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A HANDBOOK
OF
PHYSICS
a^v
BY
W. H.
WHITE, M.A.,
B.Sc.,
A.R.G.Sc.
LECTURER IN PHYSICS AT THE EAST LONDON COLLEGE
AND AT ST.
MARY'S
HOSPITAL MEDICAL SCHOOL
EXAMINER IN LONDON UNIVERSITY
WITH OVER
3OO
DIAGRAMS
METHUEN " CO. LTD.
36 ESSEX STREET, W.G.
LONDON
First Published in
PREFACE
THIS
book,
written in
response
to constant
appeals
from
my
students,
covers
the
requirements
of the
first
or
intermediate examinations of the
universities,
a
stage
which demands
a
very
fair
general knowledge
of
the
subject
and
one beyond
which it is
nowadays un- desirable
to trust to
a single
treatise.
Many
of the
examples are drawn,
with
permission,
from the
papers
of
Aberdeen
[Ab],
Dublin
[D],
London
[L],
Manchester
[M],
and St. Andrews
[St. A].
Those
reading
the book will
of
course give an
occasional
eye
to their
own syllabus;
in
particular,
to make it
more
accessible to medical
students,
a
colon
:
is
put
after the number at the head of each
paragraph
with which
they are
not called
upon
to
concern
themselves,
and to
typical questions
from their
papers
a
little
m
is suffixed.
It is idle to
suppose
that the
general
reader will find
much inducement to
peruse
this
briefly
written
book,
and
to
the absolute
beginner
I recommend
some
little
help
from
friend
or
teacher.
I have drawn
my
diagrams
very
simply,
but to scale
viii A HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS
wherever
practicable.
Those
working
in
an
ordinary
laboratory
will
easily picture
the
necessary
wooden frame- works,
etc.
;
others
may
purchase,
very
cheaply, catalogues
from the
advertising dealers;
therein
they
will find
abundant woodcuts and
explanations
of all
sorts
of
apparatus,
ancient and modern.
To all those friends
upon
whose
patience
I have
trespassed
in the
preparation
of this
book,
and
especially
to J. W.
E.,
I
proffer
that
very
inadequate acknowledgment,
my
best thanks.
W. H. WHITE
TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER
I. Units of
Length, Time,
and Mass
PAGE
1
MECHANICS
II. Motion and Force
...
..4
III. Work and
Energy
.
.15
IV. Gravitation
....
.22
V. Motion in
a
Curve
. . . .
.27
VI.
Equilibrium
of Forces
...
.33
VII. Kotation
....
.47
VIII. Fluids
....
.55
IX. The Measurement of Pressure
.
.66
X.
Specific Gravity
. . . .
.72
XI. Fluids in Motion
. .
.80
XII.
Elasticity
....
.85
XIII. The Mechanics of
Apparatus
of Precision
. .
95
XIV. The Precise Measurement of
Length, Time,
and Mass
101
HEAT
XV. The
Expansion
Caused
by
Heat
XVI.
Thermometry
.
XVII.
Calorimetry
XVIII. Latent-Heat
Calorimetry
XIX.
Cooling
XX. Convection and Conduction of Heat
XXI. The Mechanical
Equivalent
of Heat
XXII.
Change
of State"
Melting or
Fusion
113
131
146
152
159
164
172
176
A HANDBOOK
OF PHYSICS
CHAPTER
XXIII.
Change
of State"
Vaporization
XXIV. The
Liquefaction
of Gases
.
XXV.
Hygrometry .
XXVI. On
Meteorology
XXVII.
Viscosity
XXVIII. The
Liquid
Surface
.
XXIX. Diffusion
.....
WAVE MOTION
XXX. Periodic Motion
.
XXXI. Wave Motion
....
XXXII. Interference of Waves
XXXIII. Reflection and Refraction of Waves
.
SOUND
XXXIV.
Sound,
its Nature and
Speed
XXXV. Pitch and Wave
Length
of Sounds
.
XXXVI.
Resonance.
Pipes
and
Strings
XXXVII. Vibrators
Producing
More
Complex
Tones
.
LIGHT
XXX VI II.
Rays
and Shadows.
Photometry
.
XXXIX. The Reflection and Refraction of
Light
XL. Lenses
.....
XLI.
Spherical
Mirrors
....
XLII. Practical Methods for Mirrors and Thin Lenses
XLIII. Combinations of Lenses
XLIV. Colour
....
XLV. Aberrations of Mirrors and Lenses
.
XLVI. The
Eye
XLVII.
Optical
Instruments
....
XLYIII.
Aperture
in
Optical
Instruments
XLIX.
Speed
of
Light
....
L. Polarized
Light ....
PAGE
186
207
212
217
225
231
241
256
266
273
279
287
296
305
319
331
339
353
371
378
381
386
401
408
417
439
448
452
LI. Radiation
458
TABLE OF CONTENTS xi
CHAPT.B
MAGNETISM
LII.
Magnets
and
Magnetic
Materials
. . .
474
LIII.
Magnetic
Fields
. . . . .
.486
LIV. The Earth's
Magnetism
. . . .
.499
ELECTRICITY
LV. Frictional
Electricity
. . . .
.510
LVI. Electric Field and Potential
. . .
.527
LVII. Electric
Capacity
and
Energy
....
534
MAGNETISM AND ELECTRICITY
LVIII.
Magnetic
Fields and Electric Currents
"
Electro-
Magnetic
Induction
.....
544
LIX. The Measurement of Electric Currents
. . .
567
LX. Resistance
. . . . .
.574
LXI. Electro-motive Force
. . . .
.591
"
LXII.
Energy
and Thermal Effects of Current
. .
598
LXIII. The
Passage
of
Electricity Through Liquids
. .
609
LXIV. The
Passage
of
Electricity Through
Gases
. .
629
LXV. Electric
Signalling to
a
Distance
. .
.641
Answers
.......
653
Index
661
INTRODUCTION
PHYSICS
or
NATURAL PHILOSOPHY is the
study
of the
nature
of
things
inanimate.
In that last word
perhaps
lies the
cause
of the
un-
attractiveness of
physical
science to
many
minds,
the
things
it
deals with
so minutely seem so
remote
from the
things
that
matter
most
in
everyday
life. Those who
spent
their time
Tre/ot
TOV "/"wews
fell indeed under the lash of Socratic
contempt
"
doubtless the
majority
of the
mysterious
theories advanced
by
the students
of nature
in the
day
of that
great
student of
men
would still
excite
our own
derision. But since
then, men
of science have
laid
very
much to
heart his
injunction
to
'
leave
out the
gods,'
and
denying
themselves the
subterfuge
of
referringa difficulty
to the intervention of
an
attendant
spirit,
have built
more surely
in the realm of nature.
Nor in Natural
Philosophy
have
we anything
to do with that
principle
of Life which is the
special study
of the
biologist,
and
dwells
or
dwelt in all the structures
that find
description
under
Natural
History.
We
may
from time to time be able to indicate
physical
processes
that
are employed
in the
organism,
but
no
pretence
is
ever
made that the
physically explicable
part
is the
whole of the vital
process.
Although
the little
gods
are slain,
there is
a
certain deus
ex
machina
frequently given
credit far
beyond
due. That is the
'
natural Law.' Such and such
happens
'
because so-and-so's
Law
says
it
must
'
is
an
'
explanation
'
that satisfies
a
great
many
who would
regard
the
pious poet's perfectly
accurate
one,
that
'
'tis their
nature to,' as a
truism beneath
contempt.
A Law in Natural
Philosophy
is
an expression
of the
originator's
xiv
A HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS
belief,
founded
on
the
gradually
accumulating
evidence of ob- servation
and
experiment
(often
very
indirect),
that under
pre- scribed
circumstances matter
invariably
behaves in the
manner
stated,
provided
that all
disturbing
influences
are
got
rid of.
As time
goes
on,
reliance
comes
to be
placed
on
the law
according
to the
way
it is
supported,
or not, by
further
experiment.Every
success
increases its
probability
and
every
failure diminishes
it,
but
always
it remains
a
probability
:
'
So far
as
is known at
present
'
is the unwritten
preface
to
every
accepted
natural law.
Of
existing
laws, some
gain
but
partialrecognition,
as
being
still
very
much in the
making. Some,
like
Boyle's
law, sur- vive
as
being
wide
generalizations
of
great
convenience and
sufficient
accuracy
for most
practical
purposes,
though
not
per- fectly
true.
Others,
like Ohm's law of electrical conduction in
metals, can
be described
as stringently
tested to
one
part
in
a
million. And
a
few " the Newtonian laws of motion and
gravita- tion,
the conservation of
energy
principle,
etc. " have
come to
form
a
very
creed of the natural
philosopher ;
an
exalted
position
which does but render them
more
than
ever
subject
to the keenest
attack
by
every
new-discovered method of
experiment.
Again,
as
to the
meaning
of
a
Theory. Originally
a mere sus- picion
in
some
active
mind,
it has been
put
forward
as a
'
working
hypothesis
'
and been found to fit in with the results of
large
numbers of
experiments,
until it has become the familiar
Theory
to which men's
thoughts
are
almost
unconsciously moulded,
and
for
a
while it controls the
progress
of its branch of science. But
when
many
new
facts
come to
light
which it cannot
explain,
and
it is shown that
a
quite
different
supposition
agrees
with them
and also with the facts
on
which the former
theory
was based,
then it
may
be time to let it
pass away
" with the honours of
war,
for
maybe
it will become
a
useful
allyagain
as
the fuller
theorydevelops.
In
most cases
the function of
a
theory
is to
give
us a
mental
workingmodel,
built
up
of
easily
realizable notions
of
thingswe
can see and
feel,
which in its action shall imitate and
help
us
to
INTRODUCTION
xv
forecast the
stranger
and
more
recondite
processes
going
on
among
entities of which
our
appreciation
is
mainly
intellectual.
We need
not
entertain the conceit that in it
we
have hit
upon
the ultimate truth
;
we are
but
exploring
what
promises to
be
the
next turning
on
the
way
to that far-distant
goal.
With these few words of introduction
we
must turn at
once
to
the consideration of what
by common
consent
are
the
physical
realities around
us.
Broadly speaking,
the
properties
concerned
in their
appeal to
our
muscular
sense are
dealt with first
;
second
comes our temperature sense
;
third and fourth
(after
a
deferred
mechanical
digression)
the actions that affect
ear
and
eye.
Taste
and smell
go
to
the
chemist, but
per
contra
the
things
with
which the book concludes lie in
a
region
in which the human
organism
has
as yet
evolved
no
special
sense
whatever.
!
+1
A HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS
CHAPTER I
UNITS OF
LENGTH, TIME,
AND MASS
"
1. Two of the
properties
of Matter
are
these: it
occupies
three-dimensional
space,
and it
possesses
mass.
Matter does
not, however, always
occupy
the
same portion
of
space
relatively
to
surrounding
matter
;
it
can
move,
and
one
portion
may
travel
a given
distance
many
times
over
while
another traverses
it
only once.
Here is involved the idea of
Time.
A
body*
may
move
in
space,
and
move back,
and be
as
it
was
;
but it has moved also
in
time,
and there there is
no going
back.
Motion in
space
-^motion in time=
speed or velocity.
"
2. Time
is
practically
measured
as a
distance
on a
scale
"
across a sundial,
round the rim of
a
clock
face, or on
the smoked
drum of
a chronograph "
which is traversed in
a
motion
we are
content to believe
unchanging, or having
uniform
velocity.
Often
one
inverts this mode of
reckoning : always,
when travel- ing
by
train
"
"
it's
a
four hours'
journey."
Of the
longer
intervals of time the lunar month is the
most
easily
observed,
it
was
the unit of the Chaldacans and doubtless
the
'
year
'
of Methuselah. In
Egypt,
where all
prosperity hung
on a flood,
the solar
year
was
introduced and
published by
the
priesthood as
360
days,
the
slightinaccuracy enabling
them
to
remain sole holders of the secret of the date of
rising
of the Nile.
In
temperate
latitudes,
with their
sharply
marked
seasons,
the
solar
year
must
always
have been the unit
;
witness the
many
temples
oriented to either the
Mayday or
the Midsummer
sunrise,
*
Coherent
portions
of matter
are
termed bodies. A
body
whose
dimensions
we
wish to
disregard
is called
a particle.
2
A HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS
best known to most of
us
the circle of doom
on
Salisbury
(
Salisbury)
Plain.
"
3. Matter
possesses
mass.
All
ordinaryphysics(and
chemistry)
is based on
the
assumptions
that
mass
and
matter are
inseparable
" mass being
a
strict
measure
of the
quantity
of matter " and
that neither
can
be created
or
destroyedby
any
physical
process.
Experiments
with
a
number of chemical
processes
have shown
no
definite
sign
of loss
or
gain
of
mass as
great
as
1
part
in 100
millions,
i.e.within
practicable
limits of
accuracy.
"
4. Units.
Thus there
are
three fundamental
quantities,
length, time,
and
mass.
The units
as
multiples
of which these
will be measured
in this book
are
the
centimetre,second,
and
gramme
respectively.
The centimetre
is
one
one-hundredth of the
metre,
which is
the distance,
at the
temperature
of
melting
ice,
between two
marks cut
in
a
bar of durable
metal,
preserved
in Paris.
The
square
centimetre
(cm.2or
sq.
cm.)
isthe unit of
Area,
and
the cubic centimetre
(cm.3
or
c.c.)
of Volume.
The second is the
common mean
solar
second,
1/86,400
of
the
mean
interval between successive transits of the
sun over
the meridian of
a
fixed
observatory.
It
appears
to be
really
familiar
only
to those
brought
up
within
sound of a
grandfather
clock.
The
gramme
is
one
one-thousandth
part
of the
mass
of the
kilogram,
a
certain
lump
of durable
metal,
preserved
in Paris.
The
gramme
represents
(except
to the last uncertain
degree
of
refinement)
the
mass
of 1
c.c. of
pure
water at its
temperature
of
maximum
density(4"C.).
The consistent
system
of
reckoning
based
on these,
the
centi-
metre-gramme-second (c.g.s.) system, was firstdevised in
Eng- land
in 1873.
I
trust
that
nowadays
these
measures are no
longer
unfamiliar.
In
daily
life few of
us
need
or
wish to desert those marvellous
tables of
weights
and
measures drilled into
us
at
school,
and
now as
much
a
part
of
our
patriotism
and
as
defectively remem- bered
as
the National Anthem
;
tables with
never a decimal
factor
among
them and with
one name
doingduty
for three
or
four different
things.
One
regrets
that the
yard
that
came
from
the
arm
of
a
king
should
giveplace
to the
overgrown
metre, or
the inch breadth of
a
man's thumb
to the thinness of
a
pinched
little
finger;
but the
intricately
convertible
quantities
met with
MECHANICS
CHAPTER II
MOTION AND FORCE
"
5.
Motion. Three kinds of motion
are possible
to
a body "
(a)
Deformation
:
it alters in size and
shape (clay
in
fingers).
(6)
Rotation
:
it turns
or spins
round its
centre.
(c)
Translation
:
it
moves
from
place
to
place
without either
(a) or (b)" (a
pen
writing
;
a ship'scompass-card).
Any or
all
can
go
on continuously
;
or stop
and
go
back
periodically
as an
oscillation
(Chapter XXX).
The most
general
motion consists of all three at
once (e.g.a
smoke-cloud
curling
out of
a chimney).
In
a rigid body (a)
is
impossible,
and
(6)
and
(c)
combine to the
most
usual motion
(e.g.
cricket-ball, or
the bat
swung
to meet
it).
Rotation
will have
Chapter
VII to itself. We
are now going
to
take
only (c),
the linear motion of
a rigid body.
Since all
parts
per- form
equal
and
parallelpaths,
it is sufficient to consider
only one
"particle,negligibly
small in
size,
but
supposed
endowed with the
whole
mass of
the
body.
"
6. Linear motion of
a
particle.
If it
can move
in
one straight
line
only,
then
calling
motion
one
way
-f~
and the other
way
"
,
the result of its motion
or
its
'
resultant
displacement
'
is the
algebraic sum
of all its
'
component displacements.'
But if successive
displacements are
in different directions
as
in
Fig.
1
(i)
the resultant is the
straight
line
AZ,
which
joins
the
last
position
to the first and
completes
the
Polygon of Displace- ments
ABCZ.
AZ is the
'
geometrical,'
'
directed,'
or
'
Vector
'
sum
of
AB, BC, etc.,
each of which is
a vector,
i.e.
represents
by
its
length
and direction
a quantity possessing
definite
magnitude
and direction.
MOTION AND FORCE 5
For
only
two motions
the
polygon
becomes the
Triangle
ABC
(ii).
The
closing
side is the resultant of the other two.
By redrawing
with the
component
motions in different
succes- sion
the reader
can assure
himself that this
ultimately
makes
no
difference, nor
does it if
they
are
broken
up
into small
steps
and
appliedalternately,
as
in
Fig.
1
(iii).
And this also shows that
the
diagonal
of
a
Parallelogram
is the
same as
the
closing
side of
a
triangle.
"
7. Velocity
is the distance travelled in
a
unit
of
time
in
a
given
direction. It is
a
vector
quantity.Suppose
two blows
given
to a
particle
P, one
of which would drive it to
Q
in
a
second and
FIG. 1.
the other alone to
R,
Fig.
1
(iv).
The result isthat the
particle
is
driven to
S,
where PS is the
diagonal
of the
parallelogram
PQSR
or
the
closing
side of the
triangle
on PQ
and
a
line
parallel
to PR.
Now the order of the
displacements
made
no difference,nor
their
going
on
in
any
number of alternate
steps,
i.e.
virtually
simultaneously. Suppose,
therefore,
the two blows
simultaneous,
the velocities combine into
one
resultant found
by
the vector
parallelogram
or
triangle exactly
as
before. And if several blows
were
struck
on
the
particle
at
one
moment the vector sum
of the
velocities
they produce
would
again
be the
closing
side of the
vector
polygon.
Examples
of this combination of velocities abound. The
fly
crossing
a
moving railwaycarriage
in 2
sec.
southwards is
6 A HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS
meanwhile carried 160 ft. east and
actually
moves a
littlefaster
than the train in
a
direction
slightly
S. of E.
relatively
to the
track. The earth's surface has carried both half
a
mile
nearer
the
rising moon,
and earth and
moon
have travelled
some
30 miles
on
their
journey
round the
sun.
All motion is relative
:
which of
two
thingsmoves,
and the
way
it
moves,
is a matter
of
agree- ment
with the
neighbours.
Once the fences
ran
past
you,
now
you
regard
the earth
as fixed,
except
when
thinkingastronomically
or
learningskating.
"
8.
*
Resolution
'
of vectors. Since
any
side of
a
vector
triangle
represents
the resultant of the other
two,
the two sides of
any
triangle
that
can
be built
on a
given
vector
as
base
are
possible
motions into which the actual motion
can
be
'
resolved.' It is
often useful to resolve into two directions at
rightangles;
i.e.
a
right-angled triangle
is built
on
the vector
as
hypotenuse,having
its sides
parallel
to the desired
directions,
e.g.
a
ball thrown
up
at 60" at 40 ft.
per
sec.
has at start
a
horizontal
velocity
of
20 ft.
/sec.
and
a
vertical of
34J (Fig.
1
(v)).
"
9.
*
Dimensions
'
of
velocity. Velocitybeing
a
length
per
unit time is said to be of
'
dimensions
'
length-f-time,
L/T.
The
onlyvelocity
with
a name
of its
own
is the
knot,or
nautical
mile
per
hour.
'
Knots
per
hour
'
is
an acceleration,
0 landsman !
"
10. Momentum. A massive
body
is
naturally
looked
upon
as
containing
a
greater
'
quantity
of motion
'
than
a
light
one at
the
same
speed.
This
'
quantity,'
obtained
by multiplying
the
mass and
speed together, mv,
is called the momentum of the
body.
Like
v,
it is vectorial. A 2-oz. bird
flying
off south at
32 ft.
/sec.
possesses
momentum
equal
but at
rightangles
to that
of
a
4-lb. cat
ambling
west at 1 ft.
/sec.
"11.
Acceleration.
Velocityrarely
remains
steady,
or
uni- form,
for
any
length
of
time,
but suffers acceleration to
higher
speed
or retardation
(negativeacceleration)
towards
rest. This
acceleration is measured
as
the extra
velocityacquired
in each
unit of
time,
e.g.
a
body
falls at
a
speed
which exceeds
by
32
ft.
/sec.
the
speed
it had
a
second
before,
its
speeds
at the ends
of successive seconds from rest
being32, 64, 96,
etc. Thrown
upwards
it would have
upward
acceleration^ "32.
Change
of
velocity
per
second is distance
per
second,
per
second
and is of dimensions
L/T2.
It is another vector and is treated
by
the
parallelogram
and
polygon.
Acceleration
can
be
applied
in directions other than the line
MOTION AND FORCE 7
of
motion,
and then alters direction
as
well
as velocity, or
in the
particular case
of circular
motion,
direction
only.
"12.
Distance, time, speed,
and
acceleration.
A
particle
with
Velocityv
passes
over v
units of
length
in 1 unit
time,
therefore in
t
goes
a
distance
vt.
On
a
diagram plot
t as
abscissae and
v as ordinates,
then
the
distance
vt is
represented by
the
rectangular
area
in
Fig.
2
(A).
If
v
alters
steadily
to
v
at end of
t
the
average
speed
is
%(v-\-v)
and the distance covered is
represented by
the whole
area.
TIME
r
B
Fio. 2.
In
particular,
starting
from rest and
steadily acquiring
final
v
distance
s=\vt" %(v/t)t2
v
is
gained
in
t
;
v/t,gained
in
1,
is
/.
acceleration
a
/.
distance travelled
S=|at2
represented by
the
triangular
area
in
Fig.
2
(B).
The
speed
v
after
t
from rest
is of
course at
=aZtZ=V~
"r V2=
"
13. Force. Newtonian Laws of Motion I and II. Variation
of
velocity
means
variation of
mv,
the momentum of the
moving
mass
;
and the
product
of
mass
and acceleration
(MV/T
or
ML/T2)
means
the extra momentum
acquired
per
second, or
the rate of
change
of momentum.
What does this
mean
? What
causes
the
change
? Sir Isaac
Newton laid down three Laws
or
axioms
of
Motion,
of which the
firsttwo
are :"
I.
Every body
continues in its
state
of
relative
rest or motion
in
a
straight
line
except
when
compelledby
Force
to
change
it.
This is
a statement of the inertness
or
Inertia of Matter.
8 A HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS
II. Force is measured
by
the
quantityof
motion
(Momentum)
it
produces
or
destroys
per
second in its
own
line
of
action.
Our muscular
sense
informs
us
that
we
have to exert
force to
set ourselves
or
anything
else in
motion, or
to check its
speed,
or to
persuade
it to
come
round in
a curve.
We
argue
that
our
own
experience
holds
good generally,
and that whatever affects
the motion of
a
body
is
exerting
force
on
it. The second law
quantitatively
connects force and motion.
The
vector
polygon
and
parallelogram evidentlyapply
to forces
as
well
as to accelerations,momenta, velocities,
and
displace- ments.
"
14. The unit of force must be that
force
which
actingfor
one
second
produces
unit
momentu^p
" sets 1
grm.
moving
at a
speed
of 1
cm.
per
sec., producing
the unit acceleration
in unit
mass.
This is the
dyne.
By experiments
to be described in
Chapter
IV itisfound that the
earth exerts
on a
gramme
mass an
attraction which increases its
speed
about 981
cm.
/sec.
in each second of its motion. That is
the
weightof
a
gramme
mass
is about 981 times the unit
offorce,
the
dyne.
The
dyne
is thus
a
trifle
more
than
a
milligramweight.*
"
15. Mass and
weight.
The
dyne
and the
gramme
weight.
Why
drag
in the
dyne
?
Why
not
keep
to the
gramme
weight
as
unit
of force ? For two reasons :"
(1)
Either unit force would be 981 times unit increase of
momentum,
which is its fundamental
measure,
or
else unit
length
must
be
similarly
increased.
(2)
The unit
quantity
of
matter,
attracted down
with
1
grm.
weight
at sea-level in latitude
45",
weighs
2-5
mg.
more at the
pole
and 2-5 less at the
equator,
and also less
on a
mountain-top(" 29).
Masses
are
comparableby weighingonly
provided
that
they
are
close
together
on
the earth and
equidistant
from its centre.
Weight
is
an
accident of
position.
We suffer from it consider- ably
on
earth.
Why
cannot we
take
a run
and
a
jump
and
soar
up
as
pleasantly
as an
aeroplane
? Because the earth
pulls
us
down
so
fiercely
that
our
legs
cannot
fling
us
free of its surface
for
more
than
a
second and
a
quarter.
On the
moon a
ball would
stay
up
six times
as
long
as here,
and
flung
as a
meteorite into
*
Its smallness involves
big numbers,
which the
physicist
writes in
powers
of
10;
e.g.
981 millions " 9'81 x 108. And small fractions in
negative
powers,
'000033 = 3-3 x 10-6.
MOTION AND FORCE 9
cosmic
space
its
weight
would
depend
on
its
proximity
to an
attracting planet.
But to
get
a
notion of the
speed
of fall
on
the
massive
sun,
shut
yourself
in
a room
with
a
2-oz. rocket minus
its stick.
Mass and momentum
are
the
same
everywhere.
It would take
just
as
much effort to bowl the cricket -ball at the usual
speed
on
the
moon.
In water one's small residuum of
weight
would
bring
one with
a
very
harmless
bump
to the bottom of the
tank,
but
an inadvertent collisionwith the bank reminds
one, by
the
violent
change
of
momentum,
that one's
mass
remains.
Evidently
the number of
dynes
in the
measure
of
a
force will
be about 981 times the number of
gramme's-weight
in it.
FIG. 3.
"
16. Friction. We
never see
the first
phrase
of the laws of
motion
obeyed. Moving
bodies,
unaided
by applied
power
or
downhill
slope,always
slow down and
stop.
We
are
bidden to
look for forces
actingalways
to reduce
momentum. We know
that
reducing
the
roughness
of surfaces in contact and their
relative
speedprolongs
the
motion,
and removal of air enables
Mr. Brennan's
gyroscopes
to
spin,
undriven,
for hours. We have
reduced
Friction.
Friction is
a
force which
always destroys
momentum. It
breaks down the
motion, as
in all those contrivances
misspelt
1
brakes.' It
must be subtracted from
any
force
applied
to in- crease
speed.
Force
applied"
friction= increase of momentum
per
second in
direction of
force,
or
Force
applied=friction-f-
ditto.
Friction
helps
a
force
applied
to decrease active
mv.
10 A HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS
"
17. Laws of Friction of Solids. Measurement of coefficientof
friction. The frictional resistance to motion between solid
sur- faces
depends
on
the material
they
are
formed
on
and their state
of
polish.
Within limits it is
proportional
to the force
pressing
them
together.
Within wide limits it does not
depend
on
the
size of the surfaces
nor
their
speed
of
rubbing(thoughalways
greaterjust
at the start "
'
stiction
').
Liquids
and lubricated surfaces follow
a
diiferent law
("240).
The
Coefficient of
Friction is the fraction of the
pressing
force
which must be
appliedparallel
to the surface to
cause slipping.
Fig.
3 shows how it is
measured,
say
for
polished
cast-iron on
wood
;
w
grm.
justdrags
W
slowlyalong(having
been
given
a
start),10/W
is the
coefficient,
e.g.
iron
on
wood
-3,
planedpine
on
hard wood
-22,
etc.
The effective frictionalresistance to
rolling
is
usually
far less
than to
sliding,
for the relative motion of the
parts
in contact
is
so
much smaller.
"
18. Force and
change
of momentum. Activity
and
reactivity.
A force F
acting
on a mass m
for t seconds
gives
it F units of
momentum
per
second,or
Fi in
all,
and ifthis
cause a
velocity
v
~Ft=mv.
There is
no
need to
specify
a
movable
mass,
for there is
no
such
thing
as an
immovable
mass. Pressing
your
hand hori- zontally
on a
rock with force F the whole earth
gains
momentum
F
per
second in the direction of
your pressure.
But
your
feet
must be
kept
from
slipping
in the
opposite
direction,
in which
they
press
with
equal
force,
giving
the earth
just
as
much
mo- mentum
in the
opposite
direction. You remain at rest. But
push
off from the rock and
run,
you
and the earth have
equal
and
oppositely
directed
momenta, as
you
run
the earth
con- tinuously
moves
back
; being
massive it does not
move fast,
wV-}-Mv=0.
To
stop running
your
feet exert backward force
for
a
time
justdestroying
the earth's momentum and the earth
pressing
on
your
feet
destroys
yours.
It is all
give
and
take,
controlled
by
the Newtonian third law
of motion. "
Activity
and
reactivity
are
equal
and
opposite.
The horse
pulls
at
one
end of the
rope
and the
barge
at the
other. "The horse
pulls
the harder and the
barge
moves.
Oh
yes
! The horse's hoofs
push
back
on
the
towpath
and the
path
pushes
the horse
on,
i.e.the
path pushes
harder than the horse.
Oh
no
!
"
That is
popular
argument.
In
truth, the
path
reacts
12 A HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS
A muscle
exerting
what
we
consider
a
steady
force is
receiving
from 10 to 40
nerve
stimuli
per
second,
and
can
be heard to
vibrate. When tired the stimuli
are
less
frequent
and the force
becomes
visibly
unsteady,trembling,
an
obvious
sequence
of
momentum-giving impulses.
On the Kinetic
Theory
of Matter all substances consist of
molecules
swarming
in
rapid
motion
;
the
pressure
of
a
weight
on
the table becomes the momentum
imparted
per
second
by
the
myriad impacts
of
one
molecular
swarm on
another. If
any
one
doubts that
great solidity
can
arise in this
way,
let him
spin
a
bicycle
-wheel fast and
try
to
put
his
fingerthrough
it" and that
is
only
a
few dozen
impacts
per
second.
Thus the distinction between
a
steady
force and momentum
of visible motion
can
be
bridged
over
in
theory,
and
our
way
of
measuring
forces is
justified.
"
20. Notice that all
force is exerted between
masses.
Every
force,
whatever its
excitingcause,
must
be
'
anchored
'
on a mass at
both ends. And the old catch about immovable
mass
and irre- sistible
force is
answered,
that the non-existence of the
one
implies
the
impossibility
of the other.
EXAMPLES." CHAPTER II
1.
Express
5 miles
per
hour in feet
per
second.
5 miles = 5x5280 ft. 1 hour=3600
sec.;
.
miles
_
5280 x ft.
.ft.
"
hour
~ X
3600
X sec.
~ 5
X
^sec.
(roughly,
feet
per second=l|
times miles
per
hour).
2.
Express
miles
per
hour in centimetres
per
second.
3.
Express
37 knots in miles
per
hour. 1 nautical mile = 6081 ft.
4.
Express
knots
as
cm./sec.,given 21,600 n.m. =
40,000
km.
5. Find in how
many
seconds
a train
joltsover a number of 30-ft.
rails
equal
to its
speed
in miles
per
hour. Also 45-f
t. rails.
6.
Express
an acceleration of 981
cm./sec.
per
second in ft.
/sec.2
7.
Express an acceleration of 32 ft.
per
second
every
second
as miles
per
hour
every
minute.
Dimensions of acceleration
are
L/T2
and
every
term in the
equation
must therefore have a
length
in the numerator and the
product
of two
times in the denominator.
Physical equations
should
always
be scruti- nized
to
see that their dimensions
are correct
throughout.
32
ft"
=_x
mile
_
it. fi280
sec.xsec.
~
hourxmin.~~
sec. x
3("00
;s""e. x
60
or
32
=zx
5280-^216,000; .-. a;
=1309
m.p.h./min.
8. How far should
a
body
fall in 4 sec. ?
By
the
argument
of
" 12, a =
$gt*
=
l
x 981
X
1C = 7848 cm.
MOTION AND FORCE 13
9. How
long
will it take
an
electric train with acceleration 2-5 ft.
/sec.8
to travel 100 ft. from rest ?
("12.)
10. The
splash
of a stone is heard 2-7
sec.
after
dropping
it down
the well. If sound travels
up
at 1100 ft.
/sec.,
how
deep
is the well ?
fo=S2.)
11. A ball is thrown
up
at 40 ft.
/sec.
and 60" to the horizontal.
How
high
does it
go,
how
long
is it in the
air,
and how far
away
does it
strike the level
ground
?
Resolve the
velocity
as in
"
8 into 20 ft.
/sec.
horizontal and 34-5
vertical. These
are now quiteindependent of
each other. It will take
34-5-7-32
sec.
for
gravity
to
destroy
the vertical
component,
the ball
meanwhile
rising
at
mean speed
17'25 to a height
17-25x34-5-^32
=
18-6 ft. It takes as long again
to fall
;
time of
flight
= 2-16
sec., during
which it travels 20x2-16 = 43 ft.
horizontally.
Horizontal
speed
does not affect vertical motion at all. There is the
common
experiment
of
showing
that
a
ball rolled off the table at
any
speed
falls to the floor
just
as soon as
if
dropped vertically
from the
edge.
12. Define
velocity
and acceleration. In four successive seconds
a
body
moves
10
cm.,
20
cm.,
30
cm.,
and
40cm., respectively.
Calcu- late
its acceleration and its
velocity
at the end of each second.
[L.]
13. A bullet
passes
in succession
through
three screens 1000 ft.
apart, taking
-8
sec.
from first to second and -86 from second to third.
Find the
(negative)
acceleration.
[L.]
14.
Assuming
the
parallelogram
of velocities deduce that of
forces,
carefullygiving authority
for each
step. [St.A.]
15. Show how the
velocity
of one
moving body
relative to another
is determined. Two vessels
are steaming
in
opposite
directions at
12 and 6 knots. Their smoke-tracks
are at
rightangles
to each other
and
equally
inclined to the direction of the wind. Show that the
velocity
of the latter is
nearly
7-6 knots.
[L.]
16. What force is
required
to
give
an
electric train of 150 tons an
acceleration of 2-5 ft.
/sec.2
?
Force =
gain
in momentum
per
second =1 50
X
2-5 'ton'
units,
or
reducing
to
Englishgravitational
measure
by dividing by 0
=
32-2,
Force = 150x2-5 -^32-2 = 1
If
tons
weight.
Or in
dynes, assuming
1 ton= 1,000,000
grms.,
Force= 150 X
106
X (2-5
x
30-5)
= 1-14 X 1010
dynes.
17.
Express
a steam- train acceleration of
20" m.p.h.
in half
a
minute
as
ft.
/sec.2.
What force must the
engine
exert if the whole train
weighs
200 tons ?
18. What force is
required
to
stop
in 3 sec. a
2-ton motor-car travel- ling
at 15
m.p.h. [
= loss of
mv
per
second]
?
How far does it travel with brakes on
?
[Average speed
x 3
sec.]
19. Find the
pressure
on a
wall when a hose delivers 100
gal.
of
water
per
minute
perpendicularly
on it at 50 ft.
/sec.
Force =mv destroyed
per
second
100x10 50,000
-60-
X 5" lb'-ft- umts = 26
or = 100
X
10
X
440-^-60 X
50
X
30-5 = 1-12 x
107
dynes.
14
A HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS
Note.
" Splashing
back would increase
this, as
the wall is
imparting
backward
momentum.
Note.
" By
the third law of motion it is also the force with which the
fireman must hold
up
the hose
:
the fluid transmits this to the wall.
20. Find the
pressure
on a
water-wheel struck
by
500
kg.
of water
per
second
travelling
at 400
cm. /sec.,
wheel and water which leaves it
moving at half this
speed.
21. A
20-grm.
bullet
moving
at 700 metres
per
second embeds itself
in
a suspended log
of 100
kg.
Find
joint
speed.
Total momentum
unchanged.
.
"
.
20
X (700 x 100) =
100,020 X x.
cc =
14
cm. /sec.
22. Find
(i)
the force exerted to
give
the bullet its
speed
in -002
sec.,
(ii)
the
average
force it exerts in
penetrating
17-5
cm.
into the wood.
(ii) Average speed during penetration = "(70,000 + 0) =
35,000.
.-.
loses 1,400,000 units of momentum
in
17^-^35,000 sec.
.'.
loses at rate of 2-8x 109
per
second
= dynes
force.
23. A mat of 2-5
kg.
is struck
by a
stick of -5
kg. moving
at
500
cm. /sec.
Find
joint speed.
24. A
30-grm. golf
-ball is struck
by a 400-grm.
club at 2000
cm. /sec.
After
impact
it
moves
off twice
as
fast
as
the club follows. Find its
speed.
25. A ball collides with another of 3 times its
mass
and bounces
back at ^
initial
speed.
Find
speed
of other ball.
Total forward momentum unchanged.
Which, of
course,
is
more
than
if first had
stopped
dead.
26. An elastic
pellet
of 1
grm.
bounces at 1000
cm. /sec.
between
plates
2
cm. apart.
Find
pressure
on plates.
Strikes each
plate 1000
-f- (2 x 2) =
250 times
per
second.
At each
impact
V
changes
from 1000
up
to 1000 down
=
2000.
.'.
Momentum
given
up per
second
=
250
x
1
X
2000
dynes
='5
kg. (q.p.).
27. A
25-grm.
bullet
moving at 300
m./sec. stops
after
penetrating
3
cm.
of bone. Calculate
average
force it exerted.
[L.]
CHAPTER III
WORK AND ENERGY
"
21. If both
a moving
force and
a
motionless
one
transmit
momentum alike,
wherein lies their difference ? Is* not
rolling
the
grass
a more
arduous business than
leaning on
the roller at
rest ? The difference is that the
moving
force does Work and the
motionless does
none.
The force
must advance.*
Sideways
motion is
inoperative.
No work is done
by
the
weight
of
a rolling
ball
on
the billiard
table. The
'
work
'
done
by
the active
'
system
'
is the
product
Fs of the force F it
exerts,
and the distance
s
it
moves
forward.
This is also called the
'energy
the
system
loses.' It does not
follow that the
system
acted
on gains
all this
energy.
And if
a
would-be active
system
is driven backward
(e.g.back-pedalling)
it
gains
energy,
but it does
not
follow that such
can
be made
use
of.
"
22. A
moving mass pushes
back
a resisting
force for
some
distance before it
can
be
brought
to
a
standstill. Hence it is
said
to
possess
energy
of motion
or
Kinetic
Energy.
This
can
be
expressed
in
terms
of its
mass
and
speed.
Let all
its
momentum
mv
be due to
a
force F
having
acted
on
it
t
sec.
Then "F=mv-^-t.
Its
speed, having
increased
steadily
from 0 to
v,
has
averaged \v
for the t
sec.,
i.e. it has been
pushed
forward
a
distance
s=\vt. .'.
the work done
on
it Fs= "
X\vt = \mvz.
And
as a
matter of
experiment, allowing
for inevitable
friction,
as
much work
can
be obtained from it
as
it is
stopped.
Hence
stored
up
in
mass m moving
at
speed v
is
Kinetic
Energy
equal
to
half the
product
of the
mass
into the
square
of the
speed, |mv2.
*
This is true in
more
ways
than the
mere mechanical.
Think
as
hard
as
you may, you
do
nothing
unless
you progress
along
the line of
thought. Sticking
too
long
at the hard
parts
does not
pay.
Thought
without action,
speech, or writing,
may
gain
you
Nirvana
perhaps,
but neither
money
nor
credit in this world.
15
16 A HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS
"
23. The
'
dimensions
'
of
energy
are evidentlyML2/T2.
Fs shows that it is measured in
dynes
x
centimetres
or
ergs.
An
erg ofivork
is done
by
1
dyne pushingforward
1
cm.
It is
a
small
unit,
roughly
the work done
by
a
diminutive 1
-mg.
flycrawling
1
cm.
up
the
window-pane.
981
ergs
lift 1
grm.
1
cm.,
the
gramme-centimetre
of work.
Ten million
ergs
(107)
is the
Joule, a more
sizable
unit,
used
in electrical
measurements,
and about
three-quarters (-737)
of
the
foot-pound.
The latter is the work done in
lifting
1 Ib. 1
ft.,
and is the
gravitational
unit used
by
all mechanical
engineers
here and in the States.
"
24. Momentum and
energy
contrasted.
Recoil.
The distinction between momentum
and
energy
is
well
seen
in the recoilof
a
gun
firing
a shot,
of
a
swimmer
throwing
a
polo-ball,
etc. The third law insists that
equal
and
opposite
forces
are
exerted
on
projectile
and thrower
throughout
the dis- charge,
i.e. for
equal
times.
They
therefore
are
supplied
with
equal
and
opposite
momenta
;
mv
beingnumerically
the
same
for
both,
the
speedstheyacquire
in
opposite
directions are
inversely
as
their
masses.
The distances the two
move
duringdischarge
are
proportional
to
their
speeds,
therefore the work done
on
each
(
= same
force
x
distance)
or
the
energy
of
motion each
acquires
is
inversely
pro- portional
to
its
mass.
As the
gun
is
perhaps
100 times
as
massive
as
the
projectile
its
energy
of recoil is absorbed without
difficulty
by
a
brake.
(Note.
"
Holdingtight
to
your
shoulder,
your
own
mass
adds in with the
rifle's.)
Impact.
" In
impact,
which is the sudden inverse of the fore- going
process,
the total momentum remains
unchanged ("19).
But unless the bodies
are
perfectly
elastic" and
none are " there
is
always
loss of
energy
in
crushing,
vibration,noise,heat,
etc.
For take the
simple
case
of
a
bullet fired into
a
99 times
heavier
log
at rest. 100
times the
mass moves
at -01 the
speed,^mv2
reduces to 50m
X -OOOlv2,
the remainder
goes
in mutual destruc- tion.
"
25.
Every
sudden collision
reassures us
of the
reality
of
Kinetic
Energy,yet
we never
buy
energy
in that visible form.
A mechanism
equipped
with it
was
the Howell
torpedo,
driven
by
the
energy
stored in
a
fly-wheel
spun up
to
10,000 revs,
per
min.
It
was
insufficient.
But
we
will
pay
to be carried
up
a hill,to have
heavy
clock-
WORK AND ENERGY 17
weights
wound
up,
for
steam,
for electric
energy,
for
water under
hydraulic
pressure,
for
food,coal,or
cartridges. These,
whether
'
things
'
or
not,
we
value for the
energy
of motion of
ourselves,
of
machinery,
shot,etc.,
which
we can
get
from them. For in
lifted
weights,
in
steam,
in
combustibles,etc.,
is hidden
'
what-
may-become-energy,'
or as we
call
it,
Potential
Energy.
It is useful
to
regard
this
as
simply
another form of real
energy,
convertible into
or
from Kinetic
Energy.
Let
us
take
some
instances
:"
The
energy
Jmv2
of motion of
a
ball thrown
vertically
up
gradu- ally
diminishes to zero
at the
top
of its
path.
Here the ball is at
rest,storing
as
gravitational potential
energy
all the work
(less
air
friction)
done in
lifting
it,
%mv2.
Lifted
slowly
to the
same
height
s
against
the earth's
pull,
its
weight
mg,
the work would
be
mg.s.
Equating
these leads back to the relation
v2=2gs
established in
"
12.
We
say
that its total
energy
remains
unchanged
all the while
;
(kinetic
-j-
potential)
= constant.
The
energy
is all kinetic
againby
the time the ball strikesthe
ground,
and then is
quickly
converted into
potential
energy
of
elasticity
as
the ballis
squeezed
out of
shape,
to be
just
as
quickly
reconverted into kinetic. The diminished rebound shows that
the ball has lost
part
of this
energy,
but this
we can
account for
in airfrictionand in the
heating
of the
imperfectly
elastic
rubber,
as
evidenced in motor
-tyres.
A clockbalance-wheel in
vacuo bends
or
unbends the
spring
and
is
therebystopped
at each end of its
swing.
In this instance of
a
Conservative
(energy-preserving) System
there is
a
'
flow
'
of
energy
from
one
part
to another. If the
spring
were unhitched
from the wheel when most
'
wound
up,'
it would contain all the
energy
as
potential,
and the wheel remain at rest. Half
a
swing
later the
spring
would have remained slack and the wheel
gone
on
spinning
with all the
energy
kinetic.
An electrictram
gets
its
energy
to climb
a
hillfrom the distant
engines.
On the
way
down the driver breaks its motion
by
making
its motors return
electricity
to the
wires,
thence to be
drawn
by
other trams. The tram itselfloses its
gravitational
potential
energy,
but the whole connected
system
retains
it,
and
usefully.
But if
you
cycle
out
against
a
head wind and the wind
drops,
where isthe
potential
energy you
fondlyhoped
you
were accumu- lating
to
help
you
home ? Look for it where
you
invested it
;
2
18
A HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS
that
was
in the
wind, now
50
miles
away.
The trustee
has bolted
with the funds in the
shape
of
an
increased violence of air motion
where
you
rushed
through
it,
by
this time mere
frictional heat.
The
energy
has
gone
to
a
distant
part
of the
system,
it is not
destroyed,
but
you
cannot
get
it.
Investments in
potential
energy
must be made
discreetly.
Even coal" bottled sunshine " would be useless without the air
to burn it.
See also
Chapter
XXI.
These are a
few instances
leading
up
to the enunciation of
two
principles
which
we
believe to
govern
all
processes,
both
physical
and
vital,
the
principles
of the conservation and of the
dissipation
of
energy.
"
26. The
Principle
of the Conservation of
Energy
states that
energy
is indestructible. It
may
be transformed in all
ways
into
any
sort
of
recognizable
kinetic
or
potential
energy
" mechanical,
luminous, electrical, chemical,
thermal "
may
be scattered broad- cast
or
hidden in
ways
yet
unknown,
but cannot be altered in
total amount. Fresh
supplies
may
be
unexpectedly
discovered
(e.g.
radio-active
substances),
but
they
are
not fresh creations.
The
study
of the transformations of indestructible
energy
occupies
the
physicist
as
does the
study
of those of indestructible
matter the chemist.
The
Principle
of the
Dissipation
of
Energy
states that
energy,
although indestructible,
tends in
every
cycle
of
changes
to be- come
less available for
use.
No actual transformation of
energy
can
be
exactly
reversed
so as to restore the
precise
conditions at
the start.
Always
there is
more or
less irrecoverable loss"
friction,noise,
electrical
disturbance,
all
ultimatelyending
in
heat of
no
useful
intensity.
The
engineer
is
unsparing
of efforts
to reduce this
tax,
both in heat
engines,
when it is
inevitably
heavy,
and in transmission
mechanisms,
greatlyimproved
of
late.
Is therefore the whole universe
graduallycoming
to a
tepid
standstill ?
Answer,
that while
we
believe these two
principles
to
apply
to
all
parts
of the universe
'
visible
'
to
us,
we are
entitled to
argue
nothing
and
imagine anything
about what
may
lie between the limits of human observation and the
more
distant limits of human
imagination.
"
27. Power. The
rate
of doing
work,
i.e.the
amount
of
energy
transformed
in
a
unit
oftime,
is calledthe Power.
20
A HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS
weight
of water the
same height
per
minute likewise calls for 100
h.p. (in
this
way
the earliest
engines,
which
were
pumps,
were
measured).
The
dynamometers
used in
engine testingare
compact
modi- fications
of the first
example.
The second finds its
analogue
in
the
'
pumping
'
of
electricity
to
a higher
'
level
'
in the electrical
engineer'stesting-room.
In the
ordinary
friction
dynamometer
for the
'
brake
h.p.'
of
an engine (Fig.4)
a
doubled
rope
takes
a
turn round the
fly-wheel,
one
end is held
by a spring
balance and the other carries
weights
W. When the wheel turns the
rope
starts
lifting,
the balance
pull
decreases and
eases
the
grip
of the
rope
till it
slipson
the
wheel,
and
soon
the machine
adjusts
itself with the wheel
c
ft.
circumference
making
N
revs,
per
min. and net frictional
drag
W " w
Ib. down at A. As far
as
the
engine
is concerned this is
equivalent
to
hoisting
W"
w
Ib.
up
Nc ft.
per
min.
=
(W" - *t')Nc-^-
33,000 h.p. Actually,
of
course,
the work is all
dissipatedas
frictional heat.
On the
engine-shaft
is sketched
a
transmission
dynamometer
as now
used for
measuring h.p.
transmitted from turbine to
pro- peller
by observing
how much the shaft is twisted.
P and M
are
collars
on
the
shaft,
in P is
a
slit and
on
M
a con- cave
mirror. These lie in line
straightalong
the untwisted
shaft,
so
that
a
ray
from
a lamp
and fixed slit S
passingthrough
P is
reflected
straight
back to S.
Once
for
all the
wheel-and-weight was
put
on
the
shaft,
held
fast at the far end. M twisted round
more
than
P,
PM became
oblique,
and the
ray
SPM
was
reflected back
to
form
an image
at
T. A twist measured
by
ST is therefore
equivalent
to
a pull
(W" w) on a
circumference
c.
In
use,
once
per
rev. a
flash
passes
from S
through
P
to M and
back
to T',
therefore
we
know that the resistance of the
pro- peller
is
ST'/ST
times
(W" w) pullingon c
and hence
at N
revs.
ST'
(W-iv)cN
= --
This
dynamometer measures
thousands of
horse-power
without
throwing
any
work
away.
WORK AND ENERGY 21
EXAMPLES." CHAPTER III
1. Define work and kinetic
energy.
Show that when
a
force acts
on
a
freely moving
mass
the work done
by
the force is
equal
to the
gain
in kinetic
energy
of the
mass. [L.]
2. A
man
climbs
a
hill. Where does the
energy
come
from and
go
to ?
Why
does he
get
hot ?
[L.]
3. Trace
as
far back
as
you
can through
its various transformations
the
energy
obtained from
a
water-wheel.
[L.]
4. State laws of friction and
explain
how to find coefficient. How
measure practically efficiency
of
any
machine ?
[A.]
5. A
man using a
certain tackle finds that
by exerting
a pull
of
120 Ib.
weight
and
moving steadily
at the rate of 3 ft.
per
second he
can
raise
a weight
of 864 Ib.
through
1 ft. in 6
sec.
Find the
velocity
ratio and the
efficiency
of the tackle.
[L.]
6. State the units of
power
in the British
engineering
and
c.g.s.
systems
and indicate the relation between them.
An
engine
turns a fly-wheel
4 ft. diameter at 550 revolutions
per
minute. A 10-lb.
weight hangs
round the rim of the wheel. Find the
horse-power. [L.]
.
7. A
cyclist
works at
rV h.p.,
wind and road resistance
=
3 Ib. Find
speed. [Ab.]
8.
Distinguish
between
Force, Power,
and
Energy.
Where does the
energy go
to in
(i) exhausting
the air from
a vessel, (ii)
'
tacking
'
a
boat
upstream,
wind
being downstream, (iii)
the action of the heart ?
[L.]
9. At what
horse-power
does
a
1-ton
car
work when
climbing
1
in 10 at 15
m.p.h.,
frictional resistance
being
5 Ib.
per
ton ?
[M.J
15
m.p.h. =
22
ft./sec. [Ex. 1, c. L]
.'.
climbs
1/10x22
=
2-2
ft./sec.vertically.
.'.
work done
against gravity
= weight
xlift
=
2240
x
2-2
ft.-lb./sec.
Add,
5 Ib.
overcome
in each foot of travel
=
5x22 ft.-lb.
sec.
Total
=
4928
+110 =
5038
ft.-lb./sec.
=
9- 16
h.p.
at wheels.
10. Find the
horse-power required
to draw
a
cart
weighing
half a
ton
up
an
incline of 1 in 20 at
7|
miles
per
hour.
Find also the additional
horse-power required
to
overcome a steady
frictional resistance
equivalent
to 20
pounds' weight. [1 h.p.
= 550
ft.-lb.
per
second.] [L.]
11.
Explain
the
'efficiency'
of
a
machine. A
man, working
at
i
h.p.,
is
raising
1000 Ib.
by
pulleys.
The mechanical
advantage
would,
in the absence of friction,
be load
=
25
X pull,
and the actual
efficiency
is
\.
Find what
pull
the
man
is
exerting
and at what rate
he is
drawing
the
rope
in.
[L.]
CHAPTER IV
GRAVITATION
"
29. Gravitation is the mutual attraction of massive bodies.
The theoretical method of
measuring
forces is to let them
act
for 1
sec. on a mass
and find the momentum
they
have
given
it.
Using
1
grm.
the
velocity
it
acquires
in the second
(its
acceleration)
is
equal
to
the force in
dynes.
Practically,one
weighs
the force
against
the
gravitational
at- traction
of the earth
on a
known
mass.
Now
this,
the
weight
of
the
mass,
varies
a
little from
place
to
place. [For
the earth is
rotating
and the
centrifugaltendency
reduces
weights, having
most effect
near
the
equator.
Its
great
result has been to
pile
material
highest
where it
weighed
least in order to
preserve
internal
equilibrium
in the
quasi-fluid
earth
(cf." 82)
;
the thick- ness
of this
equatorial bulge
still further reduces
weights
at the
equator.]
Hence the
weight
of
a
gramme
cannot be made
a
primary
standard of
force,
and for accurate scientific
purposes
we
must be
ready
to
find how
many
dynes
it
represents locally.
"
30. This is called
g,
the force of
Gravity
at
a place. Plainly
it is the
acceleration of
a falling
gramme,
or
of
every
individual
gramme
in
a fallingbody,
and hence these methods of
finding
it.
1. Free
fall,Fig.
5.
Things
fall
fast,
but
measurements
may
be
made with
a tuning-fork as timekeeper.
A
smoked-glass strip
drops
from the dotted
position
and the
pointer on
the fork marks
on
it
one complete wave
for each
vibration,
occupying
the
very
short time P.
(How
P is found
see " 315.)
Then distance
s,
measured from the
starting-point,
which contains
n waves
has
been fallen in time nP and
s =
\at2
becomes
s =
^g(n'P}2,
hence
g.
2.
Atwood's
machine, Fig.
6. Atwood
(ca. 1790)
slowed the
speed
of fall of
a weight by making
it
drag along
inactive
masses.
Equal masses
MM balance
on a light
frictionless
pulley.
On
one
m
is
laid and the force
mg
dynes pulling
it down has
now
to
move
the whole lot
m-\-
2M, so
that the acceleration
(force-4-mass)
is
22
GRAVITATION 23
reduced to
m/(m-\-2M)
of
g.
Time t of fall
throughs
is observed
and
s=^at2
becomes
s=|-
, 91Vr"#2j
hence
g.
In
practice
I
use an
ordinary
aluminium
ball-bearing pulley,
the finest
plaited
silk
fishing-line,
and
one
M
a
trifleheavier and
readjusted
before
use
tillit
justfeebly
crawls down when
given
a
start,indicating
that inevitable frictionhas been neutralized.
It
isloaded with
m,
the
pulley
hauled
up
the wall till
they
are
at
the
desired
height,
and the other
M let
go
from the table
as
^
the clock ticks. It works I
.
better than elaborate
jj"
machines.
Note. " Without
m
At-
wood's machine demon- strates
the First Law of
Motion
;
with various nCs
removed after definite inter- vals,
the Second
Law,
the
speed
attained
measuring
the
acquired momentum,
which is found
to be
mgx
time of its action.
3. Roller
on
inclined
plane,
Fig
7. Make the
moving pulley
massive and
omit MM. Let this
fly- wheel
roll down rails
on
its axle
;
a
fraction of its
own
weight
acts
as m.
e.g.
A disc 114 cm.
diam.
had
an
axle 2
cm.
circum. On
wooden rails
a
fall of 14
cm.
in 60
justkept
it
moving (friction
overcome),
an
additional 2-9
cm.
sent itdown in 20
sees., averaging
.'. 1-5 turns
per
sec.
and
.*.
ending
at double this
speed.
The
mass
of
a
rotating
disc
can
be
supposed
concentrated in
a
ring
1/V2
its
diam.,
which
was .'. 114-i-V2X7r:=25'^:
cm-
circum.
.*.
at 3
revs,
per
sec.
its kinetic
energy
was 2x1600
grm.X
(3x254)2
and this=its loss of
potential energy
in the descent
=
1600x^x2-9
cm.
Hence
0=1000.
4.
Pendulum. Method 1 is
hasty
and 2 and 3
grievously
affected
by
friction. The
ever-falling pendulum givesby
far the most accurate method. From
"
38 its time of
swing
= 2
24
A HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS
In accurate work it has to be
recognized
that the
simple
pendulum
does not
exist,
and two modifications
are
employed
:"
(a)
Borda's
pendulum,
a
heavy
ball
swung
by
a
fine wire from
a
knife-edge,
and
requiringonly
small measurable corrections.
(b)
Rater's reversible
pendulum, "
56,
whose
length
between
knife-edges
when
adjusted
to
swing
in
equal
times from either
end is the
simplependulum length.
With these
swinging
hour after hour in
vacuo the
experimental
errors are
very
small.
Some values of
g
are :
Equator
978-1,
Lat.
45"
980-6,
Green- wich
981-17, Edinburgh 981-54,
Pole
(calc.)
983-1
(dynes
=
1
grm.
wt., or acceleration in
cm.
/sec.2.
It
was a
pendulum
with
a
bob filledwith
wood, wheat,
etc.
etc.,
that
Newton used to
satisfy
himself that the earth attracts all
substances
proportionally
to their
masses.
In
gravitation nothing
matters but
mass
and distance.
"31.
From astronomical considerations Newton
was
led
further to enunciate the
Law of Universal Gravitation.
Any
two 'particles
of
matter attract each other with
a
forceproportional
to the
productof
their
masses
and
inversely proportional
to
the
square
of
their distance
apart.
mm'
J~"
d*
The factor of
proportionality k, now
called the Newtonian
constant
of gravitation,
is
evidently(by putting
m=m'=l and
d=l)
the attraction in
dynes
between two
masses
of 1
grm.
each,
concentrated at
points
1
cm.
apart.
Fortunately
it
can
be shown that the
mass
of
a
sphere
attracts
as
ifit
were
concentrated at its
centre, even
for
points
close to its
surface.
"
32 : Determination of the Newtonian constant, k. The classic
Cavendish
experiment,once
popularly
famous under the title
of
'weighing
the
earth,'
is
a
little
complex,
and the
following
method must
serve
here
:"
A
kilogramsphere
of lead
hung by
a
long
wire from
a
balance
high
above. A 5-ton
sphere
of lead
was
built
up
with its centre
50 cm. below that of the
suspendedsphere,
and its attraction
appeared
to increase the
weight
of the latter
by " dyne.
The
counterpoising weights
were too far
up
to be
appreciably
attracted.
Here -133
dyne="x
103x
(5x 106)^-502,
from
"31.
.*. "=6-66x
10-8,or one fifteen-millionth of
a dyne.
GRAVITATION 25
"
33
:
The
gradual
firm establishment of the Law from
highly
technical considerations is well described in
Airy's Popular
Astronomy.
The
application
of
g
and k to
calculating
astronomical
masses
may
be of interest
:"
Earth.
Using
the mathematical
expression
of the
law,
/
on
1
grm.
on
earth's surf
ace
=g=
981
dynes
_
1 1
grm.xE
grm.
=
1 5^000, 000
x
(radius=x 637,000,000)
a
.'.
E=5-96x 1027
grm.
or nearly
six thousand trillion
tons,
givinga
Mean
Density
5-5
(twice
the
average
of its
crust).
Sun. Solar Pull
on
earth
keeping
it in orbit
averaging
92
million miles
radius,
travelled in 1
year
=
(speed
in
orbit)
2-^-radius
of orbit
(see" 35)= .'. -588
dynes
per gramme.
(radius
of
orbit)
*
which
gives
S=d-96x 1033
=
"
million times E.
Planets with satellites
are
treated
similarly.
Planets without
satellites
occasionally
'
perturb
'
each other's motion when close
(e.g.
Venus
perturbs
the
earth,
and the
perturbation
of Uranus
led to the
discovery
of
Neptune).
Moon.
It
can
be
shown,
much
as
in
" 532,
that the
tide-raising
power
is
proportional
to
(mass
of
attractingbody-^3).
Hence
moon's
mass
in
terms of sun's.
Stars. For
a
few double
stars
some
information has been
gleaned by telescopeor
spectroscope
as
to
their
speed
and time
of revolution. Hence the
jointmass
asjEorsun
and earth.
"
34. Electrical attraction and
gravitation. Wildly swinging
pith
balls
are commonplace,
while but few readers will have
seen
the
gravitational
attraction of
masses actually
demonstrated.
Why,
then,
does
one ignore
electrification
as a possible
astrono- mical
tie ?
Electrical attraction
acts
on
the
surface only,gravitation
acts
on
every
particle
however
deeply
buried. The surface of
a pith
ball is dozens of times its
mass,
but the
mass
of
a core boring
through
the earth is 7x 10
9
the
area
of its
end,
off which rubbed
sealing-waxmight
lift
a
little dust.
26 A HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS
EXAMPLES." CHAPTER IV
1. A smoked
plate
fell in front of
a tuning-fork making
256 vibra- tions
per
second and 32
complete waves were
counted in 7-7
cm.
from
the start. Calculate
g.
2. A
plate
fell in
guiding
grooves
past a
fork
making
540
vibs./sec.
and 90
waves were
counted in 5 in. from rest. Calculate
g
and
observe the
pernicious
effect of friction in the
grooves.
3.
If,
as usual, starting-point on plate
is blurred, how
proceed ?
Mark off
two successive sets of
m waves,
Fig. 5,
and
measure
their
lengths BC, CD. The time
spent on
each is
wP,
and if
t is
spent
before
reaching
B
"
Subtracting,
~B
.-.CD-BC=0m2P2
.'.g = (CD-BC)+m*P
4. The
masses on an
Atwood's machine each
weighed
228
grm.
When
one was
overloaded with 3
grm.
it fell 290
cm.
in 9-5
sec.
Calculate
g.
8 = %at2,
290
= "a(9-5)2 .'.
acceleration 6-42
a = m#/total mass .-.
6-42
= 30/459 .'.
y
=
982
5.
Explain
what is meant
by
the conservation of
energy
and the
conservation of momentum.
Two
equal masses are
attached to the ends of
a string passing over
a light
frictionless
pulley.
One is
supported on a
small
table, the other
raised 10
cm.
and let fall
freely through
that distance. Find
velocity
of
weights
after
string
becomes
tight. [L.]
6. Atwood's
masses
each
weighed 5"
Ib. and rider 4
oz.
;
it falls
6 ft. before
being
detached and the
masses move
9 ft. in the next 3
sec.
Calculate
g.
[St. A.]
7. Atwood
weights
470 and 490
grains move
3 ft. in 3
sec.
from rest.
Findgr. [A.]
8. Atwood
weights move
100
cm.
in 5
sec. starting
from rest. One
weighs
1
grm.
more
than the other. Given
a = 981, calculate
mass
of
each.
[L.]
28 A HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS
BF, a
force has been
at B it has downward momentum
acting
on
it=BF/BD
of
mv.
Triangles
BFD and BGC are similar,
BF/BD
=
BG/BC.
If AB is
a
very
small
arc,*
BG becomes = arc
AB"
v
and BF
points
very
nearly
to C.
BF BG
AB mv2
.
'
.
force towards centre =
^
~
mv
=
^-^mv
"
^^mv
=
"
""D JD b Jo U r
"
That
is,
if
m
at
speed
v
be
acted
on
by
a
force
(i.e. supplied
with momentum
every
second)mvz/r
at
rightangles
to itsmotion
and
always
directed to
a
fixed
point,
it will
move
round it in
a
circle of radius
r
with
unchanging
speed.
And
to
compel
a
body
to move
in
a
circle this force must be
con- tinuously
applied,
say
by
a
string,
or
by
the walls of
a
cup
contain- ing
rotatingliquid, by
the
grinding
together
of railsand
wheel-flanges,
or
by gravitational
or
any
other
pull.
From
our
youth
up
we
know
'
Centrifugal
Force
'
and
we
all
say
that
a
body moving
round
'
exerts
centrifugal
force.'
By
all
means,
but recollect that
a
body
will not
move
in
a
circle unless it is
forced.
The
'
centrifugal
force
'
is the
re- action
of the inert
mass
to the
active force which constrains itto
move
in the
curve.
mv2/r
shows that increase of
r,
as
by letting
the
stringslip
through
your
fingers,
reduces the
necessary constraining
force.
Letting
go
altogether
the
body
moves
off in
a
straight
line
(r
infinite)
and
pays
no more
heed whatever
to the
original
centre.
The
yarn
of the farmer who crooked his
gun
and shot round and
round the stack is better found than founded.
*
For
simplicity,
AB has been taken
as the motion in 1
sec.
; by
taking
it
say
one-millionth of this the reader will
see
that the above
result is not a mere
approximation.
FKJ. 9.
Fiu. 10.
MOTION IN A CURVE 29
"
36.
If the force is
not at
rightangles
to the
body's
motion
it
can
be resolved into
two,
one
at
rightangles
and the other in
the line of motion. The former
curves
the
path,
the latter alters
the
body'sspeed
in it. To
swing
a
weight
faster the hand
moves
in
a
small
leading
circle
as
at
A,
Fig.
9
;
slower,
in
a
lagging
circle
B. Notice how
bicyclespokes,
which transmit
driving
or
braking
effort,
are
tangent
to
just
such
a
small circle.
Fig.
10,
of the earth's
elliptical
orbital
motion,
should be
studied
in illustration
of this. Notice
e.g.
how autumn
(below)
is the
(accelerated)
'
fall
'
in
more senses
than
one.
"
37. Particular case of circular motion. Conical
pendulum.
The bob of
a
'
conical
pendulum
'
goes
round in
a
horizontal
circle while the
string
sweeps
out
a
cone,
Fig.
11,
elevation and
plan.
Resolve,
by parallelogram
law,
the
pull
of the earth
mg_iBi"-lM"L_"Qmpoiients,
one
along
the
thread,
the other
horizontally
in- wards
towards
C, and,
by
similar
triangles,
=
wgfXBC/CA.
This
supplies
the
steady
force
wv2/BC
necessary
to
keep
the bob
moving
at
v
in the circlerds. BC.
BC mv*
"*"
mgVA
=
BC
Cross-multiply,
divide out both sides
by
v2g,
take
square
root and
multiplyby
2?r.
,
BC
/wTCA
.-. 2?r
" =277.
/-
v
\f
m
.g
Now 2-77
.
BC=
length
of circular
path,
which divided
by
v
gives
the time of 1
revo- lution,
(This
shows that if T is diminished
by
driving
round
faster,
CA must
diminish,
i.e.
the bob rises and
opens
out
as
in that familiar
example,
the
steam-enginegovernor.)
Now if the
angle
A is
very
small,
CA is
very
nearlyequal
to
CJ$=l,
the
length
of
the
pendulum.
.'.
for
a
small circleT=2?r
/
"
FIG. 11.
30 A HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS
"
38.
Simple pendulum.
Now
notice,
this holds
nearly
true
for
any
sized circle
provided
it is still
so
small that the vertical
rise of the bob is
hardlyperceptible,
i.e.CA is not
appreciably
less than AB. We should have to watch
a
long
time to detect
any
difference in the times
kept by
a metre
pendulum swinging
in
a
5-cm. circle and in
a
1-cm. circle.
It should make
no
difference then if the bob
changes
from
one
circle to
another,
i.e.
changes
its distance from
C,
during
the
swing.
This
means
swinging
in
a
little
ellipse.
Nor should it
matter if the smallest circle touched
(the
breadth of the
ellipse)
vanishes
altogether,
and the bob travels to and fro
along
a
short
line.
A
small,
heavy
bob
swinging
to and fro
on a
fine thread
(of
insignificant mass)
constitutes
a Simple Pendulum,
and the
precedingargument gives
its time of
complete
small
swing
there
and back in
seconds,
/ml /mass
X
length /length
" ^7TA
/
" ^7J"i/ " T~T
"
~T" /
-7
\
mg
V
weight
V
gravity
both
being
in
foot,or
both in
cm.
units. This is its
period
of
vibration
or oscillation.
If
the
swing
widens and the bob lifts
appreciably
this
gets
farther and farther from the truth
:
"
Pendulum
swinging
in whole arc
of 5" 10" 20" 40"
Loses
per
hour,
seconds 43 1-75 7 27
"
39. The
Simple Harmonic Motion in a straight
line.
Referring
to the
plan
in
Fig.
11,
the bob
moving
in the-circle
does
so
because there is
a
force
mv2/rpulling
it toward the
centre.
Take the
point
at B' and
use
B'C itself
as
the
vector to
represent
this force
;
resolve it into two
components
B'D and B'E.
Suppose
we are
lookingalong
EB',
i.e.are out in front of the
pendulum
on a
level with
it,
its motion controlled
by
B'E in the
line of
sight
is
invisible,
while its
right
and left
component
motion
appears
merely
as
the motion in
a
straight
line
of
a
particle
con- trolled
by
a
force(
=
B'D)
towards the middle
point
and
ahvays
proportional
to its distance
from
it. This is
a simple
harmonic
motion
(S.H.M.).
This,
the motion to and
fro,along
a diameter,
of
a
footof
the
per- pendicular
dropped
on
it
from
a
pointmoving uniformly
round the
circle
practically
coincides with the motion of
a
simplependulum,
as
is
easily
seen
by arranging
two
equalpendulums,letting
one
MOTION IN A CURVE 31
fall
along
the diameter BCE and
jerking
the other out into
a
semicircle. Seen from
a
distance in front the
one
bob
'
covers
'
the other all the
way
across
their
swing.
Evidently
the Period
of
the S.H.M.
= length of circumference
of
circle
-i- speed
in cirde=r\.=fli:
.
BC/y.
"
40
:
Tension in
a
revolving hoop.
'
Centrifugal
action
'
causes
in the rim of
a revolving
wheel
or hoop, or
in the
driving-belt
encircling
it, a
considerable tension. Notice how
a boy's hoop,
broken at the weld,
'
opens
out
'
as
it
runs
faster
downhill, or
how the belt
driving a
circular
saw,
taut
enough
when at
rest,
bulges
and
hardly seems
to touch the small
pulley
at full
speed.
Considering a
very
small
piece (say
1
cm.
of
mass
m)
of the
circle, as
in
Fig. 12,
the force
that holds it
to
its circular
path
and
prevents
it
flying on straight
is the
pull
exerted
on
both ends
of it
by adjoining portions
of the
rim
or
rope.
The two vectors
must have the resultant
mvz/r
(=PR)
towards the centre C.
They are tangents
at the ends of
a
1-cm.
arc
and therefore inclined
to
each other at
a
small
angle" arc
of 1
cm. -^
radius
r=l/r=the angle
PQR
in the
parallelogram
of forces=the small
'
arc' PR-i-the
'
radius
'
PQ.
Hence the tension
PQ
is
r
times
mv2/r, or
the Tension in
a
rim
or a
rope
travelling
at
speed v
is mv2
or [its mass
per
cm. X
square
of
its
speed
in
cm. /sec.] dynes.
Beyond a peripheral speed
of 2 miles
per
minute
a
cast-iron
rim is
likely
to
fly
to
pieces
;
ropes
and belts
are never run beyond
1 mile
per
minute.
32 A HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS
EXAMPLES." CHAPTER V
1. A closed
railway carriage moves uniformly along (1) a
straight
line, (2) a
circle. Can
an
observer inside determine
anything as
to
motion of
carriage
in either
case,
and how ? [L.]
2.
Investigate
the motion of
a simple pendulum
in
a
small
arc. [L.]
3. Calculate the
length
of the
'
seconds
pendulum
'
(period 2
sec.)
at
a place
where
g
=
9Sl.
4. Calculate the
period
of
a pendulum
1 ft.
long.
5. A
500-grm. weight
is
being
whirled round
once a
second
on
the end
of
a string
1
m. long
;
calculate the
average
pull on
the
string.
6. A bucket of water is
swung
overhead, distance of water surface
from shoulder is 1
m.
;
what is the least
speed
to
prevent
water falling
?
7. Calculate the difference in
g
at the
poles
and
equator
of
a sphere
6400 km. radius
rotating once
in 24 hours.
8. Calculate
pull
of Sun
on
1
grm.
of Earth, if the latter revolves in
a
circle 92,000,000
miles radius
once a
year.
9. What
speed
would
cause a
tension of 2
kg. (say
2 million
dynes)
in
a hoop
of wire
weighing
2
grm. per
metre ?
10. At how
many
revs,
per
min.
may
a
steel
ring 10
cm.
radius
(1 cm.
cross-section
and) weighing 8
grm. per
c.c.
be
spun
without
bulging
if
its
yield-point
is at 5 tons
per sq.
cm.
?
11. If the
Equator were
encircled
by
such
a
steel
ring,
which
was
then
slipped
off and left
rotating
in
space,
what would haVe to be its
strength ?
CHAPTER VI
EQUILIBRIUM
OF FORCES
"
41.
According
to the Newtonian first law
a body
unacted
on by
force remains
at rest
or
else
moves uniformly
in
a straight
line.
Any application
of force
upsets
this condition. Now
we
know
perfectly
well that
every
body on
earth is
being
affected
by
at least
one force,
the
gravitational pull
of the
earth,
and
every
moving thing
is also
being
retarded
by a
force due to
friction.
Clearly,
to
remain at rest
a body
must be
constantly
acted
on
also
by some
other force which
just
neutralizes the
pull
of the
earth,
and to travel at uniform
speed a body,
e.g.
a train,
must
in addition be
constantly
acted
on by some
force which
just
neutralizes friction.
