerting
changes in temperature to oltage signals b! the measurement of
resistance.
?. The metals that are best suited for use as @T6 sensors are pure,
of uniform 8ualit!, stable within a gien range of temperature,
and able to gie reproducible resistance-temperature readings.
Gnl! a few metals hae the properties necessar! for use in @T6 elements.
D. @T6 elements are normall! constructed of platinum, copper, nic"el or nic"eliron allo!s.
E. These metals are best suited for @T6 applications because of their linear resistance-temperature characteristics as
shown in $igure 1.82, their high coefficient of resistance, and their abilit! to withstand repeated temperature
c!cles.
8. The linear relationship of resistance-temperature is gien b! the e8uation=
9. R 8Ro 3l OUT4
where @ is the resistance at a temperature TM(
@o is the resistance at 0Mc, and a is the temperature co-efficient of resistance
10. The coefficient of resistance is the change in resistance per degree change in temperature, usuall! e<pressed as a
percentage per degree of temperature. The material used must be capable of being drawn into fine wire so that the
element can be easil! constructed.
11. @T6 elements are usuall! long, spring-li"e wires surrounded b! an insulator and enclosed in a sheath of metal for
protection. $igure 1.89 shows the internal construction of an @T6.
12. In the figure platinum is used as @T6 element that is surrounded b! a porcelain insulator.
19. The insulator preents a short circuit between the wire and the metal sheath. Inconel, a nic"el-iron-chromium
allo!, is normall! used in manufacturing the @T6 sheath because of its inherent corrosion resistance.
1;. )hen placed in a li8uid or gas medium, the Inconel sheath 8uic"l! reaches the temperature of the medium.
1?. The change in temperature will cause the platinum wire to heat or cool, resulting in a proportional change in
resistance. This change in resistance is then measured b! a precision resistance measuring deice that is calibrated
to gie the proper temperature reading. This deice is normall! a bridge circuit.
A%)anta'es of RTDs:
48
1. 5uitable for measuring high temperatures
2. .igh degree of accurac! .
9. Food stabilit! and repeatabilit! .
;. 6o not need a reference temperature +unction.
D!sa%)anta'es of RTDs:
1. 5i:e is more than the thermocouple .
2. Aower suppl! re8uired .
9. Beed au<iliar! apparatus to get re8uired form of output.
;. @esistance element is more e<pansie than a thermocouple .
?. Aossibilit! of error due to self-heating and thermo-electric effect of the resistie element.
1.-.11./. Them!stos:
Thermistor, a word formed b! combining thermal with resistor. Thermistors, li"e @T6s, are temperature-sensitie
resistors. Thermistors are non-linear deices their resistance will decrease with an increase in temperature, but at a much
faster rate than that of @T6s. The resistance can change b! more than 1000 times. #s a result, thermistors can sense
minute changes in temperature that are otherwise undetected b! @T6s and thermocouples. The basic e8uation is=
The e8uation uses a reference temperature and resistance, with a constant for the deice, to predict the resistance at
another temperature. The e<pression can be rearranged to calculate the temperature gien the resistance.
Thermistors are small, ine<pensie deices that are most commonl! made of metal o<ides such as those of chromium,
nic"el, manganese and cobalt. The metals are o<idi:ed through a chemical reaction, ground to a fine powder, then
compressed and sub+ect to er! high heat. Theses o<ides are semiconductors.
There are two t!pes of thermistors based on the lead attachment=
1. beads and
2. metalli:ed surface-contact.
>ea% t",es hae platinum wires sintered into a ceramic bod!
3bead4 as shown in $igure 1.8; 3a4. Metalli:ed surface-contact
thermistors are called chips or fla"es.
In contrast to bead t!pes, leads are not sintered directl! into the
ceramic. Instead, the sintered ceramic is coated with a metallic
contact as shown in $igure 1.8; 3b4. 'ither the chip manufacturer or
user attaches leads to this contact.
Gne adantage of chip thermistors oer bead t!pes is that the chips are easil! trimmed b! cutting or grinding. Thus, the!
are eas! to match and, therefore, are interchangeable. )hile matched bead thermistors are aailable, the! cost more than
interchangeable chips.
Thermistors can be classified into two t!pes depending on the temperature coeffi cient of resistance 3"4. If " is positie, the
resistance increases with increasing temperature, and the deice is called a positie temperature coefficient 3AT(4
thermistor, or posistor. If " is negatie, the resistance decreases with increasing temperature, and the deice is called a
negatie temperature coefficient 3BT(4 thermistor. BT( thermistors are mostl! used in temperature sensing deices
where as the AT( thermistors are mostl! used in electric current control deices.
