8.

4 - Evolution of Australian Biota

1. Evidence for the rearrangement of crustal plates and continental drift indicates
that Australia was once part of an ancient supercontinent.
1.1 - Identify and describe evidence that supports the assertion that Australia was once
part of a landmass called Gondwana, including:
- matching continental margins
- position of mid-ocean ridges
- spreading zones between continental plates
- fossils in common on Gondwanan continents, including Glossopteris and Gangamopteris
flora, and marsupials
- similarities between present-day organisms on Gondwanan continents
Geological evidence
Matching continental margins
Scientific studies shown using computer-generated models of the continents
show that they fit extremely well, particularly if the continental shelf margins are
used, rather than the shoreline
Also rock strata on matching continental margins fit together, suggesting that
they were once adjoining.
Mid ocean ridges, and spreading zones
The theory of continental drift suggests that as the continents drift apart, magma
wells up through the spreading floor and new crust is formed
These areas are called spreading zones, and radiometric dating has shown that
the rocks towards the edges of these mid-ocean ridges are younger than those
further in
Himalayan mountain range is at a subduction point - Himalayan mountains are
still slowly rising, supporting the theory of continental drift
Biological evidence
Fossil evidence
Shows that the common occurrence of certain extinct organisms across all
continents that once formed Gondwana
Glossopteris and Gangamopteris were types of tree ferns that formed the
dominant vegetation on Gondwana 280-225 mya before it split
The plants fossils have been found on all the continents that once formed
Gondwana - Australia, Africa, India, South America, Antarctica and New
Zealand
All found in rocks of the same age
Distribution of present-day organisms
Biogeography - study of the geographical distribution of species, both
present day and extinct
Similarities in present-day fauna on Gondwanan continents show that living
marsupials are found in Australia and South America
Each continent except Antartica is represented by at least one living
species of ratitaes: emu in AU,kiwi in NZ, rhea in SA, ostrich in Africa,
cassowary in AU and PNG - suggests that their separation occurred later
1.2 - Discuss current research into the evolutionary relationships between extinct species,
including megafauna and extant Australian species.
Today, current research uses molecular biology techniques which are far more
complex and accurate in providing information about genetic relationships between
organisms from different times.
Technique of DNA hybridisation, DNA sequencing, and mitochondrial DNA
sequencing have become even more sophisticated since the 1980s so the accuracy
of these studies are improving
The Ancient DNA Laboratory at the ACAD is a new research initiative of the
University of Adelaide
Research is currently being conducted on bones of Pleistocene megafauna and
extinct species and the evolutionary relationships between extinct mammals and
birds, such as AU megafauna (e.g. thylacine)
Thylacine research project uses ancient DNA preserved in fossil
Hoping to contrast thylacine information to that of the Tasmanian devil which
managed to avoid extinction in Tasmania
Research also being conducted on conservation genetics of extant and extinct
AU lizards and frogs, and also extinct and endangered AU marsupials
Approach of these studies is to integrate ancient DNA sequence information with
modern data from archaeology, climate studies and palaeontology, to analyse a
variety of evolutionary processes
2. The changes in Australian flora and fauna over millions of years have happened
through evolution.
2.1 - Discuss examples of variation between members of a species.
The term variation applies to the differences in the characteristics (appearance
or genetics) of individuals within a population
Heredity is the transmission of similar characteristics from parents to offspring; it
is evident within living organisms
Environment and variation
Differences in nutrition and lifestyle can affect our size, muscle development,
height, mass, age to which we live etc.