Hence when
an
actual
body
behaves
as
if free from forces
altogether
it is said to be
'
in
equilibrium
'
under the action of
all the forces
actually
exerted
on
it
;
or
all the forces concerned
form
'
a
system
in
equilibrium.'
The
study
of these
constitutes
Statics.
It has been insisted all
along,
however,
that force is
momentum
supplied
per
second,
and
consequently
the forces
acting
when
a
body
is
visibly changing
its motion in
speed or
direction
"
a
fallingstone, a stopping train, a piece
of
a revolving
wheel
"
form
just as
much
a
system
in
equilibrium as
when the
body
is at
rest
or moving steadily. Only, one
of the
vectors
concerned,
one
of the
arrows
in the
diagram, happens
to be
not
a
'
feelable
'
force,
but its
equivalent a
visible
change
of
momentum, once
called the vis inertice of the
body,
its
mass multiplied by [" ]
its acceleration. The
diagram
of vectors is
perfectlyunchanged.
Coming
to the
simplest possible case,
the third law
assures us
that
every
single
force forms
part
of
a
system
in
equilibrium,
for
equal
and
opposite
to it is
a
reactive force. Your
weight
presses
on
the
ground
and the
ground
presses
on
your
feet,
the
air
drags on
the train and the train
drags
the air
forward,
you
press
forward the ball and the ball
presses
equally
back
on
3 33
34 A
HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS
your
hand, telling
you
that it is
absorbing
momentum
for
flight.
But this individual treatment of forces leads nowhere
; they
must be
grouped.
In
considering
the
equilibrium
of
a
body
it
is convenient to
separate
all the
forces into two
groups,
viz.
those exerted
by
the
body,
and the reactive forces
on
the
body ;
either
of
these
groups
must
form
a
system
in
equilibrium
ivith
itself.
Usually
the
equilibrium
of the forces
acting
on
the
body
is
considered.
The reader must
be warned at
once
that
very
particular
care
is
necessary
to avoid
mixing
up
members of these two
groups.
Your
weight,
for
instance,
is the
pull
of the earth
acting
on
you,
but the downward
pressure
of
your
feet
on
the floor is
not on
you,
what
comes
into
reckoning
here is the reactive
upward
pressure
of the floor. When
you
jump
it is this that lifts
you
(though
of
course
you
call it into
being by
first of all
compressing
the
elasticfloor harder than
usual,
and
you
provide
all the
energy);
failing
the
reaction,as
in
water,
you
cannot
jump.
This increased
reaction shows
very
plainly
in
jumping
off
a
spring-board
or a
weighing-machine.
It
provides
the force
ma
acting
on
the
body
which is
directlyopposedby
the vis
inertice, mass x ("accele- ration)
already
referred to. It is
onlyduring
acceleration that
the
mass
of
a
body
comes
into account.
The
Equilibrium
of a particle
may
be maintained either
by
forces all in
one
line
or
by
forces in different directions.
With forces in
one
line their
algebraic
sum=0,
any
one
is
equal
and
opposite
to the
algeb- raic
sum
of the others.
With forces in various direc- tions
their vector
sum=0,
any
one
is
equal
and
opposite
to the
resultant of the
others,to the
diagonal
of the
parallelogram,
or
it must be the
closing
side of the
triangle
or
polygon
drawn
the
same
way
round
as
the others. Three
or more
forcesacting
at a
point
are
in
equilibrium
when
they
are
proportional
to the
sides,
parallel
to
them and all drawn the
same
way
round,
of
a
closed
triangle
or
polygon.
For
instance,
in the
apparatus
of
Fig.
13 the knot settles to
36
A
HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS
"
44. Centre of Mass.
As an instance,
let
a
and 6 be the
weights
of
masses
of 3 Ib. and 1 Ib. attached to
the ends of
a
2-ft.
light
bar,
Fig.
15. Their resultant will act
vertically through
a
point
|
ft. from the 3
Ib.,
since the moments
about this
point
are 3x
|
and 1
X
1| opposite
ways.
At this
point
the bar must be
sup- ported,
the whole
weight
of 4 Ib.
appears
to act there whatever the
tiltof the
bar,
for 3 Ib.xCE
still= "
1 Ib.xCD.
This
point
is the Centre of Gravity (e.g.)
or Centre of Mass
(c.
of
m.)
of the
rigidbody.
At
rest,
or
moving
in
a
straight
line,
the whole
mass
acts
as
if it
were
concentrated at
this centre
;
supported
there
i
.,,, i
E
c/
D-
the
body
rests
indifferently
"
T'*[
"*
$
V/~
J
*n
any
position,
struck
J,a
1
*
9
there it
moves straight
off
without
turning.
Hence to calculate the
position
of the mass-centre
of
any
number of
masses
in
line,
take the
sum
of the
moments of their
weights
about
any
point
in the
line,
and
equate
this
to the
moment of the total
weight
acting
as
at the
c.
of
m.
Thus
masses
arranged
on a
bar,
1 at
0,
2 at 1
ft.,
3 at
2
ft.,
and 4 at 3
ft.,
have
a
total moment
1
x 0+
2x1
+3x2+4x3
= 20
Ib.xft.,
c.
of
m.
is 2 ft.
along
bar from
FIG. 15.
FIG. 16.
which
=
(total
10
Ib.)x2ft.,
the 1 Ib.
In
practice
the
body (e.g.
semicircle of
Fig.16) can
be
hung
by
a
thread which
supplies
a vertical force
passing
of
course
through
the
point
of
support
and the
c.
of
m.
The
sum
total of
the moments of all the
particles
in the left-hand half about
any
point
in the
plumb-line
= ditto of
right-hand
half. Then
hanging
from another
point
the
new
plumb-line
cuts the firstin the
e.g.
Sometimes,
of
course,
symmetry points
out the
e.g.
It is at
the
geometrical
centre of
uniformbars,
rectangular
blocks,
rings,
etc.,
and, as
in
the last
case,
is often not situate in the solid
material at all.
EQUILIBRIUM
OF FORCES 37
"
45. From the
way
it has been derived it is obvious that the
principle
of moments
is not confined to
parallel
forces,
and it is
often convenient and sufficient to
use
it with forces at
angles
rather than to draw their
parallelogram diagrams.
Levers, etc.,
are
treated in both
ways
below.
Levers.
The
typical
lever of
theory
is
a
straight, rigid
bar
(crowbar)
on
which act three
parallel
forces
usually
called the
'
weight,
w,'
the
'
reaction of the
fulcrum,//
and the
(power,
or
better)
'
pull,p.'
More
or
less
disguised
levers build
up
the
greaterpart
of
machinery.
CROWBAR,
Fig.
17,
A.
Drawing
XYZ
perpendicular
to the
forces
"#xYX=and
opposes
pxXZ
(and/=and
opposes
w-\-p)
XY
being
short
w
lifted
may
be
large.
In
practice
the forces
are
rarelyparallel,
then
:
"
Either,Fig.B,
draw
XY,
XZ
perpendicular
to the two forces
wxXY=:and
opposes
pxXZ,
or, Fig.C, producing
the
forces,
the fulcrum reaction must meet
them both in
one point,
hence its
magnitude
and direction
by
the
parallelogram
law. This
gives
the fuller information
that/
is not
simply
vertical,
but
can
be resolved into vertical and
horizontal
components,
the latter of which must be
suppliedby
frictionof the fulcrum- block
on
the
ground,
or
by pressingyour
toe
against
it.
BENT
LEVER,
Hammer
drawing
nails,
Fig.
D.
Draw
XY,
XZ
perpendicular
to resistance of nail and
pull
of
hand,
Or the dotted
parallelogramgives
the
same
result and the
further information that the
reaction/
is its
(oblique) diagonal.
In
a second
way
of
using
both the
straight
and bent levers the
fulcrum is at the end and the
'
weight
'
in the
middle,
producing
what
are sometimes called
'
levers of the second order.'
In
Figs.
E and
F, wx
XY=opp.
px
XZ,
and
w=opp.
f-\-p.
These two
uses
increase force
;
the third
way
of
using
levers
diminishes force and increases
motion,
p
and
w
change places,
see
Figs.
G
and
H. H
is sometimes called
a
'
lever of the third
order.' Of these
types
are
the levers which convert the small
38 A
HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS
movements of
strong
muscles into the
rapid
movements of
our
extremities,see
the
remainingfigures.
Example
1. What force
applied
to a
locomotive crank 13 in.
long
produces a
tractive force of
10,000
Ib. when the
driving-wheels
are
6 ft. 6 in. diameter ?
This is
virtually^
lever with
arms
13 in. and 39 in.
long, .*.
force =
30,000
Ib. wt.
FIG. 17.
Ex. 2. A 10-stone man
stands
'
on tiptoe'
on one
foot. From
'
toe'
to
ankle-joint
is 6
in.,
thence to attachment of tendon of Achilles 2 in.
Find
pressure
at
joint
and
pull
in tendon.
The forces
acting
on
the foot are
shown in
Fig.
17.
w
presses up
at
toe, /
down at
joint,p up
at heel.
Taking
moments about the fixed
point (on floor)
6"x
/
=opp.
S"xp. .'.
p
=
i/.
Also
we
have
"p-{-w
=opp.
/. .'.w " % /.
Hence
/"
40
stone,
p
= 30
stone.
EQUILIBRIUM
OF FORCES 89
[This
is
a
tricky problem,
because,
standing
flat,/
is the
man's
weight plus any
little tensions in the front and back muscles of the
leg,
and
one
is
apt
to
forget
that contraction of these
greatly
increases
/.
If
/ were
vertical and muscles relaxed heel and
toe would
carry
|
and
\w,
but before
one can
safely
rise
on tiptoe
the
weight
has
been transferred forward and the calf muscle is
already pulling
hard.]
"
46.
*
Virtual Work.5 There is in connection with the other
levers of
our
anatomy
a
greatdifficulty
in
sayingjust
where and
in what direction the muscle
pulls
them. In
more
complex
mechanisms too
the construction of force
diagrams
becomes
tedious. The
difficulty
can
be
escapedby using
the so-called
Principleof Virtual Work. This is
merely
a
way
of
applying
the
principle
of the Conservation of
Energy
to
purely
mechanical
problems.
Let the
mechanism,
however
simple
or
complicated
it
is,
make
a
small
movement,
so
that
one
of the forces
presses
forward
and does
work on
it. Then the machine
gives
out an
equal
amount
of
work at the other end
by pushing
back the force there
through
a
distance obtained from the
geometry
of the
machine,
hence
last
force
X
distance moved
against
it
=
first forcex
distance it
pushedforward,
or
the forces
are
in the inverse ratio of the distances
theymove
in their
own
lines
of
action.
No deduction is made for frictionalloss until the calculation is
ended,
then
according
to the nature of the machine
a
percentage
correction based
on
experience
is subtracted. The
remaining
output
of work
-"-
work
put
in
=
the
Efficiency
of the machine.
[It
is
important
to note that
a
very
small movement will not
disturb the
equilibrium
of
a
system,
even
if
unstable,
enough
to
bring
kinetic
energy
into calculation. In
most machines the
equilibrium
is
'
neutral,'
" 51.]
Of these three methods " vector
diagram,moments,
virtual
work " sometimes
one
sometimes another
happens
to fit the
particular problem
easiest. Two instances of virtual work
follow,
the first
equally
easy
to solve
by moments,
but the second
troublesome to tackle
any
other
way.
"
47.
Examples
continued
:
"
Ex. 3. A
man
pulls
an oar
with
a
force of 40 Ib.
wt.,
rowlock is 2 ft.
awr
y
and middle of blade 5 ft.
beyond
it. Find forces
acting
on oar.
40 A HANDBOOK
OF PHYSICS
In
Fig.
18,
Ex.
3,
let the
oar
rotate a
very
little about the rowlock.
'
Virtual
'
Work
p
x ZZ'=f
x
XX'.
By
similar
triangles
ZZ'
= -4XX'.
Exio.
FIG. 18.
Ex. 4. A truck is shifted
by applying
a
crowbar to the
wheel,
bar is
pushed
down 2 ft. with
average
force 60 Ib. wt. and truck moves
6 in.
What is its frictional resistance ?
,
240 Ib. wt.
EQUILIBRIUM
OF FORCES 41
Ex. 5. In Ex. 3 how
are
the forces used in the boat ?
In
Fig. 18,
Ex.
3,
forces
acting on
boat
are
shown in double line.
56 Ib. forward action of
oar on
rowlock and 40 Ib. backward
push
of
rower on
stretcher and seat
leave 16 Ib.
propulsive
force
(really
the
forward reaction of water on oar).
The 16 Ib. is not immediately
applied
to the water
resisting
the
boat,
but is
temporarilypartly
used
in
increasing
momentum
of boat and
rower. During
the return
stroke
this
momentum is
being dissipated.
The
rower,
who took
more
than
his share in
swinging
bowward,
i.e. faster than the
boat, now gives
it
up
by moving
sternward.
Ex. 6.
Why
do
pictureshung
in the usual
way
lean forward ?
In
Fig. 18,
Ex.
6,
the
e.g.
of the thick frame cannot lie in the wall
whence
spring
the
supporting
tension and
a
small
nearly
horizontal
reaction.
Taking
moments
about the
corner
in
contact,
the moment
of the
weight
towards the
right
must be
compensated by a
moment
of the
string
to the
left,
and to
get
an
'
arm
'
the
string
must lie out
from the wall. The three forces meet in
one
point
and
are
there
pro- portional
to the
sides,
drawn
parallel
to
them,
of
a triangle
of forces.
The front view shows the division of
p
between the two
strings.
Ex. 7. A
light
ladder stands
on a rough pavement
and leans
against
a
smooth wall. A
man
climbs the ladder. Prove that its
tendency
to
slip
increases
as
he ascends.
In
Fig. 18,
Ex.
7,
the smooth wall
can
exert
only
a
reaction
perpen- dicular
to itself
(having no component capable
of
resistingslip).
The
man's
weight
w
presses
on
the ladder
vertically;
the reaction at the
foot must
pass
through
the
common point.
It therefore slants
more
and
more as
the
man
ascends and
may
presently require a larger
horizontal
component
than friction on
the
ground
can supply. (If
weight
of ladder is taken into account the vertical force acts
through
e.g.
of
man
and
ladder,
and
moves
slower than he
does.)
Ex. 8. What
are
the forces
acting
on a
kite ?
Wind
bringsper
second momentum
AB, Fig. 18,
Ex.
8,
up
to the kite
horizontally,
the air must
go away
somewhere,
suppose
it is reflected
off
carrying
momentum BC with it. The force that converted AB into
BC is BD
(ABD
is
a triangle
of
forces).
This is the force
applied
to the
wind
by
the
resistingkite,
therefore the
equal
and
opposite
BE is
applied
to kite
by
wind. This
force,
the
weight
of kite
w
and
pull
of
string
p
act
through one point. Evidently string
and vertical
are on
opposite
sides of
perpendicular
to kite. Tail acts as
anchor to check
oscillations.
Ex. 9. How
can a
boat sail
more or
less
up-wind
?
By
the
same
argument
of wind
coming
and
going we get
a
force
BE
acting
on
the
sail,Fig.
18,
Ex. 9.
Resolving
this into
two,
the
forward
component
BF
propels
the boat
along
her
keel,
the beam
component
BM
causes leeway. If,as
in
a tub,
sideways
motion
through
the water is
as
easy
as forward,
the whole drifts down- wind
;
but if
length, leeboards, keel, etc.,
make
sideways
motion
more difficult,
the
beam force
produces only
a
disproportionately
small
velocity (dotted
vectors)
and the boat makes
a course only a
little to leeward of her
42
.
A HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS
Ex. 10. What forces act on an
aeroplane
?
Thrust
p
from
propeller,weight w,
and reaction from the air that the
plane
meets and drives down. For the whole machine in
equilibrium
their three resultants
pass
through
a
point,Fig.
18,
Ex. 10.
Ex.
11.
Fig.18,
Ex.
11,
is the
plan
of a
three-legged
table on whose
edge
is
a weight
say
half that of table. The
e.g.
is
obviously
at
G,
$
radius from
centre. To find the
pressure
on
each
leg :
"
Either
by
levers " draw CG to meet AB in
E,
then
EG/CE
of
weight
presses
on
C and
CG/CE
at E. The latter
again
divides between A and
B in the inverse ratio of the distance of E from them.
Or
by
virtual work " lifteach
leg
in turn and find out what fraction of
this distance the centre of
mass
lifts.
(Simply
scale
perpendicularly
to line
joining
fixed
feet.)
Pressure
on
leg
= this fraction of whole.
With
a
four-legged
table the
problem
cannot be solved. A
stifftable
probably
does not stand
on
all four until
warped by
heavy loading.
"
48. The lever
reappears
in the
'
wheel and axle
'
and
through- out
all
'
gearing/
as
in
Fig.
19. Problems
relating
to Machines
are
all most
easily
solved
by
'
virtual work.' Pull
:
weight=
distance
weight
moves :
distance
pull
moves.
With forces tan- gential
to circles
(realwheels,or
circles of motion of
capstan-
bars
or
cranks)
the distances are
obtained from circumferences
and
speeds
of rotation
;
with
linkwork,
toggles,cams, etc.,
graphical
constructions
or
card- board
models
may
be
necessary.
Calculations of this
sort are
easy
;
neglect
of
them,
and the
use
instead of
geometrical
force dia- grams
too difficult for the in- ventor,
has resulted in all sorts
of mechanisms
promising
energy
for
nothing,
from the
many
in- genious
'
Perpetual
Motions,'
whose invariable failure
was
FIG. 19.
Part
of the foundation of the
FIG. 20.
Principle
of the Conservation of
Energy,
to such modern
quack- eries
as
crooked
cranks,
'
patent
lever
chains,'etc. Bold
curves
and
complicated
movements
are so
very
impressive,
but it is
44 A HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS
and horizontal force
:
vertical force =
height
:
horizontal
length
of
plane.
This is the action of
a
wedge,type
of all
nails,knives,
axes,
and chisels
(lower
diagram).
Wrapping
the
slope
round
a
cylindergives
the Screw. The
pull
at the end of
a
long
handle
moves
tangentially
round in
a
circle
a
distance 2?rr while the
screw
advances its
'
pitch
'
;
hence
w
=
(p
X
27rr)-f- pitch.
Ex. 13. A
copying-press
has
a
J-in.pitch screw
and two handles 5 in.
long,
14 Ib. is
applied
at
right angles
to each. What is the
pressure
on
the book 1
w=14x 2 x2wx
5-^-^
= 1760 Ib. wt.
Ex. 14. What is the thrust of
a
steamship'spropeller
which absorbs
5000
h.p.,
has
an
effective
pitch
of 20
ft.,
and makes 70
revs,
per
min.?
wx20x70=ft.-lb.
per
min.=
5000x33,000
w=l
18,000
Ib. wt.
"
50. Internal actions do not affect external
equilibrium.
It is
a
theorem not
always
easy
to credit that the
equilibrium
of
a
system
relative to the exterior is
quite
unaffected
by
dis- turbances
inside it. Yet since
activity
and
reactivity
are
equal
and
opposite,
if there is
no
chance of reaction from the exterior
there
can
be
no
outward
action,
and for
every
internal action
there must be
a
balancing
internal reaction.
Leaning
forward in
a
boat
causes
the boat to
move backward,
both actions
stop simultaneously,
the
centre
of
mass
has not
moved. Once balanced
on one
foot
your
own
exertions will not
topple
you
over,
unless
you press
on
the wall
or
the
wind, or on
the earth with
some
other
part
of
your
foot. The
high-diver,
once
he has left
his.board,
is
as
powerless
to alter his
rotary
head-
over-heels momentum as
to
modify
his
speed
of fall. If
you
lean
over
sharply
on a
bicycle
the machine
merely
tiltsthe other
way,
steering
is unaffected. The natural
swaying
of
a
bicycle
from
side to side both necessitates and makes
possible
its
steering,
if
compelled
to
suddenly
steer
away
from the side it
happens
to be
falling
you
have to
pay
for it
directly
after
by
a
hasty
swerve
towards that side. All
you
do is to maintain its natural unstable
equilibrium ; failing
that,
gravitycompels
'
the
system
'
to seek
other
points
of
support.
Again,contrary
to
general
belief,
sudden
pressure
of the rider's
foot
on
the
bicycle pedal
cannot
cause
side-slip
unless the
pressure
arises from actual motion of the rider.
Steady
force is the rate of
EQUILIBRIUM
OF FORCES 45
change
of momentum of
a mass so
great
that its
speed
is
imper- ceptible.
(See" 18,
of which the
present
is
really
a
continuation.)
There is
no
such
mass .on
the
bicycle.
The
pressure
on
the
right
pedal
is either balanced
by pull
on
the
right
handle-bar
or
saddle-
grip,
so
that
on
the whole
no
momentum
passes
into the
machine,
or
else there is left-handed roll of the rider and
right-handed
roll of the
machine,
the wheel
slips
to the left
unless,as usual,
there
suddenly
arises frictionalresistance
enough
to transfer all
this momentum to the
great
earth
("18).
In all the
many
apparent
contradictions of this
principle
which
may
come
to
mind,
careful
scrutiny
will show that
a
reaction in
some
unsuspected
direction,
often due to friction,
is the hidden
key.
"
51.
Stable,neutral,
and unstable
equilibrium.
If the
equilibrium
of
any
'
system
'
is
momentarily
disturbed
by
a
small force what
happens
? Does it
just
oscillate
a
littleand
go
back to its
original
condition " it is
stable. Does it
move
continuously
till friction
quietlystops
it" neutral. Does it
upset altogether
into
a
different condition " it
was
in
equilibrium,
but unstable.
The
applied
small force does work
on it,
giving
it kinetic
energy
:
if this is absorbed into
potential
energy,
the motion
tends to
stop
and then
go
back " stable
;
if it is
justspent
in
friction" neutral
;
but if the
system
can
lose
potential
energy
by continuing
the motion
(producing
more kinetic)
the motion
increases " unstable.
The difference is
usually
illustrated
by
solids under
Gravity.
To
upset
a flat-bottomed
object,
or a
'
biassed
'
ball,or an
egg
lengthways,
its centre of
gravity
has firstto be raised
(i.e.
energy
is stored
as
gravitational potential) ;
these rock
more or
less
and settle back " stable. An
egg
sideways
rolls
on
with neither
loss
nor
gain
of
potential
energy
" neutral
;
set on
end the least
displacement
lowers its
e.g.,
it
expendspotential
energy,
therefore
moves
faster and
upsets.
[In
common
parlance
many
things
are
'
unstable
'
which
are
really
stable,
which have and hold
a
position
of their
own,
but
hold it
feebly.
A
case
in
point
is the
seismologist's
'
horizontal
pendulum,'
which
responds
to the
uprising
of the earth's surface in the
meadow when relieved of the
weight
of the
morning
dew. Another
is the
'
divining-rod,'
the forked hazel
twig's
elastic tails
are
46 A HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS
pressing across
the shortest distances between two
parts
of the
hands,
and
a
very
little
yielding
of the
underlying
muscles
may
give
them, the chance of
escaping sideways
and
agitating
the
twig.
Again, explosives
bear
handling,
but
not much.]
The
theorem, however,
is of
widespread application.
The
energy
can
be stored in
any
form whatever
"
spin, capillary,
elastic, electric, chemical, etc.
"
and the
test
of what
happens
when disturbed is
:
If
a system once
started continues to
move
it is
always
in such
a manner as
to
reduce its
potential
energy.
The
Principle
of the
Dissipation
of
Energy
not only
takes
tax
of its
motions,
it
actually
decides in what direction the motion shall
go.
Energy
of motion is less
'
available
'
than
energy
in
store.
EXAMPLES." CHAPTER VI
15. What
are
the conditions for three
parallel
forces to be in
equili- brium
? Explain
how the
necessity
of each condition
can
be tested
experimentally. [L.]
16. A cube of
weight
W rests
on a rough
floor
;
find force which,
acting along
upper
surface,
will tilt it.
[L.]
17. A
sphere
of diameter 10 in. and
weight 6"
Ib. is
hung by an
8-in.
string
fastened to
a
smooth wall. Find tension in
string
and
pressure
on
wall.
[A.]
18. Draw
a diagram
to
represent
the forces in
equilibrium on a
tail- less
kite.
[M.]
CHAPTER VII
[ROTATION
"
52
:
In the Rotation of
a body
it is evident that different
portions
of the
mass
contribute
very
differently
to the total
momentum
and total
energy
of the
motion,
for those
near
the
fixed axis
of
rotation
move
much less than the outer
parts.
The
totals have to be
got by adding together
the
mv or
the
\mv2
of
all the individual
particles,
a
process
called
Integration
and
effected
geometricallyor by
the devices of
c
the calculus/
The
speed always quoted
in rotation is the
angular speed,
q,
with
which
any
radius
projecting
at
rightangles
to the axis
changes
its direction of
pointing.
This of
course
is the
same throughout
the
body.
Then
v
=qr
;
the linear
velocity
of
a particle
=
angular
velocity
of
body X
distance
r
of
particle
from axis of rotation.
[Putting v
and r=l the unit
q
is that which
causes
the end of
a
1-cm. radius to
move
1
cm.
per
sec.
(1
radian
per
sec.).
The
distance round
being
2?rX radius,
"?=27rXrevs.
per
sec., e.g.
q
of the minute hand=2?rX
1/3600.]
The whole kinetic
energy
of
a rotatingbody,
the
sum
of
\mv2,
.'. =sum
of
J(w7"2)gf2="(sum
of
mr2)q2=^Iq2,
where
I,
the
'
integral
'
of mr2
throughout
the
body,
is called its Moment of
Inertia.
[Writing I=MR2,
M is total
mass
and R the
'
Radius
of
Gyration.']
"
53
: Couples.
Inquiring
how the
body
obtained this
energy,
it
was by
work done
on
it
by
forces. Not
a singleforce,
for that
would have set it
moving
forward
as a whole,
but
a
pair
of
forces,
equal
and
opposite though
not
neutralizing,
i.e. not in the
same
line. Such
a pair
is called
a couple,
the
perpendicular joining
them is its
arm,
the
product
one force X
whole
arm =
turning
Moment
or
Torque of
the
couple (measured
in
dynes X
centi- metres
at
right angles
;
contrast
ergs).
The two forces
are
felt
by finger
and thumb when
turning a
tap,
key, or
knob. With
a crank, one seems
to have
vanished,
but the
necessity
of
holding lightmachinery firmly
down shows that it is
47
48 A HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS
present
as a
reaction
in the
bearings,merely causing
friction,
perhaps
so
much that
a
tap
may
hardly
be turned
by pressing
on
one
end of its T handle
only.
A
long
crank enables the
same
turning
moment to be
applied
with less
pressure
and less friction.
The fixed
point
in the
arm
of the
couple
may
be between the
forces
(knob)
or on one
of them
(crank)
or
outside them
(gripping
one
end of
tap-handle
with thumb and
finger
and
turningby
pressing
them
oppositeways),
it makes
no
difference to its
moment.
Every
force
exertingturning
moment is
one
of
a
couple,
e.g.
the fulcrum reaction in
a
lever consists of the two forces
which
complete pull couple
and
weight couple. [Revise
the
definition of Moment of
a
force in
" 43.]
Work done
by
a
couple
=
torque
x
angle
turned
through
(radians),
or=either force
x sum
of distances both travel forward.
"
54
:
Moments of
Inertia,Fig.
22.
Some values of the
integral
I
are,
for bodies of
mass
M
rotating
about
a
fixed axis
through
their centre
of
mass,
and
having
r as
extreme radius from it
:
"
Thin
hoop
*
or
hollow
cylinder
about usual axis
perp.
to circle Mr2
Disc*
or
solid
cylinder
,, ,,
Sphere
Thin rod about
centre, rectangle
or
rectangular
block about
central axis
parallel
to
edge
[**
half
as
much when
rotating
about a
diameter.]
Lengthsalong
the axis do not
come
into calculation.
|Mr2
fMr2
ROTATION 49
Rotation about
an
axis not
through
the centre of
mass means
that the
body
as a
whole
moves forward,
turning
as
it
goes.
For
instance,a
flung
stick has moved about
your
shoulder
as
centre
; quitting
your
hand it
analyses
the motion into forward
flight
as a
whole and rotation about its
own
middle. And in
a
month the
moon
travels about
1^
million miles round
us
and
rotates
once on
its
own axis,as
evidenced
by
the travel of
sun- shine
round it.
The whole
energy
of such motion
can
be written in two
parts,
JMv2
due
to the linear
speed
v
of the centre of
mass, plus|L/2
due to the rotation about it.
e.g.
a
Rolling
Ball has
q=v-"-r,
hence its
Energy
Or it
can
be written in
one, recollecting
that
v=qx
distance h
of centre of
mass
from axis of rotation.
Energy JMt;*+lIj*=p[ .
AM
.
R2
.
where I' is
a new moment of inertia about the
new axis,
and is
evidentlyequal
to the moment of inertia about the central
axis
-f (mass
x
square
of distance h between central axis and the
new axis).
"
55 : The
Compound Pendulum, Fig.
23.
[The following
FIG. 23.
investigation
is
easilyapplied
to
any
solid whatever
oscillating
under the control of
gravity,magnetic
or
electric
force,
etc.]
50 A HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS
A
body
of
any
shape
makes small
swings
about
a
point0,
h
above its centre of
mass
C. About the
point
it has I'
"
M(R2+/"2).
At end of
swing
its
mass-centre has been liftedAB =
(AC)2/2A
("113)
and its
potential
energy
/.
=
M(/x(AC)2/2A.
At
mid-swing
this is converted into kinetic
energy
These
are
equal,
hence
At
mid-swing
C has
velocity qh
and
we
have
seen
("37)
that
this,
maintained
constant,
would
carry
it round
a
circle of radius AC
in the time of
swing (straight
or circular)
T =
27r(A.C)/qh.
Hence T=^7T^/
fj~
W\/1O
w}ieTe I/ is about tlie
actual axis of rotation and
M.g.
h
evidently
= moment of control- ling
force about axis if
body
is held at
rightangles
to force.
"
56 : Kater's reversible
pendulum
(Fig.
23,
right)
is
a bar,
with
a
bob at one end,
which
can
be
swung
from
axes
(knife-edges),
near
either end in
turn,
distant h and k from its centre of
mass.
Its times of
swing
either end
up
are
adjusted
to be the
same.
Now to
prove
the distance betiveen the
knife-edges, h-\-k,
is the
lengthof
the theoretical
simplependulum having
the
same time
of
swing
:
"
T-27T
/M(R2+^2)_27r /
V
Mgh
V
. .
v/u" /t;j.v-
=hk(k"h).
.'. either k=
h, a
symmetrical
bar which
gives
no information,
or
R2=M.
T=27
=
period
of
Simple
Pendulum of
lengthk+h ["38].
This is the instrument for
determining
g
referred to in
"
30.
Half its
length
or more
is omitted in
Fig.
23. Beside it is Borda's
pendulum,"
30,
and to the left of this
a common
metronome
pendulum
which oscillates
on
the axis marked
by
a
dot and has
its
periodlengthenedby raising
the
sliding weight,
thus
raising
its centre of
mass, shortening
h,
and so
reducing
the
controlling
moment.
52
A HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS
to the
familiarparallelogram
law.
[Unlike
linear
motions,
both
immediatelybegin
to
change
their
directions,
and
any
particular
diagram
is
onlyephemeral,
but it shows the immediate direction
of motion and that is
enough
for
our
purpose.]
Anyone
who has
'
laid
up
'
a
piece
of electric flexible
cord,or
of
rope,
will understand how two or
three rotors
can
combine into
one,
and
an
excellent instance of
one
resolving
into three is
afforded
by
a camera on a
rather
ricketytripod. Turning
it
about a
vertical axis to alter the view
causes
all three
legs
to
twist
on
their
own axes
(and
is the severest test of a
tripod's
rigidity).
"
58
: Spinning tops.
The
foregoing
will
help
us
to understand
the
strange
motions of
a
spinningtop.
In the first
place,
to
get
rid of
the
disturbing
influence of
gravity,
consider
a
specialtop
with its toe at its centre of
mass.
It rests
indifferently
at
any
tilt,
it will be found to
spin
in
any
position
without
attempting
to
change
it
;
when
extremely
well made it continues to
point
to a
fixed star while the earth turns under it. Eotor
AO,
Fig.
25,
represents
its
largeangular
momentum of
spin(spinningright-
handed
as usual).
Now
attempt
to
push
the stem
away
to
the
back of the
paper
;
it resists
strongly,
and
escapes
by running
round
your
finger
so as
to
go
off to the
right.
Your
attempt
was
to turn the whole
over
about the axis
(in
the
paper)
BO,
you
acted
on
it with rotor BO.
AO and BO combine to
produce
a
resultant rotor
CO,
that
is,
the
top
tiltsto the
right
and
places
its axis in this line. Since AO
is
large
BO must also be
a
fairly largecouple.
The stem
presses
back
hard
on
your
finger.
If
you
continue
touching,
it
runs
round and round
pressing
all the while.
An
ordinarytop
is
supported
below its centre of
mass,
and
as
soon as
it tilts
a
rotor
tending
to
topple
it
over comes
into
existence,
just
like that
you
supplied
above. Its stem moves as
described,
at
rightangles
to the
expected
line of fall. It
now
slants in
a
different
direction,
and
moves
at
rightangles
to
that,
and
so
on,
with the result that it
sways
round
or
precesses
in
a
circle,
the
same
way
round
as
itis
spinning.
As the
top
slows down
OA diminishes and the
angle
AOC
resulting
from the action of OB
(constant
for
a
constant
angle
of
slant)increases,
the
top
precesses
faster.
The
special top,Fig.
25,can
also be
supported
above its
centre
of
mass,
so as
to tend to stand
up
instead of falldown
;
it then
pT-ecesses
the
opposite
way.
ROTATION 53
The
going
to
sleep
of
a
top
is caused
by
friction
on
the floor.
Fig.
26 shows the toe of the
leaningtop ;
its
point
of
support
is
not in the
axis,
but liesin the small circleOP which
grinds
round
on
the floor. Friction
provides
a
resisting
force
pointing
back
through
the
paper
and
tending
to
trip
up
the
top
so
that it should
fallforward
(out
of the
paper),
i.e.
produces
a rotor such as
DP
in the
paper.
This
compounds
with the axial rotor and raises
the
top
to
a more erect
position.
The stubbier the toe the
larger
the circle OP and the
quicker
the
top goes
to
sleep.
"
59 : The
gyroscope
is
simply
a
spinning top
enclosed in
a
frame
so
that it
can
be handled in
a
greater
variety
of
ways.
The hind
wheel removed from
a
bicycle,
with the back
step
acting
as handle,
is
an
excellent
gyroscope.
When
spun up
it is
easily
carried
by
the
finger
crooked round the end of the
step.
Its
weight
causes
it to
slowly
precess.
If
you
turn round at the
speed
it
suggests
the axle remains horizontal,
if
you
grip
the
step
and resist
pre- cession
it
slowly
sinks tillthe axle
hangs vertically
from
your
hand " without
precession
it cannot save
itselffrom fall" if
you
attempt
to accelerate
precession
it rises and
ultimately
stands
sleeping
on
your
hand.
The
gyroscope
of the Brennan mono-rail car
has
a
pair
of
heavy
fly-wheels spinning
in
vacuo
about
a
horizontal axis
across
the
car
(rotor
AO,
Fig.27)
and
supported
in
gimbals.
When the
car
tilts
to the
right
itliftsS
(a
shelf curved in
plan
to centre
0)
and
presses
it under the
axle,
which
gets
a
frictional
grip
and
runs
forward
along
it,
i.e.rotor
ZO arises. The resultant rotor is
HO,
and the
wheel makes strenuous exertions to set its axle in this direction,
i.e.it
presses very
hard
on
S and
tips
the
car
back
again.
The wheel is
now
slewed
round,
and to restore
it to its normal
position
the shelf T
on
the
car
presently
comes
in contact
with the
top
of the axle. But here
a
loose collar intervenes and
permits
free
slipping,
so
that there is
no
horizontal
push
on
the
axle,
only
a
small direct downward
pressure.
This
causes
the horizontal
rotor HO
seen
in the
PLAN underneath,
and this combines with
OA to slew the axle round
as
along
HA,
i.e.to
bring
the
displaced
axle back into the
plane
of the elevation.
A twin
wheel,etc.,
on
the
right
deals with tiltsto the left. The
wheels'
objections
to curves on
the line
are
made to neutralize
each other
by suitably linkingtogether
their
gimbal
frames.
Many
other
thingskept
in
position by spin
will
occur
to
every- one
"
hoops,
rifle
bullets,
'
diabolo
'
spools,
etc. It is
noteworthy
that ifthe moment of inertia is the
same
about alldirections the
54 A HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS
axis of rotation
can
wander
anyhow
;
a
ball is
alwayschanging
its
axis of
spin,
and
on a
uniform
spherical
earth
one
would
stay
at
home and wait for the north
pole
to
come
past.
The
Gyro-compass,
controlled
by
a
gyroscope
instead of
a
magnetic
needle,
is
a new
and valuable
navigating
instrument.
EXAMPLES." CHAPTER VII
1. Calculate
the moment of inertia of
an
iron
ring
95
cm.
radius
and
weighing
2000
kg.
2. Calculate the moment of inertia of
an
iron disc 90
cm.
radius and
weighing
600
kg.
3. The
foregoing together
form
a
fly-wheel making
240
revs,
per
min. Calculate its
energy
of rotation.
4.
Explain angular
acceleration and radius of
gyration.
Prove
kinetic
energy
of
rotating body
"
JIty2. [St.A.]
5. A
top
is
spun by a
string.
When the
length
unwound is 60
cm.
and the
string
has been
pulled
with
a
steady
force of 2
kg., points
on the rim of the
top (3
in.
radius)
have
acquired
a velocity
of 28-8 in.
per
sec. What is the moment of inertia of the
top
about its axis ?
6.
Compare
the
energies
of forward motion and of rotation in
a
hoop
rollingon
the
ground.
7. Two
spheres
of
equal weight, one
of wood
s.g.
-78 and the other of
steel
s.g. 7-8,
roll down the
same
plane
inclined 1 in 60.
Compare
their
speeds
after
rolling
25
ft.,
and
compare
also their
energies
of trans- lation
and
rotation
respectively.
8. Calculate the time of
swing
of
a
thin rod 1
m.
long
about
a point
10
cm. from
one
end. Show that is less than if
swinging
from
one
end,
but becomes
large near
middle.
9. Calculate the moments of inertia of
a
bar
magnet
10
cm. x
1
cm.
X
-5
cm., weighing
40
grm.,
about the 3
axes
through
its centre
parallel
to its
edges.
10. This
magnet,
broad face
horizontal, swings
as a
compass
needle
under the
magnetic
control of the
earth,
with 10
sec. period.
A
brass rod of
equal length,
1
cm.
diameter and
weighing
65
grm.,
is laid
on
it. This does
not affect the
controlling
force. Calculate the
new
time of oscillation.
11. Describe the motion of the axis of
a
spinningtop
and show how
it
may
be accounted for
theoretically.
12. Prove that the
steering-wheel
of
a
bicyclerunning
fast
gyro-
statically
turns in the direction
necessary
to
prevent falling,
when the
machine tilts.
13. The
equatorial bulge
of the earth forms
virtually
a
heavy ring
inclined
to the
plane joining
earth and
sun.
Solar
gravitation
would
pull
the
ring
at rest into this
plane ;
the
ring
is
spinning,
show that
the result is that the earth's axis
processes
so
that the
pole
moves
in
a
circle
[of23"" radius]
among
the stars in the
opposite
direction to
the
earth's rotation.
CHAPTER VIII
FLUIDS
"
60. Matter that
can
flow is fluid. This broad definition
includes not
only liquids(to
which the
name
of fluids is
popularly
confined),
but
gases,
streaming masses
of
sand,
grain, etc.,
crowds of
people,pitch
and candle-wax in
summer,
even glacier
ice and metals
plasticallyyielding
to
excessive stresses.
Every particle,
every
*
drop,'
say,
of
a
fluid of
course obeys
the
mechanical laws
already
described,
but its individual motion
can
rarely
be followed
;
it is lost in the crowd. Fluids
are
therefore
studied
collectively,
their
special
Laws
are
laws
governing
the
motion and
equilibrium
of multitudes of
particles
in close contact.
The
sand,
ductile
metals, etc.,
referred to above differ from
typical
fluids in
one
most
important respect.
For
they
act as
solids,
and do
not
appreciablyrespond
to stress
until it reaches
a
certain
limiting
value. For
instance, at
this
'
yield point
'
metals
change
from
springy
solids and behave like
very
viscous fluids,
drawing
out
into thin threads
(wire). Again,
sand
freely
trickles
down,
but stands solid at
a
moderate
slope.
The
reason
is
evident,
solid friction
among
the
particles
"
whether held in
close contact
by
molecular
cohesion, or merely by
their
own
weight,
has its usual effect of
quite preventing slipping
under
small forces.
But take well-rounded sand
grains
lubricated with
plenty
of
water
and this
'
quicksand
'
notoriously gives
way
even
to
light
weights.
The
typicalfluid yieldscontinuously,though
it
'may
be
slowly,
to
any
force
however small.
A
very
viscous
liquid
like treacle
or pitch yields
but
slowly
to the
weight
of
a pebble ;
a
feather
gives
evidence of frictional
resistance
to its fall
through a
gas.
The non-existent theoreti- cally
perfect
fluid would be
perfectly
mobile,
its
particles
would
glide
past
one
another without friction.
Fortunately
the
pre- sence
of
viscosity
makes
no
difference to the
study
of fluids
at
56
56
A HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS
rest
(or
in
comparatively
slow
motion),
for in the internal
friction
among
the
particles
there is
never
any
preliminary
'
stiction
'
stage.
"61. Noticing
that
Pressure is
denned
as
the
forceexerteAmi-each
unit
of
area
"
e.q^lb.^er
s"".
j^^J/MLG"jmr^a^L^i.
" there flow from
theToregomg
these Laws of Fluids
:
"
I. The
pressure
of
a
fluid
at rest on
any
surfacebounding
it is
perpendicular
to that
surface.
For whatever it
may
be,
the reaction
of the surface is
equal
and
opposite
to
it
; resolving
this into two
components perpendicular
and
parallel
to the
surface,
the latter
component
would
urge
the
superficial layerssideways,
and
as
they
are
quiteincapable
of
making
any
stand
against
it
they
would
move
tillthis
component
had been reduced to
zero.
This
principle
is familiar to
everyone
in the resistance felt when
a
broad surface is
slowly*
moved flatwise
against
wind
or
water,
but not when
edgewise.
The free surface of
a
liquid
must
consequently
set
itselfat
right
angles
to the resultant force
acting
on
it at the
point. Usually
this is
weight,vertically
downwards,
and hence the surface is
a
horizontal
plane(orrather,
conforms to the
shape
of the
earth).
But ifthe
liquid
is in rotation for
instance,
centrifugal
force
comes
in and the surface banks
up
into
a
wave,
or a
whirlpool
cone.
II. The
pressure
at a
point
in
a
fluid
is the
same
in all directions.
For consider
a
minute
equilateral triangular
volume in the
fluid,
a
prismatic
block
so
small that its
weight
is
negligible compared
with the
pressures
on
its faces. Then if this remains at rest there
can
be
no
resultant force
acting
on it,
i.e.
by
the
triangle
of forces
the three
pressures
perpendicular
to its three faces must be all
equal.
It
can
be tilted about
anyhow,
and
we
may
infer that the
pressures
are
the
same
in all directions at the
point.
The
spirting
of water with
equal
violence in
every
direction
from holes in
a
leaky
fire-hose illustrates this
principle.
But
by
far the best
experimentalproof
of it is that
a
very
well
madef
Aneroid Barometer reads the
same
however it is turned
over
and
about in the hand. In this instrument
("74)
the
heavy
pressure
*
The law holds
very approximately
for slow
motions,
but
rapid
motion involves
viscosity
and the
pressure
inclines
a
trifle. There is
a surface
drag
or
'
skin friction
'
on a
blade
swung
swiftlyedgewise ;
air
blowing rapidly
over
still water
drags along
the
superficiallayers
until somewhere
a
triflingheaping-up
is
produced,
the
beginning
of
a
ripple.
I
In
common aneroids the
weight
of unbalanced levers
causes
discrepancies.
FLUIDS 57
of the
great
ocean
of
air,
in the
depths
of which
we live,
is
being
balanced
against
the elastic
strength
of
a
spring.
This of
course
is unaltered
by merelytilting
the whole instrument
about,
hence
the constant
reading
means
that the air
pressure
on
the lid of the
flat vacuum-box is the
same
in all directions.
III. The
pressure
in
a
fluid
at rest
whose
weight
can
be
neglected
is
the
same
throughout.
For if different
pressures
acted
on
opposite
faces of
a
cubical
volume in the fluid it would
begin
to
move
and continue tillthe
pressures
were
equalized.
Of
course
this law is
approximate only
: no
material fluid is
weightless.
Still,
it takes
a
good
aneroid to
measure
the difference
of
atmospheric
pressures
on
the chair and
on
the table
;
and the
engineerutterlydisregards
any
variations of
pressure,
due to
weight
of
water,
in
a
hydrauliccylinder
where the
average
pressure
is
perhaps
a
ton to the
square
inch.
[The
next
paragraph,"
62,
isthe
supplement
of
this,
itdeals with
the
pressures
in
a
heavy
fluid due to its
weightonly.]
It is
on
this
transmissibility
of
fluid
pressure
to all
parts
that
steam, compressed
air,or
hydraulic
power
distributing systemsdepend.
The
hydraulic
press
affords
a
good
instance of its
adaptability.
In
Fig.
28
a
force exerted
on
the
small
plunger
P is transmitted
by
the water and
applied
a
hundred-
|^
fold
on
the
plunger
or
'
ram
'
R of
100 times
greater
circular
area.
^
Conversely
of
course
P
moves
100
times
as
fast
as R,
hence it is
necessary
to fitvalves and make it
a
reciprocating
force
pump.
The
efficiency
of the Bramah collar
surrounding
the
ram
again
depends
on
this
principle.
It is
a
leather
ringpressed
to a fl
section and stuffed with tow. The water
pressure among
the
tow
presses
out the collar
tightlyagainst
both
cylinder
and
ram
and thus
prevents leakage.
"
62.
Pressure due to
weight
of fluid.
The
pressure
due
to
gravity
at
a
point
in
a
heavy
fluid at rest is
evidentlyequal
to the
weight
of
a
1
sq.
cm.
vertical column
standing
on a
sq.
cm.
horizontal
area
drawn round the
point,Fig.
29
(left).
For there
is
no
'
stiction
'
over
the vertical sides to
support
the column and
prevent
it
resting
its whole
weight
on
the base.
58
A
HANDBOOK
OF PHYSICS
Weight
of column = no.
of c.c.
it contains x wt. of each.
=
depth
of
pt.
below surf
ace X density*
of fluid.
.*.
Pressure
p
=hd
grm.-wt.per sq.
cm.
=
hdg dynesper sq.
cm.
If there
are
several fluids
on top
of
one
another
p=A1(f1+^|
-f-k3d3,
etc.
If,as
in the atmo-
Jp
sphere,
the lower
layers
are
much
-*-
"
compressedby
the
weight
of those
,
d,
ZHZ
-
above, so
that the fluid
gradually
increases in
density
downwards,
Fig.
29
(right),
p
is reckoned
by
dividing
the total
height
into small
fractions, assigning
an
average
density
to
each,
and
summing
the
product
hd
throughout;
a
process
of
integration.
FIG. 29. Again,
unless
a vacuum
has been
created
over a
liquid
surface,
there
is
an
air
or
steam
pressure
there which has to be added to all
gravity
pressures
throughout(Law III)
the
liquid
to
get
the
total
pressure
('
absolute
'
pressure
of
engineers).
These
principles
are
applied
also in
Sphygmometers
for
measur- ing
blood
pressure.
A small flexiblerubber
bag containing mercury
is
strapped
over
the
artery,
in the
arm
say.
The
mercury
is
continued
through
a
rubber tube to
a
glass
reservoir
and the
latter is raised above the
bag
till the
pulsebeyond ceases,
in- dicating
the
collapse
of the
artery
beneath the
bag.
Then
height
above
bag
= blood
pressure
in
cm.
of
mercury.
"
63.
The
pressure
will be the
same
everywhere
at
the
same
depth
below the level surface. For horizontal motion does not
involve the vertical force of
gravity
at
all,
hence Law III holds
throughout
any
horizontal
plane
in
any
fluid at rest. The
pressure
at the lower level in
Fig.
30
(i
to
vi)
isthe
same
for all
(and
in
(i,
ii,
and
iii)
the total forces
on
the
equal
bases
are
the
same).
Reciprocally,
of
course,
if
a
number of vessels communicate at
one
point,
the
liquid
will
'
find its
own
level
'
" i.e.
same
height
above
the
common point
" in
all,
whatever their size and
shape,
and will
there remain at rest. Thus the
U bends
in the
figure
show the
same
pressure
at the
same
level
on
both
sides,
and the
greater
or
*
'Density
'=
mass
of the unit of volume.
60 A HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS
there and
drop
back. A
siphon
cannot act in
vacuo,
nor
if its
arch is
higher
than the barometer filledwith that
liquid.
The
siphon
is
commonly
started
by
'
sucking
the air out.'
Fig.
31
(iii)
shows another
way
employed
in
flushing
cisterns,
a
piston
forced down drives
a
jet
of water
up
the short limb,
and this rushes
enough
water
over
the arch to act
as
described
below.
Siphonsarranged
as
in
Fig.
31
(iv
and
v)
start
spontaneously
if
FIG. 31.
the cistern
is filled above their arch.
Beginning
to overflow
down the
pipe
(as
in
(iv))
the waterfall
entangles
and carries down
the
air,
and
soon
the
siphon
is
running
full bore until it has
nearly
emptied
the tank. Then air
gets
in and
stops
it. As
soon as
the
tank is full
again
the
same
automatic flush is
repeated.
The
philosophical toy,
the Vase of
Tantalus,
is
an old-fashioned
instance
of this Intermittent
Siphon.
"
65.
A fluid
can
be
put
under
pressure
in various
ways.
There
is the obvious
way
of
pouring
more
liquid
into
a
tall
cylinder
to
increase the
pressure
at the bottom. Or
a
piston
can
be fitted
to
the
cylinder
and
weightspiled
on
it. Or
a
flexible
containing
vessel
can
be
forcibly
reduced in
size,as
happens
when
a
tennis-
ball isstruck,or
the bulb of
a
rubber
syringe
or a
camera-shutter
is
squeezed.
These
ways
are
not
widely
useful.
A
theoretically simple
way
is to set the fluid in
rapid
motion and
then to check its
speed,
when the momentum
(grm.
x cm.
/sec.)
de- stroyed
per sq.
cm.
per
sec. = the
pressure
produced(dynes/cm.2).
["13-]
This
is done in
centrifugal
pumps
and blowers.
The
fluid,
admitted
along
the axle of
a
rapidlyrotatingpaddle-wheel,
FLUIDS
Gl
becomes
entangled
among
the blades and is
flung
off
tangentially
;it a
great speed,
which it loses in the
roomy
casing
and
pipes,
where most
of its momentum
is converted into
pressure.
These
pumps
are
mostly
used for low
pressures,
below
J
Ib.
(air)
or
50
Ib.
(water)
per sq.
in.
Again,
when
water
flowing
in
longpipes
is
abruptly
checked,
as
by
too
quicklyclosing
a
tap,
the sudden destruction of
mo- mentum
produces
a
transient
pressure,
the blow of
a
noisy
'
water-hammer
'
in the
pipes.
Water from the
pond
flows down
a
few
yards
of
slopingpipe
to the
hydraulic ram, Fig.32,
and out
at the
large
open
valve
as
shown.
The outrush
gaining
in
speed
presently
liftsthe iron
plate
and
shuts the valve. The
stoppage
causes
great
pressure,
which
forces
open
the little valve
on
the
right
and drives
a
small
quantity
of water
up
to the
tanks of the
country
house
perhaps
a
hundred feet above.
The transient
squeeze
relieved,
the
platedrops
and the outrush
beginsagain,
and
so on.
FIG. 32. Scale
FIG. 33.
"
66.
Pumps.
Pressure is most
commonly
worked
up
or
down
by reciprocatingpumps.
In
Fig.
33
(which
should be
intelligible
to
anyone
who understands
a
valve)
are
diagrams
of the
common
62 A HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS
'
lift
pump
'
in
one
form at
(i),
and with head- valves H instead of
foot-valves F at
(ii) (mine
pump
with several rubber disc valves in
'
bucket
'),
and
(iii) bicycle
purnp.
The
'
force
pump
'
(iv)
when
dealing
with
liquids
should have
an
air-vessel
on
its
discharge-pipe,
the
compressed
air acts
as a
spring,steadying
the outflow and
obviating
water-hammer
(see
also
Fig.32).
With
high
pressures
(Fig.28)
the
slightly compressible
water itselfaffords
elasticity
enough.
In the heart the auricles dilate
as
they
receive the
continuous
influx from the
veins,
then
contracting,
pass
it
through
valves
into the
ventricles,
which in sudden
systole
force it
through
other
valves into the arteries. The elastic arteries dilate in
a
'
pulse
'
so
that
normally
no
shock is felt.
Air-pumps,
for
exhaustingair,are
perhaps
of
most interest here. The commonest is
a
'
lift
pump
'
with oiled silk
valves,
and the clearance
spaces
between
piston
and end of
cylinder
made
small. A
pair
of
these,
driven
opposite
ways,
for
ease
against
the
atmospheric
pressure,
forms
the time-honoured machine for
producing
a
'
vacuum
'
"
rarelycontaining
less than 5
%
of its
original
air. For better results
one
must
relieve the enfeebled air of
having
to lift
a
foot-
valve and must do
away
with all clearance
and all
leakage.
"
67 : Modern air -
pumps.
The modern
'
Geryk
'
pump
(commemorating
the inventor
of the
air-pump,
Otto
von Guericke,
1654)
is
sectioned in
Fig.
33
(v).
The
descending
piston
draws out a vacuum above,
the air below
liftsits valve and
passes
in. On the
up-stroke
this is
expelledthrough
the head-valve H.
Presently
the
remaining
air
can no
longer
lift
the
piston-valve,
the
piston
is
pushed right
down and the
vacuous
barrel
put
in free
com- munication
with the
pipes
as
shown. The
piston
rises,
imprisons
any
contained
air,
finally
strikes and lifts the
head-valve,
and the
bubble of air
escapes
through
the oil. This
oil,
very
non-volatile,
moistureless and non-solvent
FIG. 34. Scale
^. of
air,
fillsall clearance
spaces
and
quite
seals
the valves.
FLUIDS 63
The still
more
perfectToepler
pump,
Fig.
34,
works
very
similarly.
The
highly
rarefied
gas
fillsthe vessel
V,
the reservoir
K is
raised,
and its
mercury
(normally
at
nearly
the barometric
height
above
it)
is in the
diagramflowingrapidly
into
V,
which
it has
just
shut off from the
pipes,
and
ultimately
drives
any
small
air-bubble over
the
bend,
down a
fine
capillary,
and
out under
mercury.
The
rough glass
valve G
prevents
mercury
getting
back into the
apparatus
being
exhausted. P is
a
drying
tube
containingphosphoric
anhydride.
A recent
rotarymercury-pump
for
high
vacua
works like
a
wet
gas-meter
driven backwards. The
compartments
of
a
hollow
drum
successively
fillwith the rarefied air
through
an
axial
pipe
and then
plunge
under
mercury,
which
expels
their contents into
the
partial
vacuum
of
any
ordinary
pump.
With due
precautions,
mercury-pumps
have reduced the
pressure
to
only
-000025 mm.
of
mercury.
"
68 : Rate of exhaustion
by air-pump.
If V be volume of air
filling
vessel to be exhausted and
v
that of
pump-barrel
the first
out-stroke increases V to
V-f-v
and therefore
by "
101 reduces the
pressure
to
V/(V-fv)
the
original.
The next stroke reduces it
again
to the
same
fraction of
this,
and in
general
n
strokes would
reduce the
pressure
to
[V/fV+v)]'1
times the
original
pressure,
provided
there were no
leakage,
clearance
spaces,
or
evolution of
gas
in the vessel.
In
compressing, starting
at
atmospheric
pressure,
the first
in-stroke reduces
V-f v to V. The next
againputs
in
a
barrelful
of air
v at
the
atmospheric
pressure,
and
n
strokes would
put
in
nv
and therefore raise the
pressure
to
(V-|-wv)/V
the
original
pressure,
provided
there
were no
leakage,
clearance
spaces,
or
condensation of
gas,
and that the
temperature
were
kept
constant
(involving
very
slow
working;
in
practice
the
gas
getshot).
The
delivery
valve of course
opens
later and laterin
every
stroke
as
the
pressure
rises.
"
69. Work done
by a
pump.
The work done
by
a
water lift
pump
is,
in
gravitymeasure, simply
the total
weight
of water
passedthrough
X
the
height
it is lifted.
A
pump
which delivers volume
v
against
pressure p
does work
pv
(ergs,
if
v c.c.
and
p
dynes
per sq.
cm.).
For ifthe
discharge-pipe
were
1
sq.
cm. area v c.c.
forced into it would drive back
resisting
pressure p
through
v cm.
= work
pv,
"
21
;
but
as
fluid
pressure
is
64 A HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS
the
same
in all directions there is
no
need for this restriction
on
shape.
But in
addition,
if the
liquid
in the
pipe
where
p
is measured is
flowing
at
speed s cm.
per
sec.
the
pump
has
given
it kinetic
energy
|ms2=|(volumexdensity)s2=2wfo2
ergs.
e.g.
Work done by
heart.
Assuming
the heart
discharges
per
beat 75
c.c.
from
right
ventricle
against
pressure
6
cm.
of
mercury
and from the left ventricle 75
c.c. against
15
cm.
pressure.
These=75x6x(13-6x 981)+
75X15X
(13-6x981)
ergs
=
21 million
ergs
where
13-6x981=dynes
pressure
of 1
c.c.
of
mercury
on
its base
=
1
cm.
mercury pressure.
Further, taking speed
of blood in both
pulmonary artery
and
aorta,
where
pressures
are
measured,
as
50
cm. /sec.,
and
density
1-05
|wx speed2,
for both sides
=
2
x [Jx (75 X 1-05) X 502]
=
196,000
ergs
a
total of 21-2 million
ergs;
[2-12 joules, nearly
2 ft.-lb.,
half
a
calorie.]
The fluid
stores
the work
quietly
done
on
it
as potential
energy.
That of
mass m
of fluid raised to
height
h is mh
grm.-cm.
or mhg
ergs,
just
like
any
solid. A column of fluid of
height
h has
an
average
height only JA,
and therefore contains
(total mass
X \h X g)
ergs.
Volume
v
under
pressure p
can supply
energy p
v
to
a
water-motor of
any
sort,
[v
c.c., p
dynes/cm.2,
pv
ergs.]
FLUIDS
65
EXAMPLES." CHAPTER VIII
1. A load of 700 Ib. rests
directly on
the 3-in. diameter
safety-valve.
At what
boiler-pressure
will the valve lift ?
2. The
working
lever of
a hydraulic jack
is 27 in. from handle
to
fulcrum. At
1"
in. from the fulcrum it is attached to
a plunger "
in.
diameter,
and this forces oil into
a ram-cylinder
3 in. diameter.
What
force exerted
on
the handle will enable the
jack
to lift 20 tons ?
3. What is the
pressure
due to
a
'
head
'
of 180 ft. of
water ?
[A
column of 180
cu.
ft. of
water,
each
weighing
62
" Ib., exerts
180x62"
Ib.
on
the
square
foot
at
its base
=
1120 Ib.
per sq.
ft.
=
78 Ib.
per sq.
in.]
4. To what
height
would water from
hydraulic
mains at 700 Ib.
per
sq.
in. rise in
a stand-pipe
?
5.
Express
in
grm./cm.2
and in
dynes /cm.2
the
pressure
due to
a
76-cm. column of
mercury,
of
density
13-6.
6. Calculate the
height
of
a
column of
air,
density -0012, which
exerts the
same
pressure
on
its base
as
does 1
cm. depth
of
mercury.
7. Define
'
pressure
'
and
explain
'
pressure
at
a point
'
in
a liquid.
What
quantities
determine its
magnitude ?
[D.]
8. Describe
some
form of
siphon
which
can
start
automatically.
9. Calculate difference of blood
pressure
between head and feet of
a man
1-7
m. tall;
s.g.
blood 1'05.
[L.]
10.
Explain
how total
pressure
on
bottom of
a
vessel full of water
may
exceed
weight
of
water. A vessel is
5"
in.
deep
and diameter of
bottom is 4 in. Find total
pressure
on
it when full of
water,
1000
oz.
per
cu.
ft.
[Ab.]
11. Give
a diagram
of
a
pump
that would raise water 50 ft.
[L.]
12. Find the force
on
the 12
sq.
in.
piston
of
a
pump
to draw water
from
a
well 20 ft.
deep
and deliver 40 ft.
high. [Ab.]
13. If the
atmospheric
pressure
be that due to 76
cm.
of
mercury,
density 13-6, at what
depth
under
sea-
water
density
1 03 will
pressure
be 2
atmos. ?
[Ab.]
14. Find work done
per
24 hours
by a
heart
discharging
10
cu.
in.
blood 72 times
per
minute
against J atmosphere (atmos. =
15
Ib./sq. in.).
[L.I
CHAPTER IX
THE MEASUREMENT OF PRESSURE
"
70. Manometers.
For
measuring
small differences of
gas
pressure
the U
tube
pressure gauge
or
Manometer of
Fig.
35 is in
p,
common use.
Gas
pressure
difference P" P' is
com- pensated
by an equivalent
rise h of- the
liquid,so as
I
to
maintain the
equilibrium
condition of
equal
total
pressures
on
each side of
an area
drawn at the bend.
Then since
liquid
below the lower level balances
itself.
Gas
pressure
=
diff. in level
X density
of
liquid
[in
grm. per sq.
cm.]
oT=Mg dynes
per sq.
cm.
By "
63 there is
no obligation
to have the limbs
\^=/
of
equal
diameters. Short U's
containing oil,inky
p 35
water, etc.,
suffice for
light
pressures,
such
as
furnace
draught or
domestic
gas
supply. Long
tubes, run- ning
up
towers
or
mine
shafts,
and filled with the far denser
mercury,
form standard manometers for
heavy
pressure.
The statement
of
pressure
is often left
as so
many
'
inches of
water
'
or
'
cm.
of
mercury,'
with obvious
meaning.
"
71. If
one
tube contains
no
gas pressure,
but has
a vacuum
above the
liquid,
the instrument becomes
a Barometer,
and
measures
the absolute
pressure
of the
gas
which balances that of
the column of
liquid
between the two surface levels.
The
pattern
in
Fig.
36
(S)
is called
a siphon
barometer, though
the
open
tube is seldom left
so long as
shown. In the domestic
wheel barometer, Fig.
36
(W), glassweights hang
round
a pulley,
one rising
and
falling
with the
mercury
surface
on
which it
floats,
and
a pointer conveniently magnifies
the motion. It
lags a
little
behind the true
reading
until
sticking
at the
pulley pivots, etc.,
is relieved
by tapping.
For scientific
accuracy
one prefers
to read the
mercury
column
66
68 A HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS
the reservoir. The scale is
on a
protecting
brass tube and is read
to
1/500
in. and to
1/10
mm.
by
a
vernier
shutter,
borne
on an
inner sleeve and racked down until it
just
cuts off
light
over
the
middle of the meniscus.
[For carrying,
the tube is slanted tillit
fills
completely,
the
bag
is screwed
up
till
mercury
exudes at the
littleair-screw shown
on
the
right,
this is screwed
home,
and the
instrument carried
upside-down.]
The normal
height
of the barometer after all corrections
are
made is taken to be 76 cm.
The uncorrected British 30 in.
very
nearlycorresponds
to
it. It
represents
a
pressure
of
1,016,000
dynes
per sq.
cm.
"
72. Barometric
readings
must be corrected
:
"
1. For
any
error
of scale
or zero.
2. For
temperature,
most
important,
see
"
137.
3. For
capillary depression,
see
"
252,
variable and troublesome.
Averages-j-"
mm.
in 1-cm. bore
tube,
but standards should have
1-in. tube and
no
appreciable depression.
4.
Mercury vapour pressure
in
'
Torricellian
space
'
above
column is
negligible.
But if air
manages
to
stray
there
enough
to
form
a
bubble
persistent
when the tube is slanted at 45
degrees,
the tube must be refilled.*
5. For variation of
gravity
with
latitude,
"
29. It isthe fashion
to
express
in
cm.
mercury
at 0" C.
as
in lat.
45",
instead of
straight- away
in
dynes/cm.2
Add at lat.40"" -034
cm.,
lat.
50"+
-034
cm.,
lat.
55"+
-067 cm.
6.
For
meteorologicalcomparisons only,
correct to sea-level
by adding
1
mm.
for
every
11
m.,
or
-1 in. for
every
90 ft.above
sea, "
76.
Since water is 13-6 times less dense than
mercury,
the Water barometer is
13-6x2J=
34 ft.
high.
Glycerine (which
has less
vapour
pressure,
etc.),
stands at 28
ft.,
lubricating
oil
about 40
ft.,
and these
are
the utmost
heights
to which the normal
atmospheric
pressure
would
force
up
these
liquids
into a
pumped
- out
vacuum.
"
73. We
now turn to
some
pressure-gauges
depending
on
elasticity
instead of
on dead-
FIGS.
37,
88.
weight.
In the
popularweather-glass
of
Fig.
37 water is forced
up
the
*
Clean, dry, invert,
fillwith
mercury
and boil from below
upwards
to wash out adherent air bubbles
;
best done under reduced
pressure.
THE MEASUREMENT OF PRESSURE 69
neck of the flask
against
the
elasticity
of the enclosed
air
as
the
atmospheric
pressure
outside increases. But the contrivance
need be
kept
in
a corner
at
a
steadytemperature,
for
increasing
warmth
expands
the air and drives the water
down,
20" F.
more
than
compensating
any
ordinary
barometric
change.
The
gas
in the closed tube of the little
compressed-air mano- meter,
Fig.38,
halves its volume
every
time the
pressure
on
the outer end of the
mercury
thread is
doubled, according
to
Boyle's
Law, "
101.
"
74. The Aneroid
(=
without
liquid)
Barometer
(1848)
is
light
and
easilyportable.Fig.
39 shows the mechanism of
a
good
pocket
aneroid
(an interesting
travelling companion).
Attached
to the base
plate
is
a
flat
vacuum
box R of thin
metal,
corrugated
for
flexibility.
The
atmospheric
pressure
would crush it in but
for the
pull
of
a
folded
spring
C
to which it is hooked. As it
is,
,
.
1,1-
IMG. 39. A at. size.
barometric rise
compels
this to
yield
a
trifle. A
long
arm
A attached to C
magnifies
the motion
three
or
four
times,
and is linked to
a
shaft
rocking
on
pivots
PP. The distance of its
point
of attachment from the shaft's
axis
(length
of lever
arm)
is variable
by
a screw
which forces
away
the elastic free
leg
of the forked
rocking
shaft from its
stiifer
pivotedleg
:
this modifies the total
magnification
so
that
the
pointer
is driven round neither too fast
nor too
slowly.
From the
rocking
shaft
projects
a
longerupright
arm
;
from
this
a
chain
passes
round
a
pulley
on
the
pointer
axle and is
kept
stretched
by hair-spring
H. The end of the
pointer
is thus
made to
magnify
the motion of the box-lid several hundred
times.
Aneroids must be
compensated
for
temperature.
Warmth
weakens the
spring,
which
gives
way
too much and lets down the
end of
A, producingunduly highreadings.
This is counteracted
by making
A
a
compound
bar
("130)
of brass and steel
(on top)
so
that its end bends
up
as
much
as
the
weakening
would let it
drop.
The lower fold of C is fixed to
an
L-shaped
bar
supported
on
the
base-plate by
two steel
posts
at XY and
a
'
setting
'
screw
beneath
Z,
accessible from the back of the instrument.
Adjusting
Z rocks
70 A HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS
the bar
on
its
posts,tending
to fold
or
unfold C
a
very
little,
and
immediatelymoving
the
pointer.
The aneroid is thus
initially
set
to
agree
with
a
standard
barometer,a zero
adjustment
which
most
aneroids
require
every year
or
so,
since the
springslowly
and
persistently
alters under the constant strain.
Whymper, living
in the Andes above 8000
ft.,
found this
'
creep
'
very
serious
there,
and
no
reliance is
nowadays placed
on
aneroids that have been
subjected
to such low
pressures
for
any
length
of time.
Self-recording
instruments have
frequently
a
stack of aneroid
boxes
as
barograph,
and
a Bourdon tube
completely
full of
alcohol
as
thermograph.
"
75 :
The Bourdon
gauge, Fig.
40,
is used
by engineers
for all
fluid
pressures.
Curled round in
nearly
a
circleis
a
thin steel tube
of
very
flat
elliptic
section. Increase
of
pressure
inside
this tends to fill
out the
elliptical
shape,
and this
forces the tube to
uncurl to
some ex- tent,
the free end
moves,
and the
pointer geared
to
it
magnifies
its
motion.
For
heavy
pres- sures
these
are
graduated by
at- taching
them
temporarily
to
an
oil
cylinder
in which
moves
(easily,
with
rotation) a
plunger
of
known sectional
area
loaded
with known
weights,
as
in
Fig.
41.
Pressures in
guns
are
estimated
by
the
crushing
of
a
small block
of
copper
on
which
they
have
squeezed
a
steel
plug.
Better
by
mechanically
or
optically magnifying
the
elastic
compression
of
a
hollow steel
plug,
an
inch
or more
of
whose blind end
projects
into
a
cavity
in the
explosion
chamber.
"
76. Determination of
heights by
the barometer. As
one
climbs above the lower dense
layers
of the
atmosphere
the
pressure
of
course
diminishes
by
the
weight(per
sq.
cm.)
of these
layers,
and the barometer falls. It
was
the
observation of this
FIG. 41. FIG. 40.
THE MEASUREMENT OF PRESSURE
71
fall,
first made
by
Pascal in
1648,
that established the true
principle
of the
'
Torricellian tube.'
The calculation is this
"
what
depth
of air of known
density,
computed
from its
temperature
pressure
and
humidity,
must
be removed from above the
open
limb in order that 1
mm. depth
of
mercury may
be removed from the closed limb ?
The
depths are inversely as
the densities.
Taking
-0012
average
for air and
13-6
for
mercury
gives
13-6
-f--0012 =
ll-3
m.
of air
per
mm.
of
mercury.
The diminution of
pressure
and also of
temperature
of the
atmosphere
at
greater
heights causes a change
of
density
which
complicates
the full calculation. The result is
:"
Height
in feet
= [log.
barom.
reading
at bottom"
log.
ditto at
top]x
56,200 X [1-004 X temp,
centigrade].
This,
up
to 3000 feet,
gives approximately
diff. of readings
bottom and
top
Height in
feet=-
"j" , .
y
x 49,000 X
1-004*"
sum
ot
readings
bottom and
top
or
about
an
inch fall of barometer for 900 feet rise.
At
greater heights,
in
rarer
air,
the rate is slower.
In variable weather climbers'
readings are
useless,
of
course,
unless afterwards
compared
with records
simultaneously
made
at
a
fixed level.
EXAMPLE." CHAPTER IX
1. If the
atmosphere
sustains the barometric
column,
how is it that
a
barometer tube is
heavy
to lift from
place
to
place
in
a
basin of
mercury
?
CHAPTER X
SPECIFIC GRAVITY
"
77. Archimedes' principle."
Consider the fluid contained in
a
closed volume marked out
inside
a quantity
of fluid at
rest,
for
instance the water contained in
a submerged
net. It is acted
on
by
the
pull
of the earth and
by
the
pressures
of the
adjacent
fluid,
and these
just
balance each
other,
for it remains at rest.
That
is,
the
pressures
of the
surrounding
fluid
just exactly
bear
up
the
weight
of the fluid
filling
the volume.
Suppose
the volume to be
emptied
of its fluid and filled with
some
other material. The
surrounding
pressures
are quite
unaltered,
i.e. this
foreign
substance is borne
up
with
a force
equal
to
the
weight of fluid
it has
displaced,or apparently
it loses
that much
of
its usual
weight.
This is the
*
Principle of Archi- medes,'
though
his sudden and historic
discovery seems
to have
been
merely
that,
with
equal masses,
the denser material
displaces
less water
(from a
brim-full
vessel).
If the
foreign
substance is
more
massive
(denser)
than the fluid
it has
displaced
it will still
require some
other
support,
but if less
massive it must be held
down, or
it will rise and float and
displace
only
that fraction of its
own
volume of fluid which has
a weight
equal
to
its
own.
"
78.
Evidently a body
cannot rest
midway
in
a
fluid of
constant
density
not
preciselyequal
to its
own.
For
instance, a
torpedo
cannot be
weighted
to remain 6 ft. under water
;
that
depth
must be
kept by
active mechanical control.
But it
may
happen
that between
one position
and another
(1)
the immersed volume of
body changes, (2)
fluid
density changes,
(3) mass
of
body changes.