49
Thermistors respond 8uic"l! to temperature changes, and the! hae a higher resistance, so +unction effects are not an
issue. T!pical accuracies are 1Q, but the deices are not linear, hae a limited temperature>resistance range and can be
self heating. (ompared to other sensors, thermistors hae a limited measuring range, t!picall! from -80 to 1?0a(. #lso,
because the! are often made from semiconductors or sintered mi<tures of metal o<ides, the! can sustain permanent
damage at temperatures aboe their specified operating range.
A%)anta'es of them!stos:
1. .igh and fast output.
2. 5uitable for the usage in remote location.
9. (an be manufactured in almost an! shape and si:e.
;. 1er! high degree of accurac!.
?. Food stabilit! and repeatabilit!.
D. .as the abilit! to withstand mechanical and electrical stresses.
D!sa%)anta'es of them!stos:
1. .ighl! non-linear behaior oer its range of operation.
2. .ae a limited measuring range.
9. 5elf heating ma! occur.
;. Aower suppl! re8uired.
?. $ragile in nature
1.2.11.4. Thermocouple:
The thermocouple is a deice that conerts thermal energ!
into electrical energ!. Thermocouples are er! simple and
durable temperature sensors.
Thermocouples use a +unction of dissimilar metals to
generate a oltage proportional to temperature.
Thermocouples are based on the 5eebec" effect. In 1821, a
ph!sicist T.J 5eebec" discoered that "when two
conductors of dissimilar metals, sa! # and *, are +oined
together to form a loop, and two une8ual temperatures are
interposed at the +unctions, then an e.m.f will e<ist between
the two points # and *, which is primaril! a function of
the +unction temperature". This is "nown as the
thermoelectric effect or 5eebec" effect. $igure 1.8?
illustrates 5eebec" effect, where two dissimilar metals #
and * are used to close the loop connecting +unctions at two
different temperatures T1 and T2. The e.m.f. produced is found
to be almost linear in temperature and er! repetitie for
constant materials.
The e.m.f. produced b! the thermocouple loop is appro<imatel!
gien b!=
# thermocouple is a +unction between two different metals that
produces a oltage related to a temperature difference. The
amount of current that will be produced is dependent on the
temperature difference between the measurement and reference
+unction, the characteristics of the two metals used, and the
characteristics of the attached circuit.
50
Thermocouples come with different pairings of materials allowing for a er! wide range of applications.
The different compositions are standardi:ed into thermocouple t!pes.
The different t!pes are gien letter names which are standardi:ed across the industr!.
The list in Table 1.9 shows different thermocouple +unction t!pes, and the normal temperature ranges.
*oth thermocouples, and signal conditioners are commonl! aailable, and relatiel! ine<pensie.
The! are usuall! selected based on the temperature range and sensitiit! needed. Thermocouples with low sensitiities
3*, @, and 5 t!pes4 hae correspondingl! lower resolutions. Gther selection criteria include the inertness of the
thermocouple material, and whether or not it is magnetic.
$igure 1.8D shows the temperature-oltage relationships of some commonl!
used t!pes of thermocouples.
$or conenience of measurement and standardi:ation, one of the two +unctions
is usuall! maintained at a "nown temperature of reference. The most common
reference is 0M
(
, which is the temperature of an ice bath. # 0M
(
reference
insures repeatabilit! and accurac! because the ice point of water is a constant.
# thermocouple can be used with the reference +unction other than 0M
(.
In such
case, a correction has to be used before using the standard table of reference b!
using thermocouple law, called law of intermediate temperatures.
7aw of intermediate temperatures If two dissimilar materials produce thermal
e.m.f. '12 when the +unctions are at
T1 and T
2
and produce thermal e.m.f. '29 when the +unctions are at T
2
and T
9
,
the e.m.f. generated when the +unctions .are at T1and T
9
will be '12O 'P9V $igure 1.8E illustrates the concept of law of
intermediate temperatures.
The following are the other laws of thermocouple=
7aw of homogeneous material =
# thermoelectric current cannot be sustained in a circuit of a single homogeneous material b! the application of heat
alone, regardless of how it might ar! in cross section.
7aw of intermediate materials=
The algebraic sum of the thermoelectric forces in a circuit composed of an! number of dissimilar materials is :ero if all of
the +unctions are at a uniform temperature.
51
#n ice bath ma! not alwa!s be conenient, howeer. In that case, the most common alternate method of determining
reference oltage is with an integrated circuit temperature sensor. The Ie sensor is placed near the reference +unction and
measures local temperature. $rom its temperature reading, reference-+unction oltage ma! be calculated.
$igure 1.88 shows the internal construction of a t!pical thermocouple. The leads of the thermocouple are encased in a
rigid metal sheath. The measuring +unction is normall! formed at the bottom of the thermocouple housing. Magnesium
o<ide surrounds the thermocouple wires to preent ibration that could damage the fine wires and to enhance heat transfer
between the measuring +unction and the medium surrounding the thermocouple.