These examples of variation are due to interaction with the environment and
will no be passed on
Hereditary and variation
Red hair, blue eyes, and a protruding lower lip are examples of variation that
can be passed on
Inherited variation occur in all types of plants and animals, and are important
in our studies of evolution
Heredity and variation are both essential
2.2 - Identify the relationship between variation within a species and the chances of
survival of species when environmental change occurs
RENATA CVETKOVSKA
Evolution of Australian Biota:
Prerequisite Knowledge:
Identify the role of cell division in growth, repair and reproduction in multicellular
organisms:
Living things are made up of cells
In multicellular organisms new cells are produced y cell division for growth repair and
reproduction
In unicellular organisms, cell division divides the organisms into ! new organisms
"elate natural selection to the theory of evolution:
#he four main points of $arwin%s #heory of Evolution y &atural 'election are:
In any population, there are variations
In any generation, there are some individuals that do not reach maturity and reproduce(
the characteristics of these individuals are removed from the population
#he individuals that survive and reproduce are well adapted to the environment( they
have favourale conditions )survival of the fittest*
+avourale conditions are passed on to offspring( they ecome more and more
common in the population
$iscuss evidence that suggests that crustal plates move over time:
#he theory of plate tectonics holds that the continents and oceans are carried on the large
crustal plates of the Earth%s surface, which move on top of the semi,molten interior
Evidence for this includes the age of the sea floor around mid,oceans ridges, the matching
edges of continents, and fossils of similar organisms found in different parts of the world-
.- Evidence for the rearrangement of crustal plates and continental drift indicates
that Australia was once part of an ancient super continent:
Identify and descrie evidence that supports the assertion that Australia was
once part of a landmass called /ondwana including:
0atching continental margins
Positions of mid,ocean ridges
'preading 1ones etween continental plates
+ossils in common on /ondwanan continents, including
/lossopteris and /angamopteris flora, and marsupials
'imilarities etween present day organisms on /ondwanan
continents
All landforms were originally 2oined together in a giant landmass called Pangaea
In the 3urassic, .45 million years ago, Pangaea split into two super continents: /ondwana
and Laurasia
/ondwana: Australia, Africa, 0adagascar, &ew 6ealand, 'outh America, India
Laurasia: Europe, &orth America, Asia )e7cept India*
Aout 45 million years ago, Australia split from /ondwana
Evidence that Australia was once part of /ondwana:
/eological evidence:
- #he roc8 strata around continental margins match e7actly in many places, eg: .*
'outh Australia 9 Australia, !* :est Africa 9 east 'outh America-
- 0id,ocean ridges are formed where plates are moving apart
- :hen plates move apart, molten roc8 rises up and forms new sea floor-
- In these areas, called spreading 1ones, the new roc8 that forms is older the further it
is from the ridge
- #his proves that the plates have een moving apart steadily for a long time
Biological evidence:
- #he fossil record and present day organisms provide evidence that Australia was
part of /ondwana
- +ossil Evidence:
o /lossopteris and /angamopteris are fossil plants found in roc8s of the same
age in Australia, Africa, India, 'outh America, Antarctica and &ew 6ealand
o +ossils of marsupials have een found on all the continents that were part of
/ondwana
o #his is evidence that the continents were once 2oined
- E7tant ;rganisms:
o &othofagus, or the southern eech trees, are found in forests of Australia, &ew
/uinea, &ew 6ealand and 'outh America
o 0any plants and animals e7ist only where the &othofagus still live( e-g- a
parasitic fungus, a moss and ugs which depend on the moss
o 0any groups of animals in Australia have close relatives in 'outh America,
Africa, India and &ew 6ealand, ut not in &orthern Asia, Europe or &orth
America
o #hese animals include: parrots, ratites )flightless irds*, marsupial mammals,
chelid turtles, some gec8oes, many families of earthworms, terrestrial molluscs,
spiders and insects, and the scorpion genus <ercophonius
$iscuss current research into the evolutionary relationships etween e7tinct
species, including megafauna and e7tant Australian species:
0egafauna are large animals, such as elephants and whales
0egafauna are not the ancestors of present animals, eg 8angaroos didn%t come from giant
8angaroos, rather they oth evolved from a common ancestor-
;ver the last =58 years most of the world%s megafauna have ecome e7tinct
#wo theories have een put forward to e7plain this:
<limate <hange: 0egafauna were mainly suited to glacial conditions- #heir large
