Edexcel P3 Radiation in Medicine,

Ionising radiation and Kinetic Theory

Physics
Pre exam presentation
By Mr Nesbo
Units!
You need to know the units for each value (or ANY
equation): some tricky ones!
Temperature K (kelvin) or C (degrees Celsius)
Momentum Kg m/s (kilogram meters per second)
Charge C (coulomb)
Energy of an electron/photon (small particle) eV
(electron volt)
Refractive index, n , does not have units
Sin r and Cos r (or i) does not have units
Power of a lense D (dioptre)
Intensity W/m
2
(Watts per meter square)
Radiation for Diagnosis
Radiation
detected
How it forms an image Where it is used
Visible light Light reflects off features to form
an image
Endoscopes
X-rays X-rays are absorbed by some
materials inside the body but not
others.
X-ray photography and
CAT scanners
Gamma rays Positron annihilates with electrons
in the body producing 2 gamma
rays
PET scanners
Ultrasound High-frequency sound waves
reflect off features inside the
body.
Ultrasound scanners
Higher
Intensity = power of incident radiation / area
I = P / A
Power measured in watts (W), area measured in
meters squared (m
2
) so intensity is measured in
watts per
square meter
(W/m
2
).
How the eye works
Iris controls the
amount of light
entering the eye.

Lenses
Key language:
Magnified means larger.
Diminished means
smaller.
A real image (on the
other side of the lens to
the object). A virtual
image (on the same side
of the lens as the
object).

Power of a Lens
1 / f = 1 / u + 1 / v
u is the object distance, v is the image distance.
If the image is virtual then v is a negative
number.

Reflection and refraction
Snells law
sin I / sin r = n
r
/ n
i
(a constant number)
focus on equation i/r then r/I
X-ray machines uses an evacuated tube (so travelling
electrons dont collide with air particles) with a negative
electrode (cathode). When heated thermionic emission
fires electrons towards a rotation positive electrode
(anode).
The electrons
collide with the
anode passing
energy to the
metal particles
which in turn
emit x-rays.

Equations for flowing particles
Higher
Flow of electrons equation:
I = N x q where I = current in amperes (A), N = number of
electrons flowing each second and q = charge of each
electron

Kinetic energy equation:
E
k
= m * v
2
(m is mass in kg, v is velocity of the electron
in m/s).
Energy can be measured in eV (electron volts, electron
charge * 1 volt).
CAT scans:
2D image is formed from
several directions and can
be used to form a 3D
image.

Fluoroscope:
2D image is taken to in
one direction. A camera
can be used to form a
real time video clip.


Electron and positron radiation
Neutron changes into a
proton => emits an
electron (beta minus
decay). Atomic
number increases.
Higher
Down quark changes
to up quark.

Proton changes into a
neutron => emits a
positron (beta plus
decay). Atomic
number decreases.
Up quark changes to
down quark
6 protons
8 neutrons
7 protons
7 neutrons
6 protons
4 neutrons
5 protons
5 neutrons
Temperature K (degrees kelvin) or C (degrees Celsius)
Momentum Kg m/s (kilogram meters per second)
Charge C (coulomb)
Energy of an electron/photon (small particle) eV
(electron volt)
Refractive index, n , does not have units
Sin r and Cos r (or i) does not have units
Power of a lense D (dioptre)
Intensity W/m
2
(Watts per meter square)
Quarks:
Proton = u + d + u = p (total = +1e)
Neutron = d + u + d = n (total = 0)
Radiation in hospitals
Palliative care help issues but does not cure them. (ie,
shrink a tumour)

Beta emitters are used for internal radiotherapy.
Gamma sources and high-frequency X-rays are used for
external radiotherapy.

Tracers vary so that they will be absorbed by specific parts
of the body.
A tracer can be a radioactive isotope of the normal
substance which the body part absorbs. The tracer must
have a short half-life so that the body is not exposed
more than needs be. Due to this the isotopes are made
close by.

PET scans (positron emission
tomography)
PET scan uses
a positron
emitting tracer.
The positrons
annihilate with
electrons in
the body
producing two
gamma rays in
opposite
directions.

Particle Accelerators Help Scientists find out about the
Universe:
Scientists use huge particle accelerators to smash particles
into each other at tremendous speeds, to see what
happens what kind of radiation is given off, what new
particles are created. Etc.
This gives clues about how to Universe works, so scientists
can develop better explanations about the physical world
Research into big scientific questions like particle physics is
done internationally. Particle accelerators are so expensive
that not every country can afford its own. Sharing ideas is
part of science anyway.
Large Hadron Collider (LHC)
The LHC (Large Hadron
Collider) is a particle
accelerator.

It accelerates two
beams of protons or
ions to high speed in
opposite directions
eventually causing
them to collide.

Cyclotrons
Cyclotrons are used to make the isotopes for
PET scans.

States of Matter
Solids- Particles are held tightly together and
cannot move, but can vibrate.
Liquids- Particles are still held together but are
able to move over each other, but are
uncompressible.
Gases- Particles are far apart and can move
around quickly, also compressible.

Collisions
Momentum is always conserved (involves direction).

Momentum equation:

Momentum = mass X velocity
Total momentum before a collision = sum of
momentum of all objects
(taking into account direction, choose one direction
to be +ve and the other ve)
Collisions
There are two types of collisions:
Elastic collisions, momentum is conserved and there is
no loss of kinetic energy

Inelastic collisions, momentum partially conserved as
some of the kinetic energy is transferred to other forms
(commonly thermal or sound energy)

This means that there is a loss of kinetic energy in
inelastic collisions. The collisions we see on a daily basis
are almost always inelastic. However, collisions of
particles are elastic.
Kinetic Theory
Temperature is a measurement of the average
kinetic energy of the particles [in a gas].

Pressure is the force particles exert on a
surface/wall of a container when collide. Measured
in pascals (Pa) where 1 Pa = 1 N / m
2
.

Absolute zero is the lowest temperature (or
average kinetic energy) and occurs at -273 C, also
known as 0 K (zero degrees kelvin).
Changes in temperatures, volumes and
pressures
Under medium
temp. and pressure
the balloon has a
normal volume (A).
If the temp. inside
increases and/or
the pressure outside decreases the balloon, the
volume of the balloon increase (B).
The opposite applies if conditions are reversed.
alpha radiation Positively charged particles made up of two protons and
two neutrons.
background radiation Constant low-level radiation from food and
environmental sources.
beta radiation High-energy electrons emitted by some radioactive
materials.
gamma radiation Short-wavelength electromagnetic radiation emitted
during radioactive decay.
Geiger-Mller tube A device used to detect and measure radiation from
radioactive materials.
ionizing radiation High-energy radiation capable of ionizing substances
through which it passes.
radioactivity The spontaneous emission of radiation from the nucleus of an
unstable atom.
Nuclear glossary
Particles Symbol Structure Relative
charge
Penetrating Stopped by

Alpha


Helium nucleus
2x neutron 2x
proton

+2
The least

Paper
10cm 1m of air

Beta



Electron
(high speed)

-1

A lot

Aluminium
10m of air

Gamma


Light ray
(EM radiation)

0

The most
Lead
Not stopped by
air
30cm of concrete
Nuclear characteristics
Nuclear reactors
Safety:
Radioactive materials produce
dangerous radiation
Students frequently refer to
protective gear needing to be
worn when asked about safety HOWEVER this is
only one area of importance.

THERE ARE DANGERS AND SAFETY POINTS YOU CAN
DISCUSS!
different types of ionising radiation
produce different dangers
energy from the ionising radiation can be
absorbed by the human body
(prolonged) exposure to radiation can
cause {tissue / cell} damage and {mutation/
damage to DNA}
increased risk due to long term exposure
to raised background levels of radiation
Risks
Safety precautions
protective clothing and handling
systems should be used
minimise exposure to the ionising
radiation
intensity of radiation decreases with
distance from the source
personal radiation dose should be
monitored
monitoring of background levels of
radiation