$igure 1.89 illustrates a simple thermocouple circuit. .eating the measuring +unction of the thermocouple produces a
oltage which is greater than the oltage across the reference +unction. The difference between the two oltages is
Aroportional to the difference in temperature and can be
measured on the oltmeter 3in mill olts4. $or ease of operator
use, some oltmeters are set up to read out directl! in
temperature through use of electronic circuitr!.
# series of thermocouples connected together in series produces
a higher oltage and is called a thermopile. In thermopile, all
the hot +unctions are e<posed to the higher temperature and all
the cold +unctions to a lower temperature. The oltages of the
indiidual thermocouples add up, allowing for a larger oltage
and increased power output, thus increasing the sensitiit! of the instrumentation. @eadings can approach an accurac! of
0.?Q.
A,,l!cat!ons of themoco&,les:
1. Two common applications of thermocouples are
measuring room temperature and monitoring the
presence of a pilot light in gas-fed heating appliances
such as oens and water heaters. The other applications
are listed below=
2. T!pe 5, @ and & thermocouples are used e<tensiel! in
the steel and iron industries to monitor temperatures and
chemistr! throughout the steel ma"ing process.
9. Thermopiles are used for measuring the intensit! of incident radiation, t!picall! isible or infrared light, which
heats the hot +unctions, while the cold +unctions are on a heat sin".
;. Thermocouples can generall! be used in the testing of protot!pe electrical and mechanical apparatus. '<ample=
monitoring the switchgears during its heat run test.
?. (hemical production and petroleum refineries use number of thermocouples for logging and limit testing the
man! temperatures associated with a process.
A%)anta'es of themoco&,les:
1. 5imple in construction .
2. Ine<pensie .
9. @ugged in construction .
;. )ide ariet! to choose for particular applications .
?. )ide temperature range .
D. .as the abilit! to withstand mechanical and electrical stresses.
D!sa%)anta'es of themoco&,les:
1. .ighl! non-linear behaior oer its range of operation .
2. (apable of generating low oltage .
9. 7ow stabilit! .
52
;. @eference source is re8uired .
?. 7east sensitie.
1.-.11.2. Themo%!o%es an% Tans!stos:
1. Themo%!o%e
# +unction semiconductor diode is widel! used temperature-measuring instrument. The mobilit! semiconductor diode
changes wheneer the temperature changes. This affects the rate at which electrons and holes can diffuse across a AB
+unction. The difference in oltage and current through the +unction is a function of the temperature. The measurement of
the oltage across a diode at constant current can be used as a measure of the temperature. 5uch a sensor is compact in
si:e and has the adantage of giing a response which is a linear function of temperature.
-. Themotans!sto
The base-to-emitter oltage drop of a transistor operating at a constant current is a simple function of absolute
temperature. Thus, an! transistor can be used as a temperature sensor. In practice, this is difficult to build thermall! stable
electronics than a conenient means of measuring temperature. Integrated circuits are aailable that monitor the collector
current, amplif!, and lineari:e the base-to-emitter oltage to !ield an output that is proportional to absolute temperature.
(ommon integrated circuit temperature sensors are aailable with outputs of 10 m1>&, or 1W#>&. The temperature range
oer which the! ma! be used is limited to -?0M( to 1?0M( b! the construction techni8ues of integrated circuits. This
ma"es them er! useful for referencing one +unction of the thermocouple and most ambient temperature measurements.
Thermodiodes and transistors are also called as I( temperature sensors.
A%)anta'es of IC sensos:
1. Most linear output.
2. Ine<pensie .
9. .ighest output.
;. (ompact in si:e .
?. .igh accurac!.
D!sa%)anta'es of IC sensos:
1. #pplicable for the measurement of less than 1?0M( .
2. Aower suppl! is re8uired .
9. 5low output.
;. Aroblem of self-heating.
1.-.1-. (!'ht Sensos:
# light sensor or detector conerts the radiant power it absorbs into a change of a deice parameter such as resistance,
surface charge, current, or oltage. 5ome signal conditioning electronics ma! also be needed to conert the basic output
from the detector into a more useful oltage signal, for e<ample, for digiti:ation b! an . analog-to-digital conerter
3#6(4. This ma! be integrated into the detector or re8uire e<ternal components.
There are seeral t!pes of light sensors in common use.
The principles of operation and characteristics of the most widel! used, including photoresistor, photodiode, and
phototransistor are summari:ed in this section. These light sensors depend on the generation of free charge b! the
absorption of indiidual photons. This photon-induced charge causes a change in deice resistance, in the
case of photoresistors, or an output current or output oltage, in the case of photodiodes and transistors.