odies enaled them to live in e7treme conditions- In Eurasia and &orth America, when
permafrost was replaced with forest, the megafauna died out and animals more
adapted to forest egan to thrive- In Australia, the temperature changed from cold,dry to
warm,dry- As a result, water sources egan to dry up, and many animals lost their
haitat and died out-
>uman E7pansion: #he time of the e7tinction of megafauna matches very closely the
pattern of human migration into these areas- 0egafauna are also large and slow, which
ma8es them susceptile to hunting- In Africa, humans evolution occurred there, so
hunting increased slowly, allowing animals to ad2ust- #hat is why there are still
megafauna there- >owever, in places where humans arrived as s8illed hunters, the
most e7tinction occurred-
Living fossil )or relict species* are organisms that have changed little or not at all since
ancient times-
Australia has many e7amples of living fossils, such as: .* 'tromatolites, !* #he :ollemi
Pine, ?* <rocodiles, @* Aueensland lungfish, and =* 0onotremes-
'olve prolems to identify the positions of mid,ocean ridges and spreading
1ones that infer a moving Australian continent:
0id,ocean ridges occur where continental plates are moving apart
'preading 1ones are the new areas of floor created at ridges where molten roc8 rises out
from the mantle and solidifies
#here are spreading 1ones on the southern side of the Indo,Australian plate, and collision
1ones on the northern side
#his implies that Australia is moving north
Identify data sources, gather, process and analyse information from secondary
sources and use availale evidence to illustrate the changing ideas of scientists
in the last !55 years aout individual species such the platypus as new
information and technologies ecome availale-
;ver the past !55 years, scientists% attitudes to the platypus has changed greatly
A dried platypus s8in sent to England !55 years ago, in .BCD, was considered to e a fa8e(
the ill was thought to have een stitched on
'ince then, there has een much deate as to how it should e classified
+eatures that separate it from other mammals: It lays eggs, no true teeth, and an asence
of mammary glands, though it can secrete mil8
It has een shown to e ale to regulate ody temperature in a primitive way
It is a highly specialised animal
!- #he changes in Australian flora and fauna over millions of years have
happened through evolution
/ather information from a secondary source to descrie some Australian fossils,
where these fossils were found and use availale evidence to e7plain how they
contriute to the development of understanding aout the evolution of species in
Australia:
Lightning ridge )&':*
.CD= , 'teropodon: It was a monotreme similar to the platypus and the echidna- Lived
.55 million years ago
"iversleigh )&orth,western Aueensland*
4 species of thylacine )#asmanian tiger* have een found
'i1e ranged from Burmese cat to $oerman
/iant "at,Kangaroo )proleopines* were found in .DDD- #hey were carnivorous-
E8altadeta ima: #hey had large ridged premolars and sharp forward 2utting lower
incisors-
A 2aw from a possum , representing the 'triped Possum
$iprotodontid: a large cow,si1ed herivore
A complete s8ull of monotreme odurodon
#hingadonta, a marsupial with very strange teeth
+angaroo, A small herivorous 8angaroo with huge teeth
0urgon )'outhern Aueensland*
+irst evidences of marsupials in Australia
A placental mammal called a condylarth
Alcoota )north east of Alice 'prings*
/iant thunder ird
:olf,si1ed Powerful #hylacine
Alcoota marsupial lion
Bluff downs:
)northern Aueensland*
Bluff,downs giant python
&aracoorte: )'outh,east 'outh Australia*
/iant short,faced 8angaroo
A giant sna8e
Perform a first,hand investigation, gather information of named Australian fossil
samples and use availale evidence to identify similarities and differences
etween current and e7tinct Australian life forms

?- <ontinuation of species has resulted, in part, from the reproductive
adaptations that have evolved in Australian plants and animals
<ompare and contrast internal and e7ternal fertilisation:
+ertilisation is the process y which the male and female gametes fuse to form a diploid
1ygote-
<onditions needed for fertilisation:
.- Both male and female gametes need to e produced and ready at same time
!- Arrangements need to e ring the gametes in contact with each other
?- :ater needs to e present )male gametes must swim to the female gamete*
E7ternal +ertilisation:
+ertilisation ta8es place outside the ody
0ost aquatic animals have e7ternal fertilisation
0ale and female gametes are shot into the water in the hope of fertilisation
#o ensure fertilisation, millions of gametes are released
#he chances of fertilisation are increased ecause:
o <yclical reproductive ehaviours
o 'ynchronised timing of gamete production and release
o #he development of courtship and mating ehaviours in animals
Internal +ertilisation:
;ccurs inside the ody of the female in animals, or in the female part of the plant in
se7ually reproducing plants
#he male gamete is transferred directly to the female gamete
As a result, the numer of female gametes is reduced greatly
&umer of male gametes produced is still as high
"eproductive strategies:
o Bringing the opposite se7es together with courtship and mating ehaviours
o >aving a method of gamete transfer
$iscuss the relative success of those forms of fertilisation in relation to the
colonisation of terrestrial and aquatic environments:
E7ternal fertilisation is successful in water, as the gametes can spread very far and wide in
the water, increasing the chances meeting other gametes from the opposite gender,
encouraging fertilisation
Also, 1ygotes are ale to spread to large areas, enaling successful colonisation of large
areas of water-
E7ternal fertilisation would not succeed on land, as there is no water through which the
male gametes can swim, and the gametes would not spread very far, as the uoyancy of
water is not there to support their travelling-
Internal fertilisation enaled the colonisation of land, as the watery environment needed is
provided y the female%s physiology
:ithout the need for e7ternal water for fertilisation, even the driest environments could e
colonised
$escrie some mechanisms found in Australian flora for:
Pollination
'eed dispersal
Ase7ual reproduction
with reference to local e7amples:
+lowers are the reproductive organs of angiosperm plants
+lowers are protected in the ud y sepals )usually petal,li8e*
Petals surround the male and female reproductive organs
0ale reproductive organ:
<alled the stamen
0ade of anther and filament
0eiosis occurs in anther and produces pollen grains
Pollen grains have a thic8 outer layer and ! haploid nuclei
+emale reproductive organ:
<alled the pistil( made up of a numer of carpels
Each carpel is made of a stigma, style and ovary
0eiosis occurs in the ovules, which are in the ovary
Pollination and +ertilisation:
Pollination is the transfer of pollen onto a mature stigma
+ertilisation occurs after pollination, in the following way:
.- #he pollen on the stigma sends a pollen tue down the style to the ovary
!- #he two haploid nuclei of the pollen grain travel down the tue- ;ne of the nuclei
ecome the nucleus of the new tue cell, while the other nucleus divides again and
they oth travel down the tue to the ovule
?- #he pollen tue enters the ovule through a tiny hole called the micropyle
@- ;ne of the nuclei fuses with the ovum to form the 1ygote
=- #he other nucleus fuses with the two other haploid nuclei to form a triploid cell
'elf,pollination involved pollen going on to the stigma of the same plant
<ross,pollination involves pollen falling on the stigma of different plants
E7amples of pollination in Australian plants:
Australian
Plant
0ethod of
Pollination
Adaptations of +lower
:attle :ind Large masses of pollen produced , can e carried over many
8ilometres y wind- Pollen is produced in such large quantities
so higher chances of landing on stigma of another flower-
Bottlerush Birds 'pectacular right red flowers attract irds
Birds visit flower for nectar, pollen attaches to their odies and
is spread from flower to flower
0elaleuca Bat 'trong smelling flower, thic8 nectar, dull flowers
/revillea Parrot Produces lots of nectar( no petals, 2ust masses of stamens
>eath
Ban8sia
Possums Produces a lot of nectars food supply for possums-
&o petals
Australian
;rchid
:asp It flowers and matures during wasp%s reeding season
"eleases scent similar to female wasp, and flowers similar to
female wasp, so as the male tries to mate, pollen rus off-
'eed dispersal is the spreading of seeds away from the parent plant- Advantages of seed
dispersal are:
'pecies are more li8ely to survive dangers such as disease, fire, or environmental
change if the seeds are covering a very widespread area- If the seeds are not spread,
the entire population can get wiped,out in one go
$ecrease in competition for space, light, or nutrients- Less competition from parent
plant, or plants from same generation-
E7amples of seed dispersal in Australian plants:
Australian Plant #ype of
$ispersal
Adaptations
+eather spear grass :ind 'eeds attached to fine hairs which float in the ree1e
'eeds can e carried hundreds of 8ilometres
'heep%s Burr Animal 'eeds have hoo8s that attach to the fur of animals, and
are carried over large distances
Acacia%s &ative
"asperry
Ants #he ants carry the fruit away to the nest, ut the seed is
covered in a coating the ant can%t eat-
'ome mechanisms of ase7ual reproduction include:
Binary +ission: Every time a single celled organism under goes mitosis, it creates ! new
organisms-
'pore +ormation: +ungi reproduce ase7ually y producing thousands of single,celled
spores- #hese will germinate if the conditions are right- A type of plant )ferns* also
produces spores-
Budding: #he parent produces a replica of itself y mitosis- #his replica continues to
grow as a new organism, ut is attached to the parent- #his tends to form large
colonies, such as coral
Eegetative Propagation: +lowering plants produce new plants from points on roots or
stems called nodes- /rasses do this-
"egeneration: It is a process that organisms grow ac8 ody parts that have een
removed or lost- In some cases, it can e a form of ase7ual reproduction, of the ro8en
ody part grows to form a new organism-
$escrie some mechanisms found in Australian fauna to ensure:
+ertilisation
'urvival of the emryo and of the young after irth
#o ensure fertilisations, se7ually mature individuals need to e rought together
#his process is called mating
0any factors influence mating ehaviour: temperature, food, phases of moon, etc-
'ome adaptations of Australian species to ensure fertilisation include:
Bower Bird: #hey lac8 showy plumage, so the male decorates its nest with right lue
o2ects to attract the female- #hey have elaorate courtship rituals
Australian Brolgas: Performs an elaorate dance efore mating
<ommon #rout: #hey come together during the full moon of their mating season and
release their gametes into the water
'har8s: #he male gametes are transferred directly into the female through claspers,
which go into the female%s opening, called a cloaca-
:hales, 'eals and $olphins: All have internal fertilisation, where the male gametes are
deposited directly into the female- #hey often have spectacular courtship rituals-
#he survival of the emryo and of the young after irth is very important-
E7amples of Australian animals include:
Animal 'urvival of Emryo 'urvival of Foung after Birth
Platypus Emryo develops inside the
egg within the uterus for @
wee8s- Incuation for .5
days- Eggs are stuc8 to the
fur of adomen
After hatching, young platypus
remains in the urrow for several
months, otaining nutrients y
suc8ling on mil- Foung leave nest
when they have grown fur
Kangaroo Internal fertilisation
Partial internal development
Eery short gestation period in
the uterus
After irth, underdeveloped young
crawls into mother%s pouch and
continues development while
feeding on mil8, for @ months-
/astric rooding frog After e7ternal fertilisation, the
female swallows the eggs,
and they are incuated in the
stomach- All digestive
processes stop for 4,B wee8s
#he larvae develop in the stomach,
which acts as a uterus- #he
developed froglets leave the
stomach through the mouth
E7plain how the evolution of these reproductive adaptations has increased the
chances of continuity of the species in the Australian environment:
#hese adaptations have developed as a result of natural selection, and thus these are the
Gfittest% for their environment-
'ince these reproductive adaptations are well suited to their environment, chances if
continuity are increased for the plant-
$escrie the conditions under which ase7ual reproduction is advantageous, with
reference to specific Australian e7amples:
Ase7ual reproduction results in the production of offspring genetically identical to the parent
If the environment is unchanging, and the characteristics of a particular organism are well
suited to the environment, then ase7ual reproduction would e advantageous, since all the
offspring will have the advantageous characteristics
An e7ample would e 'phagnum in the Australian Alps- It has managed to colonise whole
valleys through ase7ual reproduction
Ase7ual reproduction is also advantageous when the parent plant can provide nutrients to
the newly developing plant )'pinife7*- Also the parent plant can provide water to the small
plant )darling lily*-
@- A study of palaeontology and past environments increases our
understanding of the possile future range of plants and animals
E7plain the importance of the study of past environments in predicting the
impact of human activity in present environments:
#he 8nowledge gained from palaeontology )fossils* and the study of past environments can
help us to understand present day ecosystems
#his 8nowledge can e used to predict and determine the future for Australia%s plants and
animals
Palaeoiologists gain 8nowledge aout the long term changes that have occurred in
ecosystems over millions of years- At "iversleigh, fossils are eing used to see how
Australia%s iota evolved
Identify ways in which palaeontology assists understanding of the factors that
may determine distriution of flora and fauna in present and future
environments:
#he main findings of palaeontology in Australia are:
.- Loss of iodiversity over time , reduction in rainforest
!- #hylacine , numers were already declining, Europeans finally 8illed them all
?- Analysis of plant and animal fossils can allow palaeontologists to create a picture of the
ecosystems at the time-
0ain causes of e7tinction: climate drier, agriculture and hunting
E7plain the need to maintain iodiversity:
Biodiversity is essential for maintaining the natural functions of the Earth
'uch as providing clean water, air, productive soil, and recycling matter
0any human activities rely on iodiversity: agriculture, forestry, fisheries, tourism, te7tiles,
etc
#he general health of the planet depends on iodiversity