(1) happens
when it rises and
projects
above the surface of
a
liquid
;
it bobs
up
and down and then floats
stably
at
a
constant
load-line.
(2)
is
exemplified by pouring
water
on
brine and
only
im- perfectly
stirringtogether.
The
liquid
varies from
water at
top
72
SPECIFIC GRAVITY 73
to
strong
brine at bottom. In this
an
egg
would float
entirely
immersed at the
particular
level where the concentration of the
solution
gave
it the
egg'sdensity,
and if disturbed would return
to
that level.
(3)
occurs
in
ballooning.
The altitude of
a
balloon has to be
actively
controlled
by throwing
away
ballast. The tailof
a
rope
trailing
on
the
ground
is of
course a
reduction of air-borne
mass : some
dirigibles
can
take
on
ballast
by slightly
compress- ing
air into
largerigidenvelopes.
"
79. Archimedes'
Principle
applies
not
only
to
gravity,
but
e.g.
to
centrifugal
force,
the
em- ployment
of which for
separating
bacteria from
liquids,
or cream
from
milk,
is well known.
The
Principle
can
be
experi- mentally
verified
as
in
Fig.
42.
The ball and the
can
of
liquid
are
first
separately counterpoised,
then the ball is lowered into the
liquid,
and to restore
equilibrium
itwill be found that the
same
weight
that has to be removed from
the first scale
pan
on
the
right
must be
put
into the last
pan
on
the left. The
liquid
is
bearingjustexactly
the
missingweight.
FIG. 42.
SPECIFIC GRAVITY
"
80. The
specificgravity of
a
substance is
the-*ati"--of
the
weightof
ft
volume
of
it to that
of
the
same
volume
of
water.
Being
a mere
ratio it is the
same
whether in British
or
c.g.s.
measure.
In the latter it is
equal
to
Density,
for this is the
mass
of 1
c.c.,
and 1
c.c.
of water is 1
grm.
Variations in the
composition
and in useful
properties
of
substances
are
frequentlyaccompanied by
characteristic
slight
changes
in their densities. Hence the accurate measurement
of
specific gravity
or
density
is of
great
technical
importance
as
it
very
often affords the
quickest
means
of discrimination and
valuation. It is the refinement of the familiar
guessing
at
what
a
substance is
by
its
'
weight,'
of
detectingspurious
coins
by
their
lightness.
The
mineralogist
uses
it
as a
guide
to the nature
of minerals "
gem
stones,
metallic
ores,
etc. The
apothecary,
the
analyst,
the technical
chemist,
the
brewer,
the
exciseman,
all
74 A HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS
possess
tables drawn
up
to
give
the concentrations
of the
par- ticular
solutions
they
are
dealing
with in terms of their
hydro- meter
readings,
and find it
vastly
more convenient,
and often
more
accurate,
to make
use
of this instrument rather than to
undertake
any
chemical
analysis.
Quite
recently
Waller has
suggestedcontrolling
the chloroform
dosage
of
a
patient
under
that anaesthetic
by passing
the
vapour-laden
air
through
the
case
of
a
balance
bearing
a
largecounterpoised glass
bulb,
when the
presence
of the
heavy
vapour
in the
surroundingatmosphere
buoys
up
the bulb
a
milligram
for
every
0-1
% present,
so
that the
pointer
of
a
quiteordinary
balance
plainly
shows variations of
this
extent from the
supposed
normal 2
%
of chloroform.
Speakingstrictly, specific gravity
is reckoned from water at
15" C.
or 60"
F.,
and
neglects
the fact that the
weighings
are
all
done in air. Hence small corrections to water at 4" C. and to true
weights
in
vacuo are needed to make the
specific-gravity
measure- ment
one
of
density.
All
specific- gravity
determinations must be made
very
near
the
standard
temperature,
forliquids
are
very
expansible.
"
81. An obvious mode of
finding
the
specific gravity
of a
liquid
is
by
means
of the
Specific-gravity
Bottle or Pyknometer.
This is
a
bottle which
can
be filledwith
alwaysexactly
the
same
volume of
a
liquideither,
Fig.
43,
(i)
to a
flat
plate(a
scholastic con-
H
FIG. 43.
trivance), or
(ii)
up
to
a
mark
on a narrow neck,or (iii) completely
up
to the
stopper (perforated
for overflow when
dropped
in),
or
(iv)
from nozzle to file-mark in the
Sprengelpattern.
The
dry
bottle is
counterpoised
on a balance,
then the net
weight
of cold water
filling
it is
found,
W. It is rinsed and filled
with the
liquid,
whose net
weight
proves
to be L. Then
sp. "//."
L-^-W.
The
Englishapothecary
saves calculation
by using
a
bottle with W^IOOO
grains
at the
ordinarytemperature.
76
A HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS
wire
(flexible
and
heavy
to
enfold and sink
things
that want to
float,
when W exceeds
M) hangingby
a
stout silk fibre under cold
water,
and this is
counterpoised (s).
The water should be distilled
and boiled
air-free,
but
ordinarytap-water
serves
to 1
part
in 5000.
FIG. 46.
FIG. 45.
The
body
is laid on
the
pan
and
weights"
its M
placed
on
the
other
pan
till
equilibrium
is restored. The
body
isremoved from
pan
to
stirrup,
it isfound that
a
portion
W of the
weights
must be
removed from the
weightspan*
M-^-W=
Specific Gravityofbody.
. , . .,
Mxsp.
gr.
of oil
For soluble
solids,weigh
in oil and
sp. gr.=
"
,
"
-.
"
.T
"
[An ingenious, though
not
very
accurate,
way
is
possible
with
Ice.
Wrap
round it
a
known
weight
of
copper
wire and throw
itinto
plenty
of water. It
gradually
dissolves and loses
buoyancy
:
at the moment it
begins
to sink it is
quickly
fished out and
weighed.
Then
mass
of
substance-}-
wire" the
1/9
wt. of wire
(sp.
gr.
9)
lost in the water =wt. of water
displaced.]
The
apparatus
can
be used to find the
specificgravity
of
liquids,
for this is the loss
ofweight
in the
liquid, of
a
'
sinker
'
or
plummet,
divided
by
itsloss
ofweight
in
water,
these
being
the
weights
of the
two
liquids
that the
same
bulk
displaces.
Very
convenient
glassplummets displacing exactly
10
c.c.
(or
less,
to
1),
i.e.10
grm.
water
are
obtainable. The
weight
that has
to be
hung
on
the
same
side
as
the
plummet (previously
counter-
*
Or else the last
weight
is made
up
by adding
W in the
pan
the
body
has
just
vacated.
SPECIFIC GRAVITY 77
poised
in
air)
to
keep
it under the
liquid,
divided
by
10
(or
less,
to
l)
=
sp. gr.
of
liquid.
"
84. Nicholson's
hydrometer
is
an
old modification of the
hydrostatic
balance. Instead of
hoisting
the
body by
beam and
counterpoise
it is borne
by
a
floating buoy. Weights
are
placed
in the
top
pan,
Fig.
46,
tillthe
buoy
sinks to mark X
;
then solid
body beingplaced
there
too, weights
= its M have of
course
to be
taken off to
prevent foundering.Eemoving body
to lower
pan
or
cage,
the water
now
directly
bears the
weight
of the W
grm.
it
displaces,
and this W has to be restored
on
the
top
pan
to
keep
the
buoy
down. It
can
also be used for
liquidspecific gravities,
but
it is
a
troublesome instrument in
practice.
"
85. The
common Hydrometer,
used for
liquidspecific gravities,
consists of
a
glassbuoy
ballasted
by
a
load of shot
or
mercury
at the bottom and
having
a
thin stem
projecting
above the
liquid, Fig.
47. It
floats,
there- fore
alwaysdisplacing
a
weight
of
liquidequal
to its
own constant
weight,
or
volume
displaced X
densityofliquid
= mass
ofhydrometer
hence it
displaces
less,
i.e.floats
higher,
in
a
denser
liquid.
A scale of
specific gravities
is therefore
graduated
on
the
stem,
with the
largestreadings
at
the lower
end,
and in such
a
way
that the volumes of the
instrument
up
to the scale divisions
are
inversely
as
the
specific gravities
marked
on
them
:
the divisions
get
rather wider
apart
towards the
top. [The liquid's
specific gravity
isthe
reading
at which the stem cuts
the
surface.]
For
a
given
size of
bulb,
their
length
(i.e.
possibledelicacy
of
reading)
is
greater
on a
thinner
stem,
being inversely
as
its cross-section.
Hydrometers
are
commercially
obtainable of various
degrees
of
sensitiveness,over
various
ranges
of
specific gravity(e.g.
"7 to -9
;
1 to
Tl,
etc.)
under different names
"
lactometer,
salinometer, alcoholometer,etc." and to various
arbitrary
scales,
e.g.
Twaddell's
or
Beaume's.*
Sykes'shydrometer,
used
by
the
exciseman,
works like the
*
Specificgravity
= 1
+ degrees
Twaddell
-f-
200
Specificgravity
if above 1 =
144'3-^(
144-3 "
degrees Beaume)
if below 1 =
144-3-^(134-3 -f degrees Beaume)
FIG. 47.
78 A HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS
common
hydrometer,
but can
be loaded with collar
weights
which make the same
instrument available for denser
liquids.
"
86. The
specificgravity
of substances of which
only small
chips or drops are
available is found
by preparing
a
jar
full of
a
mixture of
liquids
of the
same
density
as the
substance, as
determined
by placing
a
fragment
or
drop
of it in the
midst,
when
it must show
no
appreciable
intention of either
rising
or
sinking.
Thus the
specific gravity
of ice
can
be found
as
that of
a
mixture
made
by stirring
alcohol into water until the ice
just
ceases
to
float.
A mixture of chloroform
(sp.
gr.
1-526)
and benzole
(sp.
gr.
-889)
is made
up
till
a
drop
of human blood floats undecided
;
then
a
hydrometer
or
small 'plummet
("83)
in the mixture
gives
the
specific
gravityof
the blood.
In
finding
the
specific gravity
of mineral
fragments,
or
separating
the constituent minerals in
a
powdered rock,
very
dense
liquids
are used,
such
as
mercuric iodide in
potassium
iodide solution
(max. 3-2),
cadmium
borotungstate
solution
(3-6)
or
methylene
iodide
(3-3);
diluted with water
or
alcohol.
EXAMPLES." CHAPTER X
1. A tube 3 ft.
long
and 1 in. bore contains
f
Ib.
liquid.
Calculate
specific gravity,given
1
cu.
ft. water
weighs
62-3 Ib.
[L.]
2. Given
a quantity
of beads about the same size,
how would
you
determine their
average
bulk and their
specificgravity
? A
quantity
is
contained in
a
narrow-necked litre
flask,
suggest
a
method of
finding
the number.
3. 30
grm.
of metal
sp. gr.
8-4
are
melted with 20 of
sp. gr.
7-2 and
contraction of 2
%
occurs
in the formation of the
alloy.
Find its
specificgravity.
4. State the
principles
of Pascal and Archimedes. What
advantages
are
derived
by
the
floating
of the brain in the
cerebro-spinal
fluid ?
5. State Archimedes'
principle
and show how to
prove
it
(a)experi- mentally,
(b) theoretically.
A solid ball
sp. gr.
5-5 floats in
mercury
13-6 and oil 1-46 is added till the ball is
covered;
what fraction of
volume of ball is
now
in
mercury
?
[Ab.]
6. A
can
of water stands
on a
balance
pan.
Into it is lowered
a
glass
ball
sp. gr.
2-5
counterpoised
on a
second balance
by
200
grm.
What
alterations in the
weights are
necessary
to restore
equilibrium
?
[M.]
7. Calculate the
lifting
power
of
a
balloon of 109
c.c. capacity
in air
of
density
0-00129 when filled with
hydrogen
of
density
0-00009.
[L.]
SPECIFIC GRAVITY 79
8. Two bodies of
sp. gr.
1-4
hang
from
a
balance and
are
immersed in
liquids
of
sp. gr.
1-1 and 0-8. The balance is in
equilibrium,
compare
volumes of bodies. When
liquids interchanged
45-5
grm.
must
be
added
on one side,
calculate actual volumes.
[L.]
9. A U tube contains
mercury sp. gr.
13-5 in the bend
;
on
it in
one
limb stands 20
cm.
salt water
sp. gr.
1-1,
in the other 10
cm.
of ether
sp. gr.
-73. What is difference in
mercury
levels and what
height
of ether added would make them the
same
? [L.]
10.
Explain
how the
'
gas-pressure
'
in the
pipes
is
greatest
at the
top
of the house.
11. Define
specific gravity
and
density.
A solid
weighs
x, y,
and
z
in
air, water,
and
a liquid respectively,
find
specific gravity
and
density
of solid and
liquid, density
of
water being w. [M.]
12. A solid
weighed
in air
14-86,
in water 8-67,
in
a liquid
9-85.
Find densities of solid and
liquid, explaining why they are
densities.
[D.]
13. A 12-oz.
piece
of wood and
5"-oz. piece
of lead
together weigh
2
oz.
in
water.
Lead
weighs
5
oz.
in
water. Find
specific gravity
of
wood.
[Ab.]
14. 1
oz.
of wood
sp. gr.
-5 is
just
sunk in water
by a
stone of
sp. gr.
2-5. Find
weight
of stone. [Ab.]
15. A
body
floats in water
|
immersed. A 3
cu.
in.
cavity
is made
in it and it
now
floats with
f
its
apparent
volume immersed. What
was
its volume ?
[Ab.]
16. A
hydrometer
to measure specific gravities
from 1-2 to 1-4 has
stem 5 in.
long.
Find
length
of stem which would have volume
equal
to bulb.
[Ab.]
17. A
hydrometer
with
a
uniform stem sinks 10
cm.
farther in
a
liquid
of
density
1 than in
a liquid
of
density
2. In
a
third
liquid
it
sinks 3
cm.
farther than in second
liquid.
Calculate
density
of third
liquid. [L.]
18. A fluid 3 in.
deep
sp. gr.
1-4 floats
on a
fluid
sp. gr.
3. A
cylinder
1 ft.
long
floats in them with
one
end
projecting
2 in. into the air.
Find its
specific gravity. [M.]
CHAPTER XI
FLUIDS IN MOTION
"
87. Fluids in motion. Fluids
are
set
in motion
by
differences
of
pressure
in different
parts.
The momentum
gained
per
second
by
any
portion=
the difference of the forces
acting on
its
opposite
sides
;
this is the
statement
for them of the Second Law of
Motion.
Evidently
to
get
into motion the fluid has to convert
some
of its
potential
energy
due to altitude
or
pressure
(" 69)
into
kinetic
energy
of motion.
Conversely
when the
moving
fluid
is
gradually
slowed
down,
without
any
wasteful
eddies,
the
energy
returns to
the
potential form,
i.e. the
pressure
rises
again.
Thus
if water
is
flowing along a pipe
with
gentle bulges
in it the
pressure
at the
bulged part
where the motion is slower is
greater
than at the
narrow necks,
rather
contrary
to most
people's
expectation.
The Venturi water-meter ascertains the
pressure
diminution
in
a narrow neck,
and hence calculates
by
clockwork the total
flow of water.
The
pressure
at the bottom of
a
water-tank
or
in
a
steam-
boiler
may
be
considerable,
but the fluid
pressure
in
jets
from
orifices in them is
no
greater
than the
atmospheric.
For if it
were,
the unrestricted
jet
would
instantly
burst and
splutter
in all
directions. But all the
energy
due to
pressure
(above
atmo- spheric)
has
gone
into
energy
of motion.
"
88
:
Let
us
calculate the relation between the fall in
pressure
and the
speed
of outflow it
causes (but neglecting
any
elastic
expansion
due
to release of
pressure).
The
energy
available is PV
(" 69) or
in 1
c.c. =
P. The
mass
of the 1 c.c.=d the fluid
density,
therefore its
energy
of motion
at
speed v=^dv2. Neglectingfriction
these
are equal.
P=1,fo. or ,-
NOTE.
"
Energy
in
ergs,
P in
dynes/cm.2,
v cm. /sec.
80
FLUIDS IN MOTION 81
If P is due to
gravity
it=/*X dx
g
("62)
where h is the
'
head
'
of
liquid
above the
orifice,
and hence
-l-
or v =
This does not involve
d;
hence
jets
of water
and
mercury
would issue
at
the
same
speed
from tanks of
equaldepth,
a
speed
which would throw them in vertical fountains
up
to the
original
height(cf." 63)
but for friction. The
speed
is the same
which- ever
way
the
jetpoints.
"
89
: Effusion.
A
way
of
comparing
the densities of
gases
has been based
on
the relation
v=-\/2P-f-d.
A
graduatedglass
cylinder
is filled with
a
gas
and
floated,
open
end
down,
in
mercury.
The
top
of the
cylinder
is closed
by
a
very
thin metal
plate
in which is
a
very
small
sharp
hole. The
weight
of the
sinkingcylinder
causes a
pressure
in the
gas
and blows it
(causes
it to
'
effuse
')through
the hole. The time of
escape
of the
gas
between,
say,
20 cm.
and 15 cm. marks,
is noted. Then the
experiment
is
exactlyrepeated
with the other
gas.
The
velocity
of
escape
is of
course
inverselyproportional
to
the time
a
givenquantity
takes to
escape
;
it is also
inversely
as
"\/d,
because P has been the
same
for
both,
therefore
Time
of
escape
oc-y/ 'density of
gas
[Compare
the law of
gaseous
diffusion, an
utterly
different
process.]
The hole must be
very
sharp-edged,
not tubular in the
least,
or
the viscositiesof the
gases
interfere.
"
90. A stream of fluid exerts
pressure
on
any
obstacle that
checks its motion. The brook
runs
against
the water-wheel and
turns the mill. The
great
water
pressures
available in mountain
districts
are
utilized to
produce jets
which
impel
the
cupped
'
Pelton wheel
'
with
great speed
and
power.
Steam
jets
drive
the Laval turbine wheel
up
to 500 revolutions
per
second. Of
course,
as
with solids
("13) :
"
Force
on obstacle= momentum
destroyed
on
it
per
second
=
mass
of fluid
delivered
per
second
X
its loss
of forward
velocity.
If the fluidbe
broughtexactly
to rest after it strikes the wheel
(the
ideal towards which the
engineershapes
his floats and
blades)
82
A HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS
the force
pressing
on
the surface is
equal
to that which
originally
set the fluid
in
motion,
viz. the
mass
delivered
per
second
x
its
velocity
of outflow.
"
91
:
Now the mass
delivered
by
a
jet
per
sec.
per sq.
cm.
cross-section
=v c.c.xd,
and
moving
at
v
this carries momentum
'
FIG. 48.
This
seems
paradoxical
and
contradictory
of what has
just
been
said. How
can a stream exert
double the
pressure
that started
it,
when
by
the Newtonian second law itswhole
momentum
when
stopped
can
onlyreproduce
the
original
force ?
Recollecting,
however,
that
pressure
=force-^
area,
it must
mean
that the cross-section of the stream where
v
is measured is
only
a
fraction of that
over
which the
driving
pressure
was
exerted. In the
Fig.
48 fluid
is
travelling
to the
aperture
from all sides
;
having begun
to
acquire
energy
of motion its
pressure
has
already
diminished
some
distance
away
from the
orifice,
hence the
pressure
on
the wall around the orifice is
less than that at the
same
level
on
the back
wall,
and the
total force
engaged
in
expelling
the stream = difference of forces
on
back and front
walls,
exceeds
(hydrostatic
pressure
X area
of
orifice
only).
The Vena Contracta. The fluid
rushing
in from all sides cannot
immediately
lose its inward momentum. This
pinches
the stream
into a
'
contracted
vein,'
which at half the diameter of the orifice
outside it has
only
about
-|
its
area.
It is in this
narrow
part
that
the calculated
v
is reached
(less,
in
water,
3
%
for
friction).
A short
pipe
attached increases the outflow
: a
small hole bored
in it
near
the vena-contracta
position explainswhy,
for air rushes
noisily
in,
showing
that the
pressure
in the
pipe
is there less than
the
atmospheric
:
hence the stream is
being
driven out
by
a
greater
difference of
pressure
than before.
"
92. The Sprengel dropping
pump
and
jet
pumps, Fig.
49. If
drops
fallfrom
a
jet
A into the mouth of
a
long
narrow
tube B the
surrounding
air of
course
finds its
way
in
between
them,
and
a
84
A HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS
of the
present
day are
elaborations and combinations of this
'
reaction
'
machine, of the
'
impulse
'
wheel of
"
90. and of the
forward
'
action
'
pressure
wheel
exemplified
in windmills, old and
new.
EXAMPLES." CHAPTER XI
1.
Roughly
compare
the
speeds
of outflow of air and
water,
from
the
same pressure,
through a tap.
2.
Compare
the
speeds
of outflow of water and
mercury
from the
same
pressure.
3. Calculate maximum
speed
at which salt-water
density
1-018 would
be driven into
a vacuum
by
the
atmospheric
pressure.
4. A reservoir is filled 6
m. deep.
What
is the
greatest speed
of outflow
from
a tap
in the bottom,
and if the stream had
a
cross-section of
3
sq.
cm.
how much would flow out in
a
minute ? [L.]
5. A
jet carrying
1
kg.
of water
per
sec.,
leaving a
tank
vertically
at 2
m. per sec.,
falls 5
m. on
to
a
table,
without
splash.
Calculate
pressure
on
table.
[L.]
6. Calculate the force of reaction
on
the fireman of
a
hose from
which
a
1-4
cm.
diameter stream
of water is
issuing at 30
m./sec.
CHAPTER XII
ELASTICITY
"
94. In
elementary
mechanics
one
thinks of solids
as rigid,
retaining
their
shape perfectly,
and of
liquidsas incompressible,
retaining
their bulk
perfectly,
whatever forces act. Such sub- stances
do not exist. For if two
perfectlyrigid
bodies
ever
met
the
absolutely
instantaneous
change
of
momentum
on
contact
caused
an
infinite force which broke
them, as they
would not
otherwise
yield.
Thus the
sea
rounds its hard
pebbles.
Thus
the
stream
of sand
splinters
off the
glass
surface at which it is
blown in
'
sand-blasting,'
but falls harmless from the soft
gelatinecovering
the
parts
to be left
plain.
All solids and fluids
yield more or
less to force, all
elastically
regain
their bulk when the force is removed. And those that
have
a shape
of their
own (solids)
either
elasticallyregain
also
that
shape or
have been
plastically
moulded into another.
"
95. Hooke's Law.
Elasticitywas
studied
by
Hooke
(ca.1660)
in what at first
sight seems
its
simplest
form. He
hung weights
on a
wire and measured its
elongation,
and summed
up
his
results in the law
"
Ut tensio sic vis "
'
as
the
stretchingso
is the
force,'
i.e. stretch and force
causing
it
are proportional
to each
other. Two
long
wires of the same* metal
hang
from the same*
hook, one
is stretched
by a
constant
load and bears
a scale,
alongside
this
moves a
vernier attached to
the second wire and
reads its
elongation as
its load is
progressively
increased.
Plotting
load
against
extension
gives a straightline,retraced
as
the load is reduced. See the dotted line OE for
wrought
iron,
Fig.
51.
A
long
thin
heavily
loaded wire of
course
stretches
more
than
a
short thick
lightly
loaded
one.
To
get
a
number
depending on
the
nature of the substance alone
one
must
adopt a
standard
size and
force,
viz. 1
cm. long
and 1
sq.
cm.
cross-section
(a
1-cm.
*
Thus
eliminating
thermal
expansion
and
yielding
of
support.
85
86 A HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS
cube)
and 1
dyne.
The
coefficient of
linear elastic
extensibility
is
the fraction of
a cm.
that the
cm.
length
of the cube stretches in
response
to a
pull
of 1
dyne applied
over
the
sq.
cm.
base. It is
very
small,
and the smaller the less
yielding
and
'
stronger
'
the
substance. This is
inconvenient,
and
one
inverts it and defines
instead
Young's
modulus of
elasticity, Y, as
the ratio
of
the
force
per sq.
cm.
(thetension,or
pressure)
to the
elongation
or
compres- sion
of
1
cm.
which it
produces.
Then
stretching
force
per sq.
cm. "
Yx
elongation
of 1
cm.,
stretching
force
"
total
elongation
of whole
length
or
" - = Y
X
i
"
i
"
i
i
area
whole
length
"
96
:
This sort of
elasticity
is,however,
not the
simplest.
For
as
anyone
can see
with
india-rubber,
the substance contracts
sideways
as
it is stretched
lengthways,
or
bulges
when
com- pressed,
changingshape,
but
evading
much
change
of bulk. A
body undergoes
a more
simple
elastic
change
when
subjected
to uniform
(fluid)
pressure
from all
sides,
itcontracts in bulk with- out
change
of
shape
;*
the diminution in volume
per
c.c.
per
dyne/cm.2
pressure
= its
coefficient of compressibility;
the
reciprocal
of this is its bulk
Modulus, E.|
The bulk moduli of various solids have been measured in the
following
manner :
A stout steel
tube,
like
a
gun-barrel,
is
plugged
at
the far end and is bored out
a
trifle
larger
at the
near
end
(like
a
cartridge-chamber) leaving
a
shoulder inside. A rod
of the
solid,
thinner than the
bore,
is
pushed
down it and is held
in contact with
'
muzzle
'
plugby
a
spring.
A
split
collar is
put
on
the rod and
pushed
down tillit rests
against
the shoulder
in.the tube. Rod and adherent collar
are removed, a
scratch is
made
on each,
and the distance
apart
of these scratches is
observed under the
microscope. They
are
replaced,
water is
admitted to the tube and
hydraulic
pressure
put
on.
The
rod,
pressed
from all
sides,
shrinks and
shortens,
slipping
a
little
through
the collar which
cannot
pass
the shoulder in the tube.
The
pressure
is relieved and the rod and collar removed and
re-examined
;
the shift of the collar towards the end of the rod
*
Except crystals,
which
are
unequally
elastic in different directions,
t Stress = force
per
unit
area.
Strain =
change
of
length per
unit
length,
or
of volume
per
unit
volume, as
the
case
may
be.
Then
a
Modulus = stress ~ strain.
And Hooke's Law
can
be
generalizedto,
Strain
oc
Stress.
ELASTICITY 87
shows the
lengthwisecompression,
hence the
lengthwisecom- pressibility,
and the bulk
compressibility
is 3 times
this/
by
the
argument
of
"
132. The
stretching
of the steel tube has to be
allowed for
;
the distance between marks
on
its outside is
kept
under observation
during
the
experiment by
a
comparator
("
129,
Fig.61).
Koughly speaking,
bulk modulus =
Young's
modulus.
"
97
:
The
slightcompressibility
of
a
liquid
is measured
by
enclosing
it in
a bulb,
Fig.50,
with
graduated
stem of stout
small-bore
tubing,
volumes of bulb and stem
divisions
being
known,
cf.
"
134. A
mercury
thread in the stem shuts the
liquid
in
; beyond
this
gauged hydraulic
pressure
is
applied
and
drives it down
as
the
liquid
compresses.
But
the fluid
pressure
would
expand
the bulb
;
to
prevent
thisthe whole bulb is immersed in the
pressure
water and sustains the
same
pressure
outside
as
in.
This,however,
does not
keep
its volume
constant,
for its outer surface is
larger
than its
inner,
however thin it
may
be.
Thus there is
a
surplus
of force which
com- presses
every
particle
of
it,
and the whole bulb
shrinks to the
same extent as
would
a
solid
lump
of
glass,
so
that the
compressibility
of
glass
must be added to the
apparent
com- pressibility
of the
liquid.
The
apparatus
is
partlysubmerged
in
a
constant-temperature
water bath.
Liquids
can
be
elastically expanded.
For
instance,
water
can
be
hermetically
sealed
'
in
vacuo
'
in
a stout
glass
tube which it all but fills.
Warming
makes it
quite
fillthe
tube,
and this it continues to do when
considerably
cooled down.
Presently
it lets
go
suddenly
and
leaves
a
large
bubble,
havingevidently
been in
an
expanded
con- dition
under
a
'
negative
pressure
'
or
tension.
"
98
:
Bulk
elasticity
is the
only possibility
in
fluids,
but is
practically unimportant
in solids
as
it cannot break them.
Young's
modulus controls the
bending
of
beams,
carnage
and
clock
springs, etc.,
for the inner side is
directly compressed
and
the outer stretched.
Twistingbrings
in
a
third
species
of elas- ticity
whose
Modulus,
that of
Rigidity,
is less than
Young's.
FIG. 50.
88 A HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS
It controls the
strength
of
shafting,
of helical
springsdirectly
pulled(which
purely
twists the
wire),
of resistance to
shearing,
etc. The
history
of
a
specimen
twisted to destruction resembles
that of
one
broken in
tension,
which follows
:
"
"
99. Solids acted
on
in
one
direction
by great
forces
presently
reach
an Elastic Limit. Thereafter their modulus has littleor no
meaning. They
are overstrained,
they
do not
immediately
return to
shape,they
retain
a
deformation
or
*
set,'
the extent
and
permanence
of which
depends largely
on
how
long
time
the excessive stress
was
acting.
The solid has
begun
to
show
the
plasticity
of
a
very
viscous fluid. Watch and
compare
the
yielding
and the efforts to return to
shape
of
a stick cut from the
hedge
after
you
have bent it
a little,
for however
long;
and
more
severely,
for different times.
Wrought
iron and steel show this
remarkably
well. A stress-
strain
diagram
for
an
ordinary
10-in.
specimen
on
the
testing
o-S
WROUGHT IRON
CAST
Exten
IRON.
Ii"l
STRAIN
- EXTENSION OF 1O SPECIMEN.
FIG. 51.
machine is
given
in
Fig.
51. The
specimenstretches, though
hardlyappreciably,
with
perfectelasticity
up
to
a
high
limit
E,
the
weigh-beam bouncing
under the hand.
Beyond
E
begins
a
permanent
set,
very
slight
at
first,
but at the
yield-point
Y the
beam
drops
and the
specimen
stretches and stretches
visibly
though slowly.Presently,
however,
it
recovers
itself and
picks
up
the load
again.
Increases of load now cause
very
large
plastic
extension,
but
slowlycoming
to
a
standstillfor each load.
ELASTICITY 89
This forms
a new
elasticlimit for the
now
altered
and hardened
specimen(as
at
17, 18,
21
tons).
Ultimately
the
specimen
termi- nates
the
experimentby pulling
out a
neck and
breaking
there.
The elastic limit is sometimes
poorly
marked,
e.g.
the cast iron
in
Fig.
51
gives
a
line
falling
away
from the direction it started in
almost from the
very
beginning,
i.e.it failsto
obey
Hooke's
law
as soon as
any
serious stress is
put
upon
it
;
it has
no
definite
modulus. And in most
malleable metals the
plasticstage
starts
gradually,
without
any
remarkable
yield-point [travelling
say
along
the round dotted line in
Fig.51].
On
quasi-fluid
behaviour
depends,
of
course,
the
possibility
of
drawing
into wire
(ductility)
or
extrudingby steady
pressure
or
by hammering (malleability).
Under the
microscope
itisobserved
that the constituent
crystals
of the
mass are
cleaving
into
layers
which
glide
over one
another without loss of cohesion.
Continued,
this
process
develops
a
stream-line
structure,recognized
as
the
grain
of
wrought
iron,
and
as a
fictitiousstratification
in
meta-
morphicgneiss,
etc. " rocks
probablycrystallized
from fusion with
granite
structure
and then distorted
by
earth
movements,
while
confined under
pressure
too
great
to
permit
their
losing
coherence
and
crumbling
up.
Alternating
or
repeated
stress
(e.g.
in
bicycle forks)
has been
shown to be
perfectly
harmless if within the natural elastic
limit,
but
rapidly
destructive if
a
trifle
beyond
it.
A true elasticlimit in
many
materials,
e.g.
glass
and rubber "
colloid materials" is
very
low,
if indeed it exists.
They
return
quicklynearly
to
shape
but not
quite,
the latter
stages
of the
return
may
lag
for minutes
or
hours.
"
100.
Work absorbed in elastic
stretching.
If
a
specimensteadily
stretches
a
distance
e
under
a
foi4e
which has
steadily
increased from
zero
to
F,
averaging
therefore
JF,
the work done is the
product|eF.
Thus elasticmaterials withstand
a blow,
absorbing
its
energy
without fracture. Most of the
energy
is returned
as
the stress
passes.
Herein liesthe
use
of
springs
of
every
sort.
India-rubber
by
reason
of its
enormous
extensibility
can
store,
per
pound,
10 times
as
much elastic
energy
as
spring-steel
(instance
its
use
in
toy aeroplanes, etc.),
but
on account of its
elastic
lag
does not restore it
all,
losing
a
few
per
cent in that
internalfriction which accounts
for.
the lack of
'
life
'
in
a
thick
bicycle tyre,
and for the heat
developed
in motor
tyres.
90 A
HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS
\
"900
"/"AB
4S 6
FIG. 52.
A material which has
a
high
modulus and
yields
but
little,
and
when overstressed cannot
save
itself
plastically,
is
brittle.
Hard substances must have
a
high
elastic limit and
an enormous
break- ing
stress,
but their
very
inflexibility
exposes
them
to the fate of the
two
rigid
bodies. A mixture of hard and
soft"
glittering
carborundum set in
cement
;
or
the natural mixture
con- stituting
a
high-speed
tool-steel"
often
displays
their
good qualities
to best
advantage.
There
are
many
special
methods of
estimating
Hard- ness,
but
no
good general
method of
all-round
application ;
it varies
too
enormously.
"
101. The
Elasticity
of Gases
(volume
compressibility)
can
be in- vestigated
throughout
far
greater
change
of bulk than
can
that of
solids
or
liquids.
Hooke's law still
holds for small
changes(e.g."
288,
compression
in sound
waves)
but fails
for
greater,
and is
supersededby
Boyje!s-Law.
At constant
tempera- ture,
the volume V
of
any
particular
mass
of
any gas
varies
inversely
as
its
pressure
P.
P
cc
"
or
alternatively
PV
oc
1
i.e. PV is
constant for
a
constant
mass
of
any
particular
gas
at
a con- stant
temperature.
This relation between P and V is
graphically expressedby
the
hyper- bola
of
Fig.
52.
Robert
Boyle
discovered this
(ca.
1660)
by
aid of
a
U tube contain- ing
air in its short sealed limb shut
92 A HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS
inconveniently
small
bulk,
the increase of
pressure
that
just
halves the volume is
found,
then
keeping
P constant
more
gas
is
pumped
in
up
to the
original
volume,
then P increased to halve
this and
so
on, step by step,making
all allowances for
stretching
of the
containingtube,
temperature
and
compressibility
of
mercury
in the tall
gauge,
etc.
Regnault
found that the
product
PV decreased
slightly
with
increasing
P for all
gases
except
hydrogen,
where it increased.
Amagat,
going
farther,
found
as
in
Fig.
53 that all
gases
ultimately
followed the
example
of
hydrogen. Anywhere
near
their
liquefying points
gases
collapse
with undue
ease
(C02),S02
does this
noticeably
even
at 2
or
3 atmos.
; hydrogen
is of
course
farthest from
liquefaction.
"
103
:
According
to
the Kinetic
Theory,
which
supposes
all
matter to be made
up
of
separate
minute molecules in
rapid
motion, a
Gas consists of
a swarm
of molecules
occupying
a
comparativelylarge
space.
In this
theyfly
about
at
highspeeds
and free from
one
another's interference
except
for the brief
event of
a
'
collision
'
when two of them
come so
close
as to
change
each other's
paths.
Actual collision between hard
particles
is
quite
the crudest
way
of
putting
it,
but it will suffice
for
us.
[Elasticity,
as we
know it in
matter,
is
a
property
of
molecular
crowds,
the
perfect
rebound of molecule from
molecule,
whether of
gas
or
of the wall of the
vessel,
is
no mere
elastic
collision.]
Let
a
cubic centimetre of
gas
contain N molecules each of
mass
m,
and let their
average
speed
be
v.
Dealing
with
momen- tum,
we
may
neglect
the inter-molecular
collisions,
for at each
collision there is
a mere
transference of momentum without loss
(and
we
cannot follow
an
individual
molecule).
We
may
divide
N into 3
equal
groups,
going
N. and
S.,
E. and
W.,
up
and down
respectively ;
every
molecule makes
v
journeys
per
second
across
the 1
cm., striking
either wall
\v
times
;
therefore each wall
receives
per
second
"NxJ0="Ne
blows. Each blow
gives
it
momentum
mx2-y,
since the molecule is
stopped
and
reversed;
hence the forward momentum
destroyed
on
1
sq.
cm.
per
sec.=
pressure
on
wall in
dynes/cm. z=^Nvx2mv
=
^Nw02=-J
mass
of
molecules in 1
c.c.Xf2,or
P=J
density
X
(molecularspeed)2.
Boyle's
law follows from
this,
for the
density
is of
course
inversely
as
the volume into which the
mass
is
crowded,
and
P
oc
density
if
speed
is
constant.
ELASTICITY 93
"
104
:
Van der Waals modified
Boyle's
law
by taking
into
account cohesion in the
gas.
Such cohesion is
strong
in
liquids,
for
a
great
amount of heat
energy
has to be
supplied
to tear
apart
their molecules
(latent
heat of
vaporization, " 166),
and
as
highlycompressed
gas
and
liquid
can on
occasion become indis- tinguishable
(critical point," 215)
it is not absurd to assume
its
existence in
gases.
This
slight
mutual attraction holds the
molecules back from
striking
a
full blow
on
the
walls,
i.e. P
observed is less than the true
pressure,
which
may
be written
(P-f
a/V2)
where
a
is
a
small constant.
This
correction,
while
very
small at
ordinary
pressures,
becomes
rapidlylarger
as
V is
diminished
by compression.
Further,
the molecules
are
not mere
mathematical
points.
Whether
one
thinks of them
as
hard
colliding spheres
or as
centres
of
strong repulsion
the effect is that each
occupies
a
certain
volume of its
own,
into which
no
other
can
penetrate.
So that
the
space
actually
available for molecular
wanderings
is the
measured volume V reduced
by
a
small
quantity
6.
Van der Waals therefore writes
P+^2J(V-6)=constant
[=RT, " 154]
and with
a
proper
choice of
a
and b
(e.g.
for
C02
a" -00874,
b
=-0023)
this
equation
does
satisfactorily
fit the
experimental
curves
of
Fig.
53.
Cohesive attraction and
abrupt repulsion
are
difficult to
reconcile at first
sight.
But the former is
a
property
of the
molecules
themselves,
while the latter is
a
consequence
of their
rapid
motion.
Compare
the human desire for
company,
but
no
crowding.
NOTE. " Some values of
Young's
modulus
are,
in millions of millions
of
dynes per sq.
cm.
" Steel 2-0,
copper,
brass,
and bronze -77 to
1-0,
glass
-4 to -6.
Rigidity
" steel -8,
copper,
etc. -3 to -4,
glass
-17 to -24.
Some
liquid compressibilitiesare,
in millionths of millionths of the
original
volume for 1
dyne
per sq.
cm. "
Water
50,
glycerine
25,
various
oils
48,
alcohol
90,
ether
140,
at
ordinary temperatures.
94 A HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS
EXAMPLES." CHAPTER XII
1.
Explain
Strain and Stress
;
define
Elasticity
;
give
Hooke's
Law,
and verification.
[Ab.]
2. Define
a
modulus of
elasticity, explaining
how measurements
referred to
are supposed
to be made.
3. What
is meant
by Young's modulus,
and
by tenacity
? A wire
1
m. long
and -5
sq.
mm.
section stretches -5
mm.
for 5
kg.
and breaks
with 30
kg.
;
calculate Y.M. and
tenacity. [Ab.]
4. 1
grm.
wt. stretches
a spring
1
cm. Assuming
Hooke's law calcu- late
ergs
stored in the
spring
stretched 10
cm. [L.]
5. Into
a
vertical
cylinder area
12
sq.
in., length
8
in.,
closed
below,
a
4-lb.
piston
is inserted. Where will it
rest, atmospheric
pressure
being
15
Ib./sq.
in. ?
[Ab.]
6. A
long narrow
vertical tube is closed at the lower end and contains
2-ft.
length
of air shut in
by
2-ft.
length
of oil. When inverted
so
that
the
open
end is down the air
expands
to
2 ft.
2^
in. Calculate the
height
of the oil barometer.
[L.]
7. Torricellian
space
in
a
barometer at 30 in.
being 2% cu.
in. and
cross-section of tube
"
sq.
in., an
air-bubble
measuring
-1
cu.
in. at
atmospheric
pressure
is admitted. How far will
mercury
fall ?
[M.]
8. A
faulty barometer,
with tube 40 in.
long,
contains air and reads
29 in. instead of 30. What
will it read when true barometer reads 29 ?
[M.]
9. Air at
atmospheric
pressure
(32
ft. water
barometer)
is taken
down to 30 ft. under water and liberated to form
a spherical
bubble.
Show diameter of this has increased one-fourth when it reaches surface.
[M.]
10. A
cylindrical diving-bell
is 6 ft.
high
and its
top
is 10 ft. under
water. To what
height
has water risen in bell if
mercury
barometer
stands at 30-5 in. ?
[M.]
11. A
cylindrical diving-bell
18 ft.
high,
24
sq.
ft.
cross-section,
weighing 27,000
Ib. is sunk till its
top
is 10 ft. under
water. If water
barometer stands at 33
ft.,
find how
high
water rises into
bell,
tension of
chain,
and volume of air at
atmospheric
pressure
that must be
pumped
in to drive water out.
[D.]
12. Calculate
mean velocity
of molecule of
nitrogen
at
pressure
of
1,000,000 dynes/cm2,
litre of
gas weighing
1-2
grm,
[L.]
CHAPTER XIII
THE MECHANICS OF APPARATUS OF PRECISION
IN all
apparatus
of
precision
it is essential to make
sure
that
a
moving part
moves
to
the extent and in the
manner intended,
and in
no
other
way.
The main
principlesunderlying
the
con- struction
of
satisfactory
mechanism
are
of
an importance
and
interest that claims for them
a
short consideration here.
GEOMETRICAL THEORY
"
105
: Degrees
of Freedom.
Any
motion of
a
free
point or
particle can
be resolved into
component
motions in three directions
at
right angles
;
it is said to have three
degrees
of freedom.
Confining
it to
a plane means depriving
it of
one degree
of
freedom,
for it cannot
now move perpendicularly
to that
plane.
Confined
to
a
line it has lost two
degrees, moving only
to
and fro in
one
direction,
and the loss of its third
degree
of freedom reduces it
to
a
fixed
point.
In addition to
these
possibilities
of rectilinear motion in three
directions
a rigid body
has those of rotation about three rect- angular
axes,
N. and
S.,
E. and
W.,
and vertical. These three
can
combine in
any way,
"
57.
Thus it has
six degrees
of freedom.
"
106 : Constraints. Let
us see how,
by progressivelydepriving
it of
these,
its motions
can
be made
very
definite,
with
none
of that
wobble and slackness
usually
ascribed to
bad
workmanship,
but
really
due to defective
design.
The mode of
destroying
each
degree
of freedom is
to make
one
point
of the
body
touch
a
fixed surface.
I.
Constraining one point
to move on a surface deprives
the
body
of the freedom of
moving perpendicularly
to it,
e.g.
Billiard-
ball,
spinning top.
II. Two
points confined
to a plane (leaving
4
degrees)
" a
dumb- bell
rolling,spinning,or sliding
either
way
on
the floor.
One
point confined
to
a
line
(leaving
4
degrees)
"
the
'
flying
95
96 A HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS
pigeons
'
of the
pyrotechnist, sliding on a
wire
;
or a
top
with its
toe
runningalong
a
crack.
III. Three
points
touch
a
plane(3 degrees]
" the usual
tripod,
can
slide either
way
or
rotate about
a
vertical axis.
One
pointfixed,permits
3 rotations
only
"
a
top spinning
in
a
fixed socket.
Actually
this
fixing
of
one
point
is effected
by
keeping
3
points
on a
rounded toe in contact with 3
planes
meeting
in
an
angle,
a
trihedral dent such
as a
blow from the
corner
of
a cube would make.
[A
hemisphere
can
geometrically
touch
a
hemispherical
cup
in
only
one
point,
unless the radii
are
absolutely equal.]
IV. Four
points
touch
a
cylinder(2 degrees)
"
an
axle
lying
in
two Vees
can turn, or
slide
axially.
[An
axle in
a
cylindrical bearing
can
geometrically
touch it at
two
pointsonly
and hence
can
sway
and rattle
as soon as
it
runs
short of
a
sufficient
'
packing
'
of
lubricant.]
V. Five
points(1degree;
most valuable
case)
" A
cylinderresting
in Vees and
butting against
an
obstacle
can
rotate
only.
FIG. 54.
The
body
carries two
vees (or V-groovedrollers) resting
on a
round-topped
rail
(or
else two
rounded
feetresting
in
a V
groove)
and
a
third
footresting
on a
fiat
rail in
one
point,
it
can
slide
lengthwiseonly
" all
sliding
and
rollingcarriages.
The usual
slidingcarriage
falls short of this in
being supported,
like
a
railway
truck,
at four
pointsonly,
hence it
can
oscillate
laterally
and
jam,
like
a
drawer
or a
window-sash.
One
pointfixed(see
III
above)
and two
feetresting
on a
plane
"
rotates about
one
axis
through
the fixed centre.
APPARATUS OF PRECISION 97
VI. Six
points.
The best
way
of
fixing
the
position
of
a
body
is
by
means
of the
hole,slot,
and
plane.
One rounded foot rests in
a conical,or rather,trihedral,
hole
;
the second in
a
V-groove
pointingstraight
away
from the hole
(along
this it
can
slide if
any
expansionoccurs,
without
slewing
the
body round),
and the
third rests
on a flat
plate.
In
Fig.
54
a
transparentplate
with three rounded feet is shown
in
plan,supported
as
in V and VI. Points of contact are
indicated
by
dots.
"
107
:
Very
often the
weight
of the
body
sufficesto hold it in
contact with these
points
of
support,
but it
may
be
necessary
to
providesprings
to
press
it
against
them. This will introduce
several other
points
of
contact,
but these
are
only
elastic
points,
for which the
ringer
might
be substituted.
Every rigidbody
to be
securely
held with the
required
number
of
degrees
of freedom must have
(six
minus this
number) rigid
points
of
support
and
no more.
It
may
in addition have
any
number of elastic
points,
but the
pressures
applied
at them must
leave the
rigidpointsquite
unmoved.
Ordinarynon-geometrical
holders fail
by confusing
these two
varieties of
supportingpoint.
For
instance,an
object
held
by
the
fingers
up
to the fixed
jaw
of
a
vice should not be
displaced
in the least
as
the
pressure
of the movable
jaw
comes
upon
it,
but how often is this attainable in
practice
? And
as
the flat
fixed
jaw
can
provideonly
'
three
rigidpoints,'
it has to have
teeth to
bite into the
object
and
provide
other
'
three
points
'
on
their inclined faces.
MECHANICAL CONSIDERATIONS
"
108
:
No material has the infinite
strength
and
rigidity
assumed
above,
and
applications
of the
geometrical theory
will be
mechanical failures unless due attention is
paid
to this fact. There
is
a deal of
apparatus
on
the market which
gives
the undiscrimi-
nating
unbeliever
opportunities
of
deriding
the
geometrical theory
as
unmechanical,
but the fault is that the
designer
did
not make
adequate
allowance for the
non-rigidity
of constructive material.
He had not learnt that the
production
of
a
successful machine is
a
process
of evolution.
That
a mechanism
wears
loose
means
that its construction is
ungeometrical
;
that it
wears at
all
appreciably
means
that it is
unmechanical.
98 A HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS
It
goes
without
saying
that there must be
no
shake
anywhere.
A
screw
working
in its nut is
a
favourite
place
for
neglecting
geometrical principles altogether,
since
they
cannot be
practically
applied
to it in full. At the least the nut should be
'
split,'
and
the weak
edges
of the cut devoted to
elastically pressing
the
screw
against
the stiffer
part,
or
else there should be
a
spring
as
in
Fig.
55
(orspring-
washer for
a set
screw).
The forces that arise in the mechanism from whatever
cause
must be
prevented
from
deforming
it
appreciably.
The
driving
force
should be
applied
in line with the resultant
of
the
weights,
/national
resistances,
etc.,
that it has
to overcome.
The
common
pattern
of
microscope
'
fine
adjustment
'
may
be taken for criticism. When the
microscope
stands
vertical
FIG. 55.
as
in
Fig.
55 the centre of
gravity
of the
parts
to be moved
is 2 in. out in front of the micrometer
screw
and
a
couple,
of
moment w X GM,
is
causing
pressure
between the
sliding
sleeve
and the
supportingpost
at A and
B,
inducing
friction and
tending
to fitful
working.
A
strong spiralspring,
shown in section
as a
double
row
of
dots,more
than bears the
weight
of the
moving
parts
and
presses
the
upper
faces of the threads in the milled
nut
against
the lower faces of the
screw
threads. This makes for
definiteness and
no
'
back-lash,'
and
fortunately gives
the
screw
so
much work to do that the variable friction at A and B makes
less difference in the total.
When
inclined,
the three forces"
spring
pressure,
weight,
and
post
reaction" which act
on
the
moving parts,
meet in
a
point
;
the
weight
is carried
by
the
spring
and the
upper
face of the
post,
and the
jamming
force at A
disappears.
The mechanism fulfils
100
A HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS
Crushing
or
tensile
strength
is
proportional
to
area
of
cross-
section,
i.e. to the
square
of linear dimensions.
Weight
is
pro- portional
to the cube.
Since
a
bar resists
Compression
or
Tension far
more stiffly
than it does
Bending,
all forces should be taken
by
struts and ties
as
direct
as possible.
The stiffness of
a
bar to resist
Bending
is
proportional
to
Young's
modulus
x
breadth
X (depth-^length)3
and is
enormously greater
if the bar is
supported
at both ends
than if
'
overhung.'
Since stiffness
depends
on (depth)3
the
bar should be
'
on edge.' Evidently
the
top
and bottom
layers are
the most effective,
since
(their
distance
apart)3
is
so
much the
greatest.
Hence the intermediate
parts
can
be hollowed
out to leave
only
the thin
web, or triangular
lattice-work,
of the
Girder.
The
common force-diagram
assumes
all the forces
acting
in
a
plane ;
if
they
do
not, Twisting
must be met. The
strength
of
a
bar under twist is
proportional
to the fourth
power
of its effective
diameter
;
hence the
large
thin tubes of
a bicycle
frame
are
the
best form to resist
pedalling stresses,
while the thin flat
strip
of bronze
suspending a galvanometer-coil
resists its rotation
much less than would
a
round bronze wire of the
same
tensile
strength.
Local
pressures
must be
kept
within the
crushing
limit.
Always
of
course something
has to
give
way
until
(area
of contact
X crushing
pressure
of
material)
exceeds
weight
to be carried
(e.g.
a
sharp-pointedtripod visibly
settles down into the table
top),
but for
permanent utility
the
stress
should
not
reach the elastic
limit of the material. Here
again
small
forces
are
far more easily
dealt with than
great.
The
pressure
on
the
knife-edges
of
a
fine
balance must be
enormous,
but the hard material sustains it
and the balance is sensitive to 1
part
in
a
million
;
what
engineer
would
expect
his
testing
machine to
respond
to 1
ounce
in 30 tons ?
"
110: When movement
is
necessary
under
large
pressures
a
layer
of lubricant must
separate
the
surfaces,
and the
area
of
contact,
pressure,
speed,
and nature of lubricant must be
so
adjusted
that the latter is not
squeezed out, see "
240.
CHAPTER XIV
THE PRECISE MEASUREMENT OF
LENGTH, TIME,
AND MASS
THE MEASUREMENT
OF
LENGTH
[NOTE. "
In all accurate measurements of
length or angle
the
thermal
expansions
of scale and
object
must be allowed
for,
and
local
inequalities
of
temperature
must be
avoided.]
"
111. The methods of
producing multiples
and
submultiples
of the unit of
length are
of
course developments
of the
process
everybody uses
with
a pair
of dividers.
The
difficulty
in
using
subdivided scales
to read
ordinary
lengths accurately
is that the subdivisions
soon
become too
small to
see.
Without
a magnifying glass
it is better to
guess
at
the decimals of
a
tenth-of-an-inch division than to
attempt
to
read
a
hundredth-inch scale.
The
Diagonal Scale, so
familiar to the
draughtsman,
is
an early
device for
coping
with this
difficulty.
It is
easy
to make and
use
with fair
accuracy
but is troublesome when it
comes
to
splitting
lines. The 8-ft. radius mural
quadrant provided
with it at
Greenwich in
1750
could be read
no more accurately
than
a
surveying
theodolite of the
present day.
"
112. To
a
soldier of
fortune,
Pierre Vernier
(ca. 1620),
is
due the contrivance most
widely
used in
reading
scales
on
all
sorts of instruments. The main scale is
graduated throughout
into
equal
divisions
as
small
as can
be
distinguishedcomfortably.
Attached to the
moving part,
and
sliding alongside
the main
scale,as
in
Fig. 56,
is
another,
the
vernier,
each of whose divisions
is
one
nth
part
less than those of the main scale.
Evidently n
divisions of this fall short
n
nths=l scale
division;
or n
vernier
divisions=n
"
1 scale divisions
(in
the
simplest
form 10 and 9,
Fig. 56,
top
scale).
Now if the index mark
on
the vernier
(either
its
edge or
else
marked with
an arrow or 0)
lies in line with
a
scale
mark,
then
101
102 A
HANDBOOK OF
PHYSICS
the mark 1
on
it fallsshort of
a scale mark
by 1/wth
scale division,
mark 2
by 2/nths,
etc.
Pushing
the vernier forward
2/wths
will
therefore
bring
the 2 into line with
a
scale
mark,
and
so
on,
coincidence at the mtli vernier mark
meaning
that it has been
bodilypushed m/nihs
of
a
scale division
beyond
the last scale
mark
preceding
its index.
Thus the Vernier
always
reads wtlis of the smallest scale
division,
say
tenths of the tenth of
an inch,
thirtieths of
a
half-
degree,
twenty-fifths
of
a twentieth of
an
inch
(l/500ths),
etc.,
e.g.
the
upper
verniers in
Fig.
56 are
indicating
0-0 and 17-4
;
1 I I
,{
I I I I
i
I I I
I
I
a 3 4
FIG. 56.
the lower vernier is
reading8/25ths
of
a
lower scale
division,
and
as
20 scale divisions make 1 unit this =
8-i-25-^-20=-016,
which
added to the 3 scale divisions
(-15)
before its index makes -166.
Sometimes
the vernier's 10 divisions=19 of the
scale,
this is
merely
to
get
more
'
open
'
divisions and avoid
dazzling
the
eye
;
it is
a
vernier to twentieths with alternate marks
invisible,
only
even
twentieths
can
be
read,
i.e.tenths.
Quite
distinct is the vernier,to
be found on
older
instruments,
with its divisions
I/nth greater
than the scale divisions. Its
index mark is at the far end and it is
figured
backwards
;
the
reader can
work out
its
theory.
"
113.
Better than
a
long
vernier is the Micrometer Screw.
A true screw
will advance
through
a
perfectly fitting
nut
I/nth
its
pitch
for each
I/nth
of
a
revolution. In
practice
a
well-made
screw
and nut
are
carefully ground together
to smooth
away
irregularities ;
there must be
some
clearance between
screw
and
nut
and this
gives
rise to shake and
'
back-lash
'
" travel of the
screw
without
turning,
or
vice
versa.
To avoid
these,
lubricate
well with
grease,
take
readings
with the
screw
goingalways
in the
same
direction,
and if
possible
have
a
springarrangement
to
LENGTH, TIME,
AND MASS
103
press
screw
and nut
together,always
one
way,
with
a
steady
pressure
(cf.Fig.55).
The head of the
screw
is
enlarged
and
graduated
into a
large
number of
equalparts.
A
very
common
arrangement
has
a
|-mm.
pitch
screw
and 50 divisions
on
the head. A scale to read whole
turns of the
screw
is
provided,
but it is often safer to count
them.
In the
screw-gauge, Fig.57,
the flat end of the
screw
works
up
to
a
flat anvil formed
on an
extension of the
nut,
the
object
whose thickness is
requiredbeingput
between,
and
very
gently
FIG. 57.
gripped.
The
large
micrometer benches used
by engineers
are
in
principle
screw-gauges
with
long adjustable
gaps,
which
are
firststandardized
by using
'
end
measure
bars
'
of known
length.
In the
screw spherometer
the
screw
is mounted
so
that it
can
measure
small
heights,
and
specially
the
height
CZ=A,
Fig.58,
of the
arc
of
a
curved surface between
rigidprojections
AB*
('
feet
')
on
its nut. From this the radius of
curvature
E of the
surface
can
be deduced thus
:
"
If AC = CB=r
(measured carefully,
best
by
vernier
callipers)
Remainder of diameter of curvature
of surfacexCZ=ACxCB
i.e.
(2R-^)/i^r2 [Euclid,
II 14
or
III
35.]
and in
practice
the
\h
is
usuallynegligibly
small.
The
Spherometer,Fig.
58,
of
physical
laboratories
usually
has
three feet
('points
'
or better,
small steel
balls)
fixed at the
corners
of
an
equilateral triangle
and each distant
r
from the
screw
point
when
standing
on a
plane.
On
a
sphere
this makes
no difference,
the foot B has
virtually split
into
two, one
has
travelled 60" E.
longitude
and the other 60" W.
along
the small
*
Imagine,
for the time
being,
a
foot at
B, Fig.
58.
104
A HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS
circle
'
of latitude
'
in which the
plane
ACB cuts the
sphere
AZB. On
a cylinder,
however, they
differ
;
the
pattern
with feet
in line reads full curvature
one
way
and
zero
the
other,
the
tripodpattern
averages up
and reads half
(giving
2R
instead of
R)
in
whatever
position
it
stands
on
the
cylinder[proof
tedious].
Contact of the
screw
point
is indicated
by
the instrument
being
able to
spin
round
or
to
justperceptibly
totter.
[NOTE.
" h is
proportional
to
1/R
the
'
Curvature
'
of the
surface,
and
equal
increases of h
mean
equal
increases in
curvature.]
"
114. In
dividingengines, travelling-
micrometer-microscopes,
cathetometers,
etc.,
the end of the
screw
presses
on a
carriagesliding
on
'
geometrical
ways
'
and
carrying
the
cutting
tool,or a cross-
wire
microscope
or
telescope ("465).
Very
small
lengths
are
measured
by
first
forming
a
real
image
of the
object
magnified
a
known number of diame- ters,
and then
travelling
over
this
image
a
fine
spider-line
fixed
across a
frame
pushed by
the
screw, image
and
spider-line being
examined
by
a magnifying eyepiece. Eyepiece-micrometer-microscopes
of
this
description
are
used to
magnify
and subdivide scale
gradua- tions
far too small and delicate for verniers to be
practicable.
The Cathetometer measures vertical distances
(cathetos=
upright).Up
a
long
vertical
stem slides
geometrically
a
carriage,
with vernier and
cross-
wire
telescope.
The latter has to be
kept
very
exactly
horizontal
according
to
a
sensitive'
spirit-level
fixed
to
it,
for
a
very
slight
tilt will
cause
serious
error
at
a
distance.
Usually
one can
do
just
as
well
by setting
up
a
scale close to the
object
and
viewing
both
at
once
through
the
telescope,
with its
horizontal cross- wire,
of
a
rougherungraduated
cathetometer.
"
115. Area. Areas of
irregular shape
are
measured
:
"
(1)By tracing
on
squared
paper
and
counting
squares.
(2)By
tracing
on
ordinary
paper
of uniform thickness
(machine
made), cuttingout,
and
weighing.
FIG. 58.
LENGTH, TIME,
AND MASS 105
(3)By
various rules
proved
in mathematics
books,
but seldom
used.
(4)By
Planimeters,
instruments which in
one
way
or
another
'
integrate
'
the
area as
their
tracingpoint
is carried
once
round it.
The
area
of
a
circleis 7rr2=3-1416x
radius2,
the
area
of a
sphere
is 4?rr2.
"
116. Volume.
The volume of
a
parallel-sided
block, or
cylinder,
whether
rectangular
or
oblique,
is
area
of base
X height
perpendicular
to it. Of
a
pyramid
or
cone,
one-third this. Volume
of
a
sphere^TTf
3.
The volumes of
irregular
solids
are
easily
measured
by dropping
them,
like the
thirsty
crow
in the
fable,
into water or
any
other
liquidpartlyfilling
a
jargraduated
in cubic centimetres. See
specific gravity,"
77.
"
117. The measurement of angle.
Angles
are
measured in
degrees(360
to the
circle),
minutes
(60'
==
1"),
and seconds
(60"
=
1').
Practically,
their measurement is that of distances round
a
circular
scale,verniers,micrometers,etc.,beingemployed.
At
Greenwich
angles
are
quoted
to
a
hundredth of
a
second,
about
the thickness of this
paper
at
a
distance of
a
mile.
The
great
fault of most divided circles is that their centres
do not lie
exactly
in the axis of rotation. Simultaneous
readings
at both ends of
a
diameter
are
necessary
to annul this
error.
In the best work
readingsby
several
equidistantmicroscopes
smoothe out this and other
irregularities.
THE
MEASUREMENT
OF
TIME
"118:
Time
is ticked out in successive
equal
intervals
by
the
swing
of
a
Pendulum controlled
by gravity,
or
of
a
Balance
Wheel controlled
by
a
spring.
In
getting
these intervals to
average
equality
for
any
length
of time the clockmaker has
many
difficultiesto contend with.
In either
case
the time of
one
swing
is
proportional
to the
square
root of the
quotient
of the moment of inertia
by
the
controlling
couple,"
55.
Hence the
pendulum
must have
a
constant moment of inertia
about its
point
of
support,
therefore its
Expansion
with rise of
Temperature
has to be
compensated,"
130,
Fig.
62.
Rise of
Atmospheric
Pressure,
increasing
the
density
of the
air,
has three effects. The
mass
of air
pushed
into motion
by
the
pendulum
in its
swing
increases,
i.e.itseffective
moment of inertia
106 A HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS
increases.
Secondly,
the bob is
buoyed
up
more
by
denser
air,
1 in. rise of barometer reduces the
weight(thecontrolling force)
of
a
lead bob
1/300,000part, "
77.
Both effects tend to make
the clock
lose,
but
fortunately
the extra labour of
pushing
about
the heavier air shortens the
arc
of
swing,
and this reduces the
'
circular
error,'
" 38,
and
speeds
it
up
;
with
a
seconds
pendulum
swinging3f
inches this automatic
compensation
is almost
com- plete.
Or the clock
can
be boxed
air-tight
and
pumped
up
to
31 in.
pressure
after
every
winding.
The
escapement
must
give
the
pendulum equalimpulses,
or
else the
arc
of
swing
and the
'
circular
error
'
will
vary.
This
means
drivingby
a
weight
or
very
steadyspringthrough
a
train
of wheels and
an
escapement
which
never
vary
in their friction
;
a
requirement
difficultto
meet, seeing
how
large
a
proportion
of
the
energy
is
spent
in them before
any
reaches the
pendulum.
Large
clocks,
with outdoor dials to drive in all
weathers,
actuate
their
pendulums through
'
gravity
remontoires
'
;
the clock
merely
lifts
every
30 sec.
(or
1
sec.)
a
small
weightthrough
a
constant
distance,
this then
driving
the
pendulum throughonly
one
wheel
(or
direct)
with
a
minimum of friction.
And
further,the
escapement
must be such
as
to
supply
the
impulse
very
near
the middle of the
swing
and then let the
pendulum
alone. For if
anywhere
else,
the
pendulum
is
prac- tically
bumping against
a
spring
and
being
sent back before
finishing
its
swing,
any
variation in the
driving
force
now
affecting
it
badly.
The
common
recoil
escapement
of
mantelpiece
clocks
violates this
condition,
and that is
why
such clocks
change
five
minutes
a
week when stood the least bit out of level.
In
some
very
successful Electric Clocks the
pendulum pushes
a
lightscape-wheel
which at the end of 30
sec.
releases
a
weighted
lever. A littlewheel at the end of thislever falls
on
to
a
horizontal
shelf
on
the
pendulum
and at
mid-swing
runs over
the end of the
shelf,
thus
giving
it
a
sidewayspush.
The
falling
lever then
strikes
an
electric
contact
permitting
a
battery
current to
circulate in
an
electro-magnet,
which throws the lever
up
again,
and also in the
electro-magnets
of
any
number of
dials,
jerking
them
|
minute forward.
In Chronometers and Watches the
expansiondifficulty recurs,
but
a score
times
more
serious is the
weakening
with warmth
of the balance
spring. Springs
of
a new
nickel-
steel,however,
actuallystrengthen,
and
can
be made to
just
eliminate the
expansion
trouble.
108
A HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS
THE MEASUREMENT
OP
MASS
"
120. The
comparison
of
masses
with each other and with the
standard is effected
by comparing
their
weights
with the
Common
Balance,
in the fullfaith that
gravity
acts
on
allsubstances
equally.
The stiff balance
beam,
Fig.
45,
bears three
'
knife
edges
'
"
sharp-edgedprisms
of steel for
heavy weights,agate
or
rock
crystal
for
light.
The middle inverted
one
rests
on a
flat
plate
of the
same
material
on
the
supportingpillar,
the others
carry
flat
plates
from which
hang
the
pans,
etc. To
preserve
the
delicate
edges
from
crushing,
mechanism
(not
shown in the
figure)
is
provided
for
lifting edges
and
plates
out of contact
except
when
actuallytesting
the
equilibrium.
The balance informs
us when the
turning-moments
of the
forces
applied
at the outer knife
edges
are
equal
and
opposite.
The intention is that this shall
mean
equalweights,
and
this,
since
they
are
vertical
forces,
involves
equal
horizontal distances
from the centre.
This involves
(a)
knife
edges parallel
to one
another
;
(b)
their
distances,
the balance
FlG- 59- '
arms,'
equal;
(c)edges
all
touching
a
straight
line,
the theoretical
beam,
dotted in
Fig.
45. For if
not,
let them be
ACB,
when
tilted
they
move
to A'CB'
(Fig.59)
and
now
horizontal
a'c is not
equal
to cb'. Such
a
balance alters its read- ings
according
to the
zero
to which
one
adjusts
it
to
work, or
unless levelled with
extraordinary
care.
(d)
beam should be
so
stiffthat
working
loads do not
appre- ciably
bend this
straight
line.
(e)empty pans-farms
must exert
equal
moments. Hori- zontally
adjustableweights
on
the beam
regulate
this.
(f)
there must be
a
bias towards
mid-position(feebly
stable
system).
If the centre of
gravity
of the beam is in the
central
edge
it rests
indifferently
at
any
tilt,
which is
use- less.
A central
'
gravity-bob
'
G is lowered tillthe
e.g.
is
below the
edge
to
any
desired extent
:
when the beam
tilts the
e.g.
swings
out towards the
up
side and has
a
moment
tending
to turn it back.
Evidently
the lower the
e.g.
the less the tilt for which this
moment
attains
a
given
value,
i.e.for
a
given
overload in
one
pan.
LENGTH, TIME,
AND MASS 109
Thus
one
controls the sensitiveness
of the
balance,
which is
the number
of
scale divisions the
pointer
is
displaced for
a
definite
small overload
(often
1
milligram).
A Rider
of aluminium wire
weighing
10
mg.
can
be
placed
anywhere
on one
arm,
which is divided into 10
equalparts
(some- times
12
mg.
and 12
parts).
Placed
directly
over
the end knife
edge
this has
a moment 10
mg.xfull
distance 1 at which the
weights
in the
pan
act. Placed
say
at the third division from
centre
of beam its moment =10
mg.X
distance -3 which is
equivalent
to 3
mg.
X
distance 1
.
Thus it
now
turns the balance
just
as
much
as a
weight
of 3
mg.
in the
pan.
The
one
rider
saves
fiddling
with
weights
from 10
mg.
down to -1
mg.
The
thing
is
a common
steelyard
in miniature.
"
121. No actual balance
completely
fulfilsthe conditions
laid down
above,
and for
really
accurate
weighing
one
of two
devices has to be
employed
:
"
I.
Weighing by
substitution.
The
body
is
carefully
counter- poised
by
shot, etc.,
in the other
pan.
The
body
is removed
and
weights
are
put
in its stead until the
original equilibrium
is
re-established
; evidently
these amount to the
weight
of the
body.
II.
'
Double
weighing.5
If the
imperfectly equallengths
of the
balance
arms
be
r
and I the
body
in the left
pan
will be balanced
by l/r
times its
weightplaced
in the
right.
For in
a lever the
forces
are
inversely
as
their distances from the fulcrum. Now
changing
the
body
to the
right
pan
it is
counterpoisedby r/l
times its
weight
in the left.
Multiplying
the two
weightstogether
and
taking
the
square
root, this,
/
"
w
XyW
=
w. Or,
what
comes to the
same
thing
in
practice
in
any
balance not too
glaringly
lopsided
to be
used,
add them
together
and divide
by
2.*
VA11
these
procedures
demand is
a balance,
of suitable
delicacy,
nsistent in its
readings
when asked to do the
same
thing
twice
running;
it is sufficient that the instrument have clean
sharp
knife
edgesfirmly
affixed,
and be sheltered from
draughts
and
sudden
changes
of
temperature.
*
And
evidentlydividing one weight by
the other and
taking
the
square
root
gives
the ratio of the
arms,
'\/iw'r-rrw/l=l/r=l-{-%
difference of
weight
-f-
weight.
110 A HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS
NOTE. " In actual
weighing,
to be
sure
that there is
no
sticking
anywhere,
the beam is
kept swinginggently,
and the
rest-place
obtained
as
the
mean
from scale
readings
of successive
swings
left-right-left.
To
save
time the balance is made to
swing
more
quicklyby shortening
its beam and
so
reducing
its moment of
inertia,
and
by lowering
the
gravity-bob
and
so
increasing
its
controlling
force,see
"
55. These
proceedings
have reduced its
sensitiveness,
but that
can
be restored
by using
a
very
fine scale
read
by
a
magnifyingglass
or
mirror.
It is useless to
attempt
to
weigh
hot
bodies,on account of the
risingdraughtsthey
create.
For
ordinary
work the balance
case
should not be
keptspecially
dryby hygroscopic
chemicals,
for it has to be
recognized
that
glass
apparatus
is coated with
a
film of moisture
impossible
to
get
rid
of
but
likely
to
evaporate
to
an
uncertain extent in
a
dryatmosphere.
In fact it is recommended to
wipeglass
with
a
very
slightly damp
cloth
shortly
before
weighing.
"
122.
The
Density
of
a
material isthe
mass
of unit volume of it.
In the
c.g.s.
system
this is in
grammes per
cubic centimetre
and
'
specific gravity
'
is almost identical with
it,"
80.
In British
measure one can
take one's choice of
a
multitude of
unit
measures
of
capacity.
"
123. Correction for
weighing
in air.
Finally
it is
necessary
to correct for both
body
and
weightsbeingbuoyed
up
by
the air
around them to an extent
equal
to the
weight
of air
theydisplace.
This
prevents
the
weightsexerting
their full face
value,
while the
body
itself
appears
lighter
than it should.
1
c.c.
of
dry
air at 0" C. and
76 cm.
mercury pressure
weighs
"001293
grm.,
and this
requires
correction for
temperature,
pressure,
and
humidity; commonly
1
c.c.
of air
may
be taken
as weighing
-0012
grm.
Therefore the force with which the
body
presses
on
itsscale
pan
=its true
weightw"
its
volumex-0012
X
-0012
., -, .,
its
density
And the force
with which the
weights
press
on
their
pan
= their true
weight (facevalue)G"
,T"
"
,
-
:
"
X
-0012
their
density
LENGTH, TIME,
AND MASS 111
And these forces
are equal
"0012 \
"
/ -0012 \
"
"f
( i ]=
(} ( i " "
\
\ body's density/
\
weight's density/
_
/
_
-0012
y.A
-0012
\
""
V weight's density/
'
\
body's density/
/
-0012 -0012 \
\
weight's density body's density/
since the corrections
are
small
(see note,
p.
112),
and
using
brass
weights, density
84,
True
weight =
face value of
weights X (1" -
n^"
+
trrr~"
"
"^r"
)
V 7000
'
body s density/
"
124. With
very
light
and
bulky
bodies it
may
become
necessary
to alter the -0012 to
allow for barometric
variations,
etc.,
but this trouble is sometimes avoidable
by using an equally
bulky counterpoise.
For
instance,
in
determining
the
Density of
Gases
a sealed-up dummy glass
bulb is
hung
with the
weights
to
counterpoise
the
equal
bulb in which the
gas
is contained.
Then the
mass
of
gas
filling
the latter
= excess over
its
weight
when
pumped
to
a
vacuum,
with
only
the
following
corrections
:"
(a)
A
practically negligible1/18,000
to
the
platinum
gramme-
fractions
probably
used.
(b)
The bulb shrinks when
evacuated,
owing
to the then
unbalanced
atmospheric
pressure.
This small
shrinkage can
be
found when the volume is
being
measured
by weighing
full of
water
;
when connected
up
for
a
moment to
a vacuum
vessel
a
little of the water
will be sucked
out,
and the bulb is
weighed
again,
when
grammes
lost
= shrinkage.
Then
shrinkage x
-0012
must be added
to
the
apparent weight
of
gas,
and
true
weight
-i-fullvolume of bulb
= density.
Actual
weighing
in
vacuo
is
a long
and
costly
business.
112
A HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS
EXAMPLES." CHAPTER XIV
1. Describe the
use
of the electric
chronograph
for
measuring
short
intervals of time.
[D.]
2. Describe the
requisites
of a good
balance. Prove that true
weight
=
geometrical
mean [or
for all
practical
purposes
the arithmetic
mean]
of the
apparent
weights
in the two
pans,
and show that ratio
of
arms =
square
root of ratio of
apparent
weights. [M.]
3. Describe
an
accurate balance and
explain
the
principle
of the
rider and divided beam.
[L.]
4. A balance with 10
gr.
in each
pan
rests several divisions out of
centre. How would
you
find whether this is due to defects of balance
or inaccuracy
of
weights
?
[L.]
5.
Against
brass
weights
in air
a
litre
flask,
of
glass
sp. gr.
2-4,
weighs
150
grm.
Find its true
weight
in
vacuo.
From
" 123, w= 150(1 -1/7000 + -0012/2-4)
= 150(1 + -00036) =
150-054.
6. The flask is then filled with
liquid
and
appears
to
weigh
950
grm.
Find true
weight
of
liquid.
7. A
100-grm. weight
of
rock-crystal
is
being
tested
against a 100-grm.
of
platinum.
What allowance should be made for air
buoyancy,
if the
quartz
has been found to
weigh
about 62
grm.
in water and
the
platinum
95-6
grm.
?
NOTE. "
Approximately,
when
a
and b
are
small
6) =N(l"a+6)
N(l"o") =N(l+wia)
~
=N(l"o/m)
These
simple
results of the binomial theorem
are
often
very
handy.
HEAT
CHAPTER XV
THE EXPANSION CAUSED BY HEAT
"
125. That most familiar of scientific
instruments,
the
Thermometer, measures
the
temperature
or
the hotness of its
immediate
surroundings.
The
primitive utterly
cold substance
being
unattainable,
its scales of
degrees
have been made to start
from
points
at
which it stands when surrounded
by some arbitrary
cold
substance, just as our chronology
starts from
a zero com- paratively
recent in time. The scale
we
shall
mostly use starts
from
zero
in
freezing
water and reads 100
degrees
in
(ideal)
boiling
water
;
it is hence the
'
Centigrade
'
scale
;
it is
preferred
in
physics as minimizing
numerical
complications.
As the
common
thermometer
depends on expansion (of a
liquid past
a scale) we
had better
study
the
expansion
of sub- stances
in
general,
caused
by
heat,
before
dealing
with
thermometry.
For the
present, temperatures
will be
supposed
measured with
a
bought centigrade
thermometer of certified
accuracy.
For true
measurements it will be
wholly
immersed in
quickly circulating
fluid.
"
126. The
Expansion caused
by heating things.
Illustrations
of this abound
on
every
hand,
though
the
expansion
is
too small
to be
directly
visible
except
on long lengths,
for the
great swelling
of
a
red-hot
poker or
of
a lamp
filament is
an optical
illusion
due to local
dazzling
of the
eye.
We
warm
the neck of
a
bottle
to
ease
out
a
stuck
stopper. Telegraph
wires
sag
noticeably more
in
summer.
On
a
hot
day
the 'distant
signal,'pulled
down
through
1000
yards
of
wire,
only languidly
indicates
a
clear line.
The rods
to
distant
'
points,'
where
half-way
motion cannot
be
tolerated,
have
to be contrived
so
that half their
length pulls
and half
pushes.
The
gaps
at the ends of rails
visibly
close
up,
and
very
exceptionally more
than do
so
; quiterecently
I have
8 113
114 A HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS
known the traffic
delayed
while
fiftyyards
of line
was
being
persuaded
to
lie down flat
again.
Conversely,
the reduction of
temperature
is
accompaniedby
contraction. The tire
grips
the cart-wheel
tightly
when
quenched
from the blacksmith's
bucket,
cranks
are
sometimes shrunk
on to shafts,
and
formerlyjackets
of
great
guns
on
to the inner
barrels,over
which
theyjustslipped
when hot.
Liquid expansion
is instanced
by
the thermometer itself
or
by
the
overflowing
of
a
saucepan,
quite
full of cold
water, long
before it boils. Smoke
rises,
for its Gases have
expanded
till
they
are
less dense than the cold air
around,
and solid
sparks
are
borne
upward by
the little invisible 'balloons' of hot air
which
they
themselves
produce.
"
127. Forces involved in thermal
expansion.
All substances
yield
to force and the
stretching
of
a
brass
wire,
say,
due to
a
pull
may
be
compared
in the
laboratory
with
that due to
heating.
Small as
the latter
is,
it will be found to
equal
that
producedby
very
large
forces. Bed-hot rivets hammered
up
tight
draw the
platestogether
with
a
pressure
of
many
tons as
they
cool. If
the
engineer
cannot allow for free
expansion
in his
structures "
6 in. is allowed in the Forth
bridge
" he must
design
them to meet
heavy
stresses. Tram rails
are
bolted
up
tight
and
prevented
by weight
of
surrounding
road metal from the
lifting
that
ex- pansion
would otherwise
cause
; they
are
in
a state of
com- pression
on a
hot
day
and of tension
on a
frosty
one.
The
Assouan dam endures stresses from
temperature
not less
severe
than those from the
weight
of water. Glass
ware
has
to,be cooled
slowly(annealed)
or
else it
may
contain strains that
are
released
in
explosivebreakagefollowing
some
trifling
blow.
Anyone
who
has overheated
a
thermometer need not be reminded of the
pres- sures
that arise in
liquids
when their thermal
expansion
is
impeded.
"
128.
The expansion
of solids." The
expansion
of solid rods
can
be
quickly
measured with the
apparatus
of
Fig.
60. The rod
is
geometrically gripped
at
one
end and the other flat end
presses
on
the
springpoint
of
an
ordinaryoptician's spherometerclamped
on
the framework. In
this,
by
the
multiplying
gear
described
in the aneroid
("74)
the motion of the end of the rod is
magnified
about 200
times,one
dial division
corresponding
to -001
cm.
The
rod is 50
cm.
long.
Ice-cold water is
run
through
a
jacket
corked
on
the rod and in
a
minute
or
two the dial reads
steadily.
The water is
run
out
116 A HANDBOOK
Linear
Expansibility
per
OF PHYSICS
Fused silica
.
'
Invar
'
steel
Platinum
. . .
Steel
Iron
.
C.,
in
parts
per
million.
Copper
17 Pine
(along grain)
5'5
Brass 18-5
"
(across)
34
Aluminium
...
23 Glass
8-5
Lead 29 Hard rubber
70 d
Zinc 29 Paraffin
wax 120
J
Per
"F. the
expansibilities
are ten-eighteenths
of the above.
At
very hightemperatures
a
increases
considerably.
M
ST 0"
ST 0"
FIG. 61. Scale
TV
To calculate the
expansion
of
a
length
of material
then, we
must
multiply
its
a
by
the
length
and
by
the rise of
temperature,
e.g.
a
lengthL0
in ice
at
0" C.
expandsL0 X ax 100",
i.e.increases
in total
length
to
L0+ L0X"X
100" when
put
into
boiling
water.
L0
at 0" becomes
L0+L0aT
at T"
and L
at t" becomes
L+La(T" t)
at
T"
EXPANSION CAUSED BY HEAT 117
"
129
:
Exact measurement of linear
expansion.
The Com- parator.
Very
exact measurements
of linear
expansion
are
nowadays
made with the
comparator
sketched in
Fig.
61, a
machine used
in the
comparison
of
measuring
bars,
which of
course
involves
knowledge
of their
expansions.
Two tool rests R B/
'
universally
'
adjustable
on a
massive
lathe bed B
carry
vertical cross-wire
microscopes
MM'
("114)
which
can
be moved
by
micrometer
screws
S S'
graduated
to
"00005
cm.,
or
less. B
bridges
a
short
railway
on
which
runs a
truck
carrying
two
troughs,containing
narrower
oil
troughs,
U U'. U contains
a
bar with the standard
lengths
marked
on
it
and is
packed
round with
melting
ice,
U' contains the
graduated
bar under test and is surrounded
by circulating
water automati- cally
kept
to
any
desired
temperature
within -05".
In
use,
R R/
are
clamped
at convenient
places
on B,
M M'
are
focussed
on
the standard bar and moved
by
S S' tilltheir
cross-
wires lie
on
the centre of the
graduations
scratched
on
it. S S'
now
show
readings
z
z'
.
The truck is moved
by turning
the handwheel tillthe test bar
liesunder the
microscopes.
It is
adjusted
to their focus. S S'
are
turned tillthe
cross-
wires lie
on
the test-bar
graduations
and
now
read
x
x'
.
Thermometers in the oil
alongside
the bar show the
temperature
t".
The truck is moved back under the
bridge
and
z
z'
repeated.
If B has
expanded they
will not
exactlyrepeat,
in which
case
the
means
of the before and after
are
taken. Then the test bar
at t" exceeds the standard
at 0"
by (z
"
x)
"
(z'
"
x'},
the difference
of two
very
small distances
on
the micrometers which both
read from left to
right.
The test bar is
now
raised to T"
(occupying
several
hours)
and the measurements
repeated,giving
z^ z^
for the standard
in ice and
y
y'
for the bar. Then the test bar at T" exceeds the
standard atO"
by (z1
"
y)
"
(z^
"
y')
and the difference of this and
the former
excess
gives
the
expansion,
which is dealt with
as
before.
Thus, by referring
every
time
to the invariable standard bar
the
necessity
of
keeping
the whole machine
perfectly unchanged
is avoided.
PINE WOOD STEEL
ZINC TUBE
"
ooooZO
OUTER
STEELTUBE
STEEL
LEAD
"oooo3o
INVAR
oooooofl
MODERN COMPENSATED PENDULUMS
CHRONOMETE
/Compensating metals
in
black]
FIG. 62.
EXPANSION CAUSED BY HEAT 119
"
130.
Compensation
contrivances.
Fig.
62
shows various
devices in
which,
by takingadvantage
of the different
expansi- bilities
of different
materials,an
unvaryinglength
is obtained.
On the
right
is
a MEASURING BAR
like those used in
measuring
the
base-line for the
trigonometrical
survey
of this
country.
The
reader will
see
easily
how the brass
expanding
faster
pushes
out itsend of the
pin-jointed
lever
more
than the iron
does,
with
the
result that the cross-wire
microscopes
(becoming
the vertices
of
pairs
of similar
triangles)
do not
move
at all.
In
PENDULUMS
the
problem
is to
prevent
the centre
of
mass
(practically) being
lowered when the rod
expands,
which would
make the clock lose. The
expansionupwards
of
(the
lower half
of)
a
long
lead
or
mercury
bob raises the centre
of
mass as
much
as
the wooden
or
steel rod lowers the bottom of the
bob,
which
bears
on
the nut at the end of the rod. In the modern
repre- sentative
of the old
'
gridiron
'
pendulum,
a
zinc tube rests on
the nut and
expands
up
as
much as
the inner steel rod and outer
steel tube
(hanging
from its
top) expand
down,
and the bob
is unmoved. With
'
Invar
'
steel
a
very
short zinc tube suffices.
In
a COMPOUND BAR two thin
strips
of different
expansibilities
are
securely
soldered
togetherthroughout
their
lengths.
When
heated the bar of
course
has to bend
more
and
more
with the
highlyexpansiblestrip
on
the outer
longer
curve.
By
this
means
the
masses on
the
BALANCE WHEEL
of a
chronom- eter
or
'
compensated
'
watch are
brought
in
nearer
the
centre,
in
warmth. This reduces the
moment of inertiaand
compensates
for
the enfeebled
elasticity
of the balance
spring,
a
twenty
times
more serious hindrance to
time-keeping
than the
mere
expansion
of
an iron wheel
or
pendulum. [Those
who
expect
a
few
milligrams
of oil to last
a
watch for
ever
need not be
surprised
to find it
losing
when
cold.]
See also
"
118.
The
FeryPyrometer
is turned towards
a
small hole in
a
furnace-
wall and the heat of the furnace is focussed
by
a concave
mirror
on
to a diminutive
compound spiral,
which curls and
moves a
long
pointer
attached to its free end over a
scale of furnace tem- peratures.
Example
1. A half-metre aluminium rod
expands
1-15 mm.
between
0" and 100". Find
a.
50
cm. become 50-115
cm.
L
" "
L
+
L.a.lOO"
/.
5000 a=-115.
/. a=
-000023.
120
A HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS
Ex. 2. A steel foot-rule
is
correct at 15". What correction will be
necessary
in
boiling
water ?
12 in. at 15" becomes
12+12 x
-000011
x
(100- 15)
= 12-0112 in.
.'.
the rule is
-{JV
in. too
long.
Ex. 3.
What
length
of lead bob
compensates
a
pendulum
made of
44 in. of
pine
and
a
2-in.
suspending spring
?
Centre of lead must remain
nearly fixed,
i.e. its lower half
expands
as
much
as
the wood and
steel,
i.e.
2
x
-00001 1
+
44
x
-0000055 = -000264 in.
per degree.
.'.
half
length
x
-000029 = -000264.
.-.
length=18
in.
Ex. 4. A tram rail 40 ft.
long
is heated. Its normal
expansibility
is
-000007,
but
expansion
is
prevented by
the
end-pressure
of
adjoining
rails. Find the increase in this
pressure
between 40" F. and 90"
F.,
given
that 16 tons shortens the rail
TV
in.
[L.]
Free rail would
expand
40 X
-000007
x 50"
X
12
=
-168 in.
If 16 tons shortens it
TV
in.,
what force would shorten it -168 in. ?
"
131.
Expansion
of an
area, Fig.
63
(A).
If
a
square
of side 1
expand
to
a
square
of side
1-j-ot
its
area
increases from I2 to
(l+a")2=i+2a"+a2"2.
Now
at
is small
(less
than
-01)
therefore
a2t2
(is
less than -0001
and)
is
insignificant compared
with 2a".
Therefore the
area
of the
square
increases twice
as
fast
as
the
length
of its side
;
any
area can
be built
up
of
little
squares
;
the areal
expansibility
is twice the
linear
expansibility.
"
132.
Expansion
of a
volume, Fig.
63
(V).
If
a
FJG 63
cube of
edge
1
expand
to
a
cube of
edge \-\-at
its
bulk increases from I3 to
(l+^)3=l+3^4-3a2^2-j-a3i3.
As
before a2t2 and
a
fortioria3"3
are
insignificant compared
with
at.
Therefore the volume of the cube increases 3 times
as
fast
as
the
length
of its
edge;
the volume
or
cubical expansibility
is
three times the linear.
NOTE that the internal volume of
a
hollow vessel has the
same
volume
expansibility
as
the material of the walls. For it
might
be filled with
a
solid
mass
of their material which would then
expand
with them and
alwaysexactly
fillthe
cavity.
"
133.
Expansion
of liquids.
The
expansion
of fluids is of
course
volume
expansion.
Taking
that
quantity
of
liquid
which
occupied
1
c.c.
at 0"
C.,
its
expansion
in c.c. when heated 1" is its
expansibility,
E.
EXPANSION CAUSED BY HEAT 121
Or The
expansibility
or
coefficientof thermal
expansion
of
a
liquid
is its increase in volume when heated 1"
expressed
as a
fraction of its volume at 0" C.
Notice
carefully
that it
now
has to be
specified
at what tem- perature
the
original
volume is measured. This is because
liquids
expand
so
much
more
than
solids,
e.g.
1
c.c.
alcohol at 0" becomes
1-015 c.c.
at 15" and if
only
1
c.c.
at 15"
were
taken E would
work out
1J %
too small.
As in
"
128,
V0
at 0" becomes
V0+V0ET
at T",
But
now
V at t" does not
become
V+VE(T-")
at
T",
It has to be dealt with in two
steps
:
"
(1)
V at
t"=V0-fV0EJ=V0(1+EO,
from this calculate what its
volume
V0
at
zero
would be
;
then
(2)
as
above.
The
expansibilities
of most
liquids
increase rather fast
at
higher
temperatures
and E
usuallygiven
is
only
an
average
value
over
some
ordinary
range
of
temperature (whichought
to be
specified).
"
134.
*
Apparent
'
Expansion.
The vessel
containing
a
liquid
complicates
measurements
by expanding
and
leaving
more
room
for the
contents.
[If
a
flask filledwith water to somewhere
in its
long
narrow
neck be
suddenlyplunged
into hot water the
liquid
in the neck
goes
down for
an instant,
the
glass
has
got
heated
first.]
The
apparent expansibility
e
of
a
fluid
in
glass
is
therefore
less than its
true or
absolute
expansibility
E.
Three
ways
of
finding
the
former,
which
concerns us
most in
practice,
will be
given,
and
subsequently
means
of
calculating
and
experimentally measuring
the
latter.
Measurement of net
or
'
apparent
'
expansibility
in
glassvessels.
I. The Volume Dilatometer. This is
practically
a
big
thermometer
containing
the
liquid.(A)
in
Fig.
64 is
neat,
but difficultto filland
empty, (B)
is
a
half-hour's exercise for the amateur
glass-blower
and is
more
easy
to
manage.
A
glass
bead in
the bulb
helps
to stir
up
its contents and
spread
a uniform
temperature.
Before
use
the dilatometer
must be
calibrated,
i.e.
the volume of its various
parts
found. It is
cleaned,rinsed,
and dried
by
a
current of
warm
air. The bent
end is
dipped
under
mercury
which is sucked in till full. It
is
now
left for
an
hour in the balance
case to take
up
a
steady
122 A HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS
temperature,
then the
amounts of
mercury
run
out
as
it is
emptied
mark
by
mark
are
weighed.
The
weights
are
propor- tional
to the volumes between
marks,
and the last
one
to the
volume of
bulb,
etc.,
up
to zero
mark.
The ice-cold
liquid
is
now
drawn in
near to the
zero
and the
fine-drawn end sealed
by touching
with
a
flame. Dilatometer
and thermometer
are
deeply
immersed in
a
well-stirred water
bath,
very
slowly
heated,
and the
temperatures
taken at
which
the
liquid
passes
each mark. This is
repeatedduring
slow
cooling
and
mean
temperatures
obtained.
Ex. 5. A dilatometer
weighs
12-50
grm. empty.
Filled with
mercury
at the
ordinary temperature
to the
zero
mark it
weighs
243
grm.,
to the 1 mark
244-2,
to the 2 mark 245-6. When
containing a
liquid,
this reaches 0 mark at
4",
1 at 14",
and 2 at 25". Calculate its
expansibilities
between these
ranges
of
temperature.
From net
weights
of
mercury
Vol. bulb to 0
:
vol. 0 to 1
:
vol. 1 to 2
= 230-5 :
1-2
:
1-4
For first rise of 10" vol. 230-5
expands
230-5
xex
10"= 1-2
.*. e
from 4" to
14"= -000522
For second rise of 11" vol. 230-5
expands
230-5 Xe'x 11"= 1-4
.'.
e' from 14" to 25"
= '000553
The difference in bulk at 0" and 4" has been
ignored,
as
it
only
alters
the 230-5
a
very
little,
and does not
come
directly
into
account.
II. The
weight or overflowing
dilatometer. This is neither
more nor
less than
a
specific-gravity
bottle,
"
81. Its
weight
empty (orcontaining
a
few bits of
glass
to act
as stirrers)
is b.
It is stood in
ice,
filled with ice-cold
liquid,wiped
with
a
cold
cloth,
and
weighed,b-\-w0.
It is warmed in
a
water bath and
kept
several minutes at
a
steady
t" till
no more exudes,
wiped
and
weighed(aftercooling), b^-wt.
This
may
be
repeated
at several
risingtemperatures.
wt
is the
weight
of
liquid
at t"
filling
the bottle of volume
v,
which
w0
filledat 0".
We
are
of
course
agreeing
to
neglect
the
changeof
v
with tem- perature.
.'.
volume of 1
grm.
at t" is
v/Wt
c.c.
;
at 0" is
v/w0
c.c.
.
1
/v v \
.'.
expansion
ot 1
grm. per
degree
is" c.c.
t
\ivt wj.
This is the
expansion
of volume
v/w0,
.'.
to
get expansion
of
what
was
1
c.c.
at 0" divide it
by v/w0
and
we
have
1Y
v v \ v
_
I
w0"wt
_
~t
\w~ w~0)~w~~~t
wt
124 A HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS
"
136. True
or
'
absolute
'
expansibilityexperimentally.
A Hare's
apparatus
of
balancing
columns is
used,
the
legs
being
filled with the
same
liquid,
cold and hot. As
explained
in
""
63 and
82,
this is
quiteindependent
of the sizes of the
tubes,
therefore the
swelling
of the hot
glass
does not affect it at all
(provided,
of
course,
that the scales
are
not
on
the tubes them- selves
;
this is
essential).
In the
apparatus
of
Fig.
65,
designed
as a
laboratory
illustration of
the
method,
two
lengths
of
glass
joined by
a
short
narrow
rubber tube form
a
U
tube,
kept
at 100"
on one
side
by
a
steam
jacket
and cooled
on
the other
by
ice water. The
glycerine
which at the start is
at the
same
level
on
both sides
finally
stands at 69-6 cm. on
the cold and 73-1 on
the hot.
Since each
represents
the
same
hydrostatic
pressure,
i.e.
the
same
weight
per square
centimetre
cross
- section of
tube, a
volume
equal
to the
69-6 at 0" has
expanded
3-5
for
100", or -035
per
degree.
Therefore 1 at 0
expands
per
degree
-035-f-69-6= -00053=E.
The absolute
expansibility
of
mercury
was
determined
by
FIG. 65. Scale
TV
Regnault
with
an
elaborate
form of this
apparatus,
but
an
excellent
plan
is
simply
to
'
boil the
barometer,'
utilizing
the
atmosphere
as
the cold
balancing
column. "
A
syphon
barometer of the
shape
shown in
Fig.
36
(S)
isenclosed
in
a
jacket(out
of which
only
the end of its
open
tube
protrudes)
and is
read,
at various
temperatures
of
circulating fluid,
by
a
cathetometer and scale
kept
at the constant room
temperature.
Any
small variation of the
atmospheric
pressure
during
the
experiment
must be observed
on
the
laboratory
barometer and
allowed
for,
and there must be added to the
height
at each
temperature
the small
depression
due to the
increasing
pressure
EXPANSION CAUSED BY HEAT
125
of
mercury vapour
in the Torricellian
space
(-03
cm.
at
100",
1-83
at
200", etc.,see
" 209).
Beside the barometer is the
long
bulb of
a
gas
thermometer.
Here
are
two
substances,
mercury
and
air,
expanding,
as
well
as
the
mercury-in-glass
thermometer. In the next
chapter
we
shall
find
reason
for
setting
aside the latter and
taking
a
gas
as
the
standard thermometric substance.
NOTE. "
There is
no
need to
measure
the absolute
expansibility
of
any
other
liquidby
this
method,
for E of
mercury
once
known
a
glass
dilatometer
can
be filled with it and
g
of the
glass
=E"e,
the observed
falling-ofE
in
expansibility.
Then
g
is added
on
to
other
liquids
examined in the
same
dilatometer.
Ex. 8.
Mercury
fills
a
glass cylinder
to a depth
of 20
cm.
at 0".
At what true
height
will it stand
at 60" ?
Let
area
of cross-section of
jar
at 0" be A
sq.
cm.
;
at 60" this becomes
A+
A
x (2 x -0000085) x
60= 1-00102A cm.2.
The bulk of
mercury
is 20A
c.c. at 0" and
at 60" this becomes
20A+20A x
-000182
x
60
=
20-2184A cm.3.
.*. Height
= volume
-f-
cross-section = 20- 2 1 84 A
-f-
1 " 00 1 02 A.
=
20-198
cm.
Ex. 9. If in the above the scale
were
etched
on
the
glass
what would
be the
reading
at 60" ?
The volume
up
to an
etched mark
now expands
with the cubical
coeff. 3
x
-0000085
"g.
All
we
need do is to subtract this and
get
apparent
e
of
mercury
= -000
156,
which
assumes
the
glass
invariable.
/. Reading
= 20
+
20
x
-000156
x
60 = 20-187
on
the
glass
scale.
Ex. 10. The Barometric Column stands al 76
cm. at
0",
what will
be its true
height
at 25" ?
The
problem
is
to
keep
the
hydrostatic
pressure,
i.e. the
weight
of
a
square
centimetre
column,
the
same.
The
expansion
of the
glass
has
nothing
to do with it.
1
c.c.
of
mercury
at 0" becomes 1
+
1
x
-000182
x
25 = 1*00455
c.c.
at 25".
/.
1
c.c. at 25"
weighs only 1/1-00455
of the
c.c. at 0",
and
.*.
1-00455
times
as
many
c.c.
must be
piled
up
on
the 1
sq.
cm.
base.
/.
True
height
= 76
x
1-00455 = 76-346
cm.
Ex. 11. In Ex. 10 if the scale
were
etched
on
the
glass
what would
be the
reading
?
The true
height
has
now to be measured
on a
false scale
on
which
each
centimetre has become
(1
+
1
x
-0000085
x
25) cm. = 1-00021
cm.
long.
.'.
apparent height
= 76-346
-f-
1-00021 = 76-330.
"
137.
Temperature correction of barometer.
In these last two
examples
the barometer
reading
76-330 is
126 A HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS
i.e.in
correcting
the barometer
we
have used the absolute
ex- pansibility
of
mercury
minus the linear
expansibility
of the
scale.
(The sidewaysswelling
of the tube does not
come
into
account.)
Ex. 12. A barometer reads
on
its brass scale 76-50
cm.
at
16",
what is the
reading
at 0" ?
This will be the
true
height,
since the brass metre scale is
correct at 0"
H0
at 0" becomes
H0 + H0(-000182- -000018)
x
16" = 76-50 at 16".
.'.inverting
this calculation
H0
=
76-50-^(1+
-000164 x
16")
=
76-50(1
" 000164
x 16")nearly
=
76-30
cm.
This shows the Practical Rule for
reducing
the
height
of the
barometer to its true value at 0 C. From the observed
height
subtract observed
height X
('000182
- linear
expansibility
of
scale)x temperature.
Ex. 13. The British barometer scale needs
a
tedious correction.
Find the true
height
at 32" F. of
a barometer
reading,
at 70",
30-124 in.
on a
brass scale correct at 62" F.
(Expn.
F. =
""
of their C.
values.)
True
length
of scale at 70" =
30-124(1+
-000010
x 8")
= 30-127 in.
/.
True
height
at 32" = 30-127 " 30-127
x
(-000010"0) x (70-32)
= 30-127 " -114 = 30-013 in.
"138.
Water.
Water
expands increasingly
faster
at
high temperatures
and
contracts
increasingly
slower at
low, as
do most
liquids,
but it
gradually
ceases
to
change
at
all,
and thereafter
begins
to
expand
on
the
way
down to its
freezingpoint.
Thus there is
a
temperature
at which its volume is
least,
and therefore its
density
a
maximum. This is 4" C.
or
39-1" F. Altered either
way
it
very
slowlyexpands
:
it is because the
change
for 1" is
hardly
measurable that this
temperature
is taken in
denning
the
gramme.
Conversely,
the slow
change
makes it difficultto find
the maximum-
densitytemperature accurately.
Joule used
an
apparatus
of wide
balancing
columns 6 ft.
high,
and instead of
attempting
to observe difference in level he
opened
a
cross-channel at the
top
and watched which
way
a
floating
bulb drifted
(i.e.
towards the denser column down which
the water
sank). Arguing
that at
equal
distances either side of
the maximum the water would be
equallylightened,
he found that
with
one
column at
2" and the other at
6",
the bulb did not
move,
and the
mean
of all such
pairs
of
temperatures
was
4".
In
glass
dilatometers,or
with the
very
sensitive
hydrometers
employed
to
study
the
question,
the
apparent
maximum
density
is reached at
6",
the water not
catching
up
to the
expansibility
of
the
glass
till2" above the
resting-place.
EXPANSION CAUSED BY HEAT 127
This
idiosyncrasy
of water has
an
effect in
nature
which
can
be illustrated
by
a
tall
jar
of water arid
floating
ice,
with
a
thermometer
dropped
to the bottom and another held near
the
top.
Both
run down,
but the bottom
one
slows
up
and
stops
near
4" while the
top
continues to
0",
the water
gettinglighter.
When the ice is fished out the
top
risesto 4" before the bottom
begins,
for
although
the
surrounding
air
warms
all
parts
of the
jar,yet
as
long
as
there is
water at 4"
anywhere
it sinks to the
bottom. Provided with
a waist-band for ice this
jar
is called
Hope'sapparatus,
but this is
an undesirable elaboration.
In
consequence,
fresh-water fish
can
luxuriate in 4" C.
a
foot
below the
ice-shield,
while fish in the salt marsh must endure
" 1-9"
C.,
for sea water then
begins
to
freeze,
before
having
reached its maximum
density("3-2" C.).
"
139.
Expansion of
gases.
In
finding
the thermal
expan- sibility
of
a
gas
care
has to be taken not to
permit
elastic
expansion
on account
of
diminution of
pressure.
The definitions
in
"
133,
with the words
*
at
con-
stant
pressure
'
inserted,
apply
to
gases.
In
a
simpleapparatus
the
gas
partly
fills
a
horizontal
graduated
capillary
tube,
Fig.66, being
shut
in between its sealed end and
a
^-^f
-"~s
^\\^:^
thread of coloured
sulphuric
acid.
fY
jft
The volume of the
gas
is
proper-
j, 66
tional
to the
length
it
occupies
in
the uniform tube. The tube is raised from ice to T",
the
trifling
rise of the acid in the wide
turned-up
end does not
appreciably
add to the
pressure,
and
provided
the
whole,
i.e.the
barometric,
pressure
has
not
altered,
V;=V0-f-V0eT,
and
e
is
so
large
that
of the
glass
can
be
ignored
in this
apparatus.
Experimenting
in this
way
Gay
Lussac and Charles found that
all
gases
expand equally,
and what is
commonly
known
as
the
Law of Charles states that
All
gases
expand
^
l
-g-
of their volume
at 0" C. for each
degree
rise of
temperature,
the
pressure being
constant. The
gases
must not be too near
their
liquefying
tem- peratures
and of
course no
chemical
changes (e.g.N204
into
2N02)
are
allowable.
"
140
:
SubsequentlyRegnault,
and
Chappuis,
have used
apparatus
of which
an
efficient
laboratory
copy
is shown in
Fig.
67.
128 A HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS
A
gas
bulb under well-stirred water communicates with
one
limb of
a
U tube
graduated
in cubic centimetres. The other limb
is
open
and oil is
kept
to the
same
level in both
by
aid of the
tap
and
'
wash-bottle
'
below. The
graduated
tube is surrounded
by
a
wider tube
of water.
The bulb has had its volume V
measured
by weighing
full of
water,
it
has then been dried
by repeated
pump- ing
out, heating,
and readmission of
the
gas
through drying
tubes. If
^
s
xx
there is moisture
present
it will
liquefy
yy
at low
temperatures
and
evaporate
at
[1
high,
and
as an
ordinarydrop
of
water would
completelyfill
a
150
c.c.
bulb with steam the need for careful
drying
is obvious.
The
connecting
tube
gets
heated to
an
uncertain
average
temperature,
therefore it is made of small bore
so
that the
expansion
of the little
gas
it
holds
can
be
ignored.
Its volume
-f-
the few cubic centimetres of
gas
initially
in
graduated
tube at t"=
iv.
It
simplifies
matters
greatly
to start
all at the
room
temperature
t". Now
heat bulb to T and
running
out oiltill
again
at
same
level*
on
both sides
v c.c.
of
kept
at t
Gas that filled
(V+w)
at t"
now
fillsV at T
Subtract
(w-^-v)
at t" from
both,
/.
gas
that filled
(V" v)
at t"
now
fillsV at T"
.*.
its
expansion
per
degree=v^r(T"t).
This would also
its contraction
per
degree
if cooled.
/.
its volume at
0" would be
(V" v)" t"Xv-^(T" t).
are
found driven out into the
graduated
tube
and
(w+v)
at t".
be
_expn.
per
=
vol. at 0"
=V"
v"
v/(T"t)
"
v)(T" t)"
*
If the barometer had
changed we
should
compensate
it here
by
raising
the outer
oil level
(13'6-fsp.
gr.
of
oil)
times the barometric fall.
EXPANSION CAUSED BY HEAT
129
To allow
forexpansionofglassof
bulb write
V-j-V0(T"t)
at T"
instead of V at
T",
the
expansion
per
1" becomes
v-f-(T"")-fVg,
the volume at 0" becomes
(V"v}"tx expansion
,
V
f"+Vy(T-Q
-(V-^T-O-rt-VrfT-O
In the above it should be noted that the
expansions
per
degree
are not
equalif
drawn
off
and cooled
before
measurement. This
is
a
drawback to the
use
of this instrument
as
the
constant-
pressure gas
thermometer, equal
rises of
temperature
do
not
show
equally
in the tube. At 1400"
e.g.
a
Victor
Meyer bulb,
which the chemist will
see
is
practically
the
same
apparatus,
has
poured
five-sixths of its contained air into the tube and has
lost
35/36ths
of its
efficiency
as an indicator of furnace tem- perature.
EXAMPLES." CHAPTER XV
14.
Explain
how the coefficient of
expansion
of
a
solid
may
be
found
experimentally.
A metal
sphere
is found to have
a volume of
1000
c.c. at 0" C. and 1003
c.c. at 100" C. Calculate linear
expansibility.
PL]
15. Find
expansion per
1000
yd.
between 20" F. and 100" F. of
a
wire of
expansibility
-000012
per
"C.
16. A solid of linear
expansibility
-000015 contains
a 500
c.c.
cavity
in which is
a
200
c.c. body
of linear
expansibility
-00003. How much
does volume of
air-space
left
change
per
degree
?
[M.]
17. Find increase in volume of
a
glass
litre flask between 4" and 40" C.
18.
Why
does the rate of a
pendulum
clock
depend on
temperature,
and how can a
clock be constructed
so as to be unaffected ?
[M.]
19. A brass
pendulum
beats seconds
exactly
at
10",
if its linear
expansibility
is -000018 show that
at 25" it loses
11J
sec. a
day. [Ab.]
20. What
length
of zinc tube is
necessary
to
compensate
the
expan- sion
of
(its
own
length+42 in.)
of steel ?
21. What
depth
of
mercury
must there be in the
cast-iron bob of
a
pendulum so
that centre of
mass
of
mercury may
rise one-third faster
than 42 in. of iron
expand
and lower bottom of bob ?
[This
is to
allow for cast-iron bob itself
weighing one-
third
as
much
as
mercury.]
22. How much would
a 3-in. rivet shrink in
cooling
from 500" C. to
zero ?
23. The
heavy
iron rim of
a fly-wheel
is heated 100" hotter than the
spokes by
the friction of
a
testing
brake. WThat will be the
extra
130 A HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS
stress in
a
straight spoke
which
one
ton would
lengthen by 1
part
in
4000?
24. A
sp.-gr.
bottle
weighing 8-75
grm.
empty weighs
33-8
grm.
full of
liquid at 0" and 33-0 full at 40". Find
expansibility
of
liquid.
25.
Explain
how to find the coefficient of
expansion
of
a
liquid
by weighing
a
solid in it.
[L.]
26. Define coefficient of absolute
expansion
of
a liquid
and describe
how to find it.
[D.]
27. A barometer which stood at 75
cm.
at 0" stands at 76-33
cm.
(true)
in
steam at
100".
Adding
on
-03
cm.
for
vapour pressure
of
mercury,
calculate absolute
expansibility.
28. Describe the
temperature
corrections of the barometer.
[Ab.]
29.
Explain
how the
irregular expansion
of
water influences the
distribution of
temperature
in
a freezing pond. [L.]
30. Volume of bulb of air thermometer 41
c.c.,
stem "
sq. cm. area.
Between 0" and 10" index
moves
6
cm.
up
stem. Find
expansibility
of air.
31. 50
c.c.
of air at 15" C.
are expelled
from
a constant-pressure
air
thermometer
by changing
from 0"
to 100" C. Calculate
temperature
of
thermometer when 10
c.c. are expelled, neglecting expansion
of bulb.
[L.]
32.
Verify
the statement at the extreme
end of
"
140.
33. A small volume of
a
fluid, of
expansibility
a,
is at t'
;
rest of fluid
at t.
If
density
at Q"
=
d0
find resultant force
per
c.c. on
the
warmer
portion.
What forces tend
to diminish
resulting
motion ? [M.]
132 A HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS
"
142.
Altogether
our
protective
temperature-sense
is
not
to
be relied
upon
for the
unequivocal
measurements demanded
in
physics.
Actions in inanimate matter have
to be
employed.
Those
mostly
made
use
of are
"
(1)
Solidificationand its
converse, Melting,Boiling, "
142.
(2)
Colour
and other
changes
due
to chemical action.
(3)Magneticchange,"
517.
(4)Change
in
size,
expansion
or
contraction.
(5)Change
in resistance offered to
an
electric
current, "
620.
(6)Change
in
power
of
producing
an electric
current, "
645.
(7)Change
of colour and
brightness
of emitted
light,"
500.
(1)
Solidification.
Melting. Boiling.
Use of these
temperature
indications is familiar
enough.
There
is the consultation of the
puddles
in
winter,
whether
they
be water or
ice
:
there is the butter at tea-time
fatuously
in- forming
us
that the weather is
warm :
there is the
sprinkling
of
water on
the hot
flat-iron,
etc. etc.
Technically
there
are
sold 58
'
Seger
cones,'
little
conical
pastilles
of various
compositions
which melt at
temperatures
going
up
by
30"
steps
from 590" to 950" and thence
by
20"
steps
to 1850" C. These are
still
extensively
used in
controlling
kilns
and furnaces
;
three successive numbers
are
put
in
together,
the first must
collapse,
the second
may
nod,
the third
must
remain
upright.
(2,3)
Colour, chemical,
and
magnetic changes.
The colour
changes
due to
thickening
of the oxidation film
are
the most
usual
guide
in
tempering
steel.
Frequently, however,
the
sudden
ignition
of
a
heavy
oil is
a
temperature
mark in
the
process,
and
occasionally
small steel
objects
are
heated till
at
780" C.
they
lose their
magnetism
and
drop
off the
suspending
magnet
into the
quenching
water.
(4)
As
a measure
of
temperature occupies
the
rest of this
chapter(5,6,
and
7)
must
be left tillmuch later
on
in the book.
"
143.
(4)Expansion.
The
liquid-in-glass
thermometer.
Let
us now
apply
the work of the last
chapter
to the
liquid-in-
glass
thermometer which for
long
gave
the standard
measure
of
temperature.
Fillinga thermometer.
" The thermometer consists of
a
glass
'
stem
'
of fine and
very
uniform
bore,
with
a
suitably
sized and
shaped
'
bulb
'
at
one end,
and the
problem
is to fillthis
narrow-
THERMOMETRY 133
necked bottle. A
cup
to contain
some
of the
liquid
is formed at
the
top
of the stem
;
the bulb is
warmed,
air bubbles
out,
and
on
cooling
some
of the
liquid
draws down to
replace
it. This is
repeated
and
then, as we
know
perfectly
well that air will be
sticking
to the
glass
or
dissolved in the
liquid,
the bulb is
strongly
heated till its contents have
nearly
boiled
away,
the
vapour
'
washing
out
'
this air. As it condenses the warmed
liquid
descends and fillsthe whole. It is
now
heated
a
littleabove the
highesttemperature
it is destined to
measure,
and the
top
of
the stem below the
cup
is sealed off in the
blowpipe.
On
cooling
there is
onlyliquid
and its
vapour
inside,
but this
total absence of
permanent
gas
is
not essential. Most
common
thermometers retain
an accidental trace of
air,
and
high-
temperature
thermometers have their
stems
deliberately
filled
with
nitrogen
before
sealing.
Indeed, a
mercury
thermometer
with
a
broken
top
works
quite
well tilldirt
gets
in
or
mercury
spills out,
but
an alcohol
one would
dry
up.
Annealing
and
ageing.
The instrument is
now
baked for
a
day
at
its
highesttemperature.
This
annealinggets
rid of strains in
the
glass,
for
glassgraduallyyields
to stress even
when cold"
a
long
tube
resting
at the ends
sags year
by
year
" and this used to
show itselfin thermometers
as an
unsteady
crawl
upward
of the
readings
for
many years.
The
high
heat of
annealing
cuts
years
down to hours.
"
144. Scales of
temperature.
Fahrenheit of Amsterdam in
1720
apparently
took the
greatest
cold he
ever
reached
as zero
and the
temperature
of
a
healthy
man as
100,
but it
was
realized
that these
temperatures
were too uncertain,
and the Fixed Points
are now
the
temperature
of ice
melting,
and the
temperature
of steam from water
boiling
at the normal
atmospheric
pressure,
which maintains
76 cm.
of
mercury
in the barometer. On the
Fahrenheit scale these
are
32" and 212". On the scale invented
in France
by
Reaumur and
now
in
domestic
use
in
Germany they
are
0" and
80",on
Newton's thermometer
they
were
34"
apart,
De 1'Isleof St.
Petersburg
in 1733 fixed them at 150" and 0"
respectively
! On the
'
Centigrade
'
scale,
due
jointly
to Celsius
and his illustrious
fellow-countryman,
Linnaeus,
and now
mostly
used in scientific
work,
they
are 0" and 100".
"
145.
Graduating or testing thermometers, Fig.
68.
For the
freezingpoint
the thermometer is in
finely
broken ice
standing
nearly
full of the
pure
water of its
own
melting.
Solid
134 A HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS
ice without
water
may
be below its
meltingpoint
and
water
containing
dissolved salts lowers the
meltingpoint,"
273.
For the
boiling point
the whole thermometer must be in
a
current of
steam,
free from
spray,
and
gives
the
boilingpoint
of
the
'
distilled
'
water which forms in
a
film
on
its bulb. The
'
hypsometer
'
in the
figure
is
provided
with
an outer
sheltering
jacket
and has
a
little water
gauge
to indicate that the steam
TESTINGTHE
FIXED POINTS OF THERMOMETERS
FIG. (58.
pressure
is not
appreciably
above the
atmospheric(from
too much
fire and
a
choked
spout).
Beside it is the
BAROMETER.
Allowance has to be made that
(among ordinaryheights)
the
boilingpoint
goes up
or
down
with the barometer at the rate of 1" C. for
every
2-7
cm.
(roughly
an
inch)
above
or
below the normal 100" C. at 76 cm.
of
mercury,
THERMOMETRY 135
or
1" F. for -6 inch. A thermometer's
boilingpoint
cannot be
tested without
consulting
the barometer.
The interval between the marked
points
is
now
divided into
the
requisite
number of
equaldegrees.
These
are
intended
as
equal
volume-increases in the
tube,
but the intention fails
if the bore is not
equalthroughout.
This the maker tested
by
running
a
short thread of
mercury
through;
ifit
kept
the
same
lengththroughout
the bore
was uniform,
if it shortened the bore
was
bigger
thereabouts,
and
a most
tedious
process
of calibration
would be
necessary
to devise
a
scale which should
compensate
for this
irregularity.
But modern tubes
are
very
uniform,
and in
his best thermometers the maker avoids calibration
by testing
against
a
standard
(itself compared
with the
'
hydrogen
scale
')
at
several
temperatures
and if
necessary
compressing
or stretching
the scale in
parts
so as to fitall these
readings.
Testing
Thermometers.
In this
way
the National
PhysicalLaboratory
will test
your
thermometers at
a
shilling
a
point.
But
common
thermometers,
which would not
pay
for
this,
and
frequently
show
errors at
both ends
owing
to
inadequateannealing,
can
be
sufficiently
corrected
as
shown in
Fig.
68,
lower
part.
At each end of their
scale,on
squared
paper,
is set
up
or
down
the
plus
or
minus correction which has to be added
to
the
false
readings
to
get
true
temperatures,
e.g.
the thermometer shown
reads
" -5 in ice and the correction
-f-
-5 is therefore set
up
;
it
reads
high
in
steam and "-7 is set
up
(i.e.
-7
down).
Rule the
straight
line
FAB,
its
height
above
or
below the
horizontal scale at
any
readinggives
the correction to be added
(+)
to that
reading.
I have heard it
urged
that
you
are no
better
off,
for
perhaps
the maker's scale has incidental
errors
bigger
than
your
correc- tions.
To this
one
must
answer
that it is
very
probable
that the
true
correcting
line
may
resemble FOB
or
FDB rather than the
straight
FAB,
but that it is
as
far out
as
FEE is
most
improbable.
Let B be
a beehive and F
a
nature-studying
person.
No
single
bee
strictly
follows the bee-line
BAF,
but
they
swarm
along
tracks like BCF and
BDF,
while
not one
in
a
hundred will
go
by
E half round the
garden.
So in
a swarm
of thermometers
only
very
few will be far out in the middle after the ends
are
checked.
And
havingonly
two
points,
all
one can
do is to draw
a
straight
line between them and be content that the odds
are
quite
20 to 1
that this correction isbetter than
none.
136 A HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS
"
146.
Change
of
zero
alter
heating.
That
by
no means
ideal
solid,
glass,
does not
immediately
shrink to its
proper
size after
being
heated for
some
time. The result is that the bulb remains
larger
and the thermometer reads
perhaps
half
a
degree
too low
near
the lower end of its scale
(e.g.
in
ice)
for several hours. This
disappears
in
a
day
with well-annealed
glass,
but is
an
annoyance.
Thermometers
are now
obtainable which have sealed inside their
bulbs
a rod,
of suitable
size,
of
a
variety
of
glass
in which this
lag
is
very
pronounced
and
compensates
the undue bulk of the
bulb, so
that the annular
space
occupiedby
the
mercury
is made
free of this
error.
For
common
use,
clinical
purposes,
etc.,
where thermometers
are never
taken
anywhere
near
boiling,
this
error
need
never
be feared.
"
147. Choice of thermometric substance. The earliest ther- mometer
appears
to have been
a
long-necked
flask of air inverted
and
dipping
in
water,
which stood
some
way up
the neck and fell
as
the
temperature
rose.
Several other air thermometers
followed,
all of them liable to
great
error
due to barometric
changes(""101, 139,
etc.).
The Florentine Academicians used
spirits
of wine and sealed
the tube.
Alcohol is stillin
common use
;
it
expands
a
lot
and,
tinted with
dye, gives
a
large
bold column
;
it
runs
quickly
and
never
freezes
(f.
pt."
150"
C.).
Per
contra,
it is
a
bad conductor of
heat,
and
a
big
bulb of it
heats
slowly;
it boils at 78" C.
(175"F.),
and worst of
all,
it
begins
to distil
long
before
this,so
that it is not unusual to find
a
few
degrees
of it
snugly
hidden at the
top
of the stem
(colourless
perhaps)
and the thermometer
reading
too low
by
that much.
As it cannot be carried to the
upper
fixed
point,
and
as
its
expansibility
increases at
highertemperatures,
its thermometers
have to be
graduatedby comparison
with
a
mercury
standard,
and their bold
plainreading
then makes them
preferable
for
domestic
use.
Linseed
oil,
sulphuric
acid,
etc.,
have been used to
get
a
longer
range
of
temperature,
but
are
too viscous and
hang
about
on
the
tube.
Water of
course
is
hopeless
on
several accounts.
Mercury,
which Fahrenheit
brought
into
use,
freezes
only
in
Arctic winter
("40")
and does not
boil till360"
C.,
having
there-
L
f^
THERMOMETRY 137
"e a
long
range
in which its
expansion
is
reasonably
assumed
to be
steady.
It
runs easily
and leaves
nothing
on
the
glass.
It heats
quickly, being
a
good
conductor and
having
small heat
capacity("155).
Its
expansion
is
small,permittingonly
a
slender
thread,
but this is
perfectly
opaque.
It does not distil
much below 300".
In thermometers
for
use
above this the
tube must be
'
packed
'
with
nitrogen,
which,
compressedby
the
expanding
mercury,
practically prevents
its
vaporization.
Nitrogen-packed
thermometers of fused silica
are
sold for
use
up
to 750"
C.,
when the
nitrogen
reaches 60
atmospheres.
"
148. Forms of thermometers.
For domestic
use a
wooden
scale,firmly
attached without
possibility
of
slip, gives
a
bold
reading.
All-glass
instruments are
washable and non-corrodible.
An
outer
protecting
tube
enclosing
the
paper
scale
giveslegibility
and
cheapness;
for
scorching
heat
paper
is
supersededby
a
slip
of
opalglass.
But a
scale etched
on
the thick stem itselfis the
only
sort sure
not to
come
adrift. Avoid
parallax
in
reading
it
(Fig.68),
and
keep
a
penny
tube of oil-blackfor
refilling
the marks.
Maximum
Six's
mm.
" m
FIG. 69.
Registeringthermometers are
often useful.
In
a
pattern
ascribed to Rutherford
(Fig.69,top)
the
mercury
pushes
a littleblack
glasspinalong
the horizontal
tube,
leaving
138 A HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS
it with
its
near
end at the
highestpoint
reached
;
while in
a
companion
alcohol thermometer the
spiritdrags
a
submerged
pin
down and leaves its head at the lowest
point
reached. These
are reset
dailyby tilting
them.
The instrument invented
by
Mr. Six in 1782 is
an
alcohol
thermometer with
a
long
thread of
mercury
shutting
in the
spirit.
Beyond
is
more
alcohol and at the end
a
bulb
containing
an
air
and
vapour space.
The
mercury
hardly
alters in
length,
but acts
as a
flexible
piston,
forced
out
by
the
expanding
alcohol
or
driven
back after it
by
the air
pressure
in the
subsidiary
bulb,
pushing
either
way
little iron
pins
and
leaving
them at the
highest
and
lowest
points
reached.
Tiny wisps
of elastic wire
keep
them stuck
there till
dragged
back
dailyby
the observer's
magnet.
The
doubled-up
vertical form
given
to this instrument in
practice
is
purely
a
question
of
compactness,
and the reader
may
find its
action easier
to understand if he redraws the
figure
with the
tube
straightened
out.
In
a
Clinical Thermometer there is
a
very
minute constriction
between bulb and stem. The
mercury
is
squeezedpast
this
by
the
expansion
pressure
in the
bulb,
but its
weight
is not
enough
to
squeeze
it back. The
reading
of the
patient's temperature
is made
at leisure and afterwards the
mercury
is
got
back far
enough by
violent
swinging.
The clinicalis
an excellent
example
of
a
sensitive
thermometer.
Its
degree
spaces
are
long.
Now each "F. is
only
a
ten-
thousandth the volume of the bulb. But the bulb itself must
be small and slender to take
up
the
patient's temperature quickly.
The bore of the stem must therefore be
very
fine
;
in the
par- ticular
instrument drawn it is
elliptical, 1/600x1/900
inch,
and
the
glass
of the stem is
shaped
so as
to
magnify
its breadth when
seen
from the front.
*
In
recordingthermographs
a
very
flat curved Bourdon tube
("75)
tends to
straighten
as
the alcohol
filling
it
expands
and
moves
the short
arm
of the lever
carrying
the
pen.
*
Solid thermometers
mostlydepend
on
the
compound strip
of
" 130,
where
an instance,
the
Fery pyrometer,
is
given.
Short
compound
bars
are
employed
in automatic
fire-alarms,
they
bend
when heated and close
an
electric bell
contact,
*
Convenience,
rather than
accuracy,
characterizes these contrivances.
140 A HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS
"
150
:
Stem
error
of a thermometer. A thermometer when
being
tested is
entirely
immersed, to secure a
uniform
temperature
all
over,
but in
common use
its
long
stem stands out
in
a
much
cooler
place.
The
mercury
in the stem shrinks and the
reading
is too low. If the
mean
temperature
of the stem
can
be
ascer- tained,
a correction
can
be calculated
as
in the
following
:
"
Ex. 3. A thermometer sunk to its 20" mark in
a
bath reads 90".
Rest of
stem
averages
25". Find
true
temperature
of bath
;
e
of
Hg.
in
glass
-00015. How does the
error
depend
on (a) length
of
degree
divisions,
(b) expansibility
of thermometric
liquid, (c) increasing
difference of
temperature
of stem and bulb
as
that of latter rises ?
[L.]
The
problem
is to find the
length,
at about
90",
of
a
thread of
mercury
standing
above the 20" mark
which,
at
25", occupies (90
"
20) degree
spaces. (The procedure
for solid
expansion," 128,
is
quite
near enough
for
calculating
the small
correction.)
Loo =
(90-20) + (90-20)
X e x (90" 25)".
= 70"
+
-68" correction.
/.
Corrected
temperature
= 20"
+
70-68 = 90-68".
Evidently
the correction does not
depend on
(a)
at all,
for
we
have
not had to
inquire
their
length (i.e.
a
long
sensitive thermometer does
not suffer
excessively);
(b)
it is
proportional
to the
expansibility
(therefore large
for
alcohol); (c)
it involves
(T"
low
mark)x(T
"
low
temp,
of
stem)
i.e. is about
proportional
to
T2, becoming very
serious in
high-temperature
thermometers.
"
151. Standard thermometers.
The
degreecentigrade
was
long
denned in
England
as -01 of the fundamental interval
on a
certain
mercury
thermometer at
Kew,
which
means
that the
apparent expansion
of
mercury
in
a
certain
glass
vessel
was
made
uniform
by
Act of Parliament.
But
a
piece
of that
same
glass
does not
expand quiteuniformly
with
temperature
as
measured
on
that
thermometer,
which must
therefore
give
a
variable
expansion
to
mercury
itself. The
standard scale becomes the difference of two
imperfectly regular
dilatations,a
mixture of about 5
parts
mercury
and 1 of
some
sort of
glass.
And
a
different sort of
glass
will
cause a
dis- crepancy
of
as
much
as
-1"
at 40" C.
Now
Gases
expand
very
much, so
that
change
in the
containing
vessel has
a
much less
disturbing
effect. And
they
go
on
expand- ing
all
very
nearly
alike at
temperatures
below,
and far
above,
the
reach of
mercury.
Chiefly
for these
reasons a
gas
is
now
taken
as
the standard thermometric substance.
The
apparatus
of
"
140 becomes rather
a means
of
testing
the
mercury-in-glass
thermometer. But
as
there
pointed
out
its
species
of
exaggerated
'
stem-error
'
makes it
unsatisfactory
at
hightemperatures
and another device is
preferred.
THERMOMETRY 141
The constant-volume
gas
thermometer.
Let
a
volume of
gas
which has
expanded
to
be now compressed
into its
original
volume.
By Boyle's
law PV is constant at
any
fixed
temperature,
"'"
PoX(yo+V0X-o|TfX")
becomes
(P0i-f0X^Xt)xV
as
is evident in
multiplying
out.
That
is,
if
a
gas
is
keptfrom
expanding,
its
pressure
rises with the
same
coefficient, TJ",
as
that
of
increase
of
volume at constant
pressure.
The whole of the
gas
is
kept
in the bulb,
the rise of P with
temperature
goes
on
uniformlythroughout
and is
easily
read
:
"
FIG. 70.
FIG. 71.
An efficient
laboratory
form of constant-volume air thermometer
is shown in
Fig.
70. There is the bulb and
narrow
connecting
tube
as before,
but the latter
opens
into
a
wider vertical tube
which communicates
by
a
flexible
pipe
with
a
parallel
open
tube,
142 A HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS
these
containing
mercury.
To maintain the
constant volume
the
mercury
on
the closed side is
kept
to a
fixed scale division
[or
better,
Fig.
71,
to touch
a
glass
claw sealed inside the
upper
end of the
tube,
where the walls
slope
in
at 45" and the
mercury
surface is
flat].
This is effected
by raising
or
lowering
the
open
tube.
Comparing
with
Fig.
52,
the reader will
see
that this
resembles
a
Boyle'
s-law
apparatus
with the enclosed
gas
heated
to
prevent
any
shrinkage.
As with that
apparatus,
the
pressure
on
the
gas
is
H-f-/i
cm.
of
mercury.
This alters
steadily ^ (
=
-00367)
of its value at 0" C.
between the most extreme
temperatures,
e.g. suppose
H
was 75
and
h 6-9 at 0",
making H+A=81-9
cm.,
then
H-f-/*
rises
or
falls-3
cm.
per
degree,
i.e.
as
long
as
the barometer stands stillh alters this
much. To obviate the double
reading
of H and h the barometer
is sometimes
incorporated
in the
apparatus
as
in
Fig.71, a
form
suggested
as
easy
to filland to
use
either with
or
without
accessory
barometer,
and withal free from risk of
leakage.
"
152
:
In The Standard Gas Thermometer of the National
PhysicalLaboratory
the bulb is
a
litre
cylinder
of
iridio-platinum
with
a
long
steel
capillary
tube
running
to the
manometer,
and
passing
into it
through
the flat iron
plugtop
of the closed limb
(about
1 in.
diam.).
The
mercury
stands in
contact with
a
short
spikeprojecting
from the lower surface of the
plug.
The
open
limb is
a
tall 1-in. tube
;
both rise from
a
closed
reservoir into which
mercury
is
pumped
to
adjust
the level.
Heights
are
read
by
a cathetometer,
and corrected for the
temperature
of the
mercury
and of the brass scale
(much
as
in
" 137).
The barometer is read
separately
with the
same
pre- cautions.
The
slight
dilatation of the bulb
by
heat and
by
pressure
is allowed for and the little overflow of
gas
into the
gauge
as
the
pressure
rises is taken into
account.
The standard
gas
is
Hydrogen
very
carefully purified
and dried.
Above red
heat,however,
this would leak
through
the
platinum
so
that
nitrogen
is used instead to 1300" C. Both deviate from
Boyle'slaw,
and the difference of their deviations has to be
applied
to correct
nitrogentemperatures
to the normal
Hydrogen
Scale.
(They
do not differ
more
than -01"
anywhere
between
0" and
100".)
The
degreecentigrade
is
now
defined
as
causing
one
one-hundredth
of
the increase
of
pressure
observed in the constant-volume
hydrogen
thermometer between the
meltingpointof
ice and the
temperature
,
THERMOMETRY 143
of
the steam over
water
boiling
under the normal
atmospheric
pressure
(76
cm. of
mercury
in the
barometer,
correctedto 0").
On this scale
a
standard
mercury-iii-glass (verredur)
ther- mometer
is -1"
high
at 50".
"
153. Absolute temperature.
The observation that
a
gas
alters its volume
or
its
pressure
so
uniformlyby ^-l
--%
of its value
at 0" C.
per
degreechange
has led to the
conception
of
a
tem- perature
at which the
perfect
gas
would have shrunk 273 273rds
of its
freezing-point
value " it would have
no
volume at all at
"273" C. This
temperature
is called the absolute
zero
of
temperature.
It has not been
reached,
for
we
have to
rely
on
gases
for
cooling,
and
as a matter of fact all
gases escape
this
annihilation
by liquefying
before
reaching
this low
temperature.
(What
laws
liquid
and solid
may
follow then
are
unknown.)
The most resistant of
them, helium,
liquefies
at "268-6".
[Doubtful,
because the
petrol
thermometer often used with
liquid
air has
long
frozen,
and the effects obtainable from electric
thermometers have dwindled almost
proportionally
to the
gas
volume.]
Indeed,
all electricaleffects in metals bid fairto become extinct
at the absolute zero.
And the best Radiation
experiments
fit
in with
a
law which assumes
the cessation of radiation at this
same
point.
But while there
seems to be
something
very
significant
about
"273" C. it would be rash and
unjustifiable
to
prophesy
that
all thermal effects
are
going
to cease
there. All
we
need do here
is to rechristen "273" C.
'
Absolute Zero
'
and to start from it
the
'
Absolute Scale
'
in which each
temperature
is the
centigrade
plus
273"
*
"A="C+273.
"
154. The Law
of
Charles
may
therefore be restated
:
"
The -volume
of
a mass
of
gas
at
fixed
pressure
is
proportional
to
itsabsolute
temperature
T.
V
oc
T when P is constant.
Now
Boyle's
Law states that PV is constant at fixed tem- perature,
so
having
hitherto
kept
P constant
we
stop
at
any
T
we like,and,
altering
P,
V
changes
so as to
keep
PV constant.
*
Really
273
+ a
fraction unknown. Hence accurate
thermometry
keeps
to "C. while the
temp.
"A,
like the
radian,
is fundamental in
theory.
144 A HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS
We
might,
for instance, force V down to
its initial size,
for which
we
should have to maintain
a
P
proportional
to T,
V
being con- stant,
as
in
"
151.
The
two laws then combine into
one
statement,
the char- acteristic
equation of
a
perfect
gas,
PV
cc
T,
or
PV=RT.
The product of the
pressure
and the volume of
a mass
of
gas
is
equal to R times its absolute temperature
where R is
a
number
which
depends
on
masses,
units,
etc.,
but remains fixed when
once
fitted
to
the
particular
case
in hand.
Ex. 4. Find R for 1
c.c.
of air at 0" C. and 76
cm. mercury.
PV=RT becomes 76
x
1 -R
X
273.
.'.
R
=
-279.
Ex. 5.
Find R for 1
grm.
molecule
(mol. wt. in
grm.)
of
any gas
(occupying 22,120
c.c.
at 0" C. and 1
atmo.).
1 atmo.
=
1,0 16, 000
dynes
per sq.
cm.
1,016,000 x22,120
=
Rx 273,
R
=
82,400,000.
Now PV
=
energy
(" 69)
in
ergs,
hence R
=
ergs per
degree =
about
2 cals.
(" 187)
per
degree,
i.e. the 'specific
heat
of a
gramme
molecule
'
of
any gas
is about 2.
Ex. 6. Find R for 1
grm.
of
dry
air at 0" C. and 1 atmo. given
1 litre
weighs
1*293
grm.
At what
temp,
will 1
grm. occupy
1 litre at
1 atmo. ?
1 litre
weighs
1-293
grm.
.".
1
grm.
fills 1/1-293
litre.
.-.
1
X 1/1'293=R X
273.
.-.
R
=
-00284.
Again 1x1
=
-00284
X
T.
.
".
T
=
353 A
=
80" C.
THERMOMETRY 145
EXAMPLES." CHAPTER XVI
[Expansibility
of
mercury
in
glass-00015.]
7. Define 0"
C.,
100"
C.,
23" C.
[L.]
8. Describe the construction and mode of action of
a mercury-in-
glass
thermometer,
and
explain
how
you
would test the
accuracy
of
one. [L.]
9. A
mercury
thermometer at 0" C. contains 2
c.c.
of
mercury
and
distance between fixed
points
is 30
cm.
Calculate diameter of tube.
[L.]
10. A thermometer immersed in
a
bath
as
far
as zero
mark reads
250" C.
;
mean temperature
of stem 20". Find
temperature
of bath.
[M.]
11. What is meant
by
a
scale of
temperature
and
on
what does the
definition of
any
particular
scale
depend
?
Explain carefully
the
construction and mode of action of
some
form of constant-
pressure
air
thermometer.
[L.]
12. Convert 50" C. and "40" C. into Fahrenheit
temperatures
and
56" F. and
zero
F. into
Centigrade.
13. Describe
a
method
by
which the
temperature
of
any very
hot
place
such
as a
furnace could be determined.
14. How would
you
measure
the increase of
pressure
in
a given
volume of air between 0" and 100" C. ? How would the
presence
of
water affect it ?
Graph. [L.]
15.
Upon
what factors does the volume of
a
known
mass
of
gas
depend
? To what
pressure
at 0" C.
can a
glass
tube be filled to stand
400" C. if its
burstingpressure
is 20 atmos. ?
[M.]
16. State the laws of
change
of
pressure,
volume,
and
temperature
of
gases,
and show that
they may
be
expressed
in the form of
a single
equation containing
one constant. What is the value of the
constant
for 1
grm.
of
hydrogen
at 0" C. and 760
mm.
pressure ;
density
"0000895 ?
17. 15 litres of air
are
cooled from 45" to 15" C. and
pressure
is
reduced from 795
mm.
to 760. Calculate
new
volume.
[Ab.]
18. A
sample
of
a
gas
was
found to have
a volume of 100
c.c. at 18" C.
and 72
cm.
of
mercury pressure,
and
a
volume of 200
c.c. at 90" C. and
45
cm.
pressure.
Calculate at what
temperature
it would have a
volume
of 400
c.c.
at 100
cm.
pressure.
[L.]
19. An
open-mouthed
litre
jar
at 100" is
plunged
mouth down into
water and cooled to 15" and
ultimatelyadjusted
so
that water inside
and out is at same
level. What volume is above
water ?
[Ab.]
20. In PV "
RT
express
R in
foot-pound-second
units
given
that
1000
cu.
ft. air
at
0" and 14-75 Ib.
per sq.
in.
weighs
80-7 Ib. and
g
= 32-2 ft.
per
sec.2.
[L.]
10
CHAPTER XVII
CALORIMETRY
IN this
chapter
it is assumed that the substance under
con- sideration
undergoes no
permanent
internal
alteration such
as
combustion, solidification,etc.,
and is
not worked
upon
by
any
external mechanical forces. With this
provision :"
"
155. A
body gets
hotter
or
colder. It is natural
to
suppose
that
some entity passed
into it and raised its
temperature
;
or
left
it,as
it cooled. We call that
entity
Heat. In
physics,
cold
is
not
regarded as a
separate entity,
such
as one
commonly
thinks of Frost
"
childhood's 'Jack'
"
it is
merely
deficiency
of
heat.
Temperature
is measured in
Thermometry by
its
degree,
like
height
of water-level
;
Heat in
Calorimetry by quantity,
like
water
by
the
gallon.
Heat is
always
contained in
matter and
gives
it
a
temperature.
Empty
space
cannot contain heat and
cannot have
temperature
(except transiently,see Radiation).
Heat travels from
one portion
of matter to another without
change
in total
quantity,
and
a body cooling
from
one
tem- perature
to
a
lower
gives
out
the
same amount
of heat
as
would
raise it from the lower to the
higher.
A
largemass
of
a
substance
can
contain
more
heat than
a small,
indeed, Quantities of
Heat
are
proportional
to the
masses
of a
standard substance which
they can ivarmfrom one
to another -fixed
temperature.
The
Capacity for
heat
of a
whole
body
is the number of units
of heat that must be
poured
into it
to raise its
temperature
1".
The standard substance is Water.
The unit
quantity
of heat,
called the
calorie, warms
1
gramme
of water 1",
viz. from 15" to 16" C.
The
kilogram
Calorie =1000 calories.
The
engineer's
'
British thermal unit
'
warms
1 Ib. of water
1" Fahrenheit.
146
148 A HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS
(or
for
high temperatures
an
electric
oven or furnace)
tillit
reaches
a
steadytemperature
T and is then
droppedquickly
into
""$
a
'
calorimeter
'
held for the moment close under
the heater
(much
closer than in
Fig.72).
This
calorimeter is
a
little
pot
of thin
polished
copper
or aluminium,
about two-thirds filledwith W
grm.
of
water,
and furnished with
a
stirrer and
a
deli- cate
thermometer. It is sheltered from
draughts
and from
stray
warmths
(hand,flames,
etc.)
and
from
conduction,
by standing
on
pointed
corks
inside
a
largerjacket.
See
Fig.
72.
Just before
dropping
the hot
body in,
the water
is observed to be at
tj"(near
the
room
tempera- ture)
;
and
soon after,
it rises
to a
maximum
t2"
(kept
stirred).
Therefore the hot
body
has lost
Ms(T
"
t2),
the
product
of
mass, specific
heat,
and
fall of
temperature,
and the water has
gained
W("2
"
tj)
calories,
and to
a
first
approximation
these
are
equal.
Hence
s.
Example
1. Find
sp.
ht. of metal of which 300
grm'
at 100" raise 500
grm.
water from 14" to 20" C.
Calories lost
by
metal 300
x s x
(100-20)
fall=
24,000s.
.
"
gained by
water 500
X
1
X
(20" 14)
rise = 3000.
These
are
equal,
/. s = -125.
"
158. Method of
mixtures,
allowances for
vessel and for
cooling.
But the water has not
captured
and held all the
heat. I. Some
was
lost into the cooler air
as
the
1
IG.
72.
|10^.
hocjypasse(j
from heater to calorimeter
;
II.
some
went to heat
thermometer, stirrer,
and the metal
calorimeter
;
and III.
some
has
already
been lost from its
walls,
for
as soon as
it
rose
in the least
degree
above its
surroundings
it
began
to send them heat.
I. Of
these,
the first must be minimized
by
a
short
quick
transfer.
II. The second is allowed for
by adding
in the
capacity
for
heat
or Water
Equivalent,
as
it is
called,
of the
pot,
etc. The
good-conducting
metal
speedily
rises to the
same
temperature
throughout
*
as
the
water,
therefore
multiply
its
weight
c
by
its
*
This is the
objection
to
glass
and
crockery
calorimeters
; they
are badly conducting,
and
get only partly
warmed,
and
one
does not
know how much to allow.
CALORIMETRY 149
specific
heat
(-1
Cu,
-25
Al)
and add the
product
on to W. And
add -5
grm.
for each
c.c.
of thermometer
submerged.
III.
Cooling
correction.
For the
third,
go
on
watching
after
readingtz
for half to
three-quarters
the time it took to rise from
$j,
and
any
small
(fraction
of
a
degreeof)cooling
observed,
add
on
to increase and correct
t?.
(SeeCooling,"
173,
from which
it will also
appear
that it is
an
advantage
to work
on a
rather
large
scale and to be content
with
a
small rise of
temperature,
delicately
measured.)
Hence
s
from
Ms(T" "2)==(W+w.
eq.
of
cal.,
etc.)x("2 corrected"^).
Ex. 2. In Ex. 1 the
copper
calorimeter
(sp.
ht.
-1)
and stirrer
weighed
160
grm. ; submerged part
of thermometer
=
2
c.c.
bulk
;
and it cooled to 19-8" in two- thirds time of
experiment
afterwards
(/.
add 20-19-8 = -2"
on to the
highest,20").
Calories lost
by
metal SOOxsx
(100
"
20)
= 24,000s
"
gained by
water 500
X
1
)
"
cal. and st. 160
x
-1
X (20-2- 14)
-3200
,, ,,
thermom. 2x -5
)
These
are
equal,
/. g "
-133.
"
159 :
Method of mixtures
;
experimental
variations.
Liquids are
heated in
a
beaker and
poured
into the
water,
but if
chemically
active
are
enclosed in sealed tubes treated like
solids.
Or for soluble
substances, sodium,
sulphuricacid,etc.,
paraffin
oil
can
be used instead of
water,
and its
specific
heat afterwards
found
(Ex. 4).
It
may
be
preferable
to heat the water and
pour
it into
inflammable substances whose
specific
heat is
required(Ex. 3),
or
into the cold vessel whose
'
water
equivalent
'
is to be found.
Unstable substances can
be cooled instead of heated
(Ex. 5).
The
specific
heats of Gases
(free
to
expand)
were
measured
by
Regnault
and others
by passingslowly
first
through
a
coil of
many
yards
of small
gas-pipe
in
a
heating
bath and thence
immediatelythrough
a
similar coil in the calorimeter.
The
weight
of
gas
was
that lost
by
the steel
cylinder
whence it
came.
Ex. 3. 50
grm.
water at 90" stirred into 200
grm.
paraffin
oil
at 15"
bring
the mixture to 40-7".
Omitting corrections,
find
s
of oil.
Water loses 50
x
1
X
(90
-40-
7)
= 2470 cals.
Oil
gains
200
xsx
(40-
7 "
15)
= 5140s cals.
These
are equal, .'.s = -48.
150 A HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS
Ex. 4. 40
grm.
sodium removed from oil at 80"
are
dropped
into
200
grm.
of this
paraffin
oil and raise it from 15" to 23". Find
specific
heat of sodium.
Sodium loses 40x"X
(90
"
23)
= 2680s cals.
Oil
gains
200
X
-48
X (23
"
15)
= 768 cals.
8 = 768 -^-2680 = -286.
Ex. 5.
25
grm.
of
an
insoluble
explosive
at 0"
are
dropped
into
60 c.c. water at 15"
(Al
cal. and st. 16
grm.,
1
c.c. of
thermom.).
If
s = -5 find resultant
temperature tz.
Explosive gains
25
X
-5
x (tz
"
0)
=
12-5*2
cals.
S"T.66S+1
X
.5)}
""
(15-W
=
966-64."2
oa,,
/. 77"2
= 966.
/. "2=12-5".
"
160
:
Two modifications of thismethod have the
advantage
of
reducing
the
troublesome
cooling.
I. In
one,
which
may
be called
a Compensation method,
ice-cold
water from
a
burette
packed
in ice is
run
into the calorimeter
quickly
after the hot
body,
until itrestores the initial
temperature.
Then in calculation this
water
gains
allthe hot
body
loses,
and
no
other water-values
come
into
account.
II. In the Constant-Flow
method,
suited to
experiments
where
heat is
beingsteadilysupplied,
the calorimeter is
kept
down in
temperature by circulating
a
stream of
water
through pipes
inside it
or a
jacket
outside. The
mean
small
steady
difference of
temperature
of
ingoing
and
outcoming
water is measured
by
a
pair
of sensitive electrical thermometers
(" 645)
and
multiplied
by
mass
of
water
passed
= caloriesremoved.
"
161
: Specificheat of
liquidsby cooling.
A small closed calorimeter contains the
liquid
of
sp.
ht.
s;
and in
a
second
experiment,
the
same
bulk of water. It
hangs
in
a
cold enclosure and in each
case
is timed
as
it cools from 60" to
50". The rate of
losing
heat
depends solely
on
the outside
("174),
and if it takes
say
half
as
long
with
liquid
s inside,
then
evidently
to
give
up
calories at the
same
rate the
liquid
has
to cool
twice
as
fast
as
the
water,
i.e.it contains
per
cubic centimetre
only
half
as
much heat
as water. Its
s
per grm.
is therefore
"5
-f-mass
of 1
c.c.
To
generalize,
for half read
I/a
and for twice
read
a
times.
"
162.
Dulong
and Petit
discovered that the
Specific
Heat of
an
element
x
itsAtomic
Weight
=6 -4.
This of
course
is
onlyapproximately true,
since
specific
heats
CALORIMETRY 151
vary
somewhat with
temperature.
The
product
is called the
Atomic
Heat,
it is the
capacity
for heat of the
'
gramme-atom
'
of
any
substance.
Further,
the Molecular Heat of
a
compound
is
found to be the
sum
of the atomic heats of itsconstituent atoms.
The law is discussed at
length
in the
chemistry
books.
EXAMPLES." CHAPTER XVII
6. 8
gal.
water at 90" were
poured
into
an
iron bath
(water
equivalent
15
Ib.) containing
10
gal.
water at 14" C. Find final
temperature.
7. Into
an
empty
calorimeter at 15-8" 100
grm.
of water at 54-2"
were
poured
and the final
temperature
was
52-2". Calculate water
equivalent
of calorimeter.
8. 50
grm.
water at 60"
were
mixed with 50
grm.
at 10". Final
temperature 32",
find water
equivalent
of calorimeter.
9. Define the
specific
heat of
a
body
and
explain
how that of
a
liquid
may
be determined.
[L]m.
10. 960
grm.
of water at 15" C. is contained in
a
calorimeter
weighing
200
grm.
of
sp.
ht. 0-2. 500
grm.
of water at 65" C. ismixed in. Calculate
temperature. [L.]
11. 27-45
grm.
of marble at 95"
were
dropped
into 100
grm.
of
water in
a
calorimeter
(of
water
equivalent
5-8
grm.)
at 16-9". Final
temperature
20-8",
find
specific
heat of marble.
12. 41-4
grm.
of lead at 100"
were
dropped
into 71-2
grm.
of water in
a
copper
calorimeter of 67-1
grm.
at 12-6" C. Final
temperature
14-2",
find
specific
heat of lead.
13.
10,000
grm.
of oil
sp.
ht. -4
are
to be raised from 20" to 200"
by
a
burner
giving
200 cals.
per
sec.
How
long
will it take ?
14. 50-3
grm.
of water at 15"
were
contained in
a
calorimeter of
water
equivalent
3-65
grm.
The thermometer
was removed, heated,
and
replaced
when it read 70". Final
temperature
16-1",
find water
equivalent
of thermometer.
15. How much coal
per
24 hours will raise to 15" C. the air of
a
building
100
m. x
40
m. x
25
m.,
the whole air
being replaced every
hour
by
air
entering
at 0" C.
Sp.
ht. air
-2375,
sp. gr.
-00129
;
6000
cals. evolved
per grm.
coal burnt.
[L]m.
16. In
using
Siemens'
Pyrometer,
a
copper cylinder
average sp.
ht.
"1
weighing
137
grm.
was
heated in the
furnace,
snatched out and
dropped
into 570
c.c. water at 14" in
a vessel of
water
equivalent
30
grm. Temperature rose to 34-25",
find that of furnace.
17. A
quantity
of oil at 40" is
poured
on a
20-grm. lump
of sodium
at 10" and the
resulting
temperature
is 35". The metal is
immediately
fished
out and 20
c.c.
of water at 10" run
in from a
pipette. Tempera- ture
now 25",
find
specific
heat of sodium.
18.
Explain
how the
specific
heats of
two
liquidsmay
be
compared
by
the method of
rate of
cooling.
What
are
the
objections
to
this
method ?
[L.]
CHAPTER XVIII
LATENT-HEAT CALORIMETRY
IN this
chapter
the effect of the removal of
part
of the condition
at
the head of the
foregoing chapter comes
under consideration
;
it is the
Calorimetry of
changes
of physical
state.
"
163. The
chapter on Change
of State must be
anticipated
thus far
:"
As
a
solid is
supplied
with heat its
temperature presently
ceases
to
rise and remains at
a steady melting point
till all is
melted,
the heat meanwhile
'
going
into
hiding,' so
to
speak.
And
again
when the
liquid'stemperature
reaches
a boilingpoint
it
stops
rising
and the
liquidgraduallydisappears.
The calories that have hidden
per gramme
of substance
con- stitute
the
Latent Heats of these
changes
of
physical
state "
fusion
and
vaporization.
The measurement of these latent heats is of
importance.
And
once measured,
they
open up
new
and convenient calori-
metric methods.
"
164. The Latent Heat of Melting
of ice is
easily
found
by
dropping dry lumps
of it into the calorimeter. To avoid
a big
correction for heat derived from the
air,
Rumford's
plan
may
be
used
" warm
the water
nearly
twice
as
far above the air at first
as
you
will cool it below the air at last. Then the loss of heat
while hotter will be about balanced
by
the slower
gain during
the much
longer
time it is colder than the air.
Example
1. Into
a calorimeter, w.
eq.
12, containing
500
grm.
water at 25", 86
grm.
dry
ice at 0"
were
stirred and
temperature
fell
to 10".
Lost
by
water and vessel
=
512x 15"
=
7680 cals.
Gained
by
ice in
melting
86
x
L
)
Q"
xx
/T i in\ i
"
after
melted,
in
rising
to 10",
86 X
10")
8G
X (L+ 10)
Cals"
/. L+
10
= 7680-^86.
/.
L
=
79-5 cals.
per grm.
Or the
procedure
may
be reversed with
advantage.
A hollow
is
scooped
in
a large
block of ice. Into the dried
concavity,
152
LATENT-HEAT CALORIMETRY 153
water at the
ordinarytemperature
is
run,
covered with
an
ice lid
and left to cool to 0". Then it is
pipettedout,
the last traces
removed with
a
dry
ice-cold
sponge
and the whole
weighed,
when
the extra
weight
is that of the ice melted
by
the heat
brought
in
by
the water.
Ex. 2. 20
grm.
of water at 16"
are run
in and 24
grm.
at 0" removed.
Lost
by
water 20
x
16 = 320 cals.
Gained
by
ice 4
x
L
=
"
.'.
L = 80.
"
165.
Owing
to
the
prevalent
use
of ice
as
the
typical
solid,
students are
apt
to
overlook the fact that not all solids are on
the
point
of
spontaneouslymelting,
but most
requirewarming
up,
as solids,
before
any
question
of latent heat
comes
in. Then
the
following example
shows that the
meltingpoint(unless
the
specific
heats
are
equal)
and the
specific
heats both
as
solid and
as
liquid
must have been found
already:
"
Ex. 3. How much heat
warms
1
kg.
of
glacial
acetic acid from 5"
to 25" ? It melts at 16-6" with latent heat 46-4
; sp.
ht. solid
-62,
liquid
-50.
Solid absorbs before
melting
1000
x
'62
x (16-6-5)"
= 7190 cals.
Melting requires
1000
X
46-4 =
40,400
"
Liquid
absorbs after
melting
1000
X
-50
X (25-16-6)"=
4200
"
Total
57,790
cal.
"
166. The Latent Heat of
Vaporization
of
a
substance
can
be
measured
by (Black's)
Method of constant-heat supply :"
Ex. 4.
(Very rough.)
A little calorimeter contained
dry ice,
broken
small. It
was
placed
over a
steady
bunsen and sheltered from
draught.
In 2 min. the ice had
just disappeared,
at
4"
min. water boiled,
at
19 min. all boiled
away.
Find latent heats of
melting
and
boiling.
Water
rose
100" in
4"
" 2 =
2"
min.
.'.
bunsen
supplies
each
gramme
of it with 40 cals.
per
min.
.'.
it takes 40
x
2
= 80 cals. to melt 1
grm.
ice.
and 40
x
(19-4")
= 580* cals. to boil
away
1
grm.
water at 100".
Ex. 5. An electric
lamp using
-50
ampere
at 94 volts
was
immersed
in
a can
of ether which it
kept steadilyboiling
at
34". The
can
stood
on a balance
pan
and the time at which it tilted above the counter- poise
was
noted. 5
grm.
was
removed from the
counterpoise
and the
next time of
passing
of the
pointer
over zero noted,
and
so on.
The
intervals
were
50
sec.,
50, 50, 50, 52, 50, 48,
48.
(Subsequently
the
ether
was
kept steadilynear
23"
by running lamp
for 10
sec.
every
2
min.,
but
as
it
was
found to be
evaporating
1
grm. every
2 min. all
this
'
cooling
'
was
due to
evaporation,
and therefore
no
other
cooling
loss need be allowed
for.)
On the
average
then 1
grm.
was
boiled off
every
10
sec.
by
an
energy
supply(94 x
-50
x
10)-7-
4-2 cals.
[" 639],
or
L = 1 1 2 cals.
per grm.
*
High
result due to
neglect
of
'
cooling
'
loss.
154 A HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS
"
167.
More
usually
the latent heat of
vaporization
is
measured when it is all
beinggiven
out
againduringliquefaction.
For
instance,a
jet
of steam from
a
boiling
flask is
plunged
into
the calorimeter water and allowed to raise the
temperature
10"
or 20",
after which the increase in
weight
is the steam
condensed
;
corrections as
in
"
158 are
required,
and also a
correction for steam
condensing
in the
pipe
and
dropping
into the
calorimeter
merely
as
hot water.
Ex. 6. A
copper
calorimeter
weight
159-8
grm. weighed
571-0
grm.
when
containing
water at
the
room
temperature
16" C. Steam at 100"
blown in raised it to 27-3" in 2
min.,
and it afterwards cooled at the
rate of -15"
per
min. Final
weight
579-0
grm.
579-0-571-0 = 8
grm.
of steam
gave up
8x
[L + (100"
"
27-3")]
cals.
Calorimeter received
[159-8X
-1
+ (571 -159-8)]
X
[(27-3+ -15)- 16]"
= 4900 cals.
Equating
these
8L = 4900 -582.
/.
L = 540 cals.
per grm.
Condensation in
the
pipe
is often troublesome and
some
such
device
as
Fig.
73
(
J.
A.
Harker)
should be
adopted.
The swaddled
and
steam-jacketed pipeslopesupwards,
so
that
any
drops
condensed in it
run
back to
the boiler. There is
a
heat-insulating piece
of rubber and then the
pipe
in the calori- meter
turns downwards to a
box at the
bottom. This forms
a
'
condenser
'
which
can
be taken out and
weighed separately,
and has the
advantage
of
keeping
the sub- stance
under
experiment separate
from
the
heat-collecting
water.
Practically
no
vapour escapes
from the
upcast spiral.
The
apparatus
should be
large. By
putting
this calorimetric condenser in
place
of the reflux condenser of
Fig.
84, Eegnault
and others
have measured the latent heat of
vaporization
of water at different
temperatures,
with
result
now
given
as
[between
0" and
200"J.
Latent Heat
o/"team=
596-73" 0-6010 1" C. cals.
per grm.
Thus the latent heat at 100" = 536 -63 and is less at
higher
temperatures, threateningultimately
to vanish
altogether
("215).
But the
'
total heat
'
to convert water at 0" into saturated
steam at t" of
course
increases with
temperature, being
about
597+4
t" cals.
per grm.
FIG. 73.
156 A HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS
catch-pans,
in the steam enclosure. Into
one a
few
grammes
of
gas
were
compressed,
and the increased
weight(about
-1
grm.)
condensed
on
this side
was
due to the heat absorbed
by
this
gas.
He found for air
-172,
oxygen
-155,hydrogen
240.
"
170. Another calorimetric
operation
is the
measurement of
the
heat absorbed
or
produced duringSolution,Combustion,
or Chemical Action of
any
sort.
Quantities
of the
powdered
salts to be dissolved
are
dropped
into water in
a
large
calorimeter,
stirred
around,
and the
changes
of
temperature
noted. Allowance is made in calculation if the
specific
heat of the solution is
sensibly
different from 1. This
would have been measured
as
in
"
159.
Or the
reagents
in two
separate
tubes immersed in the calori- meter
(so
as to start at
its
temperature)
are
gradually
mixed in
one.
Or the substance to
be burned
(a
food-stuff
e.g.)
is enclosed
in
a
submerged
steel
'
bomb
'
with
compressed
oxygen
and fired
electrically.
The
engineer
tests Coal
by powdering
it and
mixing
with
saltpetre
in
a
cartridge, lights
a
touch-paper,
fixes
over
it
a
miniature
'
diving-bell,'
and
plunges
it into
water,
up
through
which the smoke
gases
presently
stream and
give
up
their heat
:
a
useful method of moderate
accuracy.
Fuel-Gas is
passedthrough
a
delicate meter and burnt in
an
elaborate sort
of constant-flow
'
geyser.'
Of
course
all
weights
and
temperatures
have to
be
observed,
with
'
water
equivalents
'
and
cooling
corrections.
Some Heats of Combustion
are,
in calories
per gramme
:
hydrogen 34,000,
paraffin
oil
9800,
anthracite
8400, common
coal
7000 to
8000,
coke
7000,
fat
9500,
butter
9200,
lean
meat,
etc.
5800,
alcohol
6900, sulphur
2300,
iron
1575,
zinc
1300,
dynamite
1300,
black
gunpowder
715.
"
171. Animal
Calorimetry.
The caloriesemitted
by
an
animal
can
be measured
by shutting
it in
a box with
a
double wall filled
with water and
packed
round with
shavings
to hinder
access
of heat from without. The water is
kept
stirred and
a
record
made of its
temperatures.
Or the animal
may
be
put
in
an
'
ice-safe
'
and the
rate
of
liquefaction
of
a
contained
lump
of ice
noted. The heat removed in the
regulatedventilating
current
must be added in. The
apparatus
is standardized
by burning
inside it
a known
weight
of alcohol.
LATENT-HEAT
CALORIMETRY 157
Elaborate
experiments
with the human
subject
have shown
that the
body
converts
the
net
potential
energy
of food
(as
measured
by
heats of
combustion)
into thermal and mechanical
energy
as quantitatively
as
does
any
inorganicengine.
The
output
of
energy
as
hard mechanical work
may
be about
one-
eighth
of the
energy
given
off
as
heat. See also
"
176.
EXAMPLES." CHAPTER XVIII
9. 64
grm.
ice at 0" reduced from
32|"
to 20" the
temperature
of
a 120-grm. copper
calorimeter
containing
500
grm.
water.
Find
latent heat.
10. A
copper
calorimeter of 41-5
grm.
weighed
118-0
grm.
when
containing
water at 18-0" C. Ice
was
put
in till the
temperature
was
10-4" and the
weight
124-82
grm.
Find latent heat of ice.
11. Ice at 0"
was
mixed with 2
kg.
water at 25". How much melted ?
12. 1
kg.
of ice at 0"
was
melted in 2
kg.
water at 55". Find
temperature.
13. 27 Ib. of iron
at 100"
sp.
ht.
$
are dropped
into 2 Ib. of ice and
9 Ib. of water. Find final
temperature. [Ab.]
14. If
specific gravity
of ice is
-918,
at
what rate
per square
metre is
heat
escaping
from
a
lake when
a layer
of ice 2
mm.
thick is
formed in
an
hour
on
its surface ?
[L.]
15. How much
sea-
water at 6" is
required
to melt at "
2|"
C.
100,000
tons of ice ?
16. 4 Ib. ice
(sp.
ht.
-5)
at "20" C.
were
mixed with 3 Ib.
paraffin
(sp.
ht.
-67)
at 17" C. Find
temperature.
17. Sketch Bunsen's ice calorimeter. Find travel of
mercury
in the
tube when 10 cals.
are given
to the
ice,
diameter of tube
being
0-4
mm.
Ice
density
-916.
[L.]
18. A
calorimeter,
water
equivalent
6
grm.
contained 101-2
grm.
water at 14-5". 3-38
grm.
of steam at 100"
were
condensed and raised
temperature
to 32-3". The
heating
took 3
min.,
1
J
min. later
tempera- ture
had fallen -3".
Find latent heat of
steam.
19. Find the
approximate weight
of steam
that would
warm
from
0" to 20" C.
a room 15 x
12
x
10
ft.,
air
weighing
0-08 Ib.
per
cu. ft.,
and total latent heat of steam at 20"
being
590.
20.
Compare
the
quantities
of
water, originally
at 15"
C.,
necessary
to condense 100 tons of steam at 39" C. when its total latent heat is
580,
and at 26" C. when its total latent heat is 588.
[L.]
158 A HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS
21. Define thermal
capacity
and latent heat. A metre cube of ice
at 0", density -91,
is converted into steam at 100". How much coal is
necessary
if 1
grm.
gives
7500 cals. ? [Ab.]
22. 118
grm.
of
copper
at 14" is
suspended
in steam at 100". How
much steam condenses ? [M.]
23.
By
how much will the
weight
of
a kilogram
iron
weight
increase
when
weighed
in steam at 100"
(initial temperature 15",
sp.
ht.
-12) ?
[L.]
24.
Boiling point
of
a liquid
is 156",
mean specific
heat
0-46, latent
heat 68. Find
quantity
of
vapour
at boiling point passed
into
a
copper
vessel
weighing
30
grm.,
which contains 250
grm.
of the
liquid
at 15", to
raise the
temperature
to 27".
[L.]
Q[68 + -46(156-27)] =
[250x-46 + 30x-l]x [27-15].
25. How much heat will convert
a kilogram
of ice
(sp.
ht.
-5)
at
"
20" C. into steam at 100" C. ?
26. A silver vessel
weighing
40
grm.
contains 45
grm.
ice, steam
is
supplied
till ice all melts. Find total
weight
of vessel and
contents
at end
(sp.
ht. silver
-056). [Ab]m.
27. What weight
of steam at 100" is
required to raise 1000
kg.
of oil
sp.
ht. -4 from 0" to 80" ?
28. Ditto, fat, if it melts at 45" with lat. ht. 25, and has
sp.
ht. -5
sol. and
liq.
?
29.
Superheated
steam
(sp.
ht.
-3)
at 150" C. is blown into ice at
"
20" C.
(sp.
ht.
-5).
How much will raise 1 ton to 100" ?
30. Describe
a
method of
determining
the
specific
heat of
a
gas
at
constant volume. How would
you
calculate the
specific
heat of
a
gas
at constant
pressure
from that at constant volume ?
CHAPTER XIX
COOLING
THERE
are
various
processes
by
which heat travels from
place
to
place;
the
joint
effect of these in
promoting
the
cooling
of
a
hot
body
will
now
be considered. Afterwards
they
will be taken
individually.
"
172. Sir Isaac Newton
was
led
by
his
experiments
to
a
statement
now
known
as
Newton's Law of Cooling
that The
rate
ofcoolingofa
hot
body
is
proportional
to the
excess of
its
temperature
above that
of
its
surroundings.
092
3-5/47-5
6 N
TAMPER ATTUNE
8 U 10 T 1
OU
B El 14 S 16
rsibE
FIG. 76.
To
test this
a
calorimeter of hot
water
can
be stood inside
a
larger
vessel
through
whose double walls cold
water is
circulated,
159
160 A HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS
so as to
get surroundings
at
a
definite
temperature.
The hot
water is stirred and its
temperature
is read
every
minute,
and
a
curve
like
Fig.
76
plotted,
a curve
which
always
has the
same
generalshapethough
itsactual
gradients depend
on
the
particular
apparatus employed(e.g.becoming
flatter for
a
largervessel).
According
to the smooth
curve
plotted,
the
temperature
fell
during
the first2 min. from 82-5" to
75",
i.e.the rate of
cooling
was
7-5"
per
2 min. The
average
temperature
meanwhile
was 78-5",
which
was
67'-130 in
excess
of the
surrounding
11".
rate of
cooling height
of 2-min.
step
_
7-5"
temperature
excess
total
height
to be
gone
down 67-5"~
This ratio has been worked
out on
the
diagram
for several
2-min. intervals.
According
to the law it should be constant.
It is
only roughlyso, being greater
for
greater temperature
elevations,
i.e.hotter bodies cool faster and faster than the law
suggests.
But
limiting
ourselves to small differences of
temperature,
and
recollecting
the
variety
of
processes
involved in
ordinarycooling,
Newton's Law is
good enough
for
common uses.
As
a matter of
history,
Newton cooled his hot vesselsin
a
strong
draught,
and
a recent
reinvestigation
has shown that the law
then holds much
more
closely.
FIG. 77.
"
173
: Cooling
corrections in heat
experiments.
The instruction
given
in
"
158
was
to add to the
top
tem- perature
the fall that afterwards took
place
in half the time of
COOLING
161
heating.
For
heatingsteadily
from the
room
temperature
the
average
excess
has been half the final
excess
above the surround- ings,
and
by
the Law
cooling
has
averaged
half
as
fast
as
it is
now
going
on at
the finish. The fall from the
top temperature
for half the time is therefore
equal
to the fallfrom the
average
temperature
for the whole time.
More
accurately, temperatures
are
taken
every
minute of
heating
and the
average
temperature
for each minute found.
To each is added the fall
appropriate
to that
temperature
taken
from the
coolingcurve,
or
the
sum of all these is the total
cor- rection
to be added to the
top temperature.
In this
way
only
narrow
use
has been made of the Law.
Commonly,however,one
uses
it to fillin the
long
tail of the
cooling
curve,
which would
take
a
long
time to
observe and is
requiredonly
for the smallest
corrections.
Thus the
mean
temperatures
in the 3 min. of
heating
in
Fig.
77
are 14", 28",
41".
Cooling
curve
shows at
mean
temp.
41"
a
drop
of 5"
per
min.
;
itdoes not continue
far,
but shows for
mean
temp.
33",
= 26" above
surroundings
at
7",a
drop
of 4"
per
min.,
or
4/26"=--?^"
per
min.
per
1"
temperature excess.
At 14"
this
gives
loss
(14" 7)
X
-154=
1-1",
at 28"
a loss
(28-7)
X -154=
3-3"
;
these are
marked
up
from
heatingcurve
and
give
the
straight
rise to
M-}-3-3+5-0+45-50=54-90.
"
174
: Emissivity.
The loss of calories
per
second is the loss
of
temperatureper
second
x
heat
capacity(perdegree)
of hot
body
=
fall
per
second X mass x
specific
heat.
Dividing
this
by
the
measured-up
area
of surface of the
body gives
the loss
per
second
per square
centimetre.
According
to the
Law,
dividing
this
by
the
temperature
excess
above the
surroundingmedium,
etc.,we
find what is called the
Emissivity of
the
particular
sort
ofsurface
under conditions likethose
of
the
experiment
;
i.e.itsloss
of
calories
per square
centimetre,
per
second,
per
degreeexcess.
fall of
temp,
x mass x specificheat
Emissivity
=
"
r
" "
r
" "
r-
" "
i
:
"
cooling
surface
area x time
X
temp,
above
exterior
But
emissivity
under
ordinary
conditions
dependsso much
on
how the
surrounding
air
or water
(into
which it is much
greater)
can circulate
(seeConvection)
that calculations
based
on it have
only
limited
application.
11
162 A HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS
"
175. The
processes
referred to as
promotingcooling
are
those
by
which heat travels from
place
to
place
:
"
Evaporation,
Convection, Conduction,
and Radiation.
Evaporation
from wet surfaces has been
already
dealt with.
On the small scale it
helps
cool
your
tea,
on a
large
scale it assists
in the
great
'
cooling
towers
'
now a common
and far from
architectural
adjunct
of electric
power
stations
(see" 213).
A little
evaporation
takes
away
a
lot of latent heat
:
conversely,
condensation of dew
on a
cold
body
warms
it
effectually.
At the
boilingpoint
it is
all-important.
Convection currents in
quiet
air account for
seven-eighths
of the
cooling
of
a closed hot- water
vessel,etc.,
and in
a
good draught
for
a
much
greaterproportion.
The effect of
Conduction varies
very
greatlyaccording
to the
things
in
contact with the hot
body. Except
with metal it is slow.
An instance is the
comfortingapplication
of cold metal
or
stone
to
a
bruised
or
inflamed
surface,
another the
'
chilling
'
of iron
cast in
an
iron mould.
Another,
where it is
quiteabnormally
effective,
is this
: a
short
copper
fuse-wire takes two
or
three
times the calculated
current to melt it
on
account of conduction
into the thick metal
clamps
at its ends. And
everyone
knows
the
part
it
plays
in the
Davy lamp.
Radiation
goes
on
through
a vacuum
and is
merely
hindered
by
the
presence
of matter. Radiant
'
heat
'
is therefore
quite
unlike the heat that
we
have measured in
a calorimeter,
and the
whole
subject
is leftto
Chapter
LI.
That radiation
plays
but
a
small
part
in
cooling
at tem- peratures
below 100" is
seen
from the fact
that,
contrary
to the
usual
statements,
a
blackened metal vessel cools
only
about
one-
eighth
faster than
a
polishedone,
which radiates much less
;
and
is
emphasizedby
the
success
of the
popular
Vacuum
Flasks,
which cool
only by
the radiation from
a
silvered surface tra- versing
a vacuum
jacket.
But Radiation becomes
enormously
effective above
a
red heat.
While the
common
hot- water
'
radiator
'
merely
warms
the air
rising
in convection currents
past
it and sends but little
'
in
rays
'
to cold hands held in front of
it,an
open
fire
warms
by
radiation
only,
unless
'
the
chimney
smokes.'
As
suggested
here,
radiation is
distinguishable by going
on
equally
in alldirections
:
Light
is
one
form of it.
CHAPTER XX
CONVECTION AND CONDUCTION OF HEAT
"
177. Convection.
By
this is
meant
the
conveying
of heat
from
place
to
place
in
a
fluid
by
the
bodily
movement
of heated
portions
of it.
The motion
may
be
mechanically forced,
like the forced
circulation of water in
a
surface
condenser, or
forced
draught
in
a flue,
or,
simply, a
wind
;
but
more usually
the word
suggests
the natural motion of
expanded
heated
portions
in
a
fluid under
the control of
gravity.
When
a
fluid is heated
locallyneighbouring portions usually
expand
and therefore
becoming
less dense
are
lifted
by
the
sinking
of the colder denser
portions
around. The
rising
stream
conveys
its heat with it and constitutes the
convection current.
Meal thrown
in shows these currents in
a
saucepan
of water
over
a
burner
"
up
over
the hot
places
and down all round
;
flame and
light
ashes, smoke, or
the well-known
rippling
appearance
of
*
hot air
rising,'
mark their track in air. In
any
case
the warmth
of the
rising
stream
can
be felt
by
the hand.
The convective circulation of heat
evidently depends
upon
:"
(a)
How much heat the fluid takes
up per gramme
(itsspecific
heat).
(b)
How much it
expands,
i.e. what
lifting
force
begins
to act
on
it.
(c)
Its
viscosity
;
the less viscous the
quicker
it
moves.
(d)
The size and
length
of the
pipes
and channels
through
which the stream flows.
Water stands
high
in
respect
of
(a),
but in
(b)
at 4" it would
fail
altogether
and
generally
in
(b)
and
(c)
is far excelled
by
air.
Yet
'
water-cooling
'
is
quickest,
for 1
c.c.
of water
will
remove
as
much heat
as
2500
c.c.
of
air,
and it is
so
difficult
to
get
this
great
bulk
past
a
small hot surface. Hence the risk of
melting
out
the
seams
of
a
tin
can
full of air
only,
and hence the need for
extensive
air-cooling
surfaces, seen
in the
gilledcylinder
of
a
164
FIG. 78.
:ONVECTION AND CONDUCTION OF HEAT \65
bicycle
motor or
the
honeycombed
miscalled
'
radiator
'
of
a
water-cooled
engine.
Fig.
78 shows the
water-circulating system
of
a
small motor.
Hot water rises from the
jacket
sur- rounding
the hot
cylinder
and then
descends
throughgilled pipes,
whence
its heat is carried off
by
the wind.
Domestic hot- water
heatingsystems
are
merelymagnifications
of
essentially
the
same
arrangement ;
all
'
radiators
'
are on
the down
pipe.
"
178. Conduction of heat.
For this
process,
as
for
convection,
the
presence
of matter in the
path
is
a
necessity ;
unlike
convection,
there is
no
per- ceptible
motion of that
matter,
and
the
process
is at its worst in
common
fluids and reaches its best in those
dense
solids,
the metals. It is
a
pro- cess
perfectly independent
of
changes
of
density,
and therefore of
gravity.
Difference of
temperature
is its sole and direct
cause.
Substances differ
very
greatly
as
regards
the
facility
with
which heat travels
through them,
i.e. in
conducting
power.
Specialapparatus
to show this is not
worth while
:
take 2-in.
pieces
of stout
copper
wire,
of iron
nail,
of
solder,lead,brass,
and
electricalresistance
wire,
of slate
pencil,
chalk,
and
glasstubing,
stick the end into
a
flame from which the
fingers
are
shielded
by
a card,
count seconds till
you
have to
drop
them,
and
you
will
have
some
notion of relative conductivities.
Matches,
paper,
sealing-wax,
and
string
you
need not
drop
tillflame itselfreaches
your fingers, they
are bad conductors.
Many
substances conduct
so
much
worse
than the metals that
in
common
parlancethey
are
'
non-conductors.' Chief
among
them is
STILL AIR.
Wool, fur,
and feather
owe most of their value
as
clothing
to
the
air
they entangle
and
prevent
from
drifting
off in convection
currents. Hard-woven calico is
a
chillyintegumentcompared
with
'
cellular
'
cloth of the
same
weight(but
one's outer
clothing
had need be
more or
less
wind-proof
lest the
air-retaining
action
of loose-woven
stuff be
violently overcome).
Under the micro- scope
Down is
a
most formidable
entanglement
of
tiny
barbs.
166 A HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS
Asbestos,slag-wool,
and
lightmagnesia
owe
their value
as
steam-pipelaggings
to their
air-retaining porosity.
To cool iron
slowly
the smith buries itin loose sand. Iron
or even
copper
filings
conduct
very
badly,
the
good
contact
essential for
good
conduction
is
lacking.
The
hay
and
sackingwrapped
round
pipes
and
plants
in winter
act
as
air-retainers. These
wrapped-up things,maintaining
no
vital heat of their
own,
must
ultimately
freeze in
a
long
frost
;
but,
like
a
mantle of
snow,
the
wrapping
will make the
temperature
changes more
gradual,probably preventing
local
choking
in
pipes,
and the sudden thaw in the
morning
sun so
disastrous to
an otherwise
hardyplant.
In this
question
of
clothing
Conduction and Convection meet.
Indeed,
Convection
can never
be
complete
without
Conduction,
through
thin adherent
surface-layers
and thin strata of fluid
;
precisely
as
mechanical
mixing
has to be
completedby
diffusion.
"
179.
Conductivity.
Let heat be
travelling straightthrough
a
plate
of
area
A
(Fig.
79, left)
from
a
hot face at t'" to
a
cold
one
at t". So
long
as
the conditions remain
everywhere
the
same
it
will be admitted that the
same
quantity
of heat enters
each
square
centimetre
of
plate,
and the total isA times that of 1
sq.
cm.
It will also be admitted that the total
quantity
transmitted
is
proportional
to the time T seconds of observation.
It is found
by experiment
that the flow is
proportional
to the
difference of
temperature
t'"t between the
faces,
And it follows that it is
inversely
as
the distance D it has
to travel. For the
plate
can
be
supposedsplit
into D successive
plates
1
cm. thick,
each with
1/D
of the total
temperature
difference between its faces.
CAW"
")"
.*.
quantity
transmitted,
H calories =
^
"
where C is the
constant
depending
on
the
material,
its Con- ductivity.
In this
relation,putting
all else"
1,
the Thermal
Conductivity
of
a
material isthe fraction of a
calorie conducted from
one face to the
opposite face,
1"
cooler,
of a
1-cm. cube in 1
sec.,
Fig.
79,
right.
"
180.
The
Conductivity
of
poorly conducting substances,
Fig.
80. A
simple
method of
carrying
the
foregoing
into
practice
for
a
poor
conductor
appears
in the
following example.
CONVECTION AND CONDUCTION OF HEAT
167
Example 1, Fig.
80,
left. The under side of
a
tile -7
cm.
thick is
kept
hot
by
a
steam
jet.
On the tile stands
a
calorimeter with
a
flat
bottom 20
sq.
cm. area kept
in
good
thermal contact with the tile
by a
smear
of
oil,
and
wrapped
in
wadding
to hinder accidental
access
of
heat. In 300
sec.
it and its
contents,
110
grm.
of
water,
rise from
14" to 23-5". Find C. of tile.
HereH = 110
x
(23-5- 14)"
= 1045 cals.
AT(i'-0/D=20sq.cm.x
300
sec. x
[100-|(23-5+14)]"
-=--7=
700,000.
81
FIGS.
79,80,
81.
168 A HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS
C. H. Lees has
perfected
this method of
measuring
the
con- ductivity
of
poor
conductors. "
A known
supply
of heat is
electrically generated
in
a
flat coil
bedded between thick discs of
copper
[Fig.
80,
right].
This is
so
good
a
conductor that the discs
are
at
a
nearly
uniform tem- perature
throughout,
and the lower disc
passes
a
uniformlyspread
heat to the
plate
of substance. Good thermal contact between
disc and
plate
is obtained
by
a
liberal
smear
of
mercury
on
the
amalgamated
copper.
H
passing
down
through
the
plate
is
ultimately
lost from the surface of
a
third
copper
block.
The
temperatures
of the
coppers
near
the
plate(and
of the
top
disc)
are
obtained from electricalthermometers inserted in fine
holes drilled in them. All outer surfaces
are
varnished so as
to
have the
same
emissivity
E,
which is calculated
knowing
the
temperatures
and
areas
of all and the total calories
dissipated
per
second
(=
total
generated).
E thus
found,
the loss from the
bottom disc and from the lower half of the
edge
of the
plate
can
be calculated. This=H
through
middle horizontal
plane
of
plate
per
second. Then
t',
t,A,
and D
give
the
required
C.
Liquids were
encircled
by
an
ebonite
ring
which could be
corrected for
by workingdry. Being
heated from the
top,
con- vection
currents
were
avoided.
Gases are
measured in another
way.
A
large
thermometer bulb
hangs
in
an
enclosure and cools
by
conduction,convection,
and
radiation.
Convection,
usually
the most
effective,
nearly
vanishes
below 10
cm.
gas pressure,
while
conductivity
remains
constant
(according
to kinetic
theory).
Then radiation is
separately
found
by repeating
in
a
high vacuum,
and
subtracted,
leaving
con- duction
alone.
C= -00003 for
C02,
-00005
air,
and 7 times
as
much for
hydrogen.
"
181
: Conductivity
of
good
conductors. For
good
conductors
the
plate
method
gives
bad results. Heat cannot be
got
into
or
out
of the
plates
fast
enough
to
keep
them
near
the outside
temperatures
:
the
emissivity
is much less than the
conductivity.
A boiler
plate
is far below the flame
temperature
and well above
the water
temperature. Possibly
this is due to thin films of
gases
and water which
on
account of their
viscosity
almost stick to
the
plate.
-001
cm.
of air conducts
worse
than several centi- metres
thickness of
copper.
In
one
method this
difficulty
has been
got
over
by measuring
the
temperature just
inside the surfaces of the thick
plate
itself.
CONVECTION AND CONDUCTION OF HEAT 169
In the method introduced
long
ago
by
Forbes the
plate
is
merely
a
selected centimetre in
a
long
bar,
kept
hot at one
end
(say
in melted
lead), (a)
After the bar has settled down to a
steady
condition its
temperatures
at
equal
distances
are
measured
by (electrical)
thermometers inserted in small holes in
it,giving
the
curve
from which the
temperatures
at P and R 1
cm.
apart
are
obtained
[Fig.81,left].
(b)
A foot
length
sawn
off the
same bar
(andhaving
a
similar
surface)
is heated and allowed to
cool,
with
a
thermometer
stuck in its middle. From its
cooling
curve
the emission of
calories
per square
centimetre
per
second at
any
temperature
is
found
[Fig.
81,
right].
The
long
bar
beyond
Q
may
now
be
supposed
divided into
equal
blocks,
each at the
temperature
of the thermometer in its
middle and each of known surface area.
Each therefore loses
calories at
a
known
rate,
and
adding
all their losses
together,
their
sum
total is
constantly
made
good by
the heat
flowing
in
through
the section at
Q.
That
is,we
have obtained H that
flows in
through
an area
of cross-section A of bar
per
second
when the
temperatures
1
cm.
apart
at P and R are t' and
t.
Hence C.
In the
figure
the
(a)
curve runs
down the bar and the little
flags
are
the littlebits of
cooling
curve (b)
that the blocks would
perform
in
say
1 min. ifthe
supply
of heat
were
suddenly
arrested.
The total loss is therefore
equivalent
to mass
of
any
one
block
X
specific
heat
X
total
height
in
degrees
of all the little
flags.
[Notice
how Lees's method above described is
a
cutting
and
shortening
of this
bar,
made
possibleby
the smaller
quantity
of
heat to be
dissipated.]
Lees has used miniature
long
bars with electricalheater and
thermometers,
and
combining
modern
experimental
refinement
with the most strictcalculation has measured the thermal
con- ductivities
of
many
metals
at
temperatures
down to
"185",
findingthat,
utterly
unlike electrical
conductivities,
most of them
remain
practically
unaltered
at all
temperatures.
"
182
:
It should be noted that the rate at which heat
first
spreads
or
diffuses depends
not
only
on C,
but also
on
the
specific
heat. For ifthe latter is
small,so
that
only
a
small fraction of
a
calorie need be leftin each cubic
centimetre,a
littleheat
can soon
travel
a
long
way.
The firstflush
passes
rapidlythrough
bismuth
(C
=
-018,
sp.
ht. -03
;
compare
iron C
-17,
sp.
ht.
-11).
170 A HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS
Other
thingsbeingequal
it
can
be shown that the distance to
which heat
spreads
is.
proportional
to the
square
root
of
the time
occupied.
Hence
even a
poor
conductor
can
momentarily
snatch
a
little
heat from
a
body suddenlycoming
into
good
contact with it"
your
bare
foot
on
oilcloth.
The
daily
wave
of warmth
may
penetrate
a
foot into the
ground (not
very
strongly;
work
your
hand down into the
shingle) : a water main
a
yard
down is
secure
against
a
long
(English)
frost,
and the annual
wave
is
hardly
felt below 50 ft.
And
consequently, large
masses
which must
necessarily
scatter
their heat far
afield,
take
a
long
time to cool. The hot fibre of
an
Irwin
oscillograph
cools in about -0002
sec.
;
the 1000-ton anvil,
cast in
situ,
of
a
large
hammer, was
unapproachable
for six
months
;
and the
earth,
with its
temperature gradient
of 1
"
C.
in about 100 feet of
depth,
emits less than half
a
calorie of its
internal heat
per square
centimetre
per
day.
Table
of
Conductivities
for
Heat
Silver 1-09
Copper, gold
-70
Aluminium
,
Brass,
zinc
. ,
Iron
(about)
Lead
. .
"34
"20
"17
"08
Quartz (length)
.
-02
Marble -005
Glass -0015
Gutta-percha . .
-0005
Vulcanized rubber -0001
Wood -0002 to -0005
Ice -0055
\
Water -00136 /
Mercury
-0154
Many organic
liquids
-0003 to -0004
Gases -00003 to -00035
EXAMPLES." CHAPTER XX
2. Describe various modes in which heat
can
be transmitted. Show
how convection
can be used in
heating buildingsby
hot water and for
ventilating
purposes.
[L]m.
3. Define
conductivity
and show how
'
diffusivity
of
temperature
'
differs from it.
[D]m.
4. Define
conductivity
for heat and
explain
how it
can
be measured
for
a good
conductor like
copper.
[L.]
5. Describe
a
simple
method of
measuring conductivity
of wood.
What
source
of
error
is met with in
applying
the method to
metals
and how has it been avoided ?
[L.]
6. Three thermometers
(a)
next skin, (b)
between vest and
shirt,
(c)
between shirt and coat read
30-1", 24-8",
and 21-4" C. Vest and
shirt
being equally
thick,
calculate their relative conductivities.
[L]m.
CHAPTER XXI
THE MECHANICAL
EQUIVALENT OF HEAT
"
183. In the
history
of the
Principle
of the Conservation of
Energy perhaps
the
most
important chapter
is that
dealing
with
the determination of the Mechanical
Equivalent
of Heat.
Bacon and Locke had surmised that the well-known
produc- tion
of heat
by friction,
which checked visible
motion, might
be
the conversion of that motion into
an
invisible commotion
among
the ultimate
particles
of
substances,
but the
theory
in favour
even
up
to
the middle of the nineteenth
century
was " as ex- pounded
by
Black in the middle of the
eighteenth
"
that heat
was
an igneous
fluidor caloric,permeating
the
pores
of all substances.
It
was
admitted that caloric
was weightless,
for
a
balance
bearing
a
bottle of
water
counterpoised by
brass
weights
continued in
equilibrium
after
a
stay
of
many
hours in
a
cold
room
had frozen
the
water and thus caused it
to
give
up
latent caloric
amounting
to
more
than
a
hundred times that lost
by
the brass
weights.
Count
Eumford,
the
English
director of the arsenal at Munich,
was
struck
by
the heat
developed
in
boring cannon " doubtless,
like
most of
us,
he had
picked
up
borings
fresh from the tool
"
and he made
experiments
to find out whether the current
ex- planation,
that caloric had been
squeezed
out of the solid
metal,
was probable. By
the
now
familiar
specific-heatexperiment
he
could find
no
difference in the
capacity
for heat of solid metal
and of
borings,
and in
1798 he set
a
horse to work
a
blunt
boring
tool
on a cannon
'
casting-head
'
immersed in
water,
and exul- tantly
records his friends' astonishment when in
2|
hours 2
gal.
of
water boiled while
only a
pound
of
chips
had been
produced.
Sir
Humphry Davy
in the
following
year
rubbed
together
two
pieces
of ice in
a frosty atmosphere (and even
in
vacuo)
and
showed
that,
with
no possible access
of heat from
without,
the
friction
continuously
melted the
ice,actually producing a liquid
which,
it
was
agreed,
contained
not less but
more
caloric than
the ice.
172
MECHANICAL
EQUIVALENT
OF HEAT 173
"
184. But it
was not till1840 that Joule of
Manchester and
others
began
to make
extremely
accurate
experiments
on
the
relation of work and
heat,
and to find that in whatever
way
they
effected the conversion "
by compressing
air,
by churningwater,
by grinding
metal
platestogether, by hammering
lead,
by
way
of
electro-magnetic
induced
currents,
etc. "
a
perfectlydefinite
quantityofje"chanical'work completely
converts into
one
unit
of
heat.
TlM
quantity
is termed the Mechanical
Equivalent of Heat
(dynamicalequivalent,
Joule's
equivalent, J).
Heat is thus
a
'
mode of motion
'
"
a
form of
energy.
Joule's favourite
apparatus
in his earlier
experiments
was one
in which
falling weights
drove
a
paddle
and churned
water. It
was a
tedious
experiment,demanding
" and
receiving
" the
most
exquisite
care.
He found that 772 ft.-lb.
produce
one
British thermal unit
(pound "F.). Subsequent
allowance for
discrepancy
between his sensitive
mercury
thermometers and
the
hydrogen
scale,
and for
gravity
at
Manchester,
has raised
this to 777 ft.-lb.
N.
Him went to work the
opposite
way
;
he
found,that there
was
a
greater
difference between the heat contained in the live and
the exhaust steam from
an
engine
when it
was
working
hard than
when
runninglight.
He measured this and found 1391 ft.-lb.
= llb. "C.
"
185. Notice that there is
always
an
'
exhaust.' The definition
of J
given
above cannot be read backwards. Different forms
of
energy
are
mutually
convertible
(with
but small frictional
loss)
and all do
naturally
and
completely
convert into heat
;
but
heat stands
apart ;
no machine,
practical
or
theoretical, can
convert all the heat it is
supplied
with into
any
other form of
energy.
The remainder is
not
lost,
it
simply
continues
as heat,
at
a lower
temperature
and less useful. It has
paid
toll to the
Principle
of the
Dissipation
of
Energy,"
26.
"186.
In
a
laboratory apparatusformeasuring
J the brake- wheel
of
Fig.
4 is
a brass drum filledwith water and with
a
thermometer
stuck in
axially,
the
straps
are silk ribbon. It is found that not
more
than
-5
%
of the frictionalheat
produced
escapes
outwards
through
the
silk,
practically
all
going
to
warm the water. Then
by "
28 the
Work done in
ergs
=circumferencex net
pull
in
dynes
Xno.
of
turns,
and this
converts into
calories= water
equiv.
of drum and water x
rise of
temperature
174 A HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS
with the usual
cooling
correction. Hence the number J of
ergs
which =1 calorie. Machines like
this,or
the
common
'cone'
friction-mill, or
youthfulattempts
to
imitate the firesticks of the
South
Seas,serve
at
any
rate to
impress
on
the
user how small
a
heat
a
great
labour kindleth.
"
187. Eecent
(1900)experiments
at Manchester
were carried
out with
a
'
hydraulic
'
brake, a
sort of reversed turbine. Two
large
cast-iron saucer-like wheels
closely
face each
other,
each is
partitioned
up
inside into radial
pocketsslanting
to meet
those
on
the other wheel. Water
run
in
getscaught
up
and
flungviolently
from wheel
to
wheel,
whereby
one
tends to
drag
the other
round. The
one was
rotated
by
a
100-h.p.engine,
and the other
was
prevented
from
following
it
by
a
load
on a
radial
steelyard.
Here the
'
circumference
'
in the calculation is that of the circle
on
which the load
hangs
and in
which it would have been hoisted.
To avoid thermometer
vagaries
the water
ran
in from
an
ice tank
and
came
out
boiling
into
a
weighing
tank. All the inevitable
heat
leakages
were most
carefully gauged
and allowed
for,
and
the result is
J=4;184xl07 ergs peroalorie
"
4-184
joules
per
calorie
=
12(90
ft.-rb.
per
Ib. "C.
=777 ft.-lb.
per
Ib. "F. = 1 British Thermal Unit.
EXAMPLES." CHAPTER XXI
1. Some
shot,
density 11-4,
sp.
ht.
-03,
is contained in
a
cardboard
tube 5 ft.
long
which is
so
manipulated
that the shot falls from end to
end 40 times. It is then
poured
round
a thermometer and found 4-7"
warmer
than before. Calculate J.
Work
spent among
shot = 40
x 5 =200 ft.-lb.
(per
Ib.
shot).
Heat obtained = -03x4-7 =
-
141 Ib. "C.
j
Neglecting
losses,
these are
equal.
/.
1420 ft.-lb.= 1 Ib. "C.
2. 200
grm.
hangs
from the rim of
a
brake wheel 80
cm.
circum- ference
and is
just kept suspended by
the friction between the
cones
of a
slipping
friction
'
clutch
'
which forms
part
of
a
calorimeter of
total water
equivalent
40
grm.
The calorimeter
warms
9-0"
during
1000 revs,
and
subsequently
cools -3" in half the time. Calculate J.
Work
spent
in friction = 200 X 80 X
981
X
1000
ergs
= 1570
joules.
Heatobtained =
40x(9-0 + -3)"
= 372cals.
3. Water at 15" C. and 1000 atmos.
pressure escapes
through
a
porous
plug
into the
atmosphere.
Find its
temperature.
Work
per
c.c. = 1000 X 1,016,
000
X
1
ergs
= 4- 18
x
107x 1
X
(t-15).
MECHANICAL
EQUIVALENT
OF HEAT 175
4. How has it been
proved
that heat is
a
form of
energy
? How can
heat
energy
be converted into
gravitational potential
energy
?
[L.]
5. When, how,
and where is heat
developed
as
the
equivalent
of
work done when
a man (a) jumps
down on
soft
ground, (b)
slides
slowly
down
a
rope,
(c)
walks downstairs ?
[L]m.
6. Waterfall is 78 ft.
high,
water at
top
is at 40" F. What would be
temperature
of water
(a)half-way
down, (b)
at bottom ?
[M.]
7. What must be
velocity
of
a
10-grm. body
if its kinetic
energy
would raise 1
kg.
of
substance,
sp.
lit. "!,
through
10"?
[M.]
8. State the law of conservation of
energy.
Calculate the
velocity
with which
a piece
of lead must strike the
ground
in order to raise it
from 16" C. to the
melting point,
326"
C.,
sp.
ht. -031.
[L.]
9. 16-lb. hammer falls
on
2-lb. iron at 20 ft.
/sec.
30 strokes
per
minute. If half
energy goes
in
heating
iron how much will it rise in
lOmin.
(sp.
ht.
J)
?
[Ab.]
10. A
"-lb.
snowball thrown
across
the line is struck
by
the buffer-
beam of
an engine travelling
60
m.p.h.
How much of the snow
is
melted
by
the shock ?
[Ab]rn.
11. A
copper
calorimeter
weighing
100
grm.
contains 990
grm.
of
water at 15" C. The water is stirred
by a paddle
which makes 1000 revs.
The
driving couple
is 108
dyne cm. The water rises to 30" C. Calcu- late
J.
[L.]
12. Water under a head of 21
m.
is drawn
through a
half
-open tap
into
a
pail.
Calculate its rise of
temperature.
13. A meteorite
initially
at 0" C. meets the earth's
atmosphere
and
is
vaporized by
frictional
heating.
If its
mean
sp.
ht.
were 0-2,
its
boiling point
3000"
C.,
and latent heat of
vapour
50, and
^
the heat
developed
is
simultaneously
lost
by
radiation, etc.,
find minimum
speed
at first contact.
14. A basin of water at 40" F. is warmed for
washing
the hands
by
pouring
in
a
quart
of
boiling
water. What addition of
energy
in foot-
tons does this
represent
?
15. A tramcar endeavours to
start,
but the wheels
slip
and 50
h.p.
goes
for 2
sec.
in
grinding
up
steam from the rails. How much moisture
is
evaporated
?
[Total
heat of steam 1090 B.Th.
units.]
16. Calculate the
practical efficiency
of
a
very
good
steam
engine
which
requires 1"
Ib. coal
(giving
7000 B.Th. units
per
Ib.)
per
horse- power
hour.
17.
Assuming
that one-seventh the
energy
of the coal is utilizable
by
the
engine,
what
weight
of coal
(giving
7000 B.Th. units
per
Ib.)
is
wasted when
a
200-ton train is
stopped by
the brakes from 27
m.p.h.
?
18. A tri-car
engine
averages
2
h.p.
for 5 hours
on
1
gal.(3500 grm.)
of
petrol
of calorific value
10,000
cal.
per grm.
Calculate its
efficiency.
19. A
steam
pile-driver
burnt
f
ton of coal
(7000
B.Th. units
per
Ib.)
while
delivering
2000 blows with
a
2-ton
monkey falling
3 ft. Calculate
its
efficiency.
The
concrete
pile was
driven 15
ft.,
it was
specified
to
carry
30 tons. Estimate the theoretical
efficiency
of the whole
process.
CHAPTER XXII
CHANGE OF STATE" MELTING OR FUSION
"
188. If
a
thermometer is
put
into
a
vessel
among
fragments
of
a
solid,
such
as naphthalene or sulphur,
the whole
steadily
supplied
with heat and the thermometer
watched,
its
steady
rise
presently
ceases.
On
inspection,
what has
happened
is that the
substance has
begun
to melt
"
to
change
its
physical
state
from
solid
to
liquid.
And
provided
that it is
kept
well stirred
up
so as
to
expedite
the
sluggish spreading
of heat
through
the mixture
and
prevent
local
overheating,
the thermometer
moves hardly
at
all until
all the solid has
melted,
then
resumes
its
steady
rise.
Repeating
the
experiment as
often
as
you
like with the
same
material the thermometer will
always
stick at this
same Melting
Point
of
temperature.
Further,
if the
liquid
is allowed to cool
and
congeal,
the
falling
thermometer will stand
steady
for
some
time at
this
same
temperature,
now a Freezing
Point.
Clearly
the transition of
any
particular
substance from its
solid to
its
liquid
condition
"
(a)
takes
place reversibly
at
a
definite
temperature ;
(b)
involves the
absorption
and
disappearance
of
a
charac- teristic
quantity
of heat and
conversely
its
reappearance
during
solidification. For
on
the
way up
heat is
poured
into the sub- stance,
without
affecting
its
temperature,
for
a
time
proportional
to
the amount" to
be melted
;
and
on
the
way
down the
body
goes
on giving
out heat
to its
surroundings
at
the usual rate for
some
time without
any
diminution of
temperature.
When the solid has been
brought
up
to
the
melting point already,
the number
of
calories then
required
to melt
one
gramme
of
it is
called its Latent Heat of Liquefaction, or
the Latent Heat
of
the
substance in its
liquid
state.
The
Melting Point, or more conveniently
the
Solidifying
Point
of
any
substance is determined in
precisely
the
way
suggested
above, by finding
where the
heating or cooling curve (cf.Fig. 76)
of
a potful
of it shows
a
horizontal
'
flat.' For
very
low
or
very
176
MELTING OR FUSION 177
ighmeltingpoints
of
course
special
thermometers
(preferably
electric)
must
be used.
The measurement of the Latent Heat of Fusion "
or
the
equal
development
of heat
on
solidification " has been described in
Chapter
XVIII.
"
189.
The
process
of Fusion isnot
always
so
simple
as
outlined
above.
Often the substance
begins
to soften
long
before it
melts,
from
plastic
solidit
passes
by
slow
stages
into
very
viscous
liquid,
having
all the time
an
increased
specific
heat,
and the tem- perature
at which it
finally
takes
up
the small remainder of its
latent heat and
satisfactorily liquefies
may
or
may
not be
sharply
marked, see "
195. Of
pure
crystalline
substances Platinum and
Iron are
plastic
and weldable 500" before
melting
but melt
sharply
at last
;
Silica
(quartz)
softens
at
1500",
can
presently
be worked in the
oxy-gas
flame like
glass,
can
later be shot
or
blown into
threads,
and has
no
well-defined
meltingpoint.
The
'
colloid
'
glass
is at best
a
treacly liquid slowlyhardeningthrough
working
and
annealingstages
to its usual condition of not
altogether perfectsolidity, "
146.
Substances of mixed
composition
often
give
two or more
flats
on a
slow
cooling
curve
"
solidifying points
of fractions of
definite
composition crystallizing
out of the fluid. This of
course
means a
period
of
plasticity.
The fusible
alloys
used as solders
show this
very
well,
the
plumber'sjoints
are
'
wiped
'
when in
a
clay-like
condition of solid
grains
and fluid metal. The solidi- fication
of
paraffin
wax
may
take
place
in three
closely succeeding
steps,
and
near the other end of the
paraffin
series the
lightest
petrol
is such
a
mixture that it has
only
reached the viscous
liquidstage
at "190" C.
"
190.
Frequently
a
liquid
cools below its
freezingpoint
without
any
signs
of
freezing,
but this undercooled condition
is of
course
unstable. Sooner
or later
rapid
solidification
begins,
and
setting
free latent
heat,
raisesthe whole
mass
up
to itstrue
freezing point,
and
continuing
more
slowlykeeps
it there tillall
is solid. This undercooled condition is
perhaps
most
easily
induced ifthe
liquid
is
dispersed
in
dropsthrough
another
liquid,
sulphur
in zinc
chloride solution has been cooled
even to 0" C.
without
solidifying,
and
water in oilto "20" C.
Undercooling
is often
a
convenience rather than not in find- ing
freezing points,
for the sudden rise of the thermometer
12
178 A HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS
and its
subsequent
steadiness makes the determination
very
definite.
The condition
is
closelyanalogous
to that of the
'Super- saturated
Solutions
'
of the
chemist,
made
by dissolving
silver
nitrate,
say,
in
a
minimum of hot water
or
by melting
sodium
sulphate, thiosulphate, etc.,
in their
own
*
water of
crystallization
'
plus
a
very
little
more.
These solutions
habitually
refuse to
crystallize spontaneously,
but do
so
when
violently
shaken
up,
and
get
warm
from the liberated
'
latent heat of solution.'
[For
to
liquefy
these substances in either
way,
whether
by
fusion
or
by
solution,
entails a
largeabsorption
of heat. Let the
photo- grapher
recollect how
intensely
cold the bottle becomes when
making
up
'
hypo,'
or
sulphocyanidesolution.]
The acetate of
soda footwarmers at
one
time
provided
on
the L.N.W.
Railway
could be restored to usefulness after their first time of
cooling
by
a
vigorous
shake.
The surest
provocative
of
crystallization
in these
supersaturated
solutions is
a
crystal
of the solid itself.
"
191. It is well known that
a
distinct
Change
of Bulk
accom- panies
Fusion.
This
change
is
easily
measured
by weighing
out
w
of the substance into
a
dilatometer
(say
a
specific-gravity
bottle)
filling
up
with water* and
finding
total
weight
b
just
below
meltingpoint
and total
weight
a
just
above
meltingpoint
when
all has melted.
Then 6" a
=
weight
of water*
expelled.
(b" a)-fdensity
of water
*
at
temp,
of
expt.=
volume of water*
expelled.
w
-^-density
of sub stance = volume of substance.
Vol. of water*
expelled-f-vol.
of substance =
expansion
per
c.c.
of substance
on
melting.
[Iftemperatures
before and after differ
appreciably, experi- ments
are
made at lower and
highertemperatures
to find the
average
loss of
weight
per
degree
as
the contents
expand
without
change
of
state,
and this is
applied
as a
small correction in
reckoning
the sudden
change.]
Whichever
is the bulkier of
course
rises to the
top
in
a
mixture.
"
192. The
change
of bulk
lays
the
process
of fusion
open
to
the influence of mechanical
pressure.
For
evidently
if
an
obstacle
*
Or
mercury.
180 A HANDBOOK OF
PHYSICS
Thus the
figures
in the table at the encl of this
chapter
show
a
large
effect for
naphthalene,
where 30 atmos. would raise the
meltingpoint
1"
C.,
while for
water,
with its
great
latent
heat,
it takes
1-i-
-0072 = 139 atmos. to lower the
freezingpoint
one
degree.
"
194. Ice.
The rather
exceptional properties
of Ice
have
so
profound
an
influence in nature that
they
demand
special
notice
here.
The latent heat of water
being
so
great
makes its
freezinga
slow
process,
and even small
quantities
take
a considerable time
to freeze solid.
Conversely
the
thawing
of ice in
mass
takes
a
very
long
time, icebergs
drift far into
warmer seas
and
stronger
sunshine before
their
dissolution,
ice is
won on Etna from
quarries
where
snows
of unknown
age
have become
deeply
thatched with
volcanic ashes.
Ice floats,
having
in
freezingexpanded
one-eleventh in bulk
and
gone
down
to
a
density
of
-918,
and
averaging
a
good
deal
lighter
when the multitudes of bubbles which
give
it its whiteness
are
taken into account " the bubbles of air dissolved in the water
but thrown out of it in
freezing,
for air is insoluble in ice.
[The
estimate,
based
on
this
density,
of the relative bulk of
an
iceberg
submerged,
is said to be
frequently
excessive
on
account of the
berg beingpartlycomposed
of
imperfectly
consolidated
snow.
A foot of fresh
snow
is
equivalent
to
only
an
inch of
water.]
Forming
a
firm
floating layer,
ice shields the
water from the
wind which
was
rippling
and
stirring
up
the surface strata.
Hence,
and also
as
it is
a
poor
conductor of heat
(-0054),
the rate
of loss of heat from
a
pond
once
well frozen
over
is much less
than it
was
before
freezingbegan.
Thus the total formation of
ice in
a
frost is
a mere
fraction of what it would be ifice sank.
In
some
clear-running
rivers,however,
for instance the Avon
at Christchurch,ground
ice
is formed. The water of the
river,
kept
mixed
by
the
current,
has cooled to the
freezingpoint,
or
perhaps
even
undercooled
a
trifle
;
the shallow river-bed itself
has radiated its heat
through
the clear
water
and
may
have
fallen
even
below
zero.
Little ice
crystals
are
formed somewhere
in the
streaming
water and
gettingentangled
in
vegetation
at the
bottom form nuclei of
crystallization
round which ice
grows.
Masses thus formed
may
often
uproot
their
anchoring
weeds when
the thaw
comes.
The
expansion
in
freezing
has
an
effect
on
domestic water-
MELTING OR FUSION 181
pipesonly
too
unpleasantly apparent
when the
subsequent
thaw
releases their contents.
The thick lead service
pipes(""
bore
6
lb./yd., !"
9
Ib./ycl.)
now
insisted
on
by
the water
companies
are,
however, a
real
protection againstmishap,
as
any
plumber
will
cheerlessly
admit.
They
are
uniformlystrong,
so
that
one
particular spot
does not
readilybulge
and weaken
:
water shut
in between earlier-frozen
parts
in these
pipes
may
rise to
such
a
pressure
as
it freezes
as to
partially
melt the ice
plugs
and
escape
back into the mains. But the stoutest
hydraulicpipesexposed
to
quick
hard frost soon
split.
The
investigation
of the
lowering
of the
freezingpoint
of water
with
pressure
has been carried much farther than in
"
192. In
1785
Major
Williams filled with
water two cast-iron bombshells
13 in. diam. and 2 in. thick and
exposed
them to
the arctic
night.
One shot its
plug
140
yd.
and 8 in. of ice
protruded
from the
fuse-hole"
a
jet
of mixed ice and
water
frozen
instantaneously
solid
as
it
was
driven forth" the other
split
and
a
thin frillof
ice 2 in. wide exuded from the crack.
Evidently
a
proportion
of the water
had
not frozen at all until the
pressure
was
relieved.
Mousson froze water in
a narrow
bore in
a stout block of
steel,
and then forced down
on to it
a
plug
of soft
copper
by
a
steel
screw
cap.
A littlebrass rod had been frozen in at the bottom of the
ice and
now
the
screwed-upapparatus
was
inverted and
un- screwed,
when the rod
was
found frozen in at the other end of the
bore " the ice had been melted
by
pressure
even at "18" C.
Hopkins
in 1854
repeated
the
experiment
with
a
bronze tube.
A little
magnet
remained frozen in at the
top
of the tube until
hydrostatic
pressure
applied
at
the bottom
(from
a
loaded oil
piston,Fig.40)
melted the ice and
a
compass
needle showed
that the
magnet
had
dropped.
Dewar in
1880 reversed the
procedure
of
"
192.
By
pump
and
Bourdon
gauge
he fixed the
pressure
in
a
steel
cylinder
of ice and
water,
and
an
enclosed thermo-
junctionpresently
settled down
to indicate the
corresponding freezing point.
At 700 atmos. this
was
just
below "5" C.
The action of
freezing again
as soon as
the
pressure
is relieved
is called
Regelation.
In
a
well-known
experiment
a
block of ice
is
bridged
between two stools and
a
heavy weight
is
hung
in
a
loop
of thin steel wire round the middle of the block. The wire
slowly
cuts
through
the ice but leaves it
as
solid
as
ever,
with
only
a
slight filmy
appearance marking
itstrack. The
pressure
under
182 A HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS
the wire lowers the
meltingpoint,
the ice
melts,
the water
escapes
past
the wire and refreezes above
it,
its latent heat
being
con- ducted
down
through
the wire
(all
below
0")
to the
cutting
side,
which is
a
fraction of
a
degree
colder.
Catgut,
a
bad
conductor,
fails
by
not
returning
this heat fast
enough;
mere
pressure
of
course
cannot
go
on
liquefying
indefinite
quantities
of
ice,
and
the
energy
of fall of the
weight
is also
quiteinadequate
: no
regelation,
no
cutting.
The
weight
on a skate-blade,or
that of
a
curling-stone, liquefies
a
surface film at the
areas
of
contact,
and the skater
or
the stone
glides
on a
thin lubricant
producedexactly
when and where it is
wanted,
and the
more
freely
the harder the
pressure
"
an
ideal
system
of lubrication
scarcely
attainable
by
the
engineer, though
occasionally
imitated
by orange-peel.
Regelation
confers
on
Snow its
binding
power.
Very
cold
snow
is
typically
fine and will
not bind
;
in
a
less
frigidatmosphere
the flakes
are
larger
"
alreadyclung together
" and bind into
admirable snowballs and miniature
roof-glaciers.
The
pressure
of
crystal
on
crystal
melts the
points
of contact
and
squeezes
out water which
immediately
refreezes all round them and seals
the
grainstogether.
In this
way
the soft
snow
of the snow-fields
gradually
com- presses
and combines into the clear ice of the Glacier. The
weight
of the
glacier
on
its
sloping
bed bears hard
on
projecting
bosses of
rock,
crushes and
partlyliquefies
the ice
there,
and
squeezes
it round them to refreeze
again
on
the lee side.
From this
action,
together
with the existence of
'
glidingplanes
'
in the ice
crystals, "
99,
the whole
glacier
of hard elastic ice
streams on
like
a
river of
very
viscous
liquid,
at
a
speedaveraging
perhaps
18 in.
a
day
in the
Alps,
but
reaching
as
much
as 80
ft.
a
day
in the ice sheet of Greenland. Embedded in its under
surface,
by
the
same action,are
the hard
fragments
of rock
which
so
slowlygrind
its bed to the
polish
that
may
endure for
unknown thousands of
years
after the
glacier
has
disappeared.
Doubtless the warmth carried down the
crevasses
by
falls
of sun-melted
water,
and also the internal warmth of the earth
itself,
have
a
great
deal to do with
keeping
the lower surface of
the
icy
blanket
near
enough
to 0" C. for
pressure-melting
to be
practicable.
Ice is
a
very
volatile
solid,
giving
off
even
at "10" C.
as
much
as
24
grin,
of
vapour
into
a
cubic metre of
air,
and at
0" twice
this
amount,
see
Fig.
83, a
far
greatervolatility
than that of
MELTING OR FUSION 183
camphor,
etc.
Recollect how ice and
snow disappear
from the
pathsduring
a
few
days'windy
frost,
and how sheets from the
wash,
which went stiff
as
boards when first
hung
out to
dry,
become soft
again
in
a
few hours.
"
195
:
Iron is another substance of
great
interest.
Wrightson
attached 4-in. balls of
grey
Cleveland cast iron
(density
6-95
cold)
to
a
spring
balance and
plunged
them into
a
bath of the
same
iron molten
(density6-88). Presently
the ball
pushed
up
on
the
balance,
showing
a
density
6-50
;
if free it
floated well
out of the
liquid.
It
was now so
soft that
a
steel
pin
could be stuck
rightthrough
it,
ultimately
it
quitesuddenly
collapsed
into
liquid.[What
the tabulated latent heat
may
mean
is
doubtful,
in face of
this.]
Thus cast iron will
expand
some
6
%
in
solidifying
to the
plastic
condition
(waterexpands
9-3
%)
and this result
was
confirmed
by actuallymeasuring
the
diameters of 15-in. balls of both
grey
and white iron
as
they
solidified.
Doubtless this
expansion,
shared also
by type
metal, etc.j
assistsin
gettingsharpcastings.
Accordingly,
iron should exhibit
a
Regelation. Wrightson
electrically
heated
wrought-iron
bars in
a
close-fitting porcelain
tube to
a
'
welding
heat,'
1400" C.
Suddenlysqueezing
their ends
together
at 1200 Ib.
per sq.
in.
(80atmos.)
sent the
temperature
down
57" ! and the bars welded
together
as
the
pressure
was
removed. It is the
same
process
then that unites white-hot
iron under the hammer of the smith and cakes
snow
into
lumps
under the feet of the
wayfarer.
"
196
: Freezing
mixtures.
We have
already
noticed that the
liquefaction
of
a substance
by
solution in water
usually
demands
a
supply
of heat
[e.g.
per gramme
common
salt 20-7 cals.
;
sodium
thiosulphate
44
;
sodium
sulphate
cryst.
57
;
ammonium
sulphocyanide
75
;
ammonium nitrate 79
cals.]
Hence
a
soluble salt
rapidly
dissolved in cold water and
absorbing
this
'
latent heat of solution
'
will
bring
the
temperature
down
very
low for
a
time.
Half
a
pound
of
powdered
ammonium nitrate stirred into half
a
pint
of cold
water
may
reduce it to "15"
C.,
and
equalparts
of
powdered
sulphate
of soda and diluted
sulphuric
acid,or
hydro- chloric
acid,
will have about the
same
effect. These
are
the
184 A HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS
only
ice-less
freezing
mixtures
practical enough
to be worth
mention
[unless
one
includes solid carbon-dioxide
'
snow
'
dissolving
in ether at "79"].
Snow
or
ice-shavings dissolving
in about two-thirds their
weight
of
fairly strong
sulphuric
acid also reach about "15" C.
Doubly
effective
are
mixtures of ice and
a
solid
salt, where
both
liquefy.
1
part
of
coarse common
salt and 3 of broken ice
will reach "22"
C.,
and 3
parts
of
crystallized
calcium chloride
and 2 of ice reach
"55", easily freezing
mercury.
The action
is that the salt
continuously
dissolves
to
a
saturated solution in
the
liquefying ice,
and the
temperature
reached is the
melting
point
of ice in
equilibrium
with saturated solution of the salt.
For how it
comes
about that this is
so
much lower than its
melting point
in
equilibrium
with
pure
water
the reader should
immediately
consult
"
273.
MELTING OR FUSION 185
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CHAPTER XXIII
CHANGE OF STATE" VAPORIZATION
QUITE
differently
to fusion,
the
Vaporization
of
a
substance
goes
on
at
all
temperatures
up
to
a limiting
'
boilingpoint/
when
quiet Evaporation suddenly
passes
into turbulent
Ebullition.
"
197. That
Evaporation
is
constantly going on
is evidenced
by
the smell of aromatic
substances,
many
of which
disappear
so slowly
that their loss of
weight
in
a
week
may
be
inappreciable;
instance the famous
grain
of musk. Then there is the
dryness
of
the soil
by day
and its
dampness
in the cool of
evening, proving
that
plenty
of moisture
was
all the while
coming
up
from
below,
and will
soon
be
hanging as a
mist when the air has become too
cool to retain it
as
vapour.
And
wisps
of mist wreathe
over a
sheltered
running
brook in
a
frost.
That the Rate of
Evaporation
is hindered
by
vapour
already
present
in the air
we acknowledge by settingthings
to
dry
in
a
wind
or
in
a draught,
to blow the moisture-laden air
away.
That the rate increases
very
rapidly
as
the
temperature
rises
is
a
fact forced
on our
attention in the
summer,
and
one we
all
make
use
of in
drying or airing
clothes,
etc.,
before the fire.
"
198. How
rapid quiet evaporation
can
become is
strikingly
shown
by
the
phenomenon
of the
Spheroidal
State.
Drops
of water
thrown
on a
red-hot
plate"
e.g.
the
top
of the
kitchen stove
when
really
hot
" run
about
hastily,
but
only
gradually
shrink
up
and
disappear,
without the least noise. A
bright-red-hot
iron,
plunged
into water
and held
still,
goes
on
glowing
for
many
seconds without
producing
any very
violent
disturbance in the water. Hot molten metal
can
be
harmlessly
poured over damp
hands, as can
the volatile
liquid
air
over dry
hands,
220"
warmer
than itself. Carbonic-acid
'
snow
'
can
be
fingeredlightly
almost
as safely
as
cotton
wool.
The
explanation undoubtedly
is that the
vapour
of the volatile
substance
(water, air, C02)
is
being produced
so
fast from the
186
188 A HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS
way,
thoughnormally
one
might
say
its
meltingpoint
isabove its
boilingpoint.
"
200. The increase of volume
accompanying vaporization
is
very great.
It is found
by measuring
the
density
D of the
liquid
and
that,d,
of its
vapour
at the
same
temperature.
This
change
of
density
means a
D/cZ-fold expansion.
Since d increases fast
as
the
temperature
of
vaporization rises,
this lattermust
be
specified.
See
table,
p.
185.
NOTE. " -d is
not
the chemists'
'
vapour
density,'
which refers
to
hydrogen
as
standard.
A
great
deal of external work must therefore be done
by
the
evaporatingliquid
in
lifting
the
atmosphere
to
make
room
for its
vapour.
This
work, however,
represents
on
the
average
only
one-
eleventh of the total
energy-
value of the latent heat of
vaporiza- tion,
the remainder is
spent
in
disentangling
the molecules from
their mutual
liquidbondage.
But it shows that increased
pressure
will raise the
boiling point,
and
greatly.
"
201. Determination of the
density
of
a
vapour.
" This is
carried out
as
for
a
gas
in
" 124,
but
usually
without
employing
an
air-pump.
Some
liquid
is
put
in and the 3-in. bulb
plunged
into
a
bath of
water,
oil,or
other suitable
liquid
at
a
temperature
well above the
boilingpoint
of the
liquid
whose
vapour
density
is to be determined. The
vapour
washes
out
all
air,
and
being
sealed
up
when the outrush
ceases
the bulb contains the
weight
of
substance which fillsit
as
vapour
at the
temperature
and
pressure
of
experiment.
This
weight"
the observed increase of
weight
-{-(calculated) weight
of air which filledit
originally.
Then the
bulb is
opened
under water which rushes into the
place
of the
condensed
vapour,
and hence its volume is obtained.
Other methods
are
detailed in all the
chemistry
books. Here
we are
concerned more
with the
pressure
of the
vapour,
which
depends
on
the closeness of
packing
of the molecules and their
average energy
of
motion,
and not
on
their internal constitution.
"
202. The Pressure of
a Vapour.
The obvious
way
of
finding
the
vapour pressure
of
a
substance
is to introduce it into the Torricellian
space
at the
top
of the
barometer,
where the
vapour
forms
quickly,
unhindered
by
air,
and drives down the
mercury
for
a
distance which
measures
its
pressure,
now
substituted for the dead
weight
per square
centi- metre
of that
depth
of
mercury.
The
process
is
frequently
demonstrated
as
in
Fig.
82. Three
VAPORIZATION 189
or
four barometer tubes stand side
by
side. The firstis
kept
as
standard
;
under the foot of the second
a
few
drops
of water
are
blown from
a
little
glass
'
filler
'
with
a
bcnt-uppoint;
and
under the third
some
ether. The
liquids
float
up
the
tubes,
the
water
drives the
mercury
down
only
1
or 2
cm.,
but the ether is
much more effective, having evidently
a
much
greatervapour
pressure
at
ordinarytemperatures,
and serves
better for demon- stration
and
argument.
FIG. 82.
The first
drop
or
two sent
up
break into
long
bubbles of
vapour
half-way
up,
and the
mercury
after
being
thrown about
violently
ttles
perhaps
10 to 20
cm.
lower than it
was, indicating
this
uch
pressure
in the
perfectly dry
vapour
above it. Another
dropbrings
it down
farther,
having
increased both the
quantity
and the
pressure
of the
dry
vapour.
But
continuingdrop by drop,
some
liquidpresently
remains
unvaporized
at the
top
of the
mercury,
and further
supplies
are
now
quite
ineffective
;
the
vapour
has
evidently
reached its
maximum elastic
pressure
and
can
drive the
mercury
no
lower.*
*
Of
course the dead
weight
of a
lot of
liquid
will
help
press
the
mercury
down,
but
only
about
l/20th depth
of ether.
190 A HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS
"
203. For
distinction,
the former
vapour,
into which more
liquid
could
evaporate
and increase its
pressure,
is
spoken
of
as
unsaturated. The
latter,
which
can
take
up
no more
liquid,
is
a
Saturated
Vapour,
it remains
unchanged
when in contact
with its
liquid,
all
at the
same
temperature. Vapours
in
these two
con- ditions
behave
very
differently.
The
hastyevaporation
of
spiltliquid
air shows that for the
present
purpose
Air
may
be
regarded
as
the unsaturated
vapour
of this
liquid,
and
therefore,
for
comparison
with the saturated
vapour,
some
air
can
be blown into
a fourth barometer tube until
it
brings
the
mercury
down to the
same
level
as
in the other tube.
Now inclinethese two
tubes,
the
mercury
starts
runningalong
both towards their closed
ends,
for of
course
it is its vertical
height
that
measures
pressure.
In the air
(unsaturated vapour)
tube, however,
its level
falls,
for the
compression
of the im- prisoned
air
by
the
advancing
mercury
has raised its
pressure,
according
to
Boyle's
law. But in the saturated
vapour
tube
the level falls
only
a trifle,
the
liquid
above the
mercury
increases
in
quantity,
and if the tube is left to itself for
a
minute
or
two
so
that the heat of
liquefaction
of this
may
be
dissipated by
cooling,
the
mercury
returns
exactly
to the levelit had
originally
in the vertical
position.
Now
suddenlylifting
to the vertical
again
the
excess
of
liquidimmediately
boils off and
(after
a
minute
or
two for
warming
after this loss of latent
heat)
the
mercury
stands
again
at the
same
level.
Evidently
the saturated
vapour
has
no
characteristic volume
of its
own,
so
long
as
there is
enough liquidpresent
to
keep
it
saturated. Eeduce the available
space
and
vapour
liquefies ;
increase it and
liquidevaporates.
As
soon as
equilibrium
is
reached either
way,
there is the
original
pressure
quite
unaltered.
At
a
fixedtemperature
the Saturated
Vapour
has
a
characteristic
pressure.
"
204. Rise of
temperature
increases this
pressure very
rapidly.
On the
vapour
tube,near
the lower
end,
where there is
liquid
to
evaporate
and
keep
up
the
saturation,a
touch of
a
flame will
send the
mercury
down with
a
rush. Whereas
heating
the
top
of the
tube,
where there is
no
liquid
to
evaporate
and
accordingly
the
vapour
becomes
locallyexpanded ('superheated')
and
therefore
unsaturated,causes
only
a
very
trifling
motion of the
mercury,
no more
than in the air tube after
a
similar treatment.
The rise of
pressure
of saturated
vapour
with rise of tem- perature
is shown in
Fig.83,
wherein the
portion
of the
curve
I
I
I I ' I
J
sowi-v g
li
8 =
it
4-4-
!
I
Tt
XI
V
192 A HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS
from "10" to
-f-100"
has been obtained from
a barometer
tube,
containing
water
as
the volatile substance and
jacketedby
an outer tube
through
which
a
fluid
at a
known
temperature
was
circulated. The
height
of
a
point
on
the
curve
shows the
pressure
at the
correspondingtemperature.
The
long
curve
(dotted
from "10" to
+50")
is
On a
vertical scale
graduated
in
centimetres of
mercury.
Its
slope,
i.e.the rate of rise of
pressure
with
temperature, changesenormously;
the rise between 95"
and 100" is 65 times
as
great
as
between 0" and 5". The lower
part
of this
curve
has therefore been shown
on a
ten times
mag- nified
vertical scale
(millimetres
of
mercury).
"
205. But
we
seldom
go
to the trouble of
removing
the air
from the
space
in which
a
vapour
is to be
produced. Commonly
we
leave the air in and let the
vapour
mix with
it,or
blow it
out
as
it
can.
Does
a
mixture of
vapour
and air
obey
Dalton's
Law,
that each
gas
in
a
mixture exerts its
own
partial
pressure
quite
unchangedby
the
presence
of the others ? does the
vapour
attain
the
same
'
partial
'
pressure
as
if there
were no
air
present
?
This
can
be tried
by
first
admitting
airto the Torricellian
space,
so as to
permanentlydepress
the
mercury,
and then
finding
if
the further
lowering
on
admittingliquid
is the
same as
before.
Or in another
way
(chemicalhygrometer)by using
a
chemical
to absorb all the saturated
vapour
which filled
an
otherwise
vacuous
space,
and, secondly,
all the
vapour
which formed in the
same
space
alreadyoccupiedby
air,
and
comparing
the two
increases in
weight.
The result is
that,as
nearly
as one can tell,
a
liquidevaporates
to the
same
ultimate saturation
pressure
into the
presence
of
a
permanent
gas
as
into
a vacuum.
Thus when ether has been
poured
from itsbottle,
and its
heavy
vapour
has
visibly poured
out
with
it,
and
a
lot of air has entered
in
replacement, evaporation
into this unsaturated air
immediately
begins
and raises the total
pressure
until the
stopper hops
out.
Soon an
equilibrium
is reached inside with
perhaps
4 atmos.
due
to
ether
vapour
and -6 to
air,
and the
stopperput
back
shows
no
further
tendency
to
lift
(unless
the
room
gets warmer).
And the barometric
pressure
is the total of the
partial
pressures
of
nitrogen,
oxygen, aqueous vapour, argon,
etc.
Example
1. Calculate the
weight
of
hydrogen
in 100
c.c.
of
electrolytic
gas
(2H-f O) standing over
water which rises 10 cm. into
the
graduated
tube. The
gas
is saturated with
moisture, at 17"
C.,
barometer 75-5
cm.
1
c.c.
dry hydrogen
at 0" and 76 cm. weighs
"0000895
grm.
Of total
pressure
in
tube,
which = 75-5-
(10^ 13-6)
= 74-75
cm.,
the
VAPORIZATION 193
water
vapour
accounts for 1-45 cm.
(Fig.83),leaving
73-3
cm.,
of which
the
hydrogen
causes
f,
=48-9 cm.
pressure.
Hence
V0=
/. weight
= 60- 5 x -0000895 = -00541
grm.
But mixed
vapours
of
mutually
soluble substances
obey
no
such
rule,
e.g.
the saturation
vapour pressure
of dilute alcohol is
far from
being
the
sum
of those of alcohol and
water.
"
206.
Evaporation
and Boiling.
Observe what
happens
as
water
is heated. Bubbles
soon
begin
to make their
appearance
:
each consists
mainly
of dissolved
air,
but
part
of itselastic
pressure
isdue to the
vapour
which has
evaporated
into it.
As the
temperature
rises the
'
partial
pressure
'
of
vapour
in
the bubble
(proportional
to the
percentageby
volume of
vapour
in
it)increases,
e.g.
at 50" about 9
cm.
is
vapour
and 76"9 = 67
air,
at 90" 52-5
vapour
and 23-5 air,
at 99" 73
vapour
and 3 aii.
Presently
therefore it takes
only
a
littleair to form
a
large
bubble at full
atmospheric
pressure.
The small
amount of air
usually
dissolved in the water therefore
produces
an
increasing
multitude of bubbles
as
the
temperature
rises,
and
these,as
they
gain
in size and
buoyancy,
float
up
to
the surface. All taken
together,
however,
they
have not
carried off much
vapour.
But when the
temperature
has risen
so
that the
vapour pressure
exceeds in the least the
hydrostatic
pressure
in the
liquid(made
up
of
super
jacentliquid-)- atmosphere,"62),
then bubbles
formed
of
vapour
only
have sufficient
strength
to withstand this
pressure,
and the
very
smallest trace of air will suffice to start a
bubble
which
can
grow
to
any
extent,
instead of
having
to
stop
when the
air
percentage
falls too low to make
up
a
balance of
partial
pressure.
Bubbles therefore start in
large
numbers at the hottest
parts,
but
rising
into cooler
liquid,collapse.
For the
cooling
of the
vapour
lowers its
pressure,
and the
hydrostatic
pressure
crushes
in the walls of the bubble with
an
audible
snap,
in the absence of
any
residual
'
air cushion
'
to soften the shock.
It is the noise of numbers of such
collapses
in its resonant
interiorthat makes the kettle
sing
:
the bottom
layer
of water
is
boiling hot,
though
the main bulk is far from it. Near the boil
the
song
is
softer,
the bubbles are
not
so
abruptly
condensed
by
the
warmer water.
The
bubbles
greatly
aid the convection of
heat,
setting
up
a
13
194
A HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS
rapid
stream
by
their
buoyancy,
and
giving
up
latent heat
as
they liquefy.
When the whole bulk of
liquid
has thus been warmed to this
temperature
at which
the
vapour pressure
just
exceeds the
hydrostatic pressure,
evaporationcontinuously
goes
on
into the
bubbles,they
grow
rapidly,
rise and burst in abundance
;
the
liquid
boils.
Vaporization suddenly
becomes much
more
rapid
because
of the
large
increase of available
evaporating
surface afforded
by
the
growing
bubbles.
Now,
any
attempt
to heat the
liquid
hotter
means a
greatly
increased
vapour pressure,
much faster
evaporation
at
any
surface that
presents
itself,
i.e.faster
output
of
larger
bubbles "
furious
boiling
"
taking
away
latent heat
so
rapidly
that the
liquid
can never
risemuch above the
temperature
at which
boiling
began.
Hence a
liquidbegins
to
visibly
boil when it readies the tem- perature
at which its saturated
vapour pressure
is
equal
to
that
of
the
atmosphere
on
its
surface,
and
thereafter
it
scarcely
rises in
temperature.
"
207.
This statement
requires
a
little
qualification,
for
sometimes a liquidcan be
*
overheated.' It
was
suggested
above
that
a
minute amount of air
was
still
acting
as
nucleus
:
certainly
Nuclei
of
bubble
formation
of
some
sort have to be
present
for
steadyboiling.
Everyone
has noticed how the bubbles in
a
beaker of
boiling
water stream
up
from invisible
specks
on
the
glass,
or
afloat.
Very
similarly,
while the
half-emptied
bottle of aerated water
is
gassing
quietly
from
a
few nuclear
points,
the tumbler "
up
till
then
exposed
to air,dust,cloth-fibres,
etc. " is
soon
quite
coated
with hundreds of bubbles and effervesces
briskly.
The
long-continued boiling
of water in
a
glass
vessel
gradually
changes
from
a
free continuous ebullition to
a
spasmodic
boiling
with bumping
" and all the
sooner
if there is
present
a
trace
of caustic
alkali,a
substance which assists the water to
dissolve
adherent
dirt and
glass
itself. In
perfectlyquiet
intervals
a
thermometer in the
liquid
will rise 5" or
10" above the normal
boiling point,
to
fall back to it when sullen
explosions
of
vapour
threaten to burst the vessel.
Coke,
pumice,
porous
potsherds,
etc.,
thrown into the
bumping liquid[and powdered
sugar
thrown into the aerated
water] originate
abundance of
frothy
bubbles,
and
steadyboiling
ensues
for
a
long
time. All
are
things
on
which air
persistently clings.
As in
undercooling,
this
over-
196 A HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS
Air is
pumped
into
or out of the reservoir R to
a
pressure
measured
by
the
mercury gauge
G and the
liquid
in the flask
(containing
a
potsherd
or
two)
boils
steadily
at the
temperature
corresponding
to this
pressure.
The reflux condenser C returns
the
boiled-awayliquid
and
keeps
R and G
comparatively
free of
vapour.
For
high temperatures Regnault
and others have built the
whole
apparatus
of metal and used
a
high-pressure
gauge.
The thermometer is
put
in the
Vapour
to avoid trouble from
bumping
or
dissolved
impurities.
The action isthat
pure
distilled
liquid
condenses
on
the thermometer bulb
(which
should be
protected
from
splashes)
and
equilibrium
is established between
this
liquid
and the
vapour
near
by.
"
209
:
The
generalshape
of the Saturated
Vapour
Pressure "
Temperature
Curve is the
same
for all substances.
Ramsay
and
Young
indeed discovered that when A and B
are
'
chemically
similar
'
Boilingpoint
"Absolute of A
TJ
.,.
"
.
.OAT.
"
r~i
"
Fri
" constant,
whatever the
pressure.
Boiling
point
Absolute of B
That
is,
if
0, A, W, M, S,
Fig.
85, are
the
curves
for substances
FIG. 85.
of different
volatility,
ZA :ZW:
ZM, etc.,as
Z'A': Z'W:
Z'M',
etc. Or,
if the
curve
W
were
drawn
on a
sheet of india-rubber
fastened
along
the Absolute Zero
edge
ZZ' and stretched hori- zontally,
the
curve
for the
more volatile,
lower
boilingpoint,
substance A would be obtained
by letting
the sheet relax tillW
reached A
;
or
the
curve
for the less volatile M
by stretching
the
elastic sheet further.
Even when
one
compares
as
in the
diagram
such
widely
different substances
as
oxygen,
whose normal
boilingpoint(i.e.
boilingpoint
at 76 cm.
barometric
pressure)
is 91"
A,
alcohol
351"
A,
water 373"
A,
mercury
632"
A,
and
sulphur
718"
A,
this
rule stillholds
as a
roughapproximation.Perhaps
itsfailurewith
hydrogen,boiling point
20-3"
A,
is excusable.
VAPORIZATION
197
An immediate
application
is in
correcting
observed
boiling
points
for barometric variations. The
change
of
boilingpoint
for
a
givenchange
of
pressure
is
proportional
to the
boilingpoint
in
"Absolute,
for Ww
: Ss,
etc.=ZW
: ZS,
etc.
And for substances
boiling
within 20"
or so
of water " alcohol,
carbon
tetra-chloride, toluene,
etc. " the
pieces
of curves AA',
WW,
etc.,
are
practically equal,
i.e.in all
ordinaryboiling-point
determinations of such
liquids,
the
same
barometric correction
as
for water can
be
allowed,
viz. 1" C. for
2-7 cm.
(roughly
1
in.)
barometric rise.
"
210. Points
on
the
curve
Fig.
83 refer
to Satu- rated
Vapour.
Points in the
space
below and
to
'
the
right (convex side)
of the
curve
refer
to Unsaturated
Vapour.
For from such
a
point
as N, one can
travel back to the
curve,
the
saturated
state,
in
two
typical
ways,
or
in
any
combination of them
:
"
I.
Along
NH
by reducing
the
temperature
without
change
of
pressure,
as
in
a
dew-point
hygrometer,"
226.
[Contraction
of
a
gas
cooling
at constant
pressure
"
Charles.]
II.
Along
NV
by raising
the
pressure
without
change
of
temperature,
as
by slanting
a
barometer
tube
containing
unsaturated
vapour
tillcondensa- tion
took
place. [Compression
of
a
gas
at
con- stant
temperature
"
Boyle.]
Thus
one can move
about
anywhere
in this
space,
but the
curve
is
an
impenetrable boundary.
"
211. Not
quiteimpenetrable,
however,
for
the
following experiment
will show that it is
possible
to break
through
into the
Supersaturation
Space
to the leftof it
(concave side).
A flask
containing
a
little lukewarm water is
connected
by
a
long
flexible
siphon
to a
further
supply
in
a
vessel
on
the
table,
Fig.
86.
Lowering
the flask to the
floor,
water
siphons
in and
com- presses
the air
a
trifle. It is
now
well shaken to
saturate the air and
suddenly
lifted
high
above
the table
;
water
runs
out, expanding
and therefore
cooling
the
air and hence
condensing
some
of its contained
vapour
into
a
mist
or cloud of
tiny drops.
A similar
expansivecooling
FIG.
198
A HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS
accounts for the mist that
clings
in the neck of
a
bottle of Bass
when the cork is drawn.
Violent
splashing partially
washes
away
the
cloud,
but it clears
up completely
as soon as
the flask is lowered
again
to
compress
and
warm
the air.
Eepeating
the
process
half
a
dozen times the
cloud is fainter each
time,
and
ultimately
no
cloud at all
can
be
persuaded
to form
although
the
supply
of
vapour
awaiting
condensation is
as
great
as ever.
If
now the flask be held at
table level and
opened
and
a
trace
of
smoke
admitted,
the
lowering
and
raising
will result in
a
regularfog. Evidently
it
was
for want of nuclei of condensation
that
the
vapour
had remained
supersaturated.
The dust
particles,
of which the air of the
room
probablyprovided
several thousand
per
cubic
centimetre,
had been
gradually
washed out while loaded
with
water. The smoke
provided
carbon
particles
in abundance.
In the absence of
dust,
and of electrified
'
ions,'
water
vapour
can
be raised to an
eight-fold supersaturation
before visible
precipitation
of moisture
ensues.
"
212.
The Cooling
effect of
Evaporation.
The
measurement of the Latent Heat of
Vapour
has
already
been described in
"" 166,
167.
If
a
liquid
is induced to
evaporate
without
supplying
it with
heat the
vapour
carries off
largequantities
of latent heat and
hence
the
liquid
is
rapidly
cooled. Water coolers of thick
porous
earthenware
(Spanish
"
alcarrazas)
are
widely
used in hot
countries
;
the
water
percolates
and
evaporates
from the surface
(kept
of
course in the
shade),cooling
the contents 10"
or more.
The chill of
damp
clothes is due to removal of latent heat as
the
warmth
of the
body
dries them.
Evaporation
of this sort is
promoted by removing
the
vapour
as soon as formed,
e.g.
by
Wind.
Everyone
knows the
intensely
chilling
effect of wind
on a
wet
skin,
everyone
blows on
hot tea
;
in hot
damp
weather,
when the air is
nearly
saturated,
everyone
longs
for
a
breath of wind to blow
away
the
vapour
and relieve
the insufferable closeness
by
once more
permitting
the natural
evaporative cooling
from skin and
lungs.
With
a more
volatile
liquid
the
cooling
is
exaggerated.
Hence
the
use
of
eau
de
cologne
to bathe
an
aching
brow,
hence the
stinging
cold of
petrolspilt
on
the
hands,
hence the
ease
with
which
a
tin box-lid
can
be frozen hard to
a
wet table
by pouring
a
little ether in and
blowing
on
it
through
a
wide
paper
tube,
VAPORIZATION 199
or
with the bellows. Hence too
the occasional
freezing
of
a
carburettor where
petrol
is
evaporatingrapidly,
and the hoar- frost
that forms
on a
steel bottle of nitrous oxide when it
is
freshlyopened
for
use
and the
liquid
is
boiling
away
into
anaesthetic
vapour
under 40 atmos.
pressure.
Or the removal of the
vapour may
be effected
by liquefying
it elsewhere in a
colder
'
Condenser.' In DanieWs
hygrometer,
Fig.
92,
the
right-hand
bulb is cooled
by
the
evaporation
of
ether from its muslin-covered
exterior,
the ether
vapour
it
contains is condensed
(at
a
low
pointon
its saturation
curve),
vapour
flows
over
from the left-hand
bulb,
here
more
vapour
forms to
supply
the
deficiency,
and the contained ether is cooled.
The
Cryophorus(ice-carrier)
is
a
similar double-bulb tube
containing
water instead of
ether,one
bulb is cooled in
a
freezing
mixture and the
vapour
depositing
as
hoar-frost in this bulb
draws off so much from the other bulb that
presently
the water
in that
begins
to freeze.
Or the
vapour
is removed
by
an absorbent,
strongsulphuric
acid. The Pulsometer Co. make
a
quitepracticalFreezing
Machine for
producing
a
pound
or
two of ice
on
this
principle.
There is
a
small vessel for the water and
a
large
one
for the
vitriol,
and
an
air-pump,
for in all three instruments of this
paragraph
there must be
no
air. Air makes their action
hopelessly
slow
by simplygetting
in the
way
of the
vapour
molecules.
"213:
The Steam
Engine,
etc. The steam
engine
works
between
a
reservoir of hot saturated
vapour*
" the
Boiler,
and
one
of cold saturated
vapour
" the Condenser.
The earliest
engines
took
steam at
atmospheric
pressure
and
then
by admitting
cold water reduced its
pressure,
and the
atmosphere,
or
in
a
later
form,
fresh boiler
steam,
forced the
piston
down.
With the demand for steam locomotion
came
the
high-pressure
engine,
utilizing only
the
upper
part
of the
curve, Fig.
83,
dis- charging
its
steam at
or above
atmospheric
pressure
and
100",
speedily
to condense in the familiar clouds " it need
hardly
be
*
And of hot water in
equilibrium
with it. What makes
a
boiler
explosionso
destructive is the
enormous amount of steam
suddenly
evolved from the hot water. At 150 Ib.
per sq.
in. above
atmosphere
water is
boiling
at 186" C. and therefore contains about 86 cals.
per
grm.
which will
produce
-16
grm.
of steam when the
pressure
is
relieved
and the
temperature
falls to 100". The final volume of
released
steam is therefore about 10 times that of the steam
space
in
the boiler
plus
250 times that of the hot water.
200 A HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS
said that live steam itselfisinvisible.
Evidently
this is
wasteful,
for the
rejected
steam could stilldrive
a
low-pressure engine.
This it
actually
does,
e.g.
in
'
multipleexpansion
'
engines,
where,
having expanded
and driven
pistons
in
'
high-pressure
'
and
'
intermediate
'
cylinders,
it
passes
at about 100" into the
largelow-pressurecylinder. Having
done further
expansive
work
there,
it
passes
on
to the condenser and reaches
equilibrium
with water at about 40"
C.,
1 Ib.
per sq.
in. An
'
air-pump
'
removes
the condensed water and
any
stray
air.
Turbines
are supplied
with
high-pressure
steam
superheated
(as by passingthrough
hot
pipes
in the
flue)
and therefore
unsaturated. In the
widening
passages
of the turbine this
expands
as a
gas
at
first,
" 210,
until it
meets the saturation
curve,
in accordance with which it then
expands
down to about
|
Ib.
per sq.
in.,leaving
the turbine
through
wide
casings
to be
condensed at about 27" C.
by
a
special
abundance of cold water.
Economy
is effected because all the additional
'
superheat
'
heat
is converted into work without
any
additional
mass
of steam
beingemployed,
and because the
enormouslyexpanded
exhaust
steam is
scarcelywarm,
and carries off
no usable heat.
The
cooling
towers of
'
power
stations
'
contain
'
evaporative
condensers
'
" stacks of closed
pipes
into which the exhaust
steam
passes
to be condensed
by
water trickled
on
the outside.
Many
who have
seen
the clouds of
'
steam
'
rising
from them
must have wondered
why
such
expensive
structures are
erected
instead of
exhaustingstraight
into the air. But steam blown
from
a
pipe
into the air is at 100" at
least,
whereas in the closed
pipes
it is
liquefying
at 40" under low
pressure,
and that difference
of heat
energy
has been utilized.
This
economy
is
strikingly exemplified
in the
Yaryan multiple-
effect
Evaporators,
as
employed
say
for
distilling potable
water
at Suakim.
High-pressure
boiler steam
liquefies
under
pressure,
well above
100",
in the
pipes
of
a
first
evaporative
condenser.
Its heat has boiled off water from the outside of these
pipes
to
form steam of somewhat lower
pressure.
This
passes
to a second
similar
'
condenser-evaporator,'
and
so
on,
tillin the sixth
vapour
is
liquefying
at
hardlymore
than the
temperature
of the
sea-
water circulated outside it. Even the hot water from the earlier
condensers is sent
throughpipes
in the later to
helpevaporate
more water. Whereas 1 Ib. of coal seldom
evaporates
a
gallon
of water in
a boiler,
nearly
5
gal.
is distilled
per
Ib. at
S.iakim.
VAPORIZATION 201
"
214
:
It is shown in
Thermodynamics
that the
rejection by
any
heat
engine
of
a
largequantity
of
low-temperature
heat
to a
'
condenser
'
is inevitable,
cf.
"
185. At most the
engine
can
convert into work
only
the difference between the
heat-energies
of the
entering
and the
leaving
fluid. This
difference,
divided
by
the
heat-energy
of the
entering
fluid,
is
a
fraction called the
thermodynamicEfficiency
of the
perfectengine[a
very
good
steam
engine
is
only
half
perfect]
and this isshown to
equal
the difference
of
entering
and
leavingtemperatures
divided
by
absolute tem- perature
of
entering
fluid. Thus
gas
engines,working
from
explosiontemperatures,may
be
very
efficient.
Practically,
the
highestthermodynamicefficiency
is that of the Diesel oil
engine,
about 29
%.
"
215
: The Critical State. If
a
volatile
liquid,
such
as ether,
or liquidsulphur
dioxide,
is sealed
up
with its
vapour
only
in
a
littlestout
glass
tube which it half
fills,
it
may
be heated
high
above its normal
boilingpoint,
and
very
remarkable
changes
presently
take
place,Fig.
87.
For
a
long
time the
liquid
bubbles
steadily,
and
a
compensating
trickling
down is
seen on
the walls of the
vapour-space.
The
liquidexpandsgradually
at
first,
then
rapidly
to 60
%
or more beyond
its
original bulk,*
and
bubbling
becomes
less active. The meniscus
separating
liquid
and
vapour
becomes fainter and
flatter, flickers,
breaks
up
into
a
mist
of visible
drops
in
rapid
motion,
this
melts
away
in
wreathing
striae
and "
the tube's contents
are
perfectly
clear
and uniform.
Looking through
at
the
background
the tube
appears
rather
'
more
refractive
if
empty,
and that is all.
[Duringcooling
the
same
events
occur
in
reverse order.]
The substance has ceased to exist as a
liquid,
it
spreads
uniformly
over
the whole
volume,
and if the
experiment
is
conducted above
mercury
the volume
may
be varied without
inducing
any
distinct
liquid
to
reappear.
It
has the
properties
of
a
vapour
in that its
pressure
at the
temperature
of
disappearance
does not
depend
on
the relative
*
e.g.
1
c.c. CO2 at 0" becomes 13 at 25",
17 at 31", 1 95 at
3135"crit.
JPIG "7.
than
202 A HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS
bulks of
liquid
and
vapour
just
beforehand,
and the
temperature
itselfis
quite
fixed. It
has, however,
the
power
of
retaining
in
solution solid
matters,
e.g.
iodine,
which
were
dissolved in the
liquid,
but
are
either insoluble in the
vapour
or
of
a
different
colour when mixed with it.
It is said to be in the Critical
State,
the
temperature
of dis- appearance
is the Critical
Temperature
and the
pressure
the
CriticalPressure.
Since
even
ten times the critical
pressure
has been tried in a
vain
attempt
to obtain
liquid
above the critical
temperature
this
may
be called the
'
ultimate
boilingpoint
'
;
beyond
it the
liquid
cannot exist.
Thus it is
possible
to
smoothe
away
the
customary abrupt
transition from
liquid
to
gas,
the two states can
merge
gradually
into each other. In
fact,
ifthe tube is
a
littletoo
full,
the meniscus
rises in
plain
view tillit shrinks to
nothing
in the
taperingtop
of the
tube,
while still
a
little below the critical
temperature.
The tube is stillfullof
liquid,
20"
higher
we
know this has ceased
to be
a
liquid,
hotter stillit is
an
undoubted
gas,
but there has
been
no
visible
sign
of
change.
The
impossibility
of
liquefying
them
by
pressure
and
common
freezing
mixtures,
which
long
ago
earned for half
a
dozen
gases
the title of
'
permanent gases/
is
seen to be due to their critical
temperatures being
very
low
;
see Table,
page
211.
"
216
:
Isothermal
curves.
The
sequence
of Volume-Pressure
changes
can
be
plottedby
a
family
of curves as
in
Fig.
88. Start- ing
at A
as a
gas
and
coming slowly
backwards, keeping
the
temperature
constant
(hence
the
name Iso-thermal),
reduction of
volume is caused
by
an
increase of
pressure,
and the
curve
AB
rises in
a
hyperbola
in accordance with
Boyle's
law, Fig.
52.
Nearing
B,
the
gas
is
approaching
the condition of
a
saturated
vapour,
and the
pressure-rise
may
show
signs
of
failing.
At B it is
saturated,
and further reduction of volume
causes
liquefaction
without
any
change
of
pressure
along
the horizontal
BC.
At C all the
vapour
has
liquefied
and
any attempt
to
squeeze
a
liquid
into smaller bulk involves
an enormous
increase
of
pressure,
CD is almost vertical.
Then
assuming
the substance to
be
one
of the usual
type,
contracting
on solidification,
heavy
pressure
will crush it
entirely
into solid
alongDE, "
192. EF is the
scarcely compressible
solid.
For
a
highertemperature
the curve
is
replacedby
a
similar
204 A HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS
curves
of the dotted
shapes,
A'B'SRC'D'. It
plainlyrepresents
gas,
liquid,
and critical
point (horizontal
tangent
at
point
of
inflexion),
and it
suggests
also the curious
continuity
B'SRC'
instead of the flat break B'C'. And this is
partly
realizable,
for
the
part
B'S
corresponds
to the condition of
supersaturation
of
a
vapour,
" 211,
and C'R
represents
the
superheating
of
a
liquid
described in
"
207. Of the
essentially
unstable
piece
between
R and S
nothing
is known.
The
undercooling
of
a
liquid,"
190,
rather
suggests
that the
flatDE
may
some
day
be
replaceable by
a
similar continuous
curve.
"
218. Kinetic
Theory of
liquid-
vapour change.
The
following
two
premises
must be made
:
"
A. It must be
a
mutual attraction of considerable
magnitude
that binds
together
a
dense crowd of molecules in the
liquid
condition,
with definite
volume, surface-tension,
etc. In the less
denselypacked
state of
gas
or
vapour
this mutual attraction all
but
disappears, ""103,
104.
B. In
a vast crowd
(ofmolecules) possessing
a
definite
average
speed,
individuals
may
at
any
moment have allsorts of
speeds
at
random " the
theory
of
probability
suggests
that of 1000 with
average
speed
S there will be 95
with
speeds
below
J
S
;
167,
i
to
|
S
;
417, f
to
1J
S
;
153,
1J
to
1J
S
;
and 168 above this.
And if the
average
speed
is reduced
by removing
the
momentarily
faster
individuals,
the
speeds
of the remainder will redistribute
themselves
'
by
collision
'
in the
same
proportions.
Above the surface of
a
glass
of effervescent
liquid
may
be
seen
an active
cloud,an
inch
or more thick,
of
dropletsflung
up
from
the
bursting
bubbles and
falling
back under the
pull
of
gravity.
The cloud has
a
fairly
definite flat
top,
i.e.
an
average
height
of
jump
is
fairly closelykept
to
(asabove). Kinetically
the surface
of
a
liquid
more or
less resembles the
top
of this cloud. In the
body
of the
liquid
the mutual attraction acts in all directions
on a molecule
;
near
the
edge
it of
course
pulls
inwards
only.
The
average
molecule reaches
a
definite
range
before
being pulled
back, and the surface of the
liquid
is the
'
envelope
'
of their
paths.
But
some
exceptionally
fast molecules
so
far exceed
this
average range
as
to
fly
clear of the
restraining
attraction
and become free molecules of
vapour.
Since it is the faster molecules that
escape,
the
average
speed
of
those left behind in the
liquid
is
diminished,
i.e.if the
energy
of
travel
Jwv2
of molecules is taken
as a measure
of
temperature,
VAPORIZATION 205
the
liquid
has cooled. The
escaping
molecules have taken latent
heat with them and
left
the
liquid
colder,
cf.
"
212.
In the
liquid
left to itselfthere will
always
be
some
molecules
chancing
to
approach
the surface
exceptionally
fast,
and
escaping,
but the
generalfalling-off
of
speed
diminishes the number that
come
into
possession
of the
requisite velocity.
Thus
evaporation
always
goes
on,
the
liquidalwaysgetting
colder,
but slower and
slower
as
the
temperature
falls.
Heat
continuouslysupplied
from without
goes
to increase
speeds
allround. If the
average
speed
is
maintained, so
also is
the number of molecules
travelling
faster and
escaping,
i.e.
evaporation
goes
on
at
a
constant rate.
As the
temperature
rises the increase
in
average
activity
of the
liquid
molecules
probably
makes their mutual attraction less
effective,
it relaxes their
liquidbondage [certainly
one
of its
indications,
the surface tension,diminishes]
and
permits
a
larger
proportion
of the
more
rapid
molecules to
escape.
Therefore the
density
and
crowd-pressure
of the
vapour
increases faster than
in
mere
proportion
to the molecular
energy
(absolute
tem- perature),
i.e.faster than that of
a
gas
or
unsaturated
vapour.
What of the
vapour-swarm
of
escaped
molecules ? Molecules
travelling
near
the
liquid
surface and
coming
within
range
of
the attractive forces will be
constantlyfalling
in and
replacing
those that
fly
out. Thus at
any
temperature
a
state of
'
statistical
equilibrium
'
is
reached,
when
as
many
molecules
are
dropping
back into the
liquid
as are escaping
" the saturated
vapour
swarm-
density,
and therefore
pressure,
is constant.
Note that air molecules
present
can
take
no
part
in the inter- change,
therefore the saturation
pressure
of the
vapour
isreached
quiteindependently
of
any
other
gas pressure
present.
But
the neutral
gas
molecules of
course
get
in the
way
of the
vapour
molecules
;
the rate of
evaporation
into air is much slower than
into
vacuum.
Compressing
a
gas
or
unsaturated
vapour
packs
the molecules
closer,
but their
speed
is too
great
and their
stay
in
one
another's
proximity
too short for mutual attraction to
overcome
the effects
of
'
collisions.'But at
a
lower
temperature [speed]
or a
greater
pressure
[closeness together]
this
may
happen,
and the molecules
quickly
associate in twos and threes and
companies
and
drops
of liquid
as soon as a
sharp
limit has been
overstepped,
i.e.
saturated
vapour
condenses
freely
as soon as a definite
pressure
is
exceeded,
unless above the
limiting
critical
temperature.
206 A HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS
Molecules
travelling
in streams side
by side,as
they
must
above
a
small flat
surface,are close
together
for
a
longer
time
than those
flying
in all directions
past
a
point;
hence
one
would
expect
condensation to
begin
on nuclei,
such
as
dust
particles,
of
comparatively
extensive surface. In the absence of such
nuclei it
may
indeed be
practically impossible
to
gathertogether
enough
molecules close
enough
and for
long enough
to start
condensation at all.
EXAMPLES." CHAPTER XXIII
2.
Represent graphically
the volume
changes
of
a
gramme
of
H2O
between " 5" C. and 105" C. under
atmospheric
pressure.
[Ab]m.
3. How
can
it be shown
experimentally
that the
pressure
of
a
saturated
vapour
is unaffected
by
the
presence
of
a
gas
like air ?
[L.]
4. A barometer tube contains mixed air and saturated
vapour
above
a
70-
cm.
column of
mercury
(atmospheric 76).
What is
height
of
mercury
when tube is
depressed
to halve volume above
it,
pressure
of
saturated
vapour
being
1-5 cm.
?
[L.]
5. Draw
curve
indicatinggenerally
the
change
in maximum
vapour
pressure
of water between 0" and 100" C. Show that the
boilingpoint
of
a
solution is
higher
than that of
pure
water.
6. A flask is
partly
filled with ice and is corked
up.
What is the
pressure
inside at 100" ?
[L]m.
7. 1 litre of air at 100" C. and 77 cm.
pressure
is saturated with
water
vapour ;
find its increase in volume
; temperature
and
pressure
remaining unchanged.
8. What is the effect of
pressure
on boilingpoints
and
meltingpoints?
Describe illustrative
experiments. [M.]
9.
Why
does
a
liquidvaporize
much
more
slowly
when
only
1" below
the
boilingpoint
?
[L]m.
10.
Explain
the
working
of
a
soda-water
syphon. Why
do the
bubbles
grow
in size
as
they
ascend ?
[M.]
11. Define the
vapour-pressure
of a liquid
and
explain
how it can
be found for water between 75" C. and 120" C.
[L.]
12. Describe and
explain
the
apparent
transfer of cold in the
cryophorus. [L]m.
13. A current of
dry
air is blown
through
fresh water and then
through
salt water. All
are initially
at the
same temperature. Explain
all that
may
be observed,
and state what would
happen
if the air went
through
the salt water first.
14. 4 litres of air at 17" and 76
cm.
and
dew-point
6-5"
are
bubbled
through
water and become saturated. How much water is taken
up
?
Water
v.p.
17" = 1-44
cm.,
6-5", -72cm.,
22-3 litres
vapour
at 0" and
76cm.
weigh
18
grm.
15. Would the amount taken
up
from salt water be
more or less ?
If the salt water
b.pt.
were 102",
how much would be taken
up
?
CHAPTER XXIV
THE
LIQUEFACTION
OF GASES
"
219
:
Gas
Expansion
and the Mechanical
Equivalent.
Mayer,
a
physiologist,
had in 1842 made an
estimate of the mechanical
equivalent
of heat in the
following
way.
The
specific
heat of air
allowed to
expand
at
atmospheric
pressure
as
it is heated is
-239.
According
to
thermodynamic theory,
since confirmed
by Joly's
experiment
of
"
169,
this is 1-4 times its
specific
heat when
expansion
is
prevented(-171
near
ordinarypressures).
Now
1
grm.
of air at 0" and 1 atmo.
occupies1/-001293=773
c.c. and
expands 1/273
of this=2-84
c.c.
when heated 1". It therefore
does work in
lifting
the
atmosphere
=
pressure
x
expansion=
1,016,000
dynesx
2-84=2-88 million
ergs.
Assuming
that this work
represents
the additional heat
energy
absorbed
by
the
expanding
gas,
-068 cal.=2-88 million
ergs.
.'.
1 cal.=42-4 million
ergs.
"
220
: Question
of internal work. But is there
no
internal
work done in the
gas
itself
during
this
expansion
? Is there
no
energy
absorbed in
pulling
the molecules farther
apart against
their mutual attraction
a/v2
of Van der
Waals,
"
104 ?
If there is
any
such
absorption
of
energy,
a
gas
which is
ex- panding
owing
to
fall of
pressure,
and is not
compelled
to make
room
for itself
by pushing
back
pistons
or
the
atmosphere,
ought
to
cool,
just
as does
a
liquid
when its molecules
are
torn
apart by
its
evaporation
in
vacuo, though
to a
much less
extent.
Joule and Lord Kelvin tested this in the Porous
Plug Experi- ment.
Gas under
pressure
escapedthrough
a
plug
of
cotton- wool
squeezed
between
perforated diaphragms
in
a
pipe;
there
was a
thermometer
either side of the
plug. They
found
a
small
cooling
in
the
expanded
gas,
proportional
to the fall of
pressure,
and
amounting
to about
J"
C.
per
atmo. fallfor air and 1
J"
for carbon
dioxide.
This
proves
that
a
little internal work is
being
done
207
208 A HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS
in
separating
the molecules
(and
therefore invalidates the
argument
of the
precedingparagraph,though only
to
a
small
extent).
But
hyidrogen
warmed about
^"
per
atmo.,
as
it
expanded.
"
221 : Internal and external work. We have
now
to reconcile
with this the
popular
half-truth that
an
expanding
gas
cools
strongly,
cf.
"
211.
Firstly,compressing
a
gas,
as
in
your
bicycle
pump,
un- doubtedly
makes it hot.
Only part
of the work done
on
the
gas
from without is stored
as
potential
'
pressure
'
energy,
the rest
is at
once
converted into heat. The old-fashioned
philosophical
toy,
the
*
fire
syringe,'
was a
popgun
containing
tinder moistened
with inflammable
liquid.
A
particularly
muscular
operator
driving
in the
piston
could
compress
and heat the air
sufficiently
to
ignite
the tinder. The modern Diesel oil
engine
compresses
air
quickly
to 700 Ib.
per sq.
in.,
crude oil
sprayed
in
immediately
catches fire
;
the
engine
uses no
artificial
ignition
whatever.
Air
compressors
are
water-cooled to
get
rid of this
heat,
and
by
the time the air is stored cold in
pressure
tanks
no
small
part
of the work
spent
on
it has been
utterly
thrown
away.
If this air be used
(without
'
reheating
'
in
a
stove)
to drive
an
engine,
rock-drill,
etc.,
the
workingcylinders
are cooled,
and the
cold air exhausted from them is doubtless welcome to the miner.
Here
evidently
some
of the heat has suffered conversion into
external work. Even if the air
merely
blows from
a
perforated
pipe
the
pipe
cools,though
no
useful mechanical work has been
done
;
but here also the air in the
pipe
is
doing
work in
setting
the
issuing
air into
rapidmotion,
carrying
away
kinetic
energy
(which
could drive little
windmills,
for
instance).
And
even
when
one
laboriously pulls
oat the
piston
of
an
air-pump
the
expanding
air cools
(as
a
flash of mist will show in moist
air)
;
one
is not
doing
work
on
the
air, on
the
contrary,
all its
remaining
pressure
is
assisting
one to
push
away
some
of the surround- ing
atmosphere.
In all these
cases
there isconsiderable local
cooling.
But
taking
the whole
system
into account the total
cooling
is
only
of the
trifling magnitude
observed with the
porous
plug.
In that
experiment
the air
rushingthrough
the
narrow
crevices
may
be
coolingby
its exertions in
expanding
but is
being
warmed
again
by
friction
on
their walls. The
air-jets leaving
a
perforated
pipe
are
warmed
againby
friction
as
the
surrounding
air checks
their turbulent motion. If
they
blew into
a
closed
space
they
THE
LIQUEFACTION
OF GASES 209
would
warm
it
by compression.Pipes
such
as these cool
the air in
a
refrigerator,
but
they
must
discharge
outside
it. The heat
developedby
friction and
percussion
in the
rock-drill
very
nearly
makes
up
for the
cooling
in its
exhaust air.
"
222 : Liquefaction
of the
*
permanent
'
gases.
Small
as
is
the
porous-plugcooling
effect,
it is the basis of the modern
'
regenerative
'
process
of
liquefying
air.
The
Liquefier, Fig.
89,
is
a
coil of small
copper
tubing,
about
2 mm. bore,
wound round
a
hollow vertical valve rod
(very
much
as
the wire is wound round the
leg
of
an
electro-magnet)
into
a mass
10 in.
long
and
2f
in.
diameter,containing
560 turns but
being
really
four tubes
'
in
parallel
'
(in case
of
choking).
The whole fitsin
a
thin metal tube
closed at the
bottom,
and around this is
a
packing
of non-conductor.
Air,
freed from carbonic acid
by passing
over
slaked
lime,
is
compressedby
a
White-
head-torpedo
pump
to 160-180 atmos.
(rather
over a
ton to the
square
inch). Though
saturated,
it retains but little water
per
gramme,
on
account of its small
bulk,
and this
little is removed in
a
caustic-soda
cylinder.
The air
now
enters the
liquefying
coil at the
top,
passes
through,
escapes
at the bottom
through
a
small
regulating
valve,
then has to
rise
up among
the interstices of the
coil,
and
finally
passes
off at the
top
to
a
gas-holder
ready
for the
pump
again.
The
expansion
at the valve
(to
about
atmosphericpressure)
followed
by
the frictional
checking
of the violent
outrush,causes
the
'
porous-plug
'
cooling,
now
perhaps
40"
on
account
of the
enormous
fall of
pressure.
This cooled air
risingpast
the coil
cools the air
flowing
in it. When this
escapes
it cools stillfurther
and
rising
chills the coil still
more,
and
so
on,
'
regeneratively.'
Fortunately
too
the effect becomes
greater
as
the air
approaches
the condition of
a
saturated
vapour.
Within four minutes about
5
%
of the air is
leaving
the valve
as
spray.
This is
caught
in
a
little
spray separator
and
drips
to
the bottom of the
enclosing
tube,
whence it is
periodically
run
off into the
now
familiar
FIG. 89.
210 A HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS
vacuum
vessels. The machine
produces
about
1J
litre
per
hour
at
merely
the cost of
attendance,
running
the
5-h.p.motor,
and
cooling
water for the
pump.
The air boils at
atmospheric
pressure
at 78" A.
(=
"195"
C.)
at
first,
but
as
the
more
volatile
nitrogen
distils
away
the
boiling
point
rises tillthe residue of
Oxygen evaporatessteadily
at 91" A.
(=
"182"
C.)
and is received in the usual steel bottles.
All the
ordinary
'
permanent
'
gases
are
liquefied nowadays by
passing
them into test-tubes
dipping
in
liquid
air.
It
appears
at first
sighthopeless
to
attempt Hydrogen by
the
regenerative
process,
since its
porous-plug
effect is
a
heating.
But at 200 atmos. and "200" C. the effect
changes
sign,
and it cools. Hence
hydrogen
is
liquefiedby
pump- ing
at
1^
ton
per sq.
in. first
through
a
coil cooled in carbonic-
acid-snow and alcohol at "80" C.
;
second,through
a
coil in
a
vessel in which
a
regulated
spray
of
liquid
air is
evaporating
below
"200" C. under
only
10 cm.
mercury pressure,
exhausted
by
a
"|-h.p.
pump
;
third,
through
the
liquefier,
which is enclosed in
vacuum jackets.
It is
a
very
lightliquid
and somewhat difficult
to
manage, any
air
coming
into contact
with it solidifies
forthwith,
for itis
boiling
at 20" A.
"
223
: Refrigerating machinery.
The
liquefaction
of nitrous
oxide,
carbon
dioxide,
ammonia
gas,
sulphur
dioxide,
etc.,
substances with
high
critical
temperatures,
is
easy.
They
are
unceremoniouslypumped
into coils cooled in cold
water,
and
thence bottled off into steel
or
even,
for
sulphur
dioxide,
glass
bottles.
Without
a
pump,
the
pressure
of ammonia
vapour
rising
from
hot
'
liquor
ammoniae fort.' in
a
boiler is sufficientto
liquefy
the
gas
inside
a
water-cooled condenser.
The last three
gases
find
employment
in
refrigerating
machines,
for the cold air
pipessuggested
in
"
221
requirebulky
and in- efficient
machinery
and the
sulphuric-acid-absorption
ice machine
of
"
212 is
an
expensivetoy. Highlycompressedby
a
pump
they
liquefy
in water-cooled
pipes,
the
liquid
is admitted
through
small valves into
largerpipes
inside the
refrigerator
chambers,
and there
evaporates
at
perhapsatmospheric
pressure.
There
is no
doubt about the
cooling
effect of
evaporation, "
212,
which
we now see
might
be described
as a
Joule-Kelvin effect
in excelsis. The
gas
returns to the
pump,
half-a-crown's worth of
fresh
gas
a
year
makes
up
for
leakage.C02
machines are
very
CHAPTER XXV
HYGROMETRY
"
224. In accordance with Dalton's law water will
evaporate
till its
vapour
fillsthe
space
above it to
the
same
partial
pressure,
whether
any
other
gas
be there
or
not. But the
presence
of another
gas
enormously
hinders the
rate
of
evaporation,
for the
escaping
water molecules have
to
thread their
way
through
a
crowd of
gas
molecules. Hence the amount of water
vapour
present
in the
air above water
or
wet
soil does not often reach its saturation
value
;
even
gentle atmospheric
movements
suffice to
carry
it
away
before this.
.
Saturation
may
be reached
on subsequent
cooling
and is
usuallyoverrun,
and mist
or
cloud
deposited,"
211
Thus
Hygrometry,
the
study
of the
dryness or dampness
of the
atmosphere,
will
help
in the
forecasting
of local weather.
The further the contained
vapour
is below its full saturation
pressure
the
more water can
the
atmosphere
still take
up,
the
quicker
wet
things dry,
and the drier the air feels. Since the
maximum
vapour pressure
increases
so
rapidly
with
temperature,
Fig.
83, summer
air
may
feel
very
dry
and
yet
contain
more
than
enough
water to saturate
it in the cold of
night.
On
a dry
winter
day
there
can
be
very
little
vapour
present
at all. And
assuming
a
half-saturated
state,
it is evident that the
vacant
10
mm. or so
in
summer
will
promote
a
faster
drying-up
than the
vacant
2
or
3
mm.
in winter.
Definition. The
Hygrometric
State,
Saturation Fraction,
Relative
Humidity, or
simply
the
Humidity
is the ratio of the
mass
of
water
vapour
actuallypresent
in the air to the
mass
that
could be contained in the
same
bulk at the
same
temperature.
Or what
comes to
practically
the
same thing,
since the
vapour
obeys Boyle's
law almost
up
to saturation
pressure
of water
vapour
actually
present
in air
Humidity ="
pressure
of
saturated
vapour
at same
temperature
It is
usuallyexpressedas a
percentage.
[In
the
daytime
in this
country
it is
very
commonly
60
%
to 70
%.]
212
HYGROMETRY
213
"
225. Of
Hygrometers
for
measuring
Humidity,
the
'
chemical
'
is direct but slow. The air leaves its moisture in
weighed
'
drying
tubes
'
as
it is drawn
through
them to
replace
the water
slowly
flowing
out of the
aspirator,
of known content. The observed
increase of
weight
is then divided
by
the
weight
of the
same
volume of saturated
vapour
at the
same
temperature,
obtained
either from the tables
or
by
a
similar
experiment
in which the
air would be first
passedthrough
tubes of soaked wool.
FIG. 90.
"
226. In the
more common dew-point hygrometers a
cold
surface cools the air
near
it down
to a
temperature
at which the
amount
of
vapour
present suffices
to saturate it,
and thereafter
begins
to
precipitate
as a
thin
'
dew
'
on
the cold
bright
surface.
Then the
Humidity
is the saturation
pressure
at this
Dew-point
divided
by
that
at
the actual air
temperature
(read
off from
Fig.83).
A clean
glass
of water
kept
stirred and
gradually
cooled
by
a
lump
of
ice,
Fig.
91,
will
serve
the
purpose
in
a
way
familiar
enough
on summer
dinner-tables. Dines'
s
hygrometer
is
a
modi- fication
and shares the
disadvantage
of
requiring
ice.
The ancient Daniell's
hygrometer
is
a
bent double bulb tube
containing
ether and its
vapour.
More ether is
poured
on one
muslined
bulb,
and
evaporating,
cools and condenses the
vapour
inside. More
vapour
comes over
from the ether three
partsfilling
the lower
bulb,
bringing
its latent heat with
it,
and this bulb
gradually
cools until the dew
appears
on
its surface
(sometimes
gilded).
The instrument must be
kept
well shaken
up
to
keep
the
bulb
at the
same
temperaturethroughout,
and
of
course as
with
all
hygrometers
neither the breath
nor
the
warm
perspiring
hand
214 A HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS
must
come near
the
air-temperature-thermometer (on
the
stand)
nor
the cold surface
;
nor
need
success
be
expected
in the
sun
or
in
a
draught[Fig.92].
As dew
enough
to
see means
that the
temperature
is
dropped
a
littletoo
far,
cooling
is
stopped
and
a
rising reading
taken when
the dew
just
dries
off,
and the
mean
of both
(with
care
only
half
a
degree
apart)
isthe
dew-point.
FIG. 91. FIG. 92. FIG. 93.
A small Daniell does
very
well,
but the
big,clumsy,
overfilled
shop
instruments waste
patience
and floods of
vile-smelling
ether.
A
more
modern instrument has
a
little
box,
full of ether or
petrol, glued
to the back of
a
thin dark
glassplate(better
than
polished
?
metal). Evaporation
is excited
by
a
bulb bellows and
cooling
is
quick[Fig.93].
"
227. In the wet and
dry bulb hygrometer
(self-acting,
and
sold under numberless
names)
one
of
a
pair
of thermometers
should have its bulb
wrapped
in old washed linen
keptwet,
like
a wick,
by
distilledwater. The moisture
evaporates
faster the
drier the
air,
and abstracts latent heat from the
bulb,
which there- fore
cools until the influx of heat
by
convection and radiation
balances the rate of loss.
[In
the best
practice,
air is blown
past
the bulbs at a
slow standard
speed.]
In
Fig.
94
(based
on com- parative
observations with other
hygrometers)
take the
dry
bulb
temperature
as
ordinate and
go
along
the horizontal to reach the
difference between thermometers
as
abscissa. Your
position
on or
between the continuous
curves
gives
the
HuTtnidity,
the
dotted
curves
give
the
correspondingDew-point.
No difference
of course means
saturation
;
a
big
difference,
very
dry
air.
216 A HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS
"
228. There
are
many
less reliable instruments
more
properly
called
Hygroscopes depending
on
the
hygroscopic('
moisture-
attracting')
nature of fibrous materials
("255)
or
chemicals.
Such is the hair
hygroscope
in which
a
hair
(freed
from
grease
by
ether
extraction)
stretches in moist air and
permits
a
spring
to move a
pointer(in
watch form it sells
as a
traveller's detector
of
damp beds).
The
'
seed
'
(achene)
of the feather
grass
(stipa
pennata)
or
of the wild
geranium,
can
be stuck
uprighton a
card
with
a
drop
of
wax
and the
hygroscopic
twisted
awn waves
round
its natural
pointer(Fig.
90,
leaningagainst
the
aspirator).
A
bundle of
blotting-paper
kicks the beam of
a
light
balance
as
dampness
increases. Twisted
catgut
is the secret of the weather-
wise old
couple
in their hut
perched on
the shelf in
many
a
country cottage,
while
every
household has its salt seaweed
trophy
of the
summer
holiday,
or
its
pet
brick that
'
gives
up
damp against
rain.'
EXAMPLES." CHAPTER XXV
1. Describe
experiments
to show that the
aqueous vapour
ii,
the
air cannot exceed
a
certain amount.
[L]m.
2. Define the
dew-point
and state how to find it
experimentally.
Mention
errors
involved.
[L.]
3. State the law
regulating
amount of water
vapour
in a
closed
vessel into which
some water has been
poured. Dew-point
in
open
air
being
15" and barometer 75
cm.,
if saturated
vapour pressure
at 15"
is 1-27
cm.
how much of barometric
pressure
is due to
dry
air ?
[M.]
4. The
dew-point
of the air in
a greenhouse
rises from 9-5" C. to
20-2" C.
;
calculate the
proportion
in which the water
vapour
present
is increased.
[L.]
5. Find mass
of water in 1
cu. m.
air at 20" C. when
dew-point
is 5".
6. How is the
vapour pressure
of water measured at
ordinary
atmospheric temperatures
? How
may
such measurements be used
to find
humidity
of the air ?
[Ab.]
7. Define the relative
humidity
of the
atmosphere,
and show in a
general
way
how the
readings
of the wet and
dry
bulb
hygrometer
are
connected with it.
On
a
clear
evening
the
dew-point
is 42" F.
Explain
the effect of the
moisture
present
upon
the fall of
temperature later,
and consider the
probability,
or otherwise, of frost.
[L.]
8.
Explain use
of
any
form of
hygrometer.
What is the relative
humidity
if air
40", dew-point
12" ? [Ab.]
CHAPTER XXVI
ON METEOROLOGY
THE heat of the sun-bath in which the earth is
rolling
is the
great
cause
of
atmospherichappenings.
"
229. The
reception
of heat from the
sun.
The existence in the
solar
spectrum, "
417,
of certain dark lines known to have their
origin
in the earth's
atmosphere
shows that air itselfdoes absorb
a
certain amount of solar
radiation,
but
probablyonly
a little.
The
dazzling
sunshine of the
highAlps scarcely
warms
the clear
air
through
which it
passes.
The
greaterpart
of the radiation
that reaches the surface of the land
or sea
is absorbed
to heat
them,
leaving
a
reflected residue
by
which
we see
them. But
there is
an
intermediate
absorbent,
of
enormous
efficiency,
and
that is
atmospheric
dust "
land-dust,
dust of salt from the
sea-
spray,
volcanic dust " dust and the moisture that
so
readily
condenses
upon
it,
Fig.
86.
July
sunshine
on
the
superabundantcity
street-dust heats
it,
and
through
it the
air,
to form that
stifling
mixture
more
in- sufferable
than Indian heat. Sunshine
bursting
between shower-
clouds in
a
cold
north-wester,
after
a
week of storm has washed
the
air,
burns and tans with
a
direct heat
beyond
that of the
average
cloudless
summer
day.
The
absorption
of radiation
in
summer
air before
reaching
sea-level is
now
estimated to
average
29
%.
In the
morning
the
sun warms
the
more or
less
dusty
air.
The
temperature rises,
but the
dew-point
does
not,
the
humidity
fallslow. As the soil
warms
evaporation
increases and
by
the
afternoon the
humidity
has risen to 70
%
or so.
At sunset the soil
and the aerial dust radiate and cool
rapidly
" within
a
few minutes
of
September
sunset one's
summer
flannels become
very
in- adequate
" the
humidity
passes
saturation,
and Mist forms
on
the dust
particles, higher
and
higher
as
the
cooling
continues
:
"
the mist risesin the meadows."
217
218 A HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS
"
230. Dew isformed in various
ways.
I.
The littlewater
drops
of the mist
just
mentioned
slowly
settle
out of the
air,a true
'
fall
'
of dew.
II. Radiation from
objects
on
the earth's surface
goes
on
rapidly
into
a
clear
sky;
the best radiators
losing
heat fastest
gather
a
film of condensed
moisture,
quickly
radiate
away
the latent
heat it
gave up,
and
so
go
on
draining
vapour
from the
adjacent
air all
night.
It
is too often
overlooked,however,
that
a
good
radiator
may
be in
receipt
of heat from
beneath,
e.g.
the
day's
accumulation
of warmth in the
stone
'
metal
'
of
a
road travels
up
to the
surface
by night
and
largely prevents
the
deposit
of dew.
III.
Grass blades radiate
well,
but for the abundant formation
of dew
on
grass
there is
a more
potent
cause. It is not
a
fall
at
all,
it is
a
rise
through
the vessels of the leaf of
transpiration
water " crude
sap
" from the
roots.
By day
this
evaporates
from
the
stomata,
but it cannot do
so
in the saturated air at
night,
and the
root-pressure continuing
forces it out
in
drops.
[On
many
plants
there
are
specially largewater-pores through
which this water
can
exude,
there is
one at the
tip
of each little
tooth
on the
edge
of
a
fuchsia
leaf.]
In late
summer
the earth is
thoroughlywarm
and
keeps
the roots
active,
hence the
grass
dews
are
heavy
at that
season.
Hoar-frost. If the
cooling
is
very
rapid
the
vapour
or
the mist
goes
to build
up
solid
crystals
instead of
liquiddrops.
Observation
of
a
morning's
hoar-frost
ought
to
give
a
pretty good
idea of the
relative
efficiency
of various
objects
in
usuallycondensing
dew.
Everyone
knows that clouds
prevent
dew,
acting
as
blankets
to check radiation from the earth into
space.
Clouds of smoke
from
green
fires
are
utilized in Californian orchards to ward off
frost when the fruit is
'
setting.'
"
231. Altitude and
temperature.
We live in the
depths
of
a
great
ocean
of air and
on
every square
inch rests a
column of
that elastic fluid
nearly
15 Ib. in
weight. Climbing
a
hill
we
climb
above the lower
layers
and
are
relieved of their
weight,
the
atmospheric
pressure
isless
at
the
height.
As
an
ordinarypartly
filled balloon rises the
gas
expands
and fillsit. Likewise if
a
quantity
of air is
rising
it
expands
"
a
little
square-inch
column
of it
a
foot
highby
the loch shore would be 14 in.
high
on
the
top
of Ben
Nevis,"
76. As it
expands
it does
work,
for
imagine
it enclosed in
a tube,
it would drive
a sliding
cork outwards
220 A HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS
fixed in
shapethough
vapour
was
wreathing
up
through
them at
a
great
pace.
In the
gap
the air could sink
again
and the clouds
thinned
out,
to form
again
in
rolling
masses
over
the second hill.
Later in the
evening
the air reached its
dew-point
at lower
levels,
and
ultimately produced
a wet
sea-fog.
These hills catch the wind after
an
unbroken
journeyacross
the
Atlantic,
and
though
scarce .1500 ft.
high
show
every
sign
of
frequentdrenching.
And hills much lower and less
favourably
placed
than these collect
an
astonishing
amount of moisture.
On the summits of the chalk downs
are
many
'
dew
ponds,'
probably
of
early
British
origin, affording
reliable
supplies
of
nearly
soft
water, adequate
to the needs of thousands of stock.
Undoubtedly
it is
dew,
formed
chiefly
as
in
(I)
above,
and
very
abundantlyon
account of the 2"
or
3" F. coolness due to
altitude,
that drains off the
neighbouring
turf and fillsthese
ponds.
Yet
mist
may
be
so
seldom noticeable
on
the hillsthat
many
more
mysteriousexplanations
have been
given. Again,
two of
my
acquaintance
who built themselves
houses,
the
one on a
400-ft.
chalk down and the other
on a
200-ft.
gravelhill,
have both
been driven down
again by
exacerbations of the rheumatism
they
had
planned
to
escape.
Having dropped
its moisture
as
it
rose over
the
moun- tains,
and
carrying
with it all the latent heat of
condensation,
the wind
may sweep
down their farther
slopes
and be heated
by compression
as
it
sinks,
until it blows
as
the hot Fohn of
the Swiss
valleys
or
the
parching
North-wester of Canter- bury,
N.Z.
[With
all these considerations itwill be evident that the
change
of
temperature
with altitude
on
mountains is seldom the normal
convective
change.]
Recent
atmospheric
research with free balloons
(a
rubber
balloon 1
m. diam.,
full of
hydrogen,rising steadily
and
ultimately
bursting,
when
a
smaller attached balloon
brings
the little
meteorographs
down in
safety)
has revealed
an
Isothermal
Layer
at
an
average
height
of 7 miles and
temperature
"55" C. The
air there is attenuated
(7
in.
barom.),
it is above the
highesticy
Cirrus
cloud,
and its
temperature probablydepends
on
its
own
absorption
and emission of the solar radiation. It
habitually
moves
from the west at 80 miles
an
hour
(occasionally 200),
and
serene
in the
possession
of such vast stores of kinetic
energy
it
seems
to have
strangely
littleto do with the turbulent
depths
beneath.
ON METEOROLOGY 221
"
232. We have
seen
how mists
can
form
by quiet
radiation
and clouds
by
the
cooling
of moist air
as
it floats
upward.
The
meeting
and
mingling
of hot and cold currents
of moist air is
another cause
of cloud formation.
Referring
to
Fig.
83,
let
equal
parts
of saturated air N at 5"
(say
a
north
wind)
and saturated
air S at 35"
(say
a
south
wind)
be mixed. The resultant tem- perature
is somewhere about the
mean,
20",
the resultant amount
of moisture
per
volume is the
mean
J(7
+43)
= 25
mm.
But the
saturation
curve
is
hollow,
17 mm. saturates
air
at 20" and the
extra 8 mm.
must form into
a
cloud. And
even
if the air is well
removed from saturation
(lower
S,
quite
a common
humidity)
the
cold
air,containingreally
very
little
moisture,
will still
cause
cloud
so
long
as
the mid
point
of
(lower)
NS liesabove the
curve.
In
"
255 it will be shown that the smaller
drops
of a
cloud
evaporate
and
deposit
on
the
larger
ones
;
for this and
probably
also for electric reasons
the cloud
ultimately
falls
as Rain, or
if the coalescence occurs
below
freezing,
as
Snow.
High
cross currents,
one
above the
other, are
the
probable
cause
of the
rippled
Cirro-cumulus
clouds " mackerel
sky,petits
moutons,
etc. A cold current
drifting
over
the
rising
warmth of
the
city
may
form,
not far above the
chimney-tops,
a
thick
blanket of
dirty
cloud "
the sudden darkness that is the bete noire
of the
electric-light companies
" while the streets remain free
from mist.
Sea-fog
is often due to
the
flowing
of
warm
moist air
over a
cold
current of
water,
instance the
persistent fog
of the Grand
Banks of Newfoundland.
The Western Isles have
a
reputation
for
being
enfolded in mist
while the
intervening
Sounds are
clear. In
June, however,
under
the
high sun, they enjoy
the best of
weather,
for the
quickly
absorbingquicklyradiating
land is then
warmer
than the
sea
and melts the mists. With the lower
sun
and
longernights
of
August
the land has
begun
to cool while the
sea
has attained its
maximum
temperature,
its
vapours
then condense
on
the land.
A
cityfog
is
a
mist
deposited
on
the too-abundant
nuclei,
and
probablylacking
the usual incentive to
evaporation
of small
drops,"255,
because
foreign
gases,
bituminous
matter, etc.,
are concentrated in solution
over
the surface and reduce the
surface tension of the water. Its
dry
character is
simply
the
flavour and
aroma
of these
substances,
especially sulphur
dioxide,
traces of which
are
likewise
responsible
for most of the
'
dryness
'
in the air of
a room
heated
by
a
gas-stove.
222 A HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS
"233.
Winds.
Land and Sea Breezes.
The
sea
is disturbed and mixed
by
even
small
ripples
to a
depth
of several
feet,
consequently
the
sun
does not heat its surface
by day
as
hot
as
it does the
land,
and
by
night
the
sea
remains
warmer than the
rapidlyradiating
land.
This
gives
rise to
a
Sea breeze
by day,flowing
in
to
supply
the
place
of
rising
hot air
over
the
land,
and to
a
Land breeze
by night,
off the cool land
on
to the
warmer sea.
Though
not often
per- ceptible
in this
country
these
are
of
regular
occurrence
in the
tropics,
where radiation is intense and barometric
changesusually
trifling.
The Trade Winds are currents
blowing
from latitude 30" to
supply
the
place
of the
uprising
warm
air of the
equatorial
calms.
As the earth's rotation carries
points
in latitude 30"
only f-
as
fast eastward
as
points
on
the
equator
these currents
lag
behind
and blow from N.E. and S.E. instead of from N. and S.
The Monsoons are
the
*
resultants
'
of trades and of
gigantic
seasonal land and
sea
breezes from the land
masses
around the
Indian Ocean as
the
sun moves
from
tropic
to
tropic.
"
234. Weather in the British Isles is
mainly
due to
stray
"curling
eddies of the
atmosphere,
called
Cyclones.
The air
over
the Atlantic
gets
warmed and
moistened,
but is overlain
by
colder denser air and is
consequently
in unstable
equilibrium,
presently
bursts
through
somewhere and
starts a
chimney-like
updraught
towards which all the
surrounding
air rushes. That
from the north is
coming
towards
a
place
of faster eastward
motion and
lags
towards the
west,
while the south wind from still
faster
regions
drifts to the east.
Eventuallycurling
round to
reach the
*
chimney
'
these
give
rise to
a
cyclonic
circulation like
Fig.
96,
alwaysgoing
round
against
the dock.
The
upward
motion of the air of
course
relieves the earth of its
pressure
and the barometer fallslow in the middle of the
Cyclone,
hence called
a
Depression(of
the
barometer).
The
system
there- fore
appears
on a
barometric
map
as a
series of concentric
rings
joiningplaces
of
equal
pressure,
the lowest in the middle. The
closer the
rings,
i.e. the
steeper
the barometric
gradient,
the
greater
the
drivingpressure-difference
per
mile of air and the
harder the winds blow inward.
Always they
must blow harder
as
their
courses narrow
in towards the middle.
These
cyclones
vary
in size
;
a
good-sized
one
is drawn in
Fig.
96,
with
typical
barometer
readings
in inches.
ON METEOROLOGY 223
They
drift
bodily
over
us, usually
in
an
easterlydirection,
at
perhaps
20 miles
an
hour
;
of
course
the wind
velocity
inside
them
may
far exceed this. Observations of the
change
of
direction and
strength
of the
wind,
and of the movements of the
barometer,
enable
even a
single
observer to
gain
some
notion of
their
course,
and hence of the
probable
weather. British weather
forecasts
are
made
up
from these
data,
together
with
temperature
and
humidity,suppliedby
a
small
selection of the 4000 meteoro- logical
stations.
Take the
very
typical
case
of
a
cyclonedrifting
E. with its
centre
passing
N. of the observer. It is
equivalent,
and
more
convenient in the
diagram,
to
keep
the centre fixed and let the
observer
move
W.
along
the
arrow, Fig.
96.
Kecollecting
that
the air is
rising
and
decreasing
in
pressure
as
it
nears
the centre of
the
depression,
and is therefore
cooling
and
probablyforming
FIG. 96. FIG. 97.
cloud and
rain,especially
ifit
comes
from the
warmer south, we
can
expect
the
following
series of events
:
"
(a)
Barometer
beginning
to
fall,
calm
or
lightsoutherly
airs
;
atmosphere
often
very
clear,
under cloud.
(b)
Barometer
fallingrapidly,
wind
stronger
S.E. or S.,
warm
in
winter,
cold in
summer
; cloudy
and wet.
(c)
Wind
veering
towards
S.W.,
strong; heavy
rain.
(d)
Veeringrapidly
towards
N.W.,
strong;
rain
breaking
into
smart showers at
increasing
intervals. This is the weather that
makes the
townsman condemn the
now
rising
barometer.
(e)
Clear
atmosphere,
barometer
risingbriskly,
cold N.W. wind
graduallydyingdown,
driving
small clouds in
a
blue
sky;
hot
sunshine
through
the washed air.
224 A HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS
When
a large depression
passes
centrally
overhead the
probability
is that
an
easterly gale
is succeeded
by a
calm
day
and then follows
an equally strong westerly gale.
The reader
should work out for himself what
happens at
a place
north of the
centre.
The
regular
sequence
is
frequently complicated by
a change
of
course
(many
small
depressions
are apparently
thrown back to
sea
again by
the
precipitous
cliffs of the
western
coasts), by
the break
-
ing-up
of the
centre, or
by
a
succession of
following depressions.
Up
the
western margin
of
a great
continental
Anticyclone
little
depressions are apt
to
go
curling one
after another,
giving
us a
fortnight's
unsettled weather.
"
235. The
Anticyclones
that
give our
fine settled weather
are
much
larger areas
of
high barometer,
from which winds blow
'
outwards and clockwise,' gradually spreading
the
high-pressure
area,
Fig. 97,
whose centre
moves
much
more
slowly
than
a
cyclone's.
The
high
pressure
is due to the downrush of air from
above
;
it is
heated, dried,
and cleared
by compression
as
it
comes
down.
Typical anticyclonic
weather is either calm
or
marked
by
a
steady
blow of
dry
wind from the
same quarter
for several
days.
The centre of the
anticyclone
is
on
the left
as
you
face the wind.
As the
sky
is clear
or
thinly
veiled,
radiation
goes
on
unchecked
and
gives extreme dry
heat in
summer or protracted
frost in
winter.
CHAPTER XXVII
VISCOSITY
"
236.
"
If the
paint
be too
thick,
thin it
by
the addition of
turps."
So
runs
the amateur
painter's
instruction,
making
use
of
one
of the
many
meanings
of
'
thick
'
and
'
thin.'
Physically
we
say
"... too viscous,
reduce its
viscosity.
..." In
spreadingpaint
the bottom
layer
of
a
thick
smear
adheres to
the wood and the
upper
'
layers
'
are
dragged
over
it
by
the
brush. The force
necessary
for
this,
the
drag
felt
by
the
brush,
is due to the friction between
'
layer
and
layer
'
of
liquid.
It is
to this
internal,friotion between
contiguousportions
of fluid
moving
at different
speeds
that the
name Viscosity
is
applied.
Recent
experiments
have shown that wherever
a
liquid
is
flowingpast
a
solid surface the two surfaces adhere without
any
slipping
at
all,so
that
viscosity always
comes
into
play
to hinder
the flow of the
upper
layers.
Instance the flow of treacle off
a
spoon
;
or
the slow
running
of
a
detached thread of
mercury
down
a
slanted thermometer
tube,
not
slipping
down like
a
solid
rod,
but the
outer sleeve for the time
being
sticks to
the
glass
and its
contents
rush
through
it
;
inside out
it is the motion of
an
umbrella
ring
over
the handle. Instance also the flow of blood in
capillaries,
faster in the middle.
Again,
the
'
skin friction
'
on a
ship
in
water,
friction
really
between the adherent water
and the
outer water
; polish
is
useless,
moderate smoothness
suffices
so
long
as
there
are no
serious
protuberances
" rivet heads
or barnacles " to
cause
eddies.
So with
gases,
long
narrow
pipes
mean a
defective
supply
of
illuminant. Dust and mist settle
very
slowlythrough
the air.
A
drop
of water -002 cm.
diam. falls 1-2
cm.
per
sec.
through
the
air,
and the
speed
is
proportional
to the
square
of the diameter
(solong
as it is
only
a
few centimetres
per
second). [But
in
gases
at low
pressures
there is
some
slipping along
the walls.
]
In
what
follows,only
smooth
quiet
motion at
slow
speeds
is
15
225
226 A HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS
intended. Motion
producingeddies,turbulence,
and noise is
deferred to
"
242.
"
237. First take
a case like that of
honey flowing
off
a
flat
spoon.
Magnifyit,
in
Fig.
98
(A),
and divide into strata of
equal
thickness and
weight.
One side of the firstadheres to the
spoon,
B
S
PA
3A"
=t"* _J)I
ETHEFI
si
re
": so%
"Al.COlRJtr
LIQUIDS.
VARIATION OF COEFF: VISCOSITY
FIG. 98.
GASES.
WITH TEMPERATURE.
the outer side
moves
at
speedv,
the
average
speed
of fall of the
whole stratum is
|v.
The second
layer
moves on one
side
at v
and
on
the other at
2v,
beingsubject
to forces
exactly
like the
first but attached to an
alreadymoving
surface. And
so
on,
the
speed increasingproportionally
to the distance from the
solid and the
average
speedbeing
half that of the outside
layer.
228 A HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS
Hence the
Quantitydischarged through
a narrow
pipe
per
second
total
fallofhydrostatic
pressure
1
(area}2
total
length coeff. ofviscosity
\6
and the fullmathematical discussion
gives
the actual efflux from a
capillary
tube
as
2/?r
times this.
"
239
:
The coefficient of
viscosity
is measured
by running
the
fluid
through
a
capillary
tube of known
dimensions,
under known
difference of
level,
collecting
the
discharge
in
a
known time and
applying
the formula.
The efflux in cubic centimetres is
inversely
as
the coefficient.
The coefficientsfor various
liquids
and
gases
are
given
in
Fig.
98.
Liquids
become less viscous "
more
mobile "
as
temperature
rises.
Glycerinegets quite
'
watery
'
at 100". Substances like candle-
wax
and
pitch
can
be called
very
viscous
liquids,
candles
hardly
bend in winter but
collapse
in
summer,
a
particularpound
square
of
pitch
in the
laboratorycupboard
stands
apparently
changeless
all the session but has subsided
perceptibly
more
after
each
long
vacation.
'
Blood is thicker than
water,'
five
times,
at blood heat. Gases
are
far less viscous than
liquids
:
their
viscosity
increases with
temperature.
"
240 : Lubrication. Two surfaces of
area
A
are
separated
by
a
thickness t
of fluid. The force
per square
centimetre
required
to slide the
upper
over
the lower at t
per
sec.
has been defined
as
the coefficient of
viscosity,
the whole force is A times this. An
increased
speed
necessitates
a
proportionally
increased force
(experimental,
and
corresponds
to
efflux).
The dead
weight
on
the
upper
surface makes
no
difference
so
long
as
it is
not
allowed
to
squeeze
the
layer
of lubricant out thinner.
Thus Fluid frictional resistance
is
proportional
to
viscosity
of
lubricant,
proportional
to area
in contact and to
speed,
independent
of
weight
carried
;
while
Solid
frictional
resistance,"
17,
is
proportional
to
a
coefficientof
friction,
independent
of
area
and
speed,
proportional
to
weight
carried.
The
ample slow-movingbearing
surfaces of the animal framework
are
constantly
lubricated
by
the
synovial
fluid and
probablyobey
fluidlaws. The
bearings
of
machinery
liesomewhere between the
two, depending
on
their oil
supply.
At low
speeds
the
pressures
are
permissiblyheavy,
and
squeeze
the lubricant into thinner
I
VISCOSITY 229
rers as
they
increase. The rate of
squeezing
out a
(thickness)2
viscosity.
The surfaces
can never
be
quitetrue,
and if the
erage
thickness is too small the
high placesget
into solid
contact
and make trouble. Hence the
viscosity
must
be
kept
large,
grease
or
graphite(which
under
great
pressure
behaves
exactly
as a fluid)
is
used,or
hard tallow
on
'
launching
ways
'
"
temporary
wooden slides not
ideally plane.
At
highspeeds
the oil is torn into shreds and
patches
which
carry
the
weight
like
so
many
littleflattened-out rubber
balls,
their total
area
and thickness
depending
on
viscosity,
surface
tension,
speed,
pressure,
and
quantitysupplied.
"
241 : Lubricants. Oiliness and stickiness.
Why
are
honey
and
glue
'
sticky
'
and
grease
and the
paraffins
'
oily
'
?
Why
not lubricate with
treacle,or
water " the film
on
an
eel
or
under
a
skate-blade is
slipperyenough
"
or
with oil of
vitriol ? Are
they
not all viscous
fluids,
having
among
them
viscositiessuitable for all sorts of
bearings
?
A lubricant must remain
;
it
may
neither
disappear
from its
place,
nor
become too
viscous,nor
corrode the solid surfaces.
Water and the essential oils
(lavender, etc.),
are soon
lost
by
evaporation,
olive oil cools to
a butter,
glue
to a
firm elastic
jelly,
honey
dries and
crystallizes,
linseed oil oxidizes to
a
hard
mass,
oil of vitriol
corrodes,
glycerine
absorbs moisture and thins.
On the other
hand, a
tinydrop
of thin watch oil
hardly
alters in
a
year
(most people
seem
to
expect
it to last for
ever),
common
machine oils
go many
days
and endure
warmth,
'
air-cooled
engine
oil
'
is viscous and almost
vapourless
at
nearly
a
red heat.
The
feeling
of stickiness
appears
to be due to
a
rapid
increase of
viscous
drag;
there is
no
distinguishing
it from oilinesstillthis
change
occurs.
Try
these domestic
experiments
:
" A solutioned
rubber
patch
feels
greasy
until
nearlydry.
Paste is
slippery
till
its
water
disappearsby evaporation
and
absorption
into the
paper.
Syrup
thickens
as
it
gives
up
water to
the absorbent skin
of the
fingers.Hygroscopicglycerinepunishes
a
dry
skin,
but
put
on a
wet
one
soaks
in,
leaving
a
surface film to collect dust.
"
242
:
High speeds.
At
higherspeeds(depending
on
dimen- sions
and
viscosities)
the fluid
moves
with eddies
producing
turbulence
and,
if air
gets
drawn
in,
noise. The
water-tap
Ix^ins to
splutter,
the
gas-jetroars,
the bullet
sings,
the boat
leaves
waves
and
busy
little
whirlpools
in its wake.
The flow
through
a
pipe
is less than
expected,
the resistance
A HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS
of the air far
more
(compare
the statement in
"
236 with the
top speed
of
a
-5-cm.
raindrop,
25 ft.
per
sec.),
'
skin-friction
'
hardly
counts
with
a cruiser.
Quantities
of fluid
are set into
varying
violent motions and
the friction
among
them
largely
exceeds that at the measurable
surfaces.
Empirical
laws
are
obtained
suitingspecial
cases.
Resistances increase
as
the
square
of the
speed,
at
least,
and
although
in the end
viscosityquiets
it
all,
they
often
appear
independent
of
it,
diminished
viscositybeing
counterbalanced
by
increased bulk of disturbance.
"
243
: Viscosity
of Gases. Kinetic
theory.
Consider
a
gas
flowing
over a
surface. The
marginal
molecules
of the forward
drifting
gas
will,
in their active
swarming,
fre- quently
collide with the
rough
molecular banks
representing
the
solid surface.
They
rush out
again
into the stream with their
forward
component
motion
lost,or even
reversed
; they
hinder
other molecules with which
they happen
to collide and
so
the
drag spreadsthrough
the stream.
When the
gas
is hot the molecules rush about
faster,more
of
them hit the
rough
surface,
and the total loss of forward
mo- mentum
is
greater.
Now the forward momentum of the
gas
was
what
we
gave
it
by pushing
on it,
and
having nothing
whatever
to do with the natural molecular
speeds
due to
temperature,
was no
greater
in the hot
gas
than in the cold. Hence
a
greater
percentage
is lost when hot
; gas
viscosity
increases with
tem- perature.
Alteration of
pressure
does not affect molecular
speeds,
at half-
pressure
there
are
only
half
as
many
molecules to hit the
banks,
the loss of
momentum
is
halved,
but
only
half the
mass
of
gas
is
moving,
and
consequently
gas
viscosity
is
independentof
pressure.
When the
gas
becomes
so attenuated,however,
that the reflected
molecules
usually
hit the
opposite
bank before
they
have collided
with other molecules the
hindering
effect
disappears,
for if the
first collision sent them backward the second will
probably
send
them forward
again,taking
the
average among
millions the two
collisions cancel. Thus at
very
low
pressures gaseous
friction
suddenly
diminishes. The cold filament of
a
carbon
glow-lamp
vibrates for
minutes,
admit air
by filing
off the
pip
and it hasn't
a
quiver
in it.
CHAPTER XXVIII
THE
LIQUID
SURFACE
"
244. Surface Tension. Go to the
pond
in
summer.
Watch
the
*
pond-skaters
'
darting
over
the surface which
only
their
long
legs
touch. Less
conspicuous,
the
'
water-boatmen
'
resting
or
sculling
on
the
underside,
like
a
fly
on
the
ceiling.
To these small
beasts the surface is
a
stretched
sheet,
smooth and
tense,
sus- taining
all the force
they
exert
on
it. Yet avoid the notion of
'
water-skin
'
that
some
speak
of,
there is
no
skin
(unless
there be
one
of
scum),
a
skin would have two surfaces. There
is,however,
a
boundary,
a surface,
with
a
stretch in
it,a
surface tension.
Light
weightsdepress
the
plane
surface into little
dimples,
the skater
rests in half
a
dozen miniature hammocks.
Let
us
firstfind
a means
of
measuring
this surface tension. The
one we
shall take is the
phenomenon
called
Capillarity,
the
rising
of
liquid
up
narrow
crevices and tubes
(capilla,
a hair)
" of
water
through
wood
or brickwork,
of oil
up
a wick,
etc. Take two
glass
plates,
wash them well and rinse in the
liquid
under
investigation,
keep
them
apart
with
a
couple
of
darning-needles
at the
edges,
strap
an
elastic band
round,
and stand them
upright
in
a saucer
of the
liquid.
It rises between the
plates,
and the
higher,
the
closer
they
are
(Fig.
99,
in the
dish).
"
245. The wetting
of surfaces. For this rise to
occur,
the
liquid
must wet the
plates.Why
do
some
liquids wet,
i.e.
adhere
to and
spread
on some solids,
and not
all ? We do not
know,
but
a
familiar
difficulty gives
some
clue
;
meltec! soldeTltfill
not
stick to a
tarnished
copper
bit. It
gradually
adheres if the bit
be shielded from oxidation
by
melted rosin and be
very
hot,
it adheres
instantly
if
a
corrosive chloride is
present. Wiped
off
it contains traces of
copper,
i.e.the adhesion is
probably
due to
the
same
molecular forces that
are
concerned in solution
or in
chemical action.
"
Adhesion,"
said
Graham,
"
is
an
unsuccessful
attempt
at solution."
Mercury readily
adheres to zinc
or
gold,
231
232 A HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS
which dissolve in it
freely,
but it is difficultto make it adhere to
iron.
The
wetting
of most surfaces
by ordinaryliquidsprobably
depends
on
their
being already
covered with
an
imperceptible
film of moisture. Glass collects
a
particularly
thick film out of
the
atmosphere,
sodium
amalgam kept
hot
on
it
develops
a
layer
of
hydrogen
bubbles which I have found to
correspond
to -00001
cm.
thickness of water. Visible
wetting
will
ensue
with
any
liquid
that
can
dissolve this film. Another
common film,
that
of
grease,
which for
a
time hinders
wettingby water,
is
an
encouragement
to the well-known
'
creeping
'
of
paraffin
oils.
"
246. The measurement of surface tension
by capillary
rise.
To return to
our
plates;
if
quite
clean the
liquid
film
spreads
all
over
them
as
in
Fig.
99
(A)
and iscontinuous with the horizontal
surface.
Usually,
however,
it anchors itselfsomewhere
fairly high
up,
as on
(B),
and
on
the not
quite
clean surface above it
drops
may
hang. [An
excellent test of the cleanness of
a
surface is that
a
film of water dries off itwithout
collecting
into
drops.]Anyway,
liquid
is lifted
up
by
the
pull
of the vertical
parts
of its surface.
The surface tension T is the
pull
in
dynes
exerted
across
each
centimetre width of
surface,Fig.
99
(T).
Taking
a
horizontal
length
I
cm.
of the
plates
the total
upward
pull
exerted
on
the
liquid
between them is 2ZT
(two plates).
The
weight
lifted is its volume
X density
X
weight
of 1
grm.
in
dynes=(lxbxh)xdxg.
Equating
these,
ZlT=lbhdg.
.'.
T=^bhdg dynes
or
h=2T/bdg
cm.
In
a
circular
capillary
tube
the
peripheral pull
27ir.T liftsthe
cylindrical
column
weighing(Tir2
.
h}d. g
dynes.
or
.*.
T==7rr*Mg
-7-2717"=
\rlidg dynes/cm.
conversely^=27rrT~7ir2rf{/=5F2T/r .
dg
whence the rule that the
height
to which
a
liquid
creeps
in
a
capillary
tube is
inversely proportional
to its diameter
(2r).
The Surface
Tension,
at
ordinarytemperatures,
of Water is
74
dynes
per
cm. width,
of
Mercury
547,
Alcohol
23,
Benzene
29,
Ether
16,
Paraffin oil26.
"
247. Temperature
and surface tension. All surface tensions
steadily
diminish
as
the
temperature
rises and
ultimately
vanish
THE
LIQUID
SURFACE 233
at the critical
temperature, " 215,
when the surface
dividing
liquid
and
vapour
disappears(e.g.
at
150",
T of ether is
only3).
The
temperature
decrease
can
be shown
by touching
a
water
surface
(sprinkled
with
lycopodium
or other dust to
show its
movements)
with
a
bunsen flame. The heated
spot
suddenly
expands,
for the tension there is
lessened,
it becomes
a weak
place
and has to
yield
to the
strongerpull
of the cold surface all
around.
Similarly
the film of
rinsing
water
covering
a
clean
glass
plate
shrinks
hastily
back from
a
heated
spot.
*"
"
248. The
high
surface tension of water is often
quickly
reduced
by dissolving
small
quantities
of substances in the
water.
For
instance,
soapy
water has
only
one-third the tension
;
from
a
234 A HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS
spot
of
shaving-soap
froth
dropped
on
to clean
warm
water there
is
a
rushing
outwards in alldirections
as
the
stronger
surface tears
at the weaker. In soft waber this
stops
as
the whole surface
becomes
soapy,
but
goes
on
longer
on
hard water which
con- tinuously
destroys
the
soap.
Chips
of
Camphor dropped
on
clean
warm
water
begin
to
per- form
littleerratic movements rather
reminding
one
of
'
whirligig
beetles.' As the
chip
very
slowly
dissolves
one
side is for the
moment
dissolving
faster,
the surface tension of the
stronger
solution there is
weakest,
and the
chip
is
dragged
the other
way.
The movements
cease
when the surface
layers
are
saturated
with
camphor.
The surface tension of water isin fact
greater
than that of
any
ordinary
pure
liquid(exceptmercury).
Alcohol
sprinkled
into
a
wet sink
causes a
violent commotion in the thin
layer
of
water
and each
drop
of
spirit
is left with
a
nearlydry
halo round it.
The
strong
water surface has shrivelled
up
and
dragged
out
the
weaker alcohol surface. The effect
presentlydisappears
as
the
liquids
dissolve each other. Wine
creeps up
the side of the
glass,
there the alcohol
evaporates
the faster and
a
watery
residue
pulls
itself
together
into 'tears' which trickle down
through
the
spirituous
film. The best known of these effects is the
rapid
spreading
of oil
dropped
on water
into the familiar iridescent
films,
the
stronger
water
pulls
out the weaker oil surface. The
pull
at each side of
an
oiled chisel 1
cm.
wide would =T of water
" T' of oil.
Conversely
water cannot
spread
on oil,
but
pulls
together
into
drops.
The
high
tension of
a
water surface makes it difficultto
keep
clean. It is
constantly trying
to
pull
sheets of
every
sort of
con- tamination
over
itself. The best
way
is to
keep
it
constantly
overflowing
the whole
brim,
and do not touch it
or
breathe
on
it.
The still
greater
surface tension of
mercury,
500,
acts in the
same
way.
Water will flash
instantly over
the surface of
mercury
freshly
redistilledinto clean
vessels,
but
so
difficultis it to
keep
the metallic surface clean that this remained
long
undiscovered,
and the usual
standing
of
water
in
drops
on
mercury
was
regarded
as a
curious
exception.
"
249. Films and froth. Clean
liquids
do not form
persistent
films.
Glistening
bubbles
on a
pond
are a
hint not to
drink,
or even
smell. On such
a surface,
spray
drops
from
your
paddle
would not run
yards
before
breaking
in, as
they
will
on
the
236 A HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS
And in
general
the Difference in
Hydrostatic
Pressure
on
the
two
sides of
a
surface
where P is in
dynes/cm.2,
T in
dynes/cm.,
r
and r'
cm. are
the
principal
radii of curvature in
perpendicular planes
and
are
-(-
if
the centre
of curvature is
on
the side P is measured.
Thus in
a
cylindrical
stream from
a
tap
there is
an
increased
pressure
P"
T/r.
Inside
a
sphericaldrop
P"
2T/r tending
to
compress
it out of
existence,
i.e.
help
it
evaporate.
And inside
a
bubble in
a
liquid
also P =
2T/r,
which
may
be
very
large
if
r
is
small,
hence the
great difficulty
in
starting
small bubbles in
a
liquid
referred to under
Boiling.
The
gas
in
a
soap
bubble bears
4T/r (film
has two
surfaces) ; removing
the
pipe
from
your
mouth and
pointing
it at
a
candle the flame is blown
aside,
Fig.
99,
and the
more
violently
the smaller the bubble shrinks.
A
soap
film
open
to the air
on
both sides must be either flat
or
saddle-shaped,
its
curves
equal
and
opposite.
A
spot
of wet binds two
glassplatestightlytogether,
for it
flattens into
a
layer
with
strongly
concave
edges(Fig.
99,
bottom),
and the
pressure
in this is reduced
by
T-^-half
distance between
the
plates.
The adhesion is
tenacious,even
in
a vacuum.
The
thinner the film the
tighter
the hold. For the
same reason
well-
fittingplates
of artificialteeth
cling
to the
palate,provision
having
been made for
interfering
air to be let out. Moistened
sand is bound
togetherby capillary
pressure.
The
experiment
of
partlyfilling
a
tumbler with
water, placing
a
card
on
it and
inverting
without
spilling (Fig.
99,right),
is
similarly explained.
It
has
nothing
whatever to do with
'
pressure
of the
atmosphere,'
for the
pressure
of the air inside
as
it becomes saturated is
greater
than
atmospheric,
and there is the
weight
of the water
(much or
little makes no
difference to
success)
to be sustained
as
well.
The water
between the outer
edge
of the tumbler and the card
shrinks to
a
sharp concavity
and the reduced
pressure
due
to
this
holds
up
card, water,
and all
;
in fact the
more
weight
of
water
the closer the card
pulls
up.
Drop
ether
on
the card
just
before use so as
to weaken the surface tension in
parts,
and the
experiment
fails.
We can see
too that
a
capillary
tube will not
serve
to
pump
water
continuously
to
a
level
just
below the natural
rise,
for the
water
would
have to flow out of
a
side
spout
in
drops
and these
THE
LIQUID
SURFACE 237
would
bulge
outwards,
whereas the rise
dependswholly
on
the
inward
bulge.
"
252
: Capillary depression
of
mercury (or
of
any
liquid
in
a
tube it does not
wet),Fig.
99
(M). Mercury
has
a
bulged,
not a
hollow,
'
meniscus
'
in
a tube,
and is therefore
pressed
down
instead of drawn
up.
The meniscus isnot
hemispherical,
but meets
the
glass
at
an
obtuse
angleofcontact,
140",
its radius is therefore
r
of the
tube-i-cos
140" and results in
a
downward P=2T
cosine 140"-|-r
dynes.
A barometer with
a narrow
tube therefore
reads too low
by
about
cos 140"-i-13r
cm.,
the evaluation of
which is left
as an
exercise. The
correction,however,
is
very
uncertain because
a
trace of dirt alters the
angle greatly.
Safety
lies in
an
inch- wide tube which has
a
negligible capillary
error.
"
253
: Large drops.
Drops
and bubbles at rest
are
spherical,
for the
pressure
is uniform
throughout
and the
sum
of the
cur- vatures
must be constant
[or
because the
sphere
has the least
surface and therefore least
potential energy].
But
gravity
deforms
largeones,
as
it introduces
hydrostatic
differences of
pressure
[orpotential gravitational energy].
If,however,
the
weight
is borne
by floating
in another fluid of
about the
same
density, largespheres
are
obtainable and their
vibrations when
prodded
are
slow and
easily
watched.
Large
drops
such
as
these
are seen
in
'
sight
feed lubricators.'
Naphtha- lene
melted in hot water breaks
beautifully
into these
drops
;
anilinein
warm water is
even
better.
"
254
: Instability
of
liquidcylinders.
Drawn fibres.
The
quietcylindrical
stream
from
a water
tap
is in unstable
equilibrium,
for if
a
vibration
cause a
momentary thinning
at
one
place
"
a
smaller radius" an
increased
pressure
arises
there,
pushes
the
liquid
into the wider
parts,
thus
corrugates
the stream
and
speedilynips
it into
drops.
Such
jets
are
sometimes
very
sensitive and will
magnify
the
ticking
of
a
watch
pressed
against
the
tap
into
a
succession of
noisysplashes.
The
newly
formed
drops
vibrate from
egg-shaped
to
turnip-shaped, giving
the
jet
its well-known bulbous
appearance.
Viscositybrings
the
vibrations to
a
standstill. Common shot
are
the
drops
into which
slender
streams of melted lead break
up
and
solidify.
If the
liquid
be
very
viscous
the small
pressure
differences
will not succeed in
breaking
it
up
and it remains in
longstrings
"
238 A HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS
treacle,seccotine,or
rubber solution
drying
'
tacky,'
and the
solidified
products
"
glasstubing,silk,
and
spider
threads. But
water must break into
drops
on a
wetted
fibre,
and
a
similar
beading
of
stickydrops,easily
seen
with
a
pocketlens,
gives
the
roundabout threads of the
garden-spider's
web their
efficacy
as
fly-catchers.
"
255. Alteration of
vapour pressure
at curved surfaces.
If in
a closed vessel
containingonly liquid
and its
vapour
(Fig.
100,
left)
the
liquid
rises
a
few centimetres in
a
capillary
tube,
it is obvious that the saturated
vapour pressure
at the
concave
surface in the tube is less than at the flat surface outside
by
the
weight
of the
vapour
above whose level the
liquid
has
crept.
There is
approximately
a
diminution of
vapour pressure
on
the hollow side of the surface of
__
density
of
vapour
T/l,
1
\ density
of
vapour
density
of
liquid"
\rr'/
density
of
liquid
It is
easy
to see
from the Kinetic
Theory
how this
comes
about
:
its
practical
results
are
important:
"
Suppose
as
in
Fig.
100
a molecule,
at d below the
surface,
whose
next
jump
has
a
probablelength
= the radius shown and is
FIG. 100.
equally
likely
to
take
place
in
any
direction. The three
diagrams
show that its chance of
jumping through
a
flat surface A is
greater
than that of
gettingthrough
one
bulged
towards it
B,
and less than
through
one
bulged
away
from it C. Hence
:
"
From
a concave
liquid
surface
a
molecule has less chance of
escaping,
while
a
molecule in the
vapour
above has
a
better
chance
of
falling
in
;
both effects reduce the number of
vapour
molecules
per
cubic centimetre,
i.e.the
vapour pressure.
On to
this hollow surface
vapour may
therefore condense from
an
unsaturated
atmosphere.
THE
LIQUID
SURFACE 239
Vegetable
and animal substances "
cotton,
paper,
wood,
charcoal,wool, hair,
catgut,
etc. " abound in minute
cells,
and
their cell walls
are
perforated by
far
more
minute tubules
through
which
ran
the
protoplasmicconnecting
threads,
and
are
covered
with
pits,
folds,
and chinks. Hence
perhaps
their well-known
hygroscopic
character,
every
crevice holds
a concave
water mole- cule
trap.
All
get
too
damp
to
electrify
two minutes after taken
away
from the fire
;
a
baked
filter-paper gainsweight
too fast to
follow
on a
fine balance
; your
clothes
well dried before the fire
lose half
a
pound
of moisture
;
charcoal,
cooled
by liquid
air,
absorbs the last traces of
gases
from the
highest
vacua.
Similarly
the
vapour pressure
in
a
small bubble must
be far
below the
normal,
hence the
difficulty
of
startingboiling
in
a
liquid
freed from
gaseous
or
solid nuclei. All the
dodges
for
avoiding
'
bumping
'
are
directed to
giving
the bubble
something
comparatively
flat to start
on.
Conversely
the
vapour pressure
over
the
convex
surface of
a
little
drop
is
abnormallyhigh,
for the molecules inside
get
a
better chance of
escaping
and those outside
a
less chance of
falling
in. Little
drops
will therefore
evaporate
and
super- saturate
an
atmosphere
with
vapour
which must condense on
the
flatter
largerdrops.
The
bigdrops
grow
by
the self-sacrificeof
the little
ones,
a
process
alwaysgoing
on
in clouds.
"
256.
Believing
in molecules
then, we
may
infer that surface
tension is
a
molecular
phenomenon just
as
vapour pressure
is
;
le one due to some
sort of mutual attraction
among
molecules
loselypacked
and
being
noticeable when one-sided
near the
outskirts of the
crowd,
the other characteristic of molecules
widelyseparated.
Two
or
three molecules
gatheredtogether
will
)t exhibit surface
tension,
it is
a
property
of crowds.
Verily
a
jhool-treat in
a
meadow exhibits
it,
the active
swarm
held
)getherby
social attractions is
a
drop
from which few " the
rapour
molecules
pro
tern."
stray
far afield.
Very
thin films
again
cannot show the characteristic
tension,
le
layer
of oil molecules counts for little
on
the turbulent
lolecular
sea
of water
beneath,
'
camphor
movements
'
go
on
till
the surface has been
quitemeasurably
oiled. Little water
ripples,
themselves controlled
by
surface
tension,are
calmed
by
oil
perhaps
because their motion thins the oil
on
their crests
(watch
the
play
of colour in
a
patch
on
heaving water),
the surface
tension there increases
nearer
that of clean water
;
the surface
240 A HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS
becomes
unequally strong,
it is
as
if
a
net
were
thrown
upon
it
;
the
great waves
remain,
but their surfaces
are polished.
The invisible
'
black
'
top
of
a
soap
bubble about
to
break
may
be
only
10~6
cm.
thick
(less
than
a
tenth the thinnest
adjoining
coloured
part), yet
it is
many
molecules thick and
exhibits
a
full surface tension.
EXAMPLES." CHAPTER XXVIII
1. Describe and
explain
the effects observed when small
pieces
of
camphor are
floated
on
clean water.
[M.]
2. Prove that water will rise in
a
vertical
capillary
tube to
a height
inversely as
its diameter. How
high
will oil rise in
a
tube -2
mm.
diameter,
if surface tension 3-8 and
density
-75 ?
[St. A]m.
3.
By
what fraction of
an atmosphere
do the
pressures
differ inside
and outside
a
4-cm. diameter
soap
bubble if T
=
25 ? [L.]
4. A
drop
of water
placed
between flat
glasses spreads
out to A
sq.
cm-
and
t cm.
thick. Show that force between
plates =
2
x
surface tension
xA-j-". [L.]
5. Show that
as
in middle of
Fig.
99 the
height
of
a capillary
column
depends only on
diameter of tube at the curved surface, provided
that
the
liquid
is
once
drawn
up
into the
narrow part.
6. Calculate how
high water,
T " 75,
will rise in
a capillary
1
mm.
diameter, and in
a piece
of wood of which the vessels
are
'0013
cm.
diameter.
7. Work out the
expression
of
"
252 for 1
cm.
diameter.
8. Water from
a depth
of 4
cm. drips
into the carbide chamber of
a
bicycle lamp through a
nozzle
\ mm.
diameter. Show that the
lamp
could
produce, intermittently, a
gas pressure
=10
cm.
head of
water,
without
blowing
back.
CHAPTER XXIX
DIFFUSION
"
257. If
a
few
drops
of bromine be
poured
into
a
tall
glassjar
which stands in
a
place
free from all
draughts
and differencesof
temperature,
their red
vapour
is
seen to
slowlyspread
up
the
jar
and its odour is
presently perceptible
in the
room.
To
spreading
such as this,
which has taken
place
without
regard
to
gravity
(for
bromine
vapour
is six times
as
dense
as
air),
and without
any
help
from differences of
pressure
and
temperature,
the
name
of Diffusion
is
given.
If the
jar
were
fullof water the
orange
hue of dissolved bromine
creeps
upward
in the
same
way,
but far
more
slowly
;
it is
a
matter of
days
and weeks before it reaches the
top.
Or the
stronger
colour from
permanganate crystalsspreadsequally
slowly
whether
up
through
water or
up
or
down
through
a
jelly,
showing
that currents have
nothing
to do with
it" such currents
of denser solution
as stream down from
a
lump
of
sugar,
held in
a
spoon
high
up
the side of the
teacup.
"
258. Measurement of rate of diffusion.
Diffusivity.
The
rates of interdiffusion of
pairs
of Gases have been measured
by enclosing
them in the halves of
a
vertical
cylinder
with
a
diaphragm
in the
middle,
the
lighter
gas
being
in the
upper
half.
The
diaphragm
is
cautiouslyslipped
out
and,
after
a
definite
interval,
replaced,
the contents of each half
are
analysed
and the
te calculated.
It isfound that
lighter
gases
diffuse
faster,hydrogen
and marsh
or
hydrogen
and air interdiffuse
nearly
five times
as fast
as
air and carbon
dioxide,
the latter and nitrous oxide
going
one-
third slower still.
Hydrogen
travels
through
air about half
as
fast
as
heat
through
copper.
Two inches of
C02
at the bottom of
a 2-ft. tall
jar
spreadsuniformlythrough
itin two hours.
Diffusion in
Liquids
is measurable
by analysing
the mixture
at different levels in the tall diffusion
jar
of
"
257
(though
in
16
241
242 A HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS
practice
several
more convenient
experimental
contrivances
have been
used).
It has
mostly
been studied for salts in solution
diffusing through
water. A Law of Diffusion introduced
by
Fick
in 1855
may
be stated
as
follows
:
"
Taking
two
adjacentlayers
each 1
cm. thick,
the
one
containing
n
and the other n'
mg.
of
dissolved substance
per
cubic centi- metre,
then
F(n"n')
mg. pass
from
the
one
cubic centimetre to
the other
per
second where F is the
Diffusivity(orCoefficient of
Diffusion).
The transference in
any
actual
case can
be
computed
from this
exactly
as the
quantity
of heat conducted
through
a
plate
is
calculated in
"
180,
F
being
the
analogue
of thermal
conductivity
and
n
of
temperature.
"
259. If
n
and n'
were
in
layers
x cm.
apart
the
change
of
concentration in
adjacent
cubic centimetres
(the
motive
force)
would be
onlyI/a?
its
previousvalue,
and there
being
also
x
times
as
far to
go,
it would take x2 times
as
long
for the
same
quantity
to flow across :
hence the time taken to reach
a
certain
con- centration
at
a
place
is
proportional
to the
square
of the distance
to be travelled
(compare
conduction,
" 182).
Thus for
example
the
C02
would have filled
a
little
jarnearly
uniformly
in
a
minute of
two,
but it
evidentlyrequires
some
process
far
more
violent than Diffusion to
save us
from
stifling
beneath a
cityatmosphere.
Stirring,
which
bringstogetherportions
of
widely
different
concentrations in
very
thin
streaks,
hence
ensures
rapid
and
complete mixing by
diffusion. Instance the streakiness
on
stirring together
syrup
(or whisky)
and
water,
and its
quick
disappearance.
"
260. Some
approximate
values of
86,400 F,
i.e.the number
of
milligrams
of dissolved substance
travelling
per square
centi- metre
per
day
from
a
plane
drawn in the water where it contains
n
mg. per
c.c. to a
parallel plane
1
cm.
distant where it contains
n"
1
mg. per
c.c.,
are as follows,
at the
temperatures
stated,
and
increase
rapidly
with
temperature
:
"
Hydrochloric
and nitric acids
(20")86,400
F = 2-0
(50")
4-0
Sulphuric
acid
.
Acetic
Caustic
potash
Potassium chloride
Common salt
.
Alcohol
.
(5")
1-2
" "
'64
1-7
1-4
76, (9")-91,(20")
1-04
244
A HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS
of
any gas
at the
same
temperature
and
pressure
is the
same,
m,
the
mass
of
one molecule,
is
proportional
to the
density
of the
gas
;
hence molecular
speed
varies
inversely
as
square
root of
density.
And
everyone
will admit that the rate of diffusion is
proportional
to
the
speed
of the
diffusing
molecules. Hence the
law.
Each
gas
present
in
a
mixture
on
either side behaves inde- pendently
of the
others,
simply
on account of the
characteristically
different
speed
of itsmolecules. Each tends in time to reach the
same
partial
pressure
(i.e.
molecular
populationdensity)
on
either
side,
but the
lightest
reaches
equilibrium
first.
"
262. Selective transmission of
gases.
The
diaphragms
dis- cussed
above
are
porous
in the
ordinarysense,
that
a
little
pressure
will drive
any gas
(cause
it to
effuse,
" 89) through
them. But
there
are
several
things,commonly regarded
as
quite'air-tight,'
which
are
permeableby particular
gases.
The red-hot iron walls
of
a
stove are
said to transmit
poisonous
carbon
monoxide,
they
readily
transmit
hydrogen.
Red-hot
platinum
is
permeable
to
hydrogenonly
: a
tiny
blind-ended
platinum
tube is sealed to a
'
vacuum tube,'"
669
;
heated in
a
spirit-lamp
flame it at
once
admits traces of
pure
hydrogen.
Thin india-rubber balloons
blown with
C02
soon
collapse,
and
oxygen passes
through
them
2|
times
as
fast
as
nitrogen,
so
that
a
toy
balloon
packed
with sawdust to
prevent collapse
and
put
on a
mercury pump
slowly
filtersfrom the air
a
mixture much richer in
oxygen.
Probably
in these
cases
the
gas
actually
dissolves in the
solid,
diffuses about in it and
evaporates
off from the other side. This
must
be how
gases
get through
soap
bubbles, as
they quickly
do. It will be recalled that the
'
air
'
obtainable from solution in
water is rich in
oxygen,
which is
so
much
more
soluble than
nitrogen.
"
263. The diffusion of
Liquids through
membranes. Osmosis.
The
passage
of
liquidsthrough ordinary
porous
materials is
a
mere
question
of Filtration,
which like Effusion is
a
gross
mechanical
process
forced
by
pressure
or
induced
by
the
capillary
drag
of surface tension. The chemist
typically
uses a
filter-paper
to
retain undissolved and transmit dissolved substances
;
the
porcelain
tubes of the Pasteur
or
Berkefeld filterssterilizewater
because their
pores
are
too
small to admit
bacteria,
they
have
no
power
to deal with dissolved
poisons.
We have
seen
that diffusion in
liquids
is
a
very
slow
proceeding
I
DIFFUSION 245
inetically,
on
account of the dense crowd
a
molecule has to
t
Dstle
through.
It follows that
'
porous
'
pots
and
papers
are
inefficient
in
studying
it,
the least alteration in
pressure
causing
an
infiltrationthat
quite
swamps
its slow effects. Much less
porous
partitions
must be
used,
'
water-tight
'
things
like
parch- ment,
bladder,parchment-paper,
etc.
Liquid
diffusion
through
these is
designated
Osmosis.
It is
by
osmosis that the
living
cell of
plant
or
animal takes
up
its nutriment
from, or
gives
out its elaborated
or
its waste
productsto,
the
watery
fluids
bathing
its walls.
Accordingly
the most
interesting part
of the
subject,
and the most studied,
to which
we
shall confine ourselves
here,
is that
dealing
with the
diffusion of water and substances dissolved in it.
"
264. Graham observed that
parchment
paper
permits
the
passage
of
crystallizable
substances
['
crystalloids
']
from solution
on one
side to weaker solution
on
the
other,
but does not transmit
gum,
albumen, starch,globulins,
etc.
['
colloids,'
colla=glue].
On this he founded the
process
of
Dialysis: a
little
drum,
the
*
dialyser,' containing
mixed
solutions,
is floated
on
water
;
only
the
crystalloids
pass
through
the
parchmentized
paper
bottom.
This
process
isuseful in
medico-legal
work for
separating
traces of mineral
poisons
and alkaloids from the
mass
of colloids
in the
alimentary
canal
or
tissues of the
deceased,
for colloids
often mask chemical tests. And
again,
from ferric chloride
solution the acid
dialyses
out
leaving
a
solution of
the colloid
ferric
hydroxide
of
greatertherapeutic
value than the
original
salt.
The ultimate
particles
of colloids in solution have in several
instances been
actually
detected
by
the
'
ultra
'-microscope,
and
freezing-point
determinations,
"
273,
show that their
mass
is
never
less than
many
hundred times that of
a
molecule of
crystalloid.
The natural
explanation
therefore
appears
to be that
the colloid
particles
are too
big
to
get through.
All the membranes used in the
study
of osmosis "
parchment
paper, copper
ferrocyanide,
etc."
are
colloid in character. There
is evidence that
jellies
consist of
a
sponge-like
structure of colloid
granulesthrough
which the
liquid
is
dispersed.Crystalloids
pass
practically
as
readilythrough jellies
as
through
water "
instance the
spreading
of the red
dye
when
'
raspberry
'
jelly
lies
on
'
lemon
'
jelly
" but colloids
are
much hindered.*
*
The amoeboid extravasation of
leucocytesthrough
the walls of
the
capillaries
in the
vicinity
of
a
lesion is
a
proceeding
on a
far
larger
scale than that
contemplated
here.
246 A HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS
The
permanent suspension
of the oil
drops
in
an
Emulsion
is attributed to these
granules
of the colloid
gum
used in its
preparation,
these
beinglarge
and
numerous
enough
to
greatly
hinder the motion of the oil
drops,though
the latter
are
usually
easy
microscopic objects.
"
265. It
may
be of interest to mention here the
'
Brownian
Motion,'
the ceaseless
'
jiggling
about
'
in
liquids
of solid
particles
which under the
highest
powers
of the
microscope
are mere
swarming
dots.
[Rub
up
a
speck
of umber in water and examine
with
highpower.] According
to kinetic
theory
the
average energy
of motion of all molecules in
a
mixture must be the
same,
what- ever
their sizes
[and measures
the
temperature,"218].
And this
must
hold
good
even
for
particles
very many
thousand times
more massive,
if set
moving by
the molecular hail. Now
determinations of the
mass
and
speed
of Brownian
particles
of
gamboge
have been made
recently
under the
microscope,
and
their
%mv2
averages
5x
10~14
erg.
That of the
hydrogen
mole- cule,
calculated from kinetic
theory,
is 4
X
10"14
erg
at the
ordinarytemperature.
So
we
may
actually
watch the movements
of
bulky partners
in that dance the
very
existence of which has hitherto been
a
matter
of
pure
faith with the
physicist.
"
266. Osmotic Pressure.
There isanother
way
of
studying
diffusion
through
membranes,
originating
in
an
early
observation made
by
the Abbe Nollet.
He found that
a
bladder full of alcohol swelled and burst in
water,
while
one
of water
collapsed
when immersed in alcohol. The
same
happens
with
syrup
instead of alcohol.
The
diffusing
water forces its
way
into the
sugar
solution even
in
spite
of
a
pressure
which increases
till,
if the membrane
can
sustain
it,
itreaches the maximum Osmotic Pressure
characteristic
of the solution and its concentration.
Domestic
cookery
affords excellent illustrations. Mushrooms
sprinkled
with salt
slowly
exude
a
dark
juice
which,
boiled with
spices,
constitutes
ketchup.
The salt dissolves in their
superficial
moisture to a
strong
brine,
the
watery
cell
sap
'
exosmoses
'
through
the cell walls to dilute it. More salt dissolves and the
process goes
on
tillthe cells
are
drained almost
dry. Again,
it is
desired to stew
some
hard windfall
apples.
Cut
up,
covered with
sugar
and left
overnight,
there results
a
syrup
on
which float
shrivelled
pieces} tough
as
leather. On
the
contrary,
cut
up
and
DIFFUSION 247
stewed in
plain
water the
apples
swell and their cellsburst to
a
pulp
which
can now
be
sugared
ad libitum. In the former
case
water
passed
from the
unripe
cell
sap
into the
strongersyrup,
in the latter
case
water
'
endosmoses
'
into the acid
sap
until the
cellsburst.
The
process
can
be followed under the
microscope,using
preferably
cellswith coloured
contents,
such
as
those of the fila- mentous
alga3
or
of the beaded hairs
on
the stamens of the
garden
spider-
wort
(Tradescantiavirginica). Examining
under
a
high
power,
irrigate
with
strong
brine
or
syrup.
The
protoplasmic
lining
of the
cells,
the
'
primordial
utricle
'
" the live cellitself "
will be
seen
to leave the cellwalls and contract as
the water
of the cell
sap passes
through
it out into the
strong
solution.
The cell is
'
plasmolysed.'Irrigated
now
with fresh water it
expandsagain,
in fact the blue cells of the staminal hairs become
more
turgid
and threaten to
burst,
like the
apple
cells.
Earlyexperiments
on
Osmotic Pressure
were
those of Pfeiffer
and de Vries.
They
soaked
epidermal
cells of the leaves of
Tradescantia discolor in
1-2% KN03 (saltpetre) solution;
the
cellsreached
a
healthyequilibrium
condition in
an
hour.
They
were
then
irrigated
with various solutions and would
show,
by incipient plasmolysis,
any
variation
corresponding
to 0-1
%
KN03.
The
following
is
an extract from their list
:
"
Equivalent
to 1
% KN03
solution
[which
is
decinormal]
are :
"
5
per
cent
cane
sugar
Osmotic
pressure
of
1
%
solution.
"7
atmospheres
1-25
6-1
2-55
1-75
1-95
2-7
glucose
"58
common
salt NaCl
1-4
glycerine
2-0
potassium
citrate
1*8
magnesium sulphate MgSO4
41
gum
arabic
. .
-085
"
267. Solutions isotonic with the blood
are
of immense
importance.
'
Normal saline
'
must be used in the micro-
examination of tissues. Lotions to be
applied
to inflamed surfaces
should
put
no
osmotic strain
upon
them. The sterilesolution of
salt
or
sugar
transfused into the veins of
a
patient
to stave off
collapse
from loss of blood must have
a
concentration
equivalent
to 1
%
common
salt. If
stronger
the
corpuscles, etc.,
plasmolyse;
if
weaker, they
may
burst. Thirst is relieved
by
weak salt
water,
but
nausea follows the
plasmolysis
of the
gastricepitheliumby
sea-water.
248
A HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS
And
every
swimmer knows how sea-water contracts the
skin,
leavinggrime-retaining
wrinkles
on
his
hands
;
while fresh water
softens and swells the skin and dilutes the
body
fluids.
The
crispness
of a fresh
green
leaf is due to the
turgidity
of its
cells,
and this is maintained
by
the
'
endosmotic
'
diffusion of the
watery stem-sap
into their
more
concentrated
contents,
up
to an
osmotic
pressure
of 20 atmos.
or more.
It takes
a
hard
pinch
to
reallydamage
the
'
soft
'
tissue stiffened out with this
pressure.
Contrast the
nagging
leaffrom which water
vapour
has
transpired
without renewal.
Loss of
turgidityparalyses
the cell. Hence it is that the
micro-fungi
"
moulds, bacteria,etc."
although
their
capability
of
producinghigh
osmotic
pressures
gives
them enormous
activity,
can
make
no
headway
in well-boiled
jam,
for
this
represents
a
solution
more concentrated than
(*hypertonic
'
to)
their cell
contents,
and
plasmolyses
them.
Further consideration of these actions in the
organism
discloses
an
apparentpower
of
selection,
for the
living
cell does not
usually
contain salts
in the
same relative
proportions
as
the
surrounding
moisture contains them. Recent
research,however,
is
finding
a
true
physicalexplanation
even
of this
;
one
dependent
on
the
formation of ionizable
("274) compounds
between the colloids
and
crystalloids.
At
present
it
may
be stated
generally
that material travels
as
solutions of
'
crystalloid
'
substances of small molecular
mass,
e.g. sugar
180, urea 60, etc.,
but isstored in the cellsin the form of
colloids
(starch, etc.),
of molecular
mass
many
hundred times
greater
(cf." 264).
"
268.
The cell
mostly
used for
physical
measurements
of
osmotic
pressure
is
composed
of
a
membrane of the colloid
copper
ferrocyanide, precipitated
in the
pores
of
a
small
porous
battery
pot
to
give
it the needful mechanical
strength.
The ferro- cyanide
forms
a
thin
layer
in the middle of the wall
as
in the
broken
piece
in
Fig.
101. The
jar
is attached
to a
mercury gauge
and is then filledwith the
solution,
sealed
up
and
plunged
into
water. The
gauge
rises hour
by
hour
as
the water
slowly
crowds
in
up
to the
high
osmotic
pressure
of the solution.
A membrane such as
this is called
a semi-permeable membrane,
for it will not transmit
sugar
and
many
other
organic
substances
at
all,
while it is
quitepermeable
to water. A well-made cell
indeed transmits
only
small traces of the alkaline chlorides and
nitrates,
but
one usually
has to be
content with less
perfection
DIFFUSION 249
than this and to shun these
very
easily
diffusible substances.
[The
exact mode of action of the membrane is
obscure,
it has
commonly
been
regarded
as a
mechani- cal
stopping
of the
larger
molecules,
but recent
experiments
have shown
that membranes made with the
use
of
alcohol
are more
permeable
to alcohol
than to
water, so
that the action
appears
selective,
cf.
" 262.]
NOTE." The rest of the
chapter
refers
quantitativelyonly to DILUTE
SOLUTIONS,
very
littlehas been made
out about
strong
solutions.
With
apparatus
such
as
this it has
been observed that"
(a)
Solutions
containingequal
num- bers
of molecules of dissolved sub- stance
(i.e.weights proportional
to
Mol.
Wts.)
per
litre have the
same
osmotic
pressure,
independently
of the nature
of this substance
(e.g.
borax and
cane
sugar).
(b)
Osmotic
pressure
is
proportional
to number of molecules
per
litre.
e.g. sugar
mols.
1/34 2/34
4/34 6/34
O.P.
incm.Hg
54 2x52 4x52 6x51
(c)
Osmotic
pressure
is
proportional
to absolute
temperature,
[(d)
But solutions which conduct
electricity
have osmotic
pressures
higher
than
expected
;
and
strong
solutions
always
lower than
expected.]
Quantitative
experiments
led Van't Hoff to
point
out that not
only
did
(a),(b),
and
(c)
resemble the
gas
laws of
Avogadro,Boyle,
and
Charles,
but that
they
were
identical with
them,
and the
Osmotic Pressure exhibited
by
a
substance in dilute solution is
equal
to the
pressure
which the
vapour
of
the
same
quantityof
substance,
gasified,
would
exert
in the
same
space
as
the solution
occupies,
and
at
the
same
temperature.
e.g.
Pfeiffer found that 1
%
sugar
solution at 7" C.
gave
a
pressure
of 50-5
cm.
of
mercury.
For
vapour
(C12H2201]L)
this
would be
50-8
cm., reckoning
that 1 mol. wt.
(342)
in 1 litre
should
give
22-32 atmos.
250 A HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS
"
269. Van't Hoff's Law
suggests
a
Kinetic
explanation
of
osmotic
pressure.
It is
perhapsillogical
to
suppose
that the molecules of dissolved
substance exert
a
pressure
by impact
in the
same
way
as
they
would in
gaseous
form
;
for if
so, why
do not the
vastly
more
numerous
molecules of solvent
exert a
pressure
great enough
to
burst
any
ordinary
vessel ?
We must
argue
in this
way.
The
presence
of molecules of
dissolved substance leaves
room
for fewer molecules of solvent
per
cubic centimetre. There
are
therefore fewer solvent mole- cules
striking
the wall from the inside than from the
pure
solvent outside
;
on
the whole there is
a
transference of solvent
from without into the
solution,
while the dissolved substance
cannot
get
out. This
goes
on
until the
pressure
is crowded
up
enough
to make
simple
ex-filtration
equal
to the osmotic influx.
This
pressure
is
simplyequal
to that characteristic of
a swarm
of
molecules,
equal
in number to the molecules of
substance,
inter- spersed
thinlyenough (solution
is
dilute)
to have
no
mutual
attraction
;
i.e.to the
gas pressure,
see
"
103.
"
270. Let
us
therefore calculate the Osmotic Pressure of
a
solution
containing
n
molecules of substance dissolved in 100
molecules of solvent
(i.e.
n
times mol. wt.
in
grm.
of substance
in 100 mol. wt.
in
grm.
solvent),n
is in
practiceusually
less
than 1.
The volume of this mixture
(neglecting
the small addition
caused
by n)
= 100
x
volume of mol. wt. in
grm.
of solvent.*
1
grm.-mol.gasified
at
atmospheric
pressure
would
occupy
22,300(1+^/273)
c.c.
Hence in the
given
volume
n
grm.-mol.
exert,by Boyle's
Law,
nx
22,300(1+^/273)
" -, " -f " " ,'
, i
-
atmos.
100
x
vol. of
grm.-mol.
of solvent
n
vol. of
grm.-mol.
of
a
gas
_" . Xy/
O Q
"
~~
100 vol. of
grm.-mol.
of
liquid
solvent
= Osmotic Pressure of n
per
100 molecular solution.
As
an illustration,
taking
water
as
solvent this works out to
nx 22,300x
76-=-(100x
18-hl)
=
wX
1000
cm.
Hg.
10 metres
of
mercury
for
a
1
per
100 molecular solution in
water,
a
pressure
that
no
osmotic
pot
stands without
leaking.
Pfeiffer's
1
%
sugar
solution
was a
1/342
in
100/18=
-05 molecular
%.
*
=100xmol. wt.
-f density.
252 A HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS
water. The loss of
weight
of the water bulb
represents
the
additional water
required
to
fully
saturate the
air,
and
expressed
as a
fraction of the
weight
of all the water
vapour
(collected
in
drying tubes)
is
equal
of
course
to the fractional
lowering
of saturated
vapour pressure
due to the dissolved sub- stance.
We should
expect
to find the
atmosphere
of the
saltings
less
unpleasantly
humid
on
the whole than that of the fresh-water
marshes.
"
272. Raised
boiling
boints of solutions.
To reach the full saturation
pressure
of the
vapour
the ten- dency
of the
(100" n)
mol. to
vaporize
must be increased until
equal
to that of the 100 mol. of
vapour
to
liquefy.
This is
done
by increasing
their molecular
speed,
i.e.
by raising
the
temperature
of the solution. The saturation
pressure
convenient
in
practice
is 1
atmo.,
for that is the
pressure
of the
vapour
when
a
liquidvisibly
and
steadily
boils in
an
open
vessel. Thus
finding
the rise in
boiling point
of the solution above that of the
pure
solvent is
an
indirect
means
of
finding
the solution's de- ficiency
in
vapour-producing
power,
and hence of
finding
n.
In
Fig.
102 the 15
% deficiency
of
pressure
VU at 100" is made
up
by heating
the solution to
104",
its
vapour pressure
rising
to
the
atmospheric
at
W,
where it boils.
The
precise
relation between the
deficiency
of
vapour pressure
and the rise of
temperature
necessary
to make it
up
is
evidently
settled
by
the
slope
of the
curve near
the
boilingpoint.
This of
course
has been determined
by
the
experiments
of
"
208
on
the
solvent
[the
curve
for dilute
solutions,
from which alone accurate
results
are obtainable,
iscloserand
more
parallel
than solution curve
in
figure].
As
explained
in
"
209,
the
curve
is almost identical for
all
liquids, providedonly
that the
temperature
scale is stretched
or
compressed
as a
whole
so as
to
bring
the normal
boilingpoint
of the
liquid
under the
76-cm.
pressure
point
on
the
curve.
Measurement of the scale
diagram,Fig.
83,
will show that for
2" or
3" above the
boilingpoint
the
vapour pressure
increases
2-8 cm.
Hg
for 1" rise of
temperature,
so
that the 1
%
molecular
solution with its 1
% deficiency
of
vapour pressure
=760 -^-100
= "76 cm.
Hg
must be raised
an
additional -76^2-8
= -27" C. to
boil it.
[The
direct
experimentalfigure
for ether
as
solvent is
"284" and for carbon
disulphide-31".]
In
practice
a
very
delicate thermometer is inserted in the
DIFFUSION 253
solvent,
keptboiling
as
steadily
as
possible.
Then the substance
is
put
in and the rise observed. The thermometer must be
in the
liquid;
the
pure vapour
leaves the solution
superheated
(unsaturated)
but cools
probably
in the first centimetre of its
path
to its normal
temperature
of
saturation,
which it maintains
by partially condensing,
i.e. in the
body
of the flask it is
no
hotter than
before,
cf.
"
145. A reflux condenser returns
the
boiled-away
solvent to
keep
the
strength
of the solution
constant.
"
273. Lowered
freezing points
of solutions.
When
a
dilute solution freezes
pure
ice
separates
out
[in
fact
freezing
is the easiest
way
of
preparing
water of the utmost
purity
from
ordinary
distilled
water].
Now the
vapour pressure
of the
subliming
solid,
pure
ice,*
isless than that of
'
undercooled
'
water
*
at the
same
temperature ;
the solid
bondage
of the mole- cules
hinders them
escaping
more
than does the
liquidbondage,
and the ice
vapour-pressure
curve
slopes
back from 0" more
steeply
than the
water,
Fig.
102.
Thus it
presently
cuts
the
solution
curve at X and this is at the
freezing-point temperature
of the solution.
For at
temperatures
to the
right
of X
a
piece
of ice
placed
on
the solution has
a
vapour pressure
higher
than the
solution's,
and will
evaporate,
and
vapour
will condense into the solution.
The total rate of
escape
of the 100 mol. from the ice exceeds
that of the 100" n
from the solution. Per
contra,
below
X,
vapour
from the solution would
deposit
on
the ice which would
therefore
grow,
i.e.the
liquidcontinuously
freezes. X is thus
the
only point
where ice and
liquid
exist in
equilibrium
together,
as
many
molecules
leaving
the
liquid
and
re-precipi- tating
on
the ice
as
leave the ice and
drop
back into the
liquid.
The
same
equilibrium
holds for the
submergedparts
of the
ice,
for if it did not
we
might
have ice and solution at
a
perfectly
uniform
temperature throughout,
and the
liquidevaporating
and
continuously
'
snowing
the ice under
'
from above while it con- tinuously
dissolved it from
beneath, a
Perpetual
Motion.
The
slope
of the
ice-vapour
line
having
been found
by
ex- periment
the result is that it cuts the
vapour-pressure
curve
of
a
*
Taken
throughout
as
typos
of the solid and
liquid
states of the
solvent,
whatever it
may
be.
254 A HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS
1 mol.
per
100 mol. solution at
a
temperature
below the
freezing
point
for various solvents
as follows
:
"
"
274.
Summarizing,
for
a
solution
containing
n
grm.-mol.
of
substance
dissolved in 100
grm.-mol.
of
any
solvent
:
"
volume of
grm.-mol.
of
a
gas
ditto of
liquid
solvent
atmos.
Osmotic Pressure
==
"
x
at
any temp.
Lowering
of
Vapour
Pressure =
"Xvap. press,
of solvent,
at
any
temp.
Rise of Boiling
Point at
atmospheric pressure=nx-28"
C.
Lowering
of
Freezing
Point
or
=nX
-65" C. for several
organic
solvents
wXl-050 C. for water.
The last
two,
which
are
experimentally
easier,are
used
by
the
chemist to find molecular
weights. Taking
100 mol.-wt. of
solvent in
centigrammes,
say,
and
adding
w
eg.
of
substance,
the
change
of
temperature
observed is divided
by
the -28"
or -65"
and
givesn,
the number of molecules added.
/.
Mol. Wt. of substance
=iv^-n.
"
275. For reasons
imperfectly
known the above
general
laws
are not
widelyobeyed
with the first-rate
accuracy
that would
give
them
highphysical
value.
A
very
great discrepancy
is observed with solutions which
can
conduct
electricity,
solutions of
electrolytes, "
646.
They
appear
to contain when
dilute,
double the
expected
number of molecules,
e.g.
sea-water
is
a
3
%
salt
solution=3/59
in
100/1
8=
roughly
1 mol. NaCl
per
100 mol.
H20
and should freeze at " 1-05" C.
It
actually
freezes
just
below "2" C. And with calcium
chloride,
with 3 atoms
in the
molecule,
nearly
3 times the
expectedchange
isobservable.
DIFFUSION 255
From this has arisen the Ionic Theory
that salts in dilute
solution
spontaneously split
up
into their
atoms, electrically
charged,
called
Ions, acting kinetically
as
molecules and elec- trically
as
the carriers of
electricity through
the
solution,
see "
647.
EXAMPLES." CHAPTER XXIX
1. Describe experiments
to test whether the diffusion of
gases
has
any
connection with their densities, and
explain
how the
experiments
do test the
question. [L]m.
2. A closed
porous
pot
full of air is
provided
with
a
manometer
(pressure gauge).
Describe its indications if the
pot
is
suddenly
plunged
and
kept
in
(a)
coal
gas,
(b)
carbonic acid.
Explain on
the
kinetic
theory. Suggest an application
in
mining.
3. On what does the rate of diffusion
depend
in
(a) liquids, (b)
gases
?
[L]m.
4. Define the coefficient of diffusion of
a
salt in
a
solution, and
explain
how it
can
be found
experimentally. [L]m.
5. Show how diffusion between
a
solution of
a
substance and the
pure
solvent
can
give
rise to osmotic
pressure.
Calculate it for 1
grm.
glucose (mol. wt.
180)
in 100
c.c.
of solution
just
above 0" C.
WAVE MOTION
CHAPTER XXX
PEKIODIC MOTION
"
276. The
periodic
motion of a particle.
The
Simple
Harmonic
periodic
motion of
a
particle
has been
introduced in
"
39
(afterpendulum)
and the results of that section
must here be
recapitulated.
A
particle
which
moves
in
a
straight
line
under the action
of
a
forceattracting
it
to,
and
proportional
to its distance
from,
a
fixedpoint
in the
line, moves
with
Simple
Harmonic
Motion. This is the
motion,on
any
diameter
of
a circle, of
the
footof
the
perpendicular dropped
on
the diameter
from
a
pointmoving
ivith
uniformspeed
round the circle.
In
a common
type
of
steam
pump,
Fig.103,
the vertical
piston-pump-rod
bears
a
long
slotted cross-head in which
a
crank-pin
works
to drive
a
fly-wheel,
etc.
Assuming
the
fly- wheel
speed
constant the vertical motion of
FIG. 103.
the
pump
is
evidently
a S.H.M.,
for the slot is the
perpendicular
to the vertical diameter.
And the
right
and left motion of the
pin
in the slot is another S.H.M.
In the circular
diagram
marked like
a
clock-face in
Fig.
104
the dots
on
the vertical diameter
evidently
show the
positions
of
the
pointmoving
in
a
vertical S.H.M. at
equal
intervals of time.
But it is
more
graphic
to
put
each
on a
diameter of its
own,
spacedhorizontally
at
equal
times
apart
as shown,
and
so
produce
the Sine Curve
[or
Cosine
Curve].
This
curve
would be obtained
by carrying
a
card
horizontally past
a
pencil
on
the
pump-rod,
or
by sliding
a
plate
at uniform
speed
below and at
rightangles
to a
pendulum
whose bob is
a can
of sand with
a
hole in the
256
PERIODIC MOTION 257
bottom. It is
roughly
attained
by
the small
boy
as he ambles
beside
a wall,
chalk in hand.
The
-following particulars
of
a
S.H.M. must be defined
:
"
The
Amplitude
is the maximum distance from the centre. It
is the radius of the circle
;
half the
length
of
a
pendulum swing;
the
height
or
depth
of the
curve
from the centre line.
F
-as-
C/
II in M V XI XII XV
\
FIG. 104.
The
Phase
of the
particle
expresses
its
position
at
any
moment.
It is
usually
defined
by
the
angle
the
corresponding point
in the
circlewould have moved from its
starting-point,
e.g.
the
point
C
(Fig.104)
is either in
phase
60"
(II o'clock)
when
moving
downwards
or
in
phase
300"
(X)
when
moving upwards.
The
particle
passes
through
all
phases
once
in each
completed
motion.
The
Period,
Periodic
time,or
time
of
vibration
or oscillation,
is
the time taken to
complete
one
whole
motion,
i.e.the interval
of time between two successive
passages
of the
particle through
the
same
phase.
The
complete
vibration or
oscillationis the ivhole motion there
and
back,
e.g.
the
'
time of oscillation
'
of
a
'
seconds
'
pendulum
is2
sec.,
each
single
'
swing
'
or
'
stroke
'
occupying
1
sec.
Never
call
a
singleswing
a
vibration
or
oscillation,
for this has caused
much confusion.
[The Frequency
is the number of vibrations
per
second
;
it is
the
reciprocal
of the
periodic
time in
seconds.]
The S.H.M. is of
importance
for these
reasons :
"
(1)
Of all
vibratory
motions itisthe most
easily
and
naturally
produced
(e.g.pendulum,
and elastic vibrations controlled
by
Hooke's
law).
(2)
It is
by
far the
simplest
to
studyscientifically.
(3)
Any periodic
motion whatever
can
be
analysedinto,or
built
up
as
the resultant
of,
a
series
of
S.H,M.'s. For
instance,
the
violent motion of
a shuttle,or
of
a
ball bounced
on
the
pave-
17
258 A HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS
ment,
such as
drawn out
on a moving
time sheet would
give
curves
like
Fig.
106
(H,K),
or
indeed
any
sort of
wriggles, zigzags,
saw-teeth or
battlements
(providedthey
do not
overhang
and
require
time to
go
back
on itself).
The
analysing
process
is too difficultfor us here,
but let
us see
how the
building-up
can
be done.
"
277.
Compound
harmonic
motion. Combination of S.H.M.'s
in the
same straight
line.
Suppose
a
body
acted on
by
two
periodically varying
forceseach
of which would
cause
it to
move
in
S.H.M.
in the
same
straight
line. At
one
moment
say,
under the first
action alone it would be
at A,
Fig.105, or
under the second alone
at B.
Actually
it will be at C,
where
OC=+OA+OB,
the minus
signs
being
taken for distances below the
centre. The reader will
see
easily
enough
that
representing
A and B
as
the
projections
of
a
and b and
completing
the usual
parallelogram,
C
is the
projection
of
c
and
Oa, Ob,
Oc
are
the
amplitudes
and
ZOa, ZOb,
ZOc the
phase angles
of the two
component
and the resultant motions
respectively.
If
the
periods
are
the
same Oabc does not
change
its
shape
but
goes
round
solid,c
moving
in
a circle,
i.e.the resultant of two
S.H.M.'s of
equalfrequency
of vibration is still
a
S.H.M. If Oa
and Ob are
in line the
resultant
amplitude
is their
sum,
but
as
drawn is less than this for the two
components
do not
agree
in
phase,
and if
Oa,
Ob
are
180"
apart,
i.e.in
oppositephases,
the
resultant
amplitude
will be
a minimum,
their
difference, or
OC
=0b" Oa. On the left of the
figure
is shown their
composition
with 150"
phase
difference.
But ifthe two S.H.M.'s
are not
of
the
same
period
Oa and 06
go
round at different
angularspeeds,
one
alwaysgaining
in
phase
on
the other
(e.g.
minute and hour
hands),
and the
shape
of Oabc
continually changes,
c
does not
move
in
a
circle and the resultant
motion of C is
a
compound
harmonic
motion,
worked out
as
in
Fig.
106
(A,B).
The
curve
C in the
figure
is
got by adding
the
heights
of the
FIG. 105.
260 A HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS
the
particular day. Moving
in slotted cross-heads the
crank-pins
give
the
proper
vertical S.H.M.'s to two
pulleys,
and
a
wire
over
these adds
up
and writes the resultant curve on a
moving
roll
of
paper.
Fig.
106
(D)represents
it for
a
fortnight.
Astronomical
irregularities
in the motion of the
sun
and
moon
complicate
matters,
but the tidal rise and fall recorded at
a
port
for
many years
can
be
analysed
into about two dozen S.H.
components, they
are set
upon
a
similar number of crank-wheels
FIG. 107.
on
the tide machine at the National
PhysicalLaboratory,
and the
bewildering
mechanism
grinds
out in
a
few hours
a
complete
fore- cast
of the shallow tides
on some
Indian harbour bar for the
next
three
years.
Unfortunately
the tide machine that can
cope
with
the additional
vagaries
of British wind and weather is not built.
In
Fig.
106
(E)
there is the
same relative
frequency
but the
amplitudes
are
equal,
the vibration dies down to
nothing
and
risesto double. See
Beats,
in
Sound,
"
313.
"278.
Composition
of S.H.M.'s at
right angles.
In that
delightful
instrument,
the
Harmonograph,
described
in allworks
on
popular
science,a
pencil
is
pushed
north and south
by
a
light
rod
connecting
it to one
heavy pendulum
and east and
west
by
another
pendulum. Typical
curves
that it draws
are
shown
in the
Fig.
108. A shows the combination of
two
equal
S.H.M.'s at
rightangles
with the stated difference of
phase.
PERIODIC MOTION 261
Notice
among
the
curves
the
straight
lines for 0"
or
180" and the
circle
for 90". It is this circle that
was
resolved into the two
equal
S.H.M.'s at
rightangles
in the
donkey-pump,
one
just
starting
as
the other is in
mid-swing.
B shows
a
S.H.M. combined with
one
of twice its
period
and
initially
60"
phase
difference. There
are
many
other
curves
depending
on
the ratio of the two
periods.
With ratio 2:1,
as drawn,
the
tracingpointcompletes
two
cross- journeysduring
FIG. 108.
each vertical
journey;
with 3
:
2 it would make three
during
each
two
verticals,
and
so on.
If the
periods
are not in exact
ratio the
figures
go
to and fro
through
all their
changes
every
time that
one
motion
gains
a
whole vibration
over
the other. It
is this
inexactness,
together
with the
gradualdying
down of the
motion,
that
gives
their interwoven
beauty
to the
harmonograph
curves.
And
see "314.
"
279
: Speed
and
energy
of a particlevibrating
in S.H.M.
We have defined the force
on m
(hence
its
acceleration)
in
a
262 A HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS
S.H.M.
as
proportional
to
the distance from the
centre,
i.e.to
cosine of
phaseangle.By resolving
the
speed
in the circle
parallel
to the diameter it will be found that the
velocity
in the S.H.M.
varies
proportionally
to the
length
of the
perpendicular,
i.e.
as
the sine of the
phaseangle.
It is
greatest
in the middle
(when
acceleration
=0)
and then
= the full
speed
in the circle.
The
energy
of
particles
of
mass m
vibrating
in the
same
periodic
time will be
proportional
to the
square
of the
amplitude,
for
doubling
the latter
means
doubling
the
speed
necessary
to traverse
it in the
time,
and therefore
quadrupling
v2. The
particle's
energy
is
partly
kinetic and
partlypotential
due to
displacement
against
the
controlling
force. In fact it
changes
to and fro
between
wholly
kinetic in
mid-swing
when the
speed
is
greatest
and
controlling
force is
inactive,
to
whollypotential
at the end of
swing
when the
speed
is
zero
and the distance
pushed
out
against
the
controlling
force
greatest[e.g.
in the
pendulum,
distance
lifted
againstgravitygreatest].
The Total
Energy
then is
always
equal
to
^mx
square
of
speed
at
mid-swing.
Now this is
the
speed
in the circle
(which
is there
parallel
to its
diameter)
and
= 2?r
X
amplitude
X
revolutions
per
second. Hence the
energy
of
a
vibrating particle
=2w7T2X
(amplitude)
2x
(frequency)2.
"
280. Forced oscillations. So far
nothing
has been said
as
to
how the oscillations
were
originated,
and
they
have
gone
on
freely
under their
own
natural
controlling
forces in their
own
natural
period.
Experience
assures us that it
was some
outside force that
started the motion. It further
assures us
that
using
forces
great
enough
we can
make
any
body
move
how
we
like. A load
on
the
rope
of
a crane
is
a
pendulum,
but the skilfuldriver slews
it
round and
deposits
it where
required
without much bother from
oscillationand without undue
delay.
Now what of the condition of affairsintermediate between this
close artificialcontrol and free natural oscillation?
It is
a state of oscillation
more or
less modified
by
external
forces,a state of forced oscillation.
Push
a child
in
a
swing. Holding
it,
you
can
walk
slowly
backwards and forwards. Increase the
speed,
and
you
become
aware
that the
thing
has
a
tendency
to
swing
of itself
;
sometimes
it
moves
easily,
sometimes
pulls
you
along,
at other
times it
resists with
unexpected
force. With hard labour
you
have it
swinging
with the
frequency
you
choose,
but itwill
probably
have
you
down before
reaching
the
amplitude
the
youngster
demands.
PERIODIC MOTION 263
But be
guidedby
the
swing
itself,
give
it
push
after
pushalways
at the
right
time,
and with littleeffort
you
get
an
ample
oscillation
practically
in itsnatural
periodicity,
Try again
to drive it with
a
higherfrequency
and
your
utmost
exertions
hardly
shake it
a
yard.
Another
experiment
is this: hold
up
a
simplependulum,
oscillate
your
hand
horizontally
with different
frequencies,
and
FIG. 109.
observe to what
comparative
extents the bob
swings
for each
;
see
Fig.
109,
notice the
large
motions of the hand when
too slow
(left fig.)
or
too
fast
(rightfig.).
"
281. These
exemplify
a
perfectly
General
Principle
:
"
A
body
can
be forced to oscillatein
any
period,
but the forces
required
become lessand lessthe
nearer
that
period
isto itsnatural
one.
Or
conversely,
when
a
force of fixed
magnitude
is
applied
periodically
the
body
will oscillatein that
period,
but the forced
oscillationsbecome
largeonly
when
near
the natural
period
of
free oscillation.
There, they
often increase
enormously,
and there is said to be
Resonance between the vibration and the
applied
forces. The
term is borrowed from Sound
:
acoustic instances of this
mechanical action
are
given
in
""
323-5.
A familiar
annoyance
arising
from mechanical
resonance
is the
exaggeratedjumping
vibration of the
railwaycarriage
at one
particular speed,
that which
happens
to
bring
the rail-end
jolts
'
in
step
with
'
the natural
frequency
of
bouncing
of the
carriage
on
its
springs.
In
a
mechanical illustrationof
imperfect
resonance
two
equal
simplependulumshang,
a
foot
apart,
from
a
short
'
tightrope.'
The
first,
set
swinging
crossways,
pulls
its
point
of
support,
and
the whole
rope,
to and fro
a little,
and
therebygradually
sets
the
second
swingingstrongly,adding
up
a
succession of
impulses
always
in the
same
phase
as
itself. But if the second
pendulum
is
a
little
longer,
the second
impulse
from the
rope
comes, say,
264 A HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS
1
%
too soon
for it. On the next
swing
it is 2
%
too soon
and
so on.
The
pendulum
adds these
impulsestogether
as a
succession
of S.H.M.'s 3-6"
apart
in
phase,
and increases its
swing
up
to the
fiftieth. But the
fifty-first
is half
a
period
too
soon,
it
pulls
in
direct
opposition
to the
first,
and
so
on,
the
succeedingimpulses
up
to the hundredth
wiping
out the effect of the first
fifty.
The
pendulum
therefore
keeps
on
getting
up
a
small
swing
and
dying
down
again,
and this
imperfect
resonance can
never cause a
strong
movement.
NOTE. " The
adding
up
of successive
equal
im- pulses
with
a
constant
phase
difference is
easily
effected
graphically,
as
in
Fig.
110. Little
equal
vectors
representing
the
impulses
are
joined
tail to
head,
each
succeeding
one
turned
through
a
small
angle
=
common
phase
differ- ence,
and the
straightclosing
side of the
polygon
thus formed
gives
the
magnitude
and
phase angle
of the resultant. With 100 small
impulses
the
polygon
becomes
a
practically
con- tinuous
circle,
with
a
maximum resultant
0-50,
min.
0-100, max. 0-150,
and
so on.
If the im- pulses
gradually
become weaker the
polygon
curls
gradually
closer into
a
spiral.
"
282. Effect of
"
Damping
'
on
Resonance.
An
oscillatory
motion which
gradually
dies
away
owing
to its
energy
being
either
spent
in
overcoming
friction
or
'
radiated
'
out as
vibra-
supports,
sound,
electro-magnetic waves,
etc.,
is
FIG. 110.
tion of the
described
as
'
damped.'
Without air friction
a
clock
pendulum
would
get
up
an
in- definitely
great amplitude
as
it
continually
added
up
the effects
of
impulsesalways
in
phase
with its natural
swing,
and
never
lost
anything.
1
part
in 1000
away
from
this,
only
500
impulses
would be accumulated before
they
had drifted round into
opposition
and
begun
to
destroy
the motion. The difference due
to this
imperfect
resonance
is the difference between
an
in- definitely
great
number and
500,
that is
:
"
With but
slightdamping,
resonance
is
strong
and its
position
very
sharply
marked.
But if after
a
dozen
pushes
or so a
swing
had been -worked
up
which takes
nearly
all the
applied
force to
keep
up
its
vigour,
constantlysappedby
friction, etc.,
the difference between the
PERIODIC MOTION 265
two
previous
cases
quitedisappears.
In
fact,a
'
mis-tuning
'
of 1 in 50
would still
supplyenough impulses
to work
up
the
full
resonance possible, only
a
small fraction of the maximum
obtainable with
good tuning
and littlefriction.
With
heavydamping,
resonance
is weak and its
position
not
very
definitely
marked.
Fig.
Ill shows the difference between the
resonance
of
a
tube
to a
tuning-fork,
and the
poor
sort of
'
tuning
'
obtainable in wire- less
spark-telegraphy,
where the currents radiate
or
dissipate
all
their
energy
in two
or
three oscillations.
(The
abscissa
representsfrequency
and
the ordinate the
intensity
of
resonance.)
It is
largely
because
a
pendulum
loses
so
little
energy
in friction that it
so
strictly regulates
a
clock to
its natural
period only.
Another
consideration,
however, comes
in
:
"
Extent
of possible forcing.
In
any
particular
case
the
extent to which
oscillations
can
be forced
away
from
their natural
period depends
on
the
force available
per
unit inertia to be
F ^
overcome.
A
cheap
clock
wags
its
flimsypendulum
faster when
just
wound
up
(and
try winding
your
watch
up
three times
a
day
for
a
week)
but
a
spring
clock with
a
heavy pendulum
is far less
affected
(may
even
lose from increased
arc, " 38). By overblowing,
one can
falsely sharpen
the
pitch
of
a cornet,
but not
of
a
bulky
organ-pipe.
EXAMPLES." CHAPTER XXX
1. Define S.H.M. A
particle
describes S.H.M.
amplitude
6
cm.,
period
8
sec. Draw to scale
positions
of
particle
at ends of successive
seconds.
[M.]
2. Define S.H.M. and show its
period
"
square
root of acceleration
at unit distance from centre.
[L.]
3. Prove that if P
moves on a
circle
(centre O)
with uniform
speed,
its
projection
N on a fixed diameter AOB moves so that its acceleration
is
always
towards O and
proportional
to ON. Find what fraction of
the
periodic
time of the motion is
occupied by
the
passage
of N from
the middle
point
of OA to the middle
point
of OB.
[L.]
4. Show how to combine two S.H.M.'s in different directions
;
how
would
you experimentally
illustrate such a combination ?
[L.]
CHAPTER XXXI
WAVE MOTION
"
283. Wave Motion.
Suppose a long row
of
particlescon- nected
by
some means
which
can
transmit
a
force from
one
to
the
next, a long
line of
angler'ssplitshot,
for
instance,
strung
an
inch
apart
on a
thread of the thinnest
elastic,
with
an
inch left
at
the
beginning.
Pull this in
any way you
like,
and
so displace
the first shot. As it
moves
it
gradually
stretches the next
inch
of
elastic,
which
begins
to
pull on
the second
shot,
i.e. to
impart
momentum to it. It
moves,
and
stretching
the next inch of
thread,
begins
to hand
on
momentum to the
third,
and
so
on,
and
soon
every
particle
in turn is
performing
the
same
motion
as
its
neighbour
before
it,
but
a
little later. An
alternatingpull
on
the end sets
up
a typicalrunning wave motion,
caused
by
every
particle
in
a
series
performing exactly
the
same
periodic
oscillation
;
but each
later,or lagginga
littlein
phase,
behind its
neighbour
on
the side whence the motion
arrives,
while it
equally
leads the oscillation
of
its
fartherneighbour.
The
stronger
the elastic links the less
they
stretch to transmit
a given force,
and the
quicker
and with the less
phase
difference
the successive
particles
have to
respond,
but the heavier the
particles
the slower
they get
into
motion,
and the
greater
their
phase lag.
In fact the
speed
of travel of
every
sort
of
wave
depends
upon
(is
the
square
root
of)
the
quotient
of
a
quantity
analogous
to elastic force
by
a quantity analogous
to
mass.
To the definitions
given concerning
the motion of
a single
particle
must
now
be added the
following:"
The
velocity of travel V of the
wave
is the
speed
with which
any
one
selected
wave
form travels forward.
The
wave length
is the distance between two successive
particles
in the
same
phase
of their
motion,
e.g.
between two crests
(0")
or
between two
points
such
as PQ (phase 315"), Fig.
112.
In order that
a
succession of
waves
of
length
L
may
continue
to
spread
from
a source vibrating
n
times
per
sec. [period
T
= l/wth
sec.]
the first
wave
must travel
away
a
distance nL in the
second,
266
268 A HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS
distant
drops
are
representedby
the dots
moving
in successive
circleswith
a
phaselag
of 45". B shows the effect of
an
increased
amplitude
without
corresponding
increase of
wave
length,
the
crest becomes
more
peaked
till
ultimately
it is bound to break
into white horses. Diminished
amplitudegives
low round
tops
such
as
characterize the
ground
swell into which storm
waves
die down
as
their violence abates. Wide but slow revolutions
produce
a
heavy swell,adjacent
circleswould differless in
phase
than in A
(or
the 45" circles would be
spaced
wider
apart,
as
C)
:
though
the
amplitude
is considerable the
wave
length
and
speed
are
great.
The
speed
of travel of these
waves
is
-\/(gravityx wave
length-^2?r)
or
speed
in miles
per
hour
=2-7
x
square
root
of
wave
length
in
yards
or
in knots =
3-3\/ fathomslength.
The
amplitude
of the disturb- ance
has become
very
small at
a
depth
of
one wave
length.
In shallow water
the circlesflatten into
ellipses
as
the
up-and-
down
supply
of water is
limited,
and the
speed
decreases
to
speed
in
m.p.
h.= 4
X
square
root
ofdepth
in
feet.
Presently
the backward
movement at the bottom of the
ellipse
is
so
much hindered
by
friction
on
the bottom that the front of
the
wave
is starved for
water,
and the crest
topples
over
the
hollow face which shows almost the
path
of the
particles.
The
last
wave
shows the flattened
elliptic
motion
as
the
heaving
surge
up
the beach and the
subsiding
backward
scour.
Tiny ripples
are
called
Capillary
Waves and
are
controlled
almost
entirelyby
the surface tension of the water
(Chapter
XXVIII).
The surface vibrates
something
like
a
stretched
membrane
or
string
and the
ripplesapproximate
to the
type
about to be described.
"
285. Waves of transverse motion.
The next
type
of
wave
is
seen
in
a
jerked
rope
fast at the
end,
or a
vibratingstring.
Here there is
'very
little
lengthwise
motion
possible,
and all
particles
move
simply
across
the direction of
travel of the
wave,
up
and down
along
the diameters
as
the
vertical
components only
of the constructional small circles in
Fig.
112,
T.
They
need not be
actually
confined to these
lines,
but
seen
from the side must
appear
to be.
They
include not
only
the
up-and-down
waves
of
a
shaken
rope
or tablecloth, or
the
straight-
line vibrations of
planepolarized light,
but
tlso
circular
'
skipping-
rope
'
motion
or
the
irregular
vibrations of
ordinarylight,
which
WAVE MOTION 269
are merelyconfined
to
planes
transverse to the waves' travel. The
typical
wave
form is
now a
sine
curve
like
Fig.
104,
but recollect
that that
was a
diagram
on a
Time
base,
whereas
now
both
co-ordinates
representlengths,
and the whole
might
be obtained
us an
instantaneous
photograph.
"
286. The
speed
of travel of
waves along a
stretched
string
is
found thus
:
"
Suppose
a
complete
circular
ring,Fig.
113,
such
as one can
easily
throw
along
a
rope
on
the
ground,
and
now
suppose
that
the
string
is
being
hauled back
just
as
fast
as
the
ring
runs
for- ward.
Then
we
have
a
ring
of
rope
which maintains its
position,
in
space,
but whose
circumference is
travelling
FlG- 113-
round at
speed
v.
By "
40 there is tension in
it,
just
as
in the rim
of
a
fly-wheel,
of mv2. This must=T the
pullalong
the
string
in
dynes,
or
else one
would
overcome
the other and
upset
the
equilibrium.
...
C=A
/T
or
speed
in
cm.
per
sec.=
/Pul1
oaring
in
dynes
V
m
V
mass
of 1
cm.
of
string
Now there is
no
need for the
ring
to
be
complete,
for the tension
isthe
same
in
every
bit of
it,
and
nothing
has been
said about the
radius of the
ring,
which
may
therefore be
anything
and
vary
anyhow ;
i.e.
a
distortion of
any
shape
whatever travels
on
the
string
at the
speed
we
have found.
"
287. Waves of
'
longitudinal
'
motion.
In the third
type
of
wave
the
only
motion of the
particles
is to
and fro
along
the line of travel of the
wave
itself.
In
Fig.
112
L,
the
particles perform
their little harmonic
movements
along
the horizontaldiameters of the little
circles,
and
become crowded
together
and scattered
alternately,
and
pass
on waves
of
compression
and rarefaction at
a
speed
far
greater
than their
own
motions. Such waves can
be
seen
running
up
and
down
a
long
vertical wire helix
('spiral
'
spring)
when its end is
pulledstraight
down and let
go
;
the
spires
close
together
and
open
apart periodically. They
run on a
piece
of stretched rubber
tubingslipping jerkily
back
through
wet
fingers
:
they produce
a
shrillsound when
a
glass
rod is rubbed
lengthwise
with
a
wet
leather
:
they
travel in air
or
any
other substance
as
the
longi- tudinal
waves
of
compression
and rarefaction
conveying
sound.
270 A HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS
9L-
It is
a
slow
solitary
wave
of this
type
that
passes
along
a
checked
goods
train,
and
occasionally
a
few to-and-fro
impulses
of it
can
be felt
by
anyone
standing
in
a
long
passenger
train
as
it
starts.
"
288
:
The speed
of
longitudinalwaves
is calculated thus
:
"
A and B
are two
planes
1
sq.
cm.
in
area
moving
at
speed
V
and
maintaining
fixed
positions
in the
wave
(just
as
the fore-and-
aft
edges
of
a
ship's
rudder do in
her stern wave :
this
by
way
of
a
rough
illustration,
but the
wave
now
under consideration is of
a
very
different
kind)
.
For
this,
the
same mass m enters the
space
AB
per
second at
A
as
leaves it at B
or
else AB's contents would
vary
in
quantity,
i.e.it would be
moving
about in the
wave.
Let
u
and
w
be the actual
very
small forward
speeds
of
particles
at
A and B
due to the
compression
some- where
behind B. A therefore
catches
up sparser
particles
at
greater
speed
V"
u
and B
closer
ones
at V"
w.
Divide the
speed,
which = the volume
caught
per
second
by
the
square-centimetre plane,by
the volume
that contains 1
grm.
[=a
at A and b at
B]
and
we
get
the
mass
caughtm=(V" ")-r"
and lost
m=(V" w)-^-b.
/. u
=V"
am.
w=V"bm.
There is another condition of
permanence
:
the resultant force
constantlyacting
on
AB is
equal
to the increase of momentum
that takes
place
inside it
per
second.
The force is the forward difference of
pressures
Q"
P
on
the
square-centimetre
planes,
and
during
each second
a
total
mass m
which at A
always
moved at
speed
u
has been increased in forward
speed
to
w.
.'. Ql"^=m(w"u)
=m(V"bm"V+am)
= "
m2(b"a)
ml
5=?
'"
b-a
FIG. 114.
increase in
pressure
increase in volume of 1
grm.
But under
Elasticity, "
96,
the
modulus of elasticity
E
was
defined to be the ratio of the increase in
pressure
to the decrease
WAVE MOTION 271
n
volume it
causes
per
cubic
centimetre,
i.e.
per
volume of
D
grammes
[D
=
density].
/.
-m2= -ExD.
Now w=c.c.
caught
per
sec. x mass
of
each=VxD
(slight
increases in
densitycompensating
the "
u
and "
iv).
.-.
V2D2=ED /.
V=
or
the
speed
of travel of
a
longitudinal
wave
is the
square
root
of the
quotient
of the
Elasticity
of the medium
by
its
Density.
This
applies
to
anything,
from rarefied
hydrogen
to
a
goods
train. And
see
"
311.
"
289
: Energy
carried
by waves.
A wave
train carries
energy.
One
can
do work at th.e
far end
of
a
rope
or
throw
up
water at
a
distance
by setting
up
a wave
motion. Elastic air
waves
carry
sound, or
sometimes the sudden
energy
of
explosions.
We
saw, "
279,
that the
energy
of
a
vibratingparticle =-|mv2=2w7T2a2n2,
and now
in
wave
motion
the mass
of
a
single particle
has to be increased to the whole
mass
of all the
particles
set into
equal
motion
per
second,
giving
Power
"
energy
conveyedby
wave
train
per
sec.
=
total
mass
newly
disturbed
per
sec. X
27T2a2w2.
Or the
energy
received
by
a
surface
per
second from the
waves
of
a
train
or
column
v
in
length
and
equal
to the surface
in
area
of
cross-section,
which fall
upon
it and
are
reduced to rest
=wave
velocity
x area of surface x density
of medium
X 2?r2X
(amplitude)
2x
(frequency)2.
"
290
:
Pressure of
a wave
train
on a
surface.
Let
a
continuous train of
waves
fall
upon
a surface which
absorbs allthe
energy
it
brings, quieting
the
waves
to
rest as
they
strikeit. Push 1
sq.
cm.
of the surface forward 1
cm.,
it
acquires
and stores the
energy
contained in
an
extra cubic centimetre
which it
now
shields
against
the
oncoming
stream. It will
give
you
that
energy
if
you
let it
drop
back 1 cm.
[it
will not
give
it
back to the
stream,
for that isfed from the
wave
source]
and it will
do
so
by pushing
on
your
hand with
a
pressure
(which
the stream
exerts
on it)
which
multiplied by
the
space
pushedthrough,
1
cm.,
=
energy per
cubic centimetre. Hence
an
energy-conveying
wave stream
presses
on an
absorbing
surface with
a
pressure
in
dynes
per
cm.2
equal
to the
energy
in
ergs per
cm.3 in the
stream.
(A reflecting
surface which
flings
all the motion back
again
suffers
272
A HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS
double the
pressure.)
This
pressure
has
actually
been detected
and measured in brilliant
light,though exceedingly
minute
:"
Bright
sunshine
brings
to
a
black
square
centimetre
one-
thirtieth of
a
calorie
per
second
at
a speed
3xl010
cm. /sec.
What
pressure
does it exert ?
"
Energy
per
c.c. =
ir1IFx4-2x107ergs-^3x
1010c.c.
(since
the
sq.
cm.
sunbeam fills
(itsspeed) c.c.
per
sec.)
=
pressure
=-000047
dyne
per sq.
cm.
"
291
: Spread of
energy.
Broad
plane
waves, except
for
a
little diffractive
fraying
at the
ends, " 295,
travel
on
with
un-
diminished
energy per
foot of
'
front.' Such
are
the
waves
of
sound in
a pipe.
But
waves
which broaden
out
as they
travel
forward and have to
spread
their
energy
over a
wider front will
then of
course
be
carrying
less
energy per
foot of front.
Ripples
in
widening
circles from
a
stone
carry energy per
foot width which
is
inversely as
their radii.
Light
and sound
waves spreading
spherically
carry
amounts of
energy per square
centimetre of
front
inversely as
the
square
of their distance from the
source,
since the
areas
of the
growing spheres are
4?r
times the
squares
of their
radii,
and
area X
energy per
unit
area =
constant
=
total
energy
contained in
one
wave,
see
also
"
355. Here the
ampli- tudes
(oc
V
energy)
are inverselyas
the radii.
The
energy
carried
through a
square
centimetre
per
second is
the strict
physical measure
of the loudness of sound
or
the
brightness
of illumination.
EXAMPLES." CHAPTER XXXI
1.
Explain
how
energy may
be transmitted
by means
of
wave
motion,
with
particular
reference to sound
waves
in air.
[D]m.
2. Define the
amplitude, velocity, period, wave length,
and
frequency
of
a
series of
waves,
and
give
relations between them.
[L.]
CHAPTER XXXII
INTERFERENCE OF WAVES
"
292. We
saw
in
"
277
(b)
that
a
particle
disturbed
by
two
harmonic forces will vibrate
very
differently
at different
times,
its actual
amplitude graduallyalternating
between the
sum
and difference of those due to the
two forces
independently.
So two wave
systems spreadingsimultaneously
will
produce
very
different
amplitudes
at different
places.
Watch
a
steamboat
in calm
water,
she makes the well-known
V-shaped
set of bow
waves
and she is followed
by
a
broad
'
swell
'
of
nearlystraight
waves
at
rightangles
to her
course
and
stretching
across
the river.
The
two
systems overlap,
crest is
piled
on
crest and
trough
deepenstrough
and the V
appears
broken
up
into short
sharp
ridgesarranged
'
en echelon,'
i.e.
something
like the broad treads
of
a
step-ladder.
Where crest
fallsinto
trough
or
trough
beheads
crest the surface is
near
its undisturbed level.
This is
an
instance of the Interference of two
running
wave
systems.
Another is the
choppy
water in the
corner
of
a dock,
where
cross
reflections from the walls
produce
a
local
bobbing
up
and
down, a
chequering
which
can
be imitated
by jarring
an
oblong
dish of water.
In
Fig.
115 let P and
Q
be two
sources
vibrating
in the
same
phase
and
emittingequal
wave
systems. Any point
on
the
bisecting
axis CC is
equidistant
from
both,
therefore
on
this line
crest arrives with crest
and
trough
with
trough,amplitudes
are doubled and
energy
quadrupled.
But
along "J
which is
(a hyperbola)
such that
any
pointon
it is half
a wave
length
farther from P than from
Q,
P's
waves
everywhere
arrive half
a
wave
length
behind
Q's,
crests into
troughs,
the motion is de- stroyed,
and
no
energy
travels there.
Along
the next
hyperbola
11 the difference of distance is
a
whole
wave
length
and
again
crest coincides with crest
:
along
the next there is
1|
difference
and
no
appreciable
resultant motion. Hence there is
a
steady
pattern
of
quiet
rays
and
streams of short
ripples
as
shown
on
18 273
274 A HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS
the
right
of the
diagram,occupying
the dotted and solid
hyper- bolas
worked out
on
the left of the
diagram
from the intersections
of the circular
ripples
that instantaneous illumination
by
a
spark
would disclose.
INTERFERENCE
PATTERN
OF TWO SOURCES
FIG. 115.
"
293
:
To find at what
points on a screen
there will be most
and least disturbance.
Fig.
116
represents
the middle
part
of the
right-hand
side of
Fig.
115,
the
problem
is
to
find where the
quiet
and disturbed
hyperbolic
lines strike the wall. At
C,
where
PCQ
is isosceles
both
waves
arrive in the
same
phase;
at
D,
where PDR is isosceles
one
system
has
QR
farther to
go
than
the other. If this is
J
wave
length
there is
hardly
any
resultant
"
motion
at
D,
which is
a
C
point
on
the first
hyper-
"
The
triangles PQR
and ODC
are
similar.
/.
QR/PQ
=
CD/OD
and
keeping
the
angles
small
as
in the
figure
this
practically
becomes
QR/w=Z,/a
or
Z=aX^l^-iv
where Z is the distance
between successive
points
at rest and in motion all at
a
per- pendicular
distance
a
from two
sources w
apart, sending
out
waves
of
length
I.
276
A HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS
It is otherwise with
Light,
and the
sharp
shadows thrown
by
opaque
objects
were
long
a
difficulty
in
developing
the
wave
theory
of
light.
But closer examination shows that
light
does
spread
into the shadow to
a
very
small extent. If
lightcoming
from
a
pinhole
in
a
card with
a
brightlamp
behind it is
passed
through
another
pinhole
a
foot
away
and then received
on a
third
card
a
foot
beyond,
the
bright
circular
patch
is much
larger
than
the
hole,
and the smaller the holes the
worse
the
discrepancy.
But this is not
altogether
a
fair
comparison.Standing
on
the
breakwater
we see
the firstdozen
or
two
waves
graduallycurling
round into the sheltered
water,
but the
waves
of
ordinarylight
are
only
about
a
fifty-thousandth
of
an
inch
long.
That
means
we
ought
to be
inspecting
with
a
microscope
the
space
within
a
five-thousandth of
an
inch of the
edge
of the
pinhole,
instead of
a
foot
away
from it. A fiftieth-inch
pinhole
is
a
thousand
wave- lengths
broad,
broader than the North Channel with
regard
to the
Atlantic
swell,
and that does not diffract
round into the Irish
Sea to
any
extent.
Again,
sound
waves are a
few feet
long
: a
train
plunging
into
a
deepcutting
goes
practically
out of
hearing,
and hills
or
largebuildings
shut off the sound of distant bells
almost
as soon as
the
sight
of the church tower.
That
is,
when
the
observing
spaces
become
largecompared
with
wave
lengths,
FIG. 118.
diffraction becomes much less
noticeable,more
definite shadows
are cast,
untilin
Light
it
requires special
care
to observe diffraction
at
all,
and there
againonly
half the
spreading
occurs
with violet
light
as
with the
longerripples
of red.
INTERFERENCE OF WAVES 277
The
theory
of all
this,developed
from the
Principle
of Inter- ference,
is too
long
to
put
in here.
Return, however,
to
a
sharp-
ended breakwater for
an
illustration. The
waves
that
escape
past
it
ought
to have cut-off vertical
'
gable-ends,' Fig.
118.
The
*
gable
'
collapses
as
the water
heaped
up
in it
immediately
flows out
endways
into the calm
'
shadow.' The wave
travels
on
with
a
slopingend,
down which water continues to flow farther
and farther out into the
'
shadow.' This
keeps
on
flattening
the
slope
so
that the flow down
it,
i.e.the
endways
extension of
the
waves, presently
becomes
very
slow
compared
with its rate at
first
:
diffraction several dozen
waves
beyond
the obstacle is
nothing
like
as
noticeable
as
it
was
for the first few
waves.
There would be
a
return flow from the smooth water into the
troughs,
which has been omitted from
Fig.
118 for clearness'sake.
On the whole
no water flows into the
shadow,
only
the
wave
motion.
"
296
:
The Diffraction
Grating.
Let
a
singlestraight
wave
front strike the
row
of narrow
equi- distant
obstacles in
Fig.
119
(palings
in
a
pond,
for
instance).
A moment
after,
the
state of affairs is
as
represented.
Each
gap
has let
through
or transmitted,
and each obstacle has
reflected
back, a
separate
little
wave,
and the
spaces
beingnarrow
these
spread
in semicircular
ripples.
In
any
direction
PL not
one
ripple
is
sent,
but
a succes- sion
of distant
ones,
their actual distance
apart depending
on
the width of the
grating
spaces
and
on
the direction of PL.
This
can be heard in the musical sound
which
a
paled
fence echoes to
a
sharp
footstep,
the
rapidstring
of littleechoes
blending
into
a note.
It is
vastlyimportant
in
optics,
where
a
grating
with
perhaps
15,000
spaces
to
the inch will
fling
off
light
of different
wave
lengths(colours)
in directions
PL,
^1G- 119-
PL',
etc.,
and
so
break
up
white
light
into
spectra.
If instead of
one
wave,
a
train of definite
wave
length
falls
on
the
grating,
only
waves of that
length
can
exist
anywhere,
all others
getting
trampled
out
by
interference,
and these
can
pass
off
only
in
278 A HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS
certain
directions,
e.g.
in the
figure only
a
train of 6
mm.
length
can
pass
off
along
PL and
obviously
in
no
less-inclined direction
;
along
such
only
shorter
waves can
pass
out.
There is
a
reflected
system,
such
as
RM, precisely
similar
to
the
transmitted
system.
If several definite
periodicities
can
be
analysed
from the incident
disturbance,
several trains of diffracted
waves
will
spread
in
definite
directions,
the
longer
waves
being
thrown off
at
greater
angles :
red is
more
diffracted than blue
light.
The
grating
has
analysed
a
disturbance into its
component
S.H.M.'s
(" 276)
and
has
spread
them
out to
view
as a
'
spectrum.'
We shall
return to
this under
Light.
CHAPTER XXXIII
REFLECTION
AND REFRACTION OF WAVES
"
297.
Waves
beating
on an
unyielding
surface
are
thrown
back
or
reflected.
If circular
ripples
from 0 fall
on
AB
a
point
on
the
ripple
which would
naturally
have arrived at C has had itsmotion
reversed and has then travelled
without
change
of
speed
to D
ADB is
an arc
exactlyequal
to the
V
original
one
ACB and the reflected
ripples spread
as
if
they
came
from
a
point
I"
a
'
virtual
image
'
"
which is
perpendicularly
below 0
and
as
far behind the reflector
as
0 is in front of it.
If the surface AB is not
altogether impenetrable,
but
permits
the
wave
motion to
pass,
in
part,
beyond
it"
say
AB is the
edge
of
a
flat
submerged
rock
or a
shallower
part
of
an
experimental
dish of
water,
or
the surface of
a
wall
through
which sound is
partly
audible,or
of
glasstransparent
to
light
waves
" then the
reflected
ripples carry
back
onlypart
of the
energy
and
more or
less enfeebled direct
ripples
continue the
original
motion
over the
border,
but
always
with
an
alteration
ofspeed.They
are refracted.
We have stated that in shallow
water,
and have found that
in
media of
greaterdensity("283),
waves
travel slower. E isless
deep
than
C,
the
ripples
are
flattened
as
if
they
came
from
a centre at
a
greater
distance
(but
are now
not
quite
circular).
Conversely,
if the medium
beyond
AB transmitted waves
faster,
ACB would
become
AFB,
and the
ripplesspreadas
if from
a
closer
centre.
For
instance,an
object
under water
appears
nearer to the
surface
than it
really
is because the
light
waves
have
come out into the
air,
where
they
travel faster.
"
298. The
subject
is
pursued
rather
differently,
but
quanti- tatively,
under
Light.
We shall
here, however,
work out the
279
280 A HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS
Laws of Reflection and Refraction of wave
motion from the
simple
case
of
a
plane
wave
meeting
a
plane
surface.
AC is the initial
position
of
a
plane
wave
front
("294)travelling
at
speed
V in
a
direction
perpendicular
to itselfand incident on
the surface AB at
an
angle
i.
FIG. 121.
At A reflectionis
takingplace.Shortly
after,
the broken
wave
occupies
the dotted
position.By
the time C reaches B the
re- flected
disturbance from A will have
spread
to
D,
where AD =
CB,
and
DB will be the reflected
wave
front
(built
up
as
in
" 294),
which
evidently
leaves at the
same
angle
as
AC
arrived,
but
on
the other side of the
perpendicular
or
'
normal
'
to the surface AB.
And if the direction SA in which the
wave came
and the normal
AZ lie in the
plane
of the
paper
AD will
evidently
do the
same.
Hence the
Laws of Reflection :"
I. The directions
of
incidence and
reflection
and the normal to
the
surface
lie in the
same
plane.
II. The
anglesof
incidence and
reflection
are
equal.
The disturbance at A also
spreads
down into the lower medium
but at
speed
v
(slower
as
drawn)
and arrives at E
by
the time
C reaches
B,
and the
refracted
wave
front
is
EB,
inclined at the
angle
of refraction
r to the surface and
travelling along
AE,
which
is at r to the normal AN.
Since CB and AE
were
covered in the
same
time
they
must be
proportional
to the
speeds
V and
v
in their
respective
media.
.'. CB-i-AE=V-^t;,
which of
course
is
constant,
and is called the
Refractive Index of the second medium with
respect
to the
first,
and is
usually
written
^
(Greek
m
;
mu).
In
any
right-angled triangle
the
length
of
a
side divided
by
REFLECTION
AND REFRACTION 281
the
length
of the
hypotenuse
is called the sine of the
angle
opposite
to that side.
T"
p
In
triangle
BCA,
g-r=sine
B AC =
sine i.
A TT
" "
BEA,
TTT=
sine ABE = sine
r.
L
BC sinei V
Divide,
13A cancels
out,
TT=T=-
" -=also" = u.
AE
sine r v
Hence the Laws of Refraction :
"
I. The directions
of
incidence and
refraction
and the normal lie
in
one
plane.
II.
(Snett's law.)
The ratio
of
the sine
of
the
angleof
incidence
to
the sine
of
the
angleofrefraction
is
constant,
and is called the
Refractive
Index
of
the second medium with
respect
to the
first
medium.
"299.
Total reflection.
When the incident
waves are
nearlyperpendicular
to the
surface,
Fig.121, right,
and
sweep
along
it,
CB
nearly
coincides
with AB and the refracted
wave
front is BE. This is much
longer
and therefore weaker than
AC,
from which it derives
its
energy.
Conversely
BE
emerging
into the faster medium would become
CA,
which cannot contain all the
energy
of
BE,
and much of this
is therefore reflected back.
When the
waves
become
strictly perpendicular
AC=0 and
there is
no
energy
to
produce
BE.
Conversely
BE cannot
get
out
at
all,
but is
totally reflected,
and
so are
all
waves
beyond
it,
like
BE",
according
to the
ordinary
law of reflection.
AE/CB=v/V
and
now
putting
CB in coincidence with AB,
AE/CB=sine r=v/V =!///..
Hence when
waves travelling
at
speed
v
make with the
surfaceof
a
medium in which
they
would
travel
at
greaterspeed
V an
angle
greater
than that Critical
Angle
whose sine is
v/V (orI///- of
their
own medium) they
are
totally
reflected
back into the slower medium. See
Light,"
373.
The reader who has
appreciated"
295 will
see
that diffraction
upsets
the
totality,
but
light
leaks
very
little.
"
300.
The deviation of waves
passing through a 'thin prism.'
Suppose plane
waves
fall flat
on AB,
Fig.
122, one
face of
a
narrow-angledprismatic
space
ABC in which
they
must travel
282 A HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS
more
slowly(e.g.
the tail of
a
sandbank).
The
point
B of the
wave
does not reach C till the free
part
at A has reached
E,
where
AE/BC= speed
of travel outside
prism/speed
inside =
V/t"
=f,
the refractive index of the
prism
with
respect
to the outer
space.
EC is therefore the
position
of the
waves as
they
leave. Draw
CF
parallel
to
BA,
small
angle
FCE
is the
change
of direction of
wave
front and therefore of travel " the
Deviation
" since the
waves
travel
perpendicularly
to their
own
fronts.
Angle
A of
prism
=
angle
ACF
=
arc AF-i-radius CF,
since it is
supposed
so
small that the differ- ence
between AF and the
arc
of
FIG. 122.
a
circle is
negligible. Similarlyangle
D of deviation =
angle
Now AE=BC
. V/"=
AF
. V/v.
.'.
AE-AF=FE
=
(V/v-l)AF.
D_FE/CF_V
"*'
A~AF/CF~
"
-/*-!"
/.
D=(/*-l)A.
The reader
can
easily
prove
for himself that for
any
waves
not
very
far from
parallel
to AB the
same
relation holds
fairly
true.
That
is,
provided
all
angles
are small,
the Deviation
produced
by
a
thin
prism
is obtained
by multiplying
its
angleby (the
ratio
of
the
speeds
outside and inside
it,
less
1),
and does not
depend
on
the
particular angle
at which the
waves
strike the
prism.
"
301
:
A refractive and absorbent medium : Resonance.
Making
the water shallower has been
suggested
as a means
of
causing
waves
to
travel
slower,
but this
can
be effected in another
way.
Suppose
waves
entering
a
fleet of
fishing-smacks.
Part of
the
energy goes
towards
setting
them
rocking.They
will
gently
rise and fall to
a
long
swell,
which
passes
on
scarcelyimpeded.
Of little
ripples,
some
would be
stopped,
while others
get through
the
gaps
unhindered
;
the boats do not
respond
to their motion
and either reflect
or
pass
all the
energy
they bring.
There is
no
change
of
speed
in these two
cases.
But ifthe
periodic
time of roll of the boats is
near
to that of the
284 A HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS
length,amplitude,
and
speed
from
an
'
image
'
source
beyond
the
obstacle," 297,
and the direct and reflected trains interfere to
produce
a
resultant
shape
obtained
by adding
both
displacements
together.
At the fixed obstacle there
can
be
no
resultant
motion,
there- fore
the train
travelling
to the leftmust there
producedisplace- ments
always
equal
and
opposite
to those of the direct train
moving
to the
right.
In the
Fig.
123 MR = ML and both
are
increasing(with
this
clue the reflected
wave
train is drawn in the
diagram)
as
the trains
pass
M
opposite
ways
MR will
always=ML
and M remains at
rest.
Adding
the
displacements
all
along
the line
one
finds
a success-
sion of
points
N N at which the
two
displacements
are
always
equal
and
opposite,
i.e.
no
motion
ever occurs
at these
points.
They
are
called
Nodes and remain fixed at successive
Iwlf
wave
lengths from
M.
Half-way
between them
equal
and similar
displacements always
come
to be
added
together,
and the
particles
at these Antinodes
vibrate with twice the
amplitudethey
would have in the incident
wave
alone.
Whereas in
running
waves
each
particleperforms
a
motion
equal
in
amplitude
to its
neighbours'
but
progressively differing
in
phase,
here is
now a sort of undulation in which each
particle
performs
its
own motion,
different in
amplitude
from its
neigh- bours'
but identical in
phase (but
at motionless nodes
J
wave
length apart
the
phase suddenly changes
to the
opposite).
Running
waves are
imitated
by
a
rotating
corkscrew
seen
from
the
side,
those
'
stationary
waves
'
by
a
rotatingzigzag.
The lower
figure
of
Fig.
123 shows the
running
waves
and the
resultant
(thick)
'
stationary
wave
'
-175 of the
period
after the
upper
figure,
and
justpast
its
straight-line mid-position.
The
dotted lines
are
the
extreme
positions
of the
'
stationary
waves.'
The
argument
holds for
longitudinal waves,
for the
particles
next the surface have to
stop
there,
at rest. See
later,
"
320.
We
see
these nodes and
vibrating segments
on a
longvibrating
string,Fig.
138
; quiet
nodal lines and
perturbed
antinodal
lines make
up
interference
patterns
on
water
: stationarylight
waves
produceLippmann's
colour
photographs.
We
see
them in
the
longitudinal
motions of
a
long
wire helix made fast at the
end "
near
nodes the coils
are
alternatelysqueezedup
and
expanded,
but the middle
one
does not
move,
near
antinodes the
REFLECTION AND REFRACTION 285
coilsare
rushing
to
and fro" we can
detect alternate
quiet
nodes
and
windy
antinodes in
organ-pipes resounding
to
a
high
harmonic.
'
Reflection from
a
free end
'
is also
competent
to set
up
stationary
wave motion,
but there is
a
difference."
Hang
up
two
pendulums
with their bobs
touching,
one
of
cork,
the other of lead. Lift and
drop
the cork
bob,
it hits the lead and
is reflected back
instantly,
that is like the reflection from
a
fixed
end considered above. But liftand
drop
the lead
bob,
the cork
fliesoff and
comes
back to return the blow
half
a
period
later.
Again,
a
shuntingenginebumps
into
a train,
sending
a wave
of
compressionclattering along
the buffers. The last truck
jerksout, immediatelysending
a wave
of extension back
along
the
couplings,
and then under the
pull
of its stretched
coupling
crashes back and starts
a
compressive
wave
half
a
period
later.
This
'
reflection from
a
free end
'
can
be studied in the wire
helix,
and it
occurs
at the
open
ends of
soundingpipes.
The
reflecting place
is
one
where the motion is most
free,
i.e.
an
antinode
(left-hand
end of
Fig.
123 serves
to show
it).
Reflec- tion
of
light
from the inside of the surface of water-air is similar.
"
303.
Doppler's principle,
dealing
with motions
of
observer
and
of
source
of
waves.
A.
Moving
observer.
Sailing
out
against
the
waves, they
pass
the boat
more
fre- quently
than when at
anchor,
and
sailing
with them
they
pass
more
slowly.
If their
speed
is V and the boat's
u,
the
speeds
of
passing
in the three
cases are
the combined
speed
at which
waves
and boat rush to meet each other
V-j-w
;
V,
and V"
u
the
speed
at which the
waves
overtake the boat. As the
length
of
a wave
P
-^emains
quite
unaffected
by
the boat's motion the numbers met
n a
given
time
are also in the
same ratios,or
B.
Moving source (notprecisely applicable
to water
waves).
The
source
of the
waves
may
be
moving
at
speed
w
through
the
medium which carries
them,
while the observer is at rest. From
a
source at rest
waves
spread
in concentric
circles,
but if it
moves
the
successive
ripples
start from centres farther and farther
from the
first,
and
Fig.
124
represents
their distribution. Each
ripple, once started,
goes
on
spreading
from its
own
centre at its
natural
speed
V.
1,
and
-r-
times the normal number.
286 A
HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS
We cannot here deal with the last
figure,
which
corresponds
to
a source moving
faster than the
ripples,
e.g.
a
stick drawn
through
water
or a
rifle-bullet
in air. But when
w
is less than V waves
which
normally
occupy
a
space
V
get squeezed
into V"
w
ahead
of the
source
and
spread
over
V-f-wastern,as
in the middle
figure.
Their
lengths
alter in the
same ratio,
and
as
all
are
travelling
at
the natural
speed
V the number that
pass
an observer ahead is
V
V
increased in the ratio
^
and astern is decreased
as
VCMAVI
t*Ol/^J.ll 03 \J.^^/iCC*OCU. tl/O
-17 i
" w
V+w"
[Speedy
wave
length
=
frequency.] Hardly
any
change
isnoticed
by
an
observer
'
on the beam.'
C.
If
u
and
w are
small
compared
with V the reader will
see
that it makes
no
appreciable
difference whether the
source or
the observer
moves.
If
they
are
approaching
each other the
frequency
rises in the ratio
(V-fnet speed
of
approach)
: V,
and
if
receding
it falls in the ratio
(V"
net
speed
of
recession)
:
V
(which
is the
same as
the former
if^we
call recession
a minus
approach).
EXAMPLES." CHAPTER XXXIII
1. Show from
Fig.
121 how
it is that waves
gradually
bend round
when
approaching
a shallowing
beach until
they
become
nearly parallel
to it.
2. Show that if two
equal
trains of
waves are moving
in
opposite
directions
along a
stretched
stringthey
will
produce stationary
waves.
[L.]
3. Give
an account of reflection of waves at a rigid
wall and at a
surface where there is
no
variation of
pressure.
Mention
apparatus
in
which reflection of these two kinds is
produced.
[L.]
SOUND
CHAPTER XXXIV
SOUND,
ITS NATURE AND SPEED
"
304. Production and
propagation.
An
exploding
cracker
produces
a
sudden outrush of air
straight
away
from it and
a
collapsing
electric
lamp-bulb
induces
a
sudden
inrush from all sides
straight
toward it to fill
up
the
vacuum.
Sharp
short sounds result.
A
bigexplosionproduces
a
pulse
in the air that
can
be felt
as
well
as
heard for miles
;
a
compression
travels wave-like
through
the
air,
blowing
in windows
on
its
way
;
its shadow has been
watched
speeding
over a
sunlit
plain
and the shock felt and
roar
heard
as
it
passed.
The lower
pipes
of the
pedal
organ
produce
a
vibration which
is felt
as
much
as
heard.
The sudden
compression
of air in the
outer ears on
diving
into water
gives
the sensation of
a
loud
explosion.
One concludes
that,
physically speaking,
the
ear
is
only
a
part
of the
body
surface
specially
sensitive to the shock of
impinging
air,
and that
sounds
are
heard when
quick compressions
or
expansions
reach the
ear
from
some source
of air disturbance.
The medium of transmission need not be air
:
with the
ears
under water in
a
bath
dropsfalling
or
noises in the
pipes
are
heard
very
distinctly,
and the solid teeth and skull
are
sometimes
employed
to
carry
sound to the
'
inner
ear
'
in deafness due to
defect in the
'
middle ear.'
That
a
resilient material medium of
some
sort is
necessary
is
provedby
the
experiment
of
standing
a
cheap
clock
(in
the tin
case
that lends
ferocity
to its
tick)
on some
tow inside
an
air-pump
receiver,
and
exhausting
the air. The tick is
no
longer
heard,nor
hardly
the
ringing
of the alarm
;
the tow is
an
incoherent
solid,
and there is littleair.
287
288 A HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS
Noise and note.
Air
pulses
travel
quickly,
a
single
one
is therefore difficult
to
study,
and the
jumble
of
irregular
ones
that
we
stigmatize
as a
*
noise' does not interest
us
here.
Fortunately
it is
easy
to
produce
a
long
series of similar
impulsesby
the
use
of
some
vibratingbody
" card
pressed
on a
cog-wheel,
fork,
string,
gong,
whistle,
etc." and this
steady
succession
produces
a
'
musical
note
'
which
can
be studied
more
at leisure.
We know that this sets
up
a
running
wave
motion in the
medium,
spreadingsphericallythrough
it. The
waves are
alternate
compressions
and rarefactions. For the air
particles
blow
only
to and
fro,
like
a wee
changeable
wind,
in the direction
of travel of the
wave
they
hand
on.
Transverse motion
they
have
none,
for fluids have
no
'
elasticity
of
shear,'
"
98
;
there is
no
force available to
carry
a
sidewise motion forward to
particles
ahead.
"305.
Reflection and refraction.
Echo is familiar to all. That it
obeys
the laws of Reflection of
"
297 can
be
proved by screening
off
a
watch
a
few feet
away
and then
finding
the
positions
in which
a
small
drawing-board
can
be
placed
to
reflect its sound to the
ear.
On
a
larger
scale,
notice where
a
distant train is when its
roar
is
suddenly
reflected
from
an
isolated
building.
The Refraction of sound is difficultto
study,
but
a
toy
collodion
balloon blown with
C02
will act like
a convex
lens with
a
refractive
index 1-25
(seeLight)
and
can
focus
on
the
ear
and make louder
the
ticking
of
a
distant watch.
To-and-fro reflectionsaccount for the
murmuring
echoes of
large
buildings.Sharp
corners
and
heavy projecting draperies
break
up
the sound
waves
and smother the
echo,
while smooth vaults
and domes
are an
abomination to
the
speaker,
who
requires
the broad umbrella of
a
'
sounding-board
'
to
keep
his voice from
reaching
and
rolling
among
them. Recollect St. Paul's,
and its
'
whisperinggallery.'
On
a
larger
scale
'
irregular
'
reflectionsand refractions account
for the roll of
thunder,
and
probably
for the fact that
on a
fine
summer
day,
with
'
light
variable airs
'
of allsorts of
temperatures
and
humidities,
sound
signals
often
carry very
badly.
An
audience with its streams of
rising
hot air deadens the echoes
of
a
hall. In
homogeneous fog
sounds
carry
well
;
but the
many
SOUND,
ITS NATURE AND SPEED
289
hot
chimneys
of
a
cityspoil
the acoustic
uniformity
of the
fog
they
foul,
and sounds
are
deadened.
"
306. Sound
being
a wave
motion
travelling
among
the
'particles'
of
air,
it is
only
necessary
to add to the various
definitionsin
""
276
and
283,
the
statement
that the
frequency
or
number of
complete
vibrations
per
second of
a
note is the
physical
measure
of its
Pitch.
And
turning
to
"
289 we
may say
that the
physical
measure
of
the loudness of
a
note of fixed
pitch
is the amount of
energy
the
ear
receives from it
per
second. In stillair this varies
inversely
as
the
square
of the distance from the
source.
It has been found
to
agree
with the
physiological
estimate of
loudness,
within limits.
No
comparison
of the loudness of
different
notes is
physically
attempted.
Some direct methods of
measuring
the
speed
of travel of
sound,
the
frequency
or
pitch,
and the
lengths
of
waves,
will
now
be
described. From these the relation
(cf. "283)
can be
experi- mentally
established"
Speedof
sound in a
medium=
pitchof
note
X
its
wave length
in the medium
and this relation will then be made
use
of.
"
307.
Speed of travel of Sound. Direct methods.
That sound travels in air at
a
speed
which
thoughhigh
cannot
be called instantaneous is familiar to
everyone
in the
delay
between the fallof
a
distant hammer and the sound of its
blow,
between the
puff
from
a
far-awayengine
whistle and its
shriek,
between noise and
echo,
between
lightning
and thunder. In
a
favourablyplacedrailwaycutting
I know
of,one can
easily
hear
the
guns
of
Shoeburyness
three and
a
half minutes after
firing,
and it is said that
guns
have been heard three times
as
far.
About 1708 the earliest extensive
experiments
on
the
speed
of sound took
place
not
very
far from the
locality
mentioned
above,
viz. between
a cannon on
Blackheath and
Upminster
church,
12
1
miles
away
across
the Thames. The time the
sight
of the
discharge
takes to travel that distance is
negligible,
for
light
travels
nearly
a
million times faster than sound. The
report
took from
55|
to 63
sec.
according
to the wind. For the air
moving
as a
whole of
course
carries all contained sound
waves
with
it,
and
so
modifies their
velocity
relative to the earth.
Taking
the
mean
of
many
results with winds of various
strengths
19
290 A HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS
from all
points
of the
compass
Derham obtained 1142 ft.
per
sec.
In 1738
and 1822'various French and Dutch
observers,working
in
fairly
calm
weather,
eliminated wind effect
by firing
almost
simultaneously
at both ends of about 11-mile distances. The
wind accelerated
one
sound
as
much
as
it retarded the other.
They
obtained
speeds(reduced
to 0"
C.)
from 331 to 332-8
metres
per
sec.
In 1823 the
experiment
was
repeated
in this
way
in the
Tyrol
with one
station 4000 ft.
higher
than the
other,
and in 1844 in
Switzerland
with the
guns
at 1800 and 8800 ft.
respectively.
The
speeds
up
and down hill
were identical,
and
were
the
same as
at sea-levelin
Holland,showing
that the
velocity
does
not
depend
on
the 'pressure
of
the air.
In 1822 and 1890 Arctic observations
gave
(
1
050+
lx
temp. F.)
ft. and
(333+
-6
temp.
C.)
metres
per
sec.
between "40" and the
freezingpoint,showing
hoiv the
velocity
increases with
tempera- ture.
In 1863
Regnaultexperimented
in the
newly
laid
water-pipes
of Paris, using
several hundred metres of air. A
pistol-shot
echoed from end to
end,
where
were
stretched membranes which
ticked offthe
impacts
on an
electric
chronograph.
330-5
m./s.
was
deduced as
the
speed
at 0" C. and
at
all
pressures
from
^
to 2
atmos.
in
dry
air
:
in
H2
3-8,C02
and
N02
-801,
and
NH3
1-23
times the air
speed,
see
"
312.
He
and others found that the
speed
is about 1
%
less in
a
1-in.
pipe
than in the
open
air.
In 1905
in
a
very
largepipe
2 miles
long
it
was
proved
that
difference ofpitch
has
no
effect
whatever
on
the
velocity.
Were it
otherwise indeed
a
tune
playedby
a
distant band
might
become
confused,
and the characteristic
quality
of their instruments
unrecognizable, "
343.
"
308.
Simple
echo method for
speed.
The reader can
quicklyget
a
fair result
by
a
method described
by SedleyTaylor,
and doubtless
suggested
to
him
by
the notorious
*
knocker
'
echo in the cloisterof
Trinity.
The necessaries
are an
echoing
wall,a
bob
on a
bit of
thread,
and
a
foot rule.
Step
off
40
or
50
yards
from the
wall,
stand and
clap
the hands
sharply.
The echo
comes
back at
an
interval too short to estimate. Mul- tiply
the interval. You cannot
clapagain
at the instant the
echo returns because that would drown
it,
therefore wait
an
equal
292 A HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS
into
a
partial
vacuum
waiting
for it. Like
a
swingpushedalways
at the
right
moment the air in the
pipe
is
gradually
excited
to
more
and
more
violent motion and resounds
strongly
to the note
of the fork.
As it takes
perhaps
a
hundred vibrations to work
up
strong
resonance
it will be
seen
that the reflected
'
crest
'
and the
mid-swingposition
of the
upgoing
prong
must
very
closely
coin- cide.
For
suppose
the
crest
gets
up
1
%
too
soon,
i.e. the
new
push
from the fork follows 1
%
late,on
the next
pulsation
it would
be 2
%
late,
and
so
on,
to 50
%
late. Then the fork is in
direct
opposition
to the
vibrating
air in the
pipe
and
begins
to
wipe
out its
previous
work for the next 50
swings,*
then to rebuild
it for
50,
and
so on.
This
imperfect
resonance never
gains
much
strength.Strong
resonance
then
means
that
a
sound
wave
travels down and
up
the
pipe
while the fork
moves
from
mid-swing
down to
mid-swing
up,
i.e. makes half
a
complete
vibration.
/.
S=twice no.
of fork vibrations
per
sec. X
twice
length
of
pipe
=frequencyx4
times
length
of
pipe.f
This
is
a
very
useful
laboratory
method. It enables different
gases
to
be studied and different
temperatures, by surrounding
the
pipe
with a water or steam
jacket.
It will be returned to in
"325.
"
310.
Speed
in water and in iron.
In water
the
speed
was
measured at
night
on
the Lake of
Geneva
in 1826. The hammer of
a
submerged
bell
was
let fall
by
a
cord
which
simultaneously dropped
a
lighted
match into
powder.
The flash
was seen
9 miles
away,
and the sound listened
for with a
largeear-trumpet having
a
membrane stretched
across
its mouth under water.
Speed
1435
metres/sec,
at 8" C.
In 1889
gun-cotton
was
fired in
Sydney
harbour and
electrically
timed over
180 metres. The
speed
increased with the
charge;
with 4 Ib. it exceeded 2000
m./s.
Half
a
mile of cast-iron
pipe
was
struck at
one
end and at
the
other two sounds
were
heard
through
iron and air
respectively.
The interval was
nine-tenths the calculated time
through
air,
i.e.
sound travelled ten times as
fast in the iron
as
in air.
*
It is
adding together
a
series of S.H.M.'s 3-6" in
phase
behind one
another, "
281.
f
Actual
length -f \
diameter as
mouth correction. See
"
325.
SOUND,
ITS NATURE AND SPEED 293
"311.
Theoretical.
In
"
288 it has been
proved
that the
speed
of travel of a
longitudinal
wave
motion in
an
elastic medium is the
square
root
of its
elasticity (dynes/cm.2) by
its
density(grm./cm.3) provided
the
particles
themselves
move
but little. This isa wave
of sound,
not too loud.
For water modulus of
compression
is 2-2
xlO10,
D=l.
cm.
/see.
For cast iron
Young's
modulus
averages
T2xl012,
D=7.
/. 8=415,000 cm./sec.
For air Newton
employed
in this formula
(which
he
discovered)
the result of his friend
Boyle,
that the
elasticity
=
the
pressure.
For if PV is
constant, 1%
increase in P will
cause
1%
diminution
in
V,
for
101x99 = 100x100
very
nearly.
Therefore E which
=
increase in
pressure
-f-
contraction it
causes
in unit volume
= -01P
^-
-01 = P.
Taking atmospheric
pressure
P =
1,016,000
dynes/cm.2
and D
= -00129
grm./cm.3
/.
V =
28,000 cm./sec.,
which is too low.
It
was not
until 1822 that
Laplacepointed
out that the
com- pression
in
a
sound
wave
is
very
quick
whereas that in
a
Boyle
tube is slow.
To obtain
a
correction for
this,a
large
flask
containing
air at
a
pressure
B, a
little less than the
atmospheric
A,
is
suddenly
opened
and closed. Air rushes in to raise the
pressure
to
A,
but
the sudden
compression
heats the air inside
("221)
and after
a
few minutes
cooling
to
its
original temperature
the
pressure
has
fallen somewhat to C. That
is,
it took
a
sudden increase A" B
to do what
might
have been
coolly
and
quietly
done
by only
C"
B,
viz.to drive
a
littleair into the flask and
slightly
compress
its contents
;
or
the sudden
elasticity
*
is
p
"
^
times the slow
Boyle elasticity
*
=
~
"
^
X
P.
The
experimentgives
this ratio 140 for air and
.
a
/E
sudden
_
/ROxP
/I
'40
X 1,
016^000
V
~
D V ~1D~ V
"
-00129
=
33,200 cm.
/sec.
*
These
are
the adiabatic
(heat not-passing-out)
and isothermal
(same-temperature)
elasticities. That heat from the
momentarily
compressed parts
in sound
waves
does not leak into the cooled
294 A HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS
"
312. From this relation
Speed
=^ (ratio
of elasticities
x pressure -f-density)
we see
that in
gases
:
"
A.
Change of
gas pressure
does not
change
the
speed.
For
doubling
the
pressure
would halve the volume and there- fore
double the
density
also.
B.
Speed
is
proportional
to
square
root of absolute temperature.
For if D is
constant
P will
increase,or
if P is constant
(V
will
increase
and)
D will decrease
proportionally
to the absolute
temperature.
Thus
speed
at
l"=V274/273 speed
at
0".
which fraction amounts to an
increase of
speed
of 2 ft.
or
-6
m.
per
sec.
per
1" C. rise of
temperature.
Notice that this
approxi- mation
holds
good onlyjfof
air at
ordinarytemperatures.
0. In different
gases
the
speeds are inversely as
the
square
roots
of the densities.
For
instance,
4 times faster in
hydrogen
than in
oxygen.
The
densities of the
gases
used
by Regnault ("307)
for which he
obtained
speeds
1, 3-8, -80,
and 1-23
are
in the ratio
1/1,1/3-80,
1/-81,1/1-3.
The last illustrates
a
discrepancy
that
must occur
in this law
when the ratio of elasticities
changes.
This ratio is less for
complex
molecules and rises to
5/3
for monatomic
gases.
We shall
see
that the
pitch
of
a
wind instrument is
proportional
to the
speed
of sound in the
gas
which fills it. A whistle blown
with
hydrogen
becomes therefore
very
shrill,
but
a
very
familiar
instance is the
sharpening
of the hiss of
an
unlit
gas-jet,
which is
the
signal
that the air has been blown out
of the
pipe
and the
lighter
gas
has arrived. Nitrous oxide is 1-5 times
as
dense
as
air
and
accordingly
the
'
laughter
'
induced
by
this anaesthetic when
clumsily
administered is in
a
pitch"\/l/l-5 or
20
%
lower than the
natural
voice,
and is
not
pleasant
to hear.
expanded parts
is at first
sight surprising,
but such
leakage
would
very quickly destroy
the sound. And after
all, even
the
primitive
flask
experiment
is not
grievously
affected
by
heat
leakage.
SOUND,
ITS NATURE AND SPEED 295
EXAMPLES." CHAPTER XXXIV
1. How has the
velocity
of sound been determined, using
the echo
from
a
cliff?
[L.]
2. Show that for
a
gas
obeying Boyle's
Law the elasticity at constant
temperature
"
the
pressure.
[L.]
3. Taking
the
speed
of sound in air
as
1080 ft.
per
sec.
at
normal
temperature
and
pressure,
calculate the maximum speed
of
propagation
of
an
impulse along
a
train
brake-pipe
which contains air at 6 atmos.
and 10" C. [L.]
4.
Explain
how the
velocity
of sound in
a
gas
depends
upon
the tem- perature.
If
a
tube
open
at both ends has
an
effective length
of 32
cm.
and resounds most readily
to
a
tuning-fork
of
frequency
520 at 15" C.,
what is the
velocity
of sound in air at 0" C. ? [L.]
5. What conditions
are
requisite
for
(a)
the
production,
and
(b)
the
propagation
of
a
sound ?
Why
does the sudden closing
of
a
book
produce noise, while
waving
the book about
produces none
? [L.]
6. What
experiments
show that note of definite
pitch corresponds
to
waves
of definite
length
in air ? [L]m.
7. Explain pitch
and loudness. To what conditions in the air do
these correspond ? [L]m.
8.
Explain
the motion of air
transmitting a
musical note. Make
diagrams showing (1)
the variation of
displacement
with
position
at
a given instant, and
(2)
the variation of
displacement
with time at
a
given point. [L]m.
CHAPTER XXXV
PITCH AND WAVE LENGTH OF SOUNDS
FREQUENCY OF
VIBRATION,
OR PITCH
Two methods of
comparing
frequencies
must
come first,
of
them the former is
very
important.
"
313.
Comparison of
near frequencies. Beats.
It
was
explained
in
"
277
(b)
that
a
compound
harmonic motion
resulting
from two S.H.M.'s not
very
unlike
was characterized
by
its variable
amplitude.
When in
phase,
both
pulltogether,
and their
amplitudes
are
added
; presently
one
gains
half
a
period
(180"
of
phase),theypullopposite
ways
and their
amplitudes
are
subtracted,
another
half-period gainbrings
them into
phase
once
more,
and
so on.
The tides
were
given
as an instance
;
every
fortnight
the solar tide
gains
one
period(12 hours)
on
the lunar
and there is
one set of
spring
and
one of
neap
tides.
Suppose
now
it is
a
particle
of air
near
the
ear,
that is affected
by
the
joint
action of the air
waves
coming
from two
sources
of
sound not
quite
of the
same
pitch.
Both combine in
driving
it
in and out of the
ear
and its
amplitude
of motion increases and
decreases
once,
every
time
one source
gains
a
whole vibration
on
the
other. Loudness
beingproportional
to
square
of
amplitude
this
means
that the sound swells and softens
once,
or one
beat is heard.
First
acquaintance
with beats is best made
by sounding
together
two
near notes on a
harmonium
; they
are
heard
as a
tremolo
varying
from 2
or 3
per
sec. to a
rapid
burr-r.
Beats enable the sustained notes of
any
musical instruments
to be tuned
together
to within
one
vibration in 2
or
3
sec.
Count- ing
them
gives
the arithmetic difference between the number of
vibrations
during
the time of
listening,
and
reducing
to 1
sec.,
between their
frequencies.
If
one
frequency
is
actually
known
adding
or
subtracting
the rate of
beatinggives
the other. The
faster vibrator
can
be
identified,
because
graduallyloading
it
296
,
PITCH AND WAVE LENGTH OF SOUNDS 297
ith
specks
of wax
(or slowing
it in
any
appropriatemanner)
slows the beats down to
zero
when the notes come
exactly
into
tune,
and then increases them
as
the
now
overloaded
spring
gets
farther and farther below the other in
pitch. Loading
the slower vibrator increases the
rate of
beatingstraightaway.
"
314.
Comparison
of
frequencies nearly in simple ratios 1
: 1,
1:2, 1:3,
etc.
Lissajous' figures.
In
"
278 the
curves
obtained
by combining
S.H.M.'s at
right
angles
are
described. When the
swingingharmonograph
pen- dulums
are
replacedby vibratingtuning-forks
the
pen
and link-
work have to be
supersededby
an
inertia-less
ray
of
light.
To
compare
two forks
one
prong-end
on
each is
ground
flat and
polished,
one
fork is fixed vertical and the other
horizontal,
and
a
ray
from
a
pinhole
with
a
lens in front is reflected from
both in succession to
a
focus
on a
screen, Fig.
126,
left. The
vertical fork
sounding
alone draws the
spot
out into
a
vertical
line of
light,
which the horizontal fork converts into
a
figure
like
those in
"
278. If the ratio is not
quite
exact the
figureslowly
changesshape through
one
completecycle
of
phases
for each
whole vibration
gained,
as
in beats.
Large
standard forks
are
tuned in this
way
within
one
'
beat
'
in two minutes.
A small lens mounted
on a
large
fork constitutes the
Vibration
Microscope.
Looking through
it at
a
silvered
speck
on a
string,
say,
little
Lissajous' figures
appear
and enable vibrations to be
studied,
Fig.126,
right.
298 A HANDBOOK OF
PHYSICS
"315.
Measurement of
frequency
of vibration.
The number of
complete
vibrations
per
second of
a
vibrating
body,
or
the
pitch
of
a
rapidvibrator,can
be found
directly by
chronographic methods,
by comparison
with the
note of
a
syren,
or
stroboscopically.
Chronograph methods. The
simplest
way
is that described in
"30,
Fig.
5.
Drop
a
smoked
plate
in front of
a
pointer
attached
to the
vibrating body,
then
knowing
g,
n
is calculated.
More
elaborately
in
Fig.
127
(forkbeingtested)
the
plate
is
replacedby
a
rotatingsmoked-paper
drum and close beside the
marking point
is another
displacedelectrically
every
second
by
a
pendulum
which touches
a
globule
of
mercury
at the middle
FIG. 127. FIG. 128. Fia. 129.
of
every
swing
and
completes
an
electriccircuit. It is best to use
alternate clock-marks
only,
count
up
the number of waves
between them and divide
by
two.
To
get
the ratio of the
frequencies
of two vibrators
let them
mark side
by
side
on a
plate
or
drum moved at
any
speed,
e.g.
by
hand.
A
disadvantage
is that the attached
pointer
loads and slows
the vibrations.
300
A HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS
duplicates)
passes,
one
beat is heard
;
the
syren
has
gained
one
puff
on
the
fork.
If the wheel lost the holes would lose
ground
and
appear
to run backwards,
the sounds
beating.
Driving
the wheel faster the holes
run
out but
presently
reappear
in
proper
number and
running
backwards
; they
slow,
stop,
and then
run
forwards. The
syren
has doubled its
speed,
and
probably
beats
again
with the octave in the fork's note.
A known fork fitted
up
with these
plates,
and
usually
main- tained
in motion
precisely
like
an
electric bell
(or" 605)
is
a
very
exact
'
stroboscopic
'
means
of
examining
and
controlling
the
speed
of
machinery,
which must
carry
on an
axle
a
disc with
several
rings
of dots and
a
concentric
square, pentagon, hexagon,
etc.
It is useful in the
laboratory
for
watchingequal-timed stages
of
rapid
motions,
etc.
Any
vibration which
keepsstep
with the
fork
is
seen at rest.
The whole affair is in
a
way
the inverse of the
cinematograph.
"
318. Standards of
pitch.
When
once one
fork has had its
frequencyaccurately
measured
by
one
of these methods
(best
the
stroboscope)
a
copy
or an
octave,
twelfth,etc.,can
be tuned to it
by Lissajous' figures
with
great
exactness,
and
a
whole accurate seriesbuilt
up.
Scheibler's
tonometer,
the best
practicalpitch instrument,
consists of
a row
of such forks
rising
2
or
3 vibrations each.
They
are
compared
with the note to
be tested
by counting
beats.
Steel forks used
fairly
and
kept
clean
are
very
constant in
pitch.
Rise of
temperature
slows them
one
ten- thousandth
part
per
"C.
LENGTHS
OP
SOUND WAVES
As it is
quiteimpossible
to
apply
a
foot rule to a
running
sound
wave
the
principle
of interference has to be made
use of,
either in
the
'
interference tube
'
or
by
its action in
setting
up
a
stationary
wave
motion.
"
319. The Interference
Tube, Fig.
130,
is
a sort of double
trombone
'
slide.' The note is
played
in front of the
upper
T-piece
and its sound travels round both
ways
to the lower
T-piece,
whence a
rubber tube leads to the
ear.
Both slides
are
at first
pushed
home and it is the
same
distance round either
way.
As
one
is
pulled
out the sound heard weakens and
ceases.
This
means
that
one
path
is
now
half
a wave
lengthlonger
than the
other,so
that crest and
trough
obliterate each other at the
ear.
PITCH AND WAVE LENGTH OF SOUNDS ,301
Thus the
wave
length
is four times the distance the slide has
been moved.
"320. Stationary wave
motion.
It kas been
explained
in
"
302,
Fig.
123,
how
running
waves
reflected from
a
rigid
wall
produce
a
'
stationary
wave
motion
'
which has nodes of
no
motion at
half-wave-length
intervals and
antinodes of maximum motion
half-way
between them in the
middle of the
vibratingsegments.
This
appliesperfectly
to the
longitudinal
waves
of
sound,
for the
rigid
wall
prevents
the
motion of the air
particles
in
contact
with it
; they
cannot be
driven into
it,
and the
atmospheric
pressure
prevents
them
rising
from it and
leaving
a vacuum.
In alternate antinodes there
are
little winds
blowingopposite
ways
along
the line of motion of
the
sound,
and the nodes
are
places
towards which and
away
from which these winds
periodically
blow
; places
where the air
is
alternately squeezedtogether
and drawn out on
both sides of
the motionless nodal
particle
:
nodes
are
placesof
maximum
pressure
change.
Then the
length
of the
running
wave
is twice the
average
distance between the successive
positions
in which the instrument
used to detect the vibrations shows
signs
of disturbance.
Means of
examining stationary wave
motion in the air.
The
sounding
source
therefore faces
a
flat
reflecting
surface
a
few feet
away.
Now to
explore
the line between them for nodes
and antinodes.
The first method that
suggests
itselfis
to have a rubber tube
to
the
ear,
and
to move
its
open
end
along
the line. To-and-fro
winds
blowing
across
it will not send
a
sound
along
the
tube,
but at nodes the
changes
of
pressure
force air in and out of it
and
a
sound reaches the
ear.
The second
means
is
a Sensitive Flame.
A flame about 10 in.
long,producedby supplying
a
pinholejet
from
a
heavilyweighted
gas-bag,
is sensitive to a
shrill
sound,
dropping
to half its
height,
spreading,
and
roaring.
See
Fig.
131. Its
quietness
at the nodal
points
in
spite
of the noise of the whistle is of
course
what
one
notices. Such
a
flame will
respond
to
pitches
too
high
to
be
heard at
all,
and demonstrate them to a
large
audience.*
*
A flame
amusingly
sensitive to
ordinary pitches
is obtained
by
shutting
the slide of
a bunsen which has
one
side hole
only,
and
turning
down the
gas
till the luminous flame
just
creeps
below the
lip
of the
tube
on one side, becoming straight
and
narrow.
It
drops
to the
ordinary
soft
flickering shape
at
every
word and footfall.
302 A HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS
If the
space
between
source
and reflector is enclosed
by
a
pipe,
i.e.if the
stationary
waves are
beingproduced
inside
a
pipe
at
whose
{
open
'
end is the
source
and whose far end is
stopped
up
FIGS.
130, 131, 132,
133.
flat
(or
else,
it
may
be,
is
an
open
reflecting
end,
"302)
other
detectors must be used.
"321.
The manometric
flame,
Fig.
132. A
'
manometric
capsule
'
"
a
little tambour made
by tying
up
a
finger-ring
of
metal in the thinnest rubber
tissue,so as
to make it
a
flat box
with elastic
top
and bottom " is mounted at the end of twin tubes
long enough
to reach down the
pipe.
One admits
gas
to the
capsule
and the other takes it
away
to a
pinhole
burner. At
a
PITCH AND WAVE LENGTH OF SOUNDS 303
node the
changes
of
pressure
force the elasticdrum-heads in and
out, varying
the drum's internal
capacity
and
driving
the
gas
out
in
puffs.
The little flame
sings
and its reflection in
a
moving
mirror is
a
drawn-out band of
light
with
a
jagged
saw-toothed
edge.
Manometric flames have been
largely
used in Sound. Several
capsules
and flames are
sometimes mounted
along
an
organ-pipe
to demonstrate nodes
and
loops
inside. Resonators
("323)
can
be fitted
with them and the excitement of
perhaps
half
a
dozen
observed at
once,
instead of
listening
to each
singly.
The
capsule
has been
provided
with
a
mouthpiece
to receive
spoken
sounds, or
it forms the
reproducer
of
a
phonograph,
the
shape
of the
saw- teeth
in the drawn-out reflection of the flame
serving
more or
less
to
analyse(?)
the motion
imparted
to the drum-head.
"
322. A little
paper
tambourine with sand
grains
scattered
on
it can
be lowered
on a
thread down vertical
pipes.
The sand
grains
will dance and rattle
except
at the nodes.
In
a
horizontal
glass
tube Kundt scattered
dry lycopodium
and the
apparatus
is known
as
his
Dust
Tube,
Fig.
133. The
powder
first forms
large
oval cross-striated
patchesoccupying
the
loops
and leaves the nodes clear
[plan],
but
a
longstrong
note
blows it all
away
from the
loops
into little
heaps
at the nodes.
This dust tube has been used for
measuring
waves
of
half-length
only
-175 cm.
emitted from the
perfectly
inaudible vibration of
a
fork whose
frequency
was
therefore
33,000 cm.-f2x -175 =
96,000.
It is often
employed
as an
indirect
means
of
finding
the
pitch
of
a
rod in
longitudinal
vibration,
and hence the
speed
of sound in
wood,
glass,
etc. As in
Fig.
133 the rod is held
by
its middle in
a
vice,
and its
end,
with
a
card disc stuck
on, projects
into the
dry
dusted
glass
tube
(1
in.
X
4
ft.)
which is closed at the far end
by
an
adjustable plug.
Rubbed
lengthwise
with
a
rosined cloth the rod
emits
a
piercing
note
as
it vibrates
longitudinally,
lengthening
and
shortening,
with
a
node at the vice and antinodes of
greatest
motion at its free ends. From end to end the
length
of the rod
is the half
wave
length
in it of the note which
produces
in air
the
corresponding
half
wave length
from antinode to antinode
shown
by
the
agitated
dust in the tube.
Pitch of note =
speed
in air
-f-
2 distance between dust
heaps.
Further,
the ratio of
lengths
is that of the
speed
of
longitudinal
waves,
i.e.of
sound,
in the
material,
to its
speed
in air.
304 A HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS
Again,
if the tube is filled with
some
other
gas
and the rod
stroked,
the dust
figures
will form at
a new
distance
apart,
and
new
distance
apart
_
speed
of sound in the
gas
air distance
apart speed
in air
EXAMPLES." CHAPTER XXXV
1. What
are
beats ? Prove that the
frequency
of the beats
produced
by
two notes with
a
small interval between them is
equal
to the differ- ence
between their
frequencies.
How could
you
ascertain which of
two
vibrating strings producing
beats had the
higher pitch
?
[L.]
2. A column of air and
a tuning-fork produce
4 beats
per
second
when
sounding together,
the fork
giving
the lower
note,
air at 15" C.
At 10" C.
they produce
3 beats
per
second. Find
frequency
of fork.
[L.]
3. Calculate the
velocity
of sound in
a
gas
in which two
waves
of
lengths
1 and 1-01
m. produce
10 beats in 3 seconds.
[L.]
4. Describe
experiments
to show interference and to
verify
laws of
reflection in
case
of sound
waves.
When
are (a) beats, (b)
sound
shadows, produced
?
[Ab]m.
5. Describe the manometric-flame method of
finding
nodes and
loops
in
an organ-pipe
and
give
two
examples
of results.
[L]m.
6. Give the
theory
of
stationary
sound
waves
in air and
explain
how
they can
be used to find the
velocity
of sound in
a
metal rod.
[L.]
7. How
can
the
wave length
of
a high-pitched
whistle be determined ?
How
can
it be shown that when
plane
sound
waves are
reflected at
a
plane
surface the
angles
of incidence and reflection
are equal
?
[L.]
8. A
vibrating tuning-fork
is viewed
through a rotating
disc
having
a
circle of holes. If the fork
appears
at rest
what must be the relation
between
speed
of rotation of disc and
frequency
of fork ?
Explain
how such an arrangement can
be used to determine the
frequency
of
a
vibrating body. [L.]
9.
Explain carefully some
method of
finding accurately
the
pitch
of
a tuning-fork,
estimate the
greatest percentage error likely
to
occur. [L.]
10. Describe the construction of
a
siren. An air siren is
provided
with
a trumpet equivalent
to a straight
open
tube 2 ft.
long.
At what
speed
should the machine be run
for maximum effect ?
[L.]
11. Show how ratios of notes on
scale
can
be verified
by
siren.
[Ab.]
CHAPTER XXXVI
RESONANCE. PIPES AND STRINGS
"
323. Acoustic