1.-.1-.1. =hotoes!sto:
53
# photoresistor consists of a slab of semiconductor material on the faces of which electrodes are deposited to allow the
resistance to be monitored. The increase in conductiit!, caused b! the absorption of photons increasing electrons and
holes, is the basis for the operation of the photoresistie detector. (admium sulfide is commonl! used as a detector of
isible radiation because it is low cost and its response is similar to that of the human e!e. Gther photoconductie
materials include lead sulfide, indium antimonide, and mercur! cadmium telluride. # simple light detector circuit
emplo!ing a photoresistor is shown in $igure 1.90. #n increase in light illumination causes the resistance of the
photoresistor to decrease and the output oltage to increase. The photon-induced current is proportional to the length of
the electrodes and inersel! proportional to their separation. Therefore,
the t!pical comb-li"e electrode geometr! of photoresistors is used. The
comb-li"e pattern t!picall! emplo!ed in photoresistors gies a relatiel!
large actie area of photoconducting material and a small electrode
spacing resulting in high sensitiit!.
Ahotoconductie deices used for the detection of long waelength
infrared radiation should be cooled because of the noise caused b!
fluctuations in the thermal generation of charge.
1.-.1-.-. =hoto%!o%e:
In photoresistors, the rate of generation of electrons and holes pairs b!
the absorption of radiation results in an
Increase in free charge and therefore electrical conductiit!. In photodiodes and phototransistors, newl! generated p-n airs
separate before the! can recombine so that a photon-induced/ electric current can be detected.
The separation of electrons and holes ta"es place in the electric field associated with a A-B +unction fabricated in a
semiconductor material, which is usuall! silicon.
The basic structure of a t!pical silicon photodiode is illustrated in
$igure 1.91. The substrate material is lightl! doped n-t!pe silicon.
This contributes free electrons to the conduction band of the silicon
leaing the impurit! atoms ioni:ed and with a positie charge. #
region of heail! doped p-t!pe silicon is formed on the top face of the
substrate. The A-B +unction is the boundar! surface between the p-
t!pe and n t!pe regions. # space charge, or depletion region, is
formed b! the diffusion of mobile charge across the surface between
the p-t!pe and n-t!pe silicon. It e<tends furthest into the n-t!pe
silicon because this is more lightl! doped than the p-t!pe silicon. #n!
electron hole pairs generated in this region are preented from
recombining b! the presence of the electric field. This sweeps them
apart and allowing them to contribute to the photon generated current.
The p-t!pe region is made thin to allow photons to penetrate into the
depletion region.
1.-.1-./. =hototans!sto:
The phototransistor has a light-sensitie collector-base p-n
+unction. )hen there is no incident light radiation on the
transistor there is a er! small collector-to-emitter current.
)hen incident light radiation fall on the transistor, a base
current is produced that is directl! proportional to the intensit!
of light. # simple phototransistor light detector circuit is shown
in $igure 1.92. Ahoton-generated current flowing in the base-
collector diode ma! be amplified seeral hundred times b!
transistor action. #lthough the photon-generated current is
much larger than in an e8uialent photodiode, response time of the phototransistor is much longer.
1.-.1/Select!on of Sensos:
54
# number of static, d!namic and other factors must be considered in selecting a suitable sensor to measure the desired
ph!sical parameter. The following factors are considered while selecting sensors=
1. #ccurac! re8uired= It is the difference between the measured alue and the true alue. #ccurac! of the sensor should be
as high as possible.
2. Arecision= It is the abilit! to reproduce repeatedl! with a gien accurac!. It should be er! high. 'rror between sensed
and actual alue should approach :ero.
9. 5ensitiit!= It is the ratio of change in output to a unit change of the input. It should be chosen to allow sufficient
output.
;. Gperating range= It is the difference between the ma<imum and minimum alue of the sensed parameter . 5ensors
should hae wide operating range and good accurac! oer the range.
?. @esolution= It is the smallest change the sensor can differentiate. 5ensors should hae high resolution.
D. 5peed response= Time ta"en b! the sensor to respond should be minimum. @esponse time should be er! less.
E. @eliabilit!= @eliabilit! of the sensor should be high. Mean time to failure 3MTT$4 should be high. It results in increased
life. Maintenance should also be eas! and fre8uenc! of maintenance re8uired should be less oer the period.
8. (alibration= 5ensors need fre8uent calibration for man! reasons. .ence it should be eas! to calibrate. 6rift should be as
minimum as possible.
9. (ost= (ost of the sensor should be low.
10. The nature of output re8uired from the sensor whether digital or analog has to be considered while selecting a sensor.
11. 7inearit!= 5ensor/s cure should linear. Aercentage of deiation from the best-fit linear calibration cure should be
less.
12. 'nironmental conditions= 5ensors should operate oer wide enironmental conditions such as temperature, corrosion,
pressure, shoc"s etc.
19. Interfacing= 5ensors should be compatible with different instruments for interfacing.
1;. 5i:e and weight= 5ensors should hae small si:e and less weight.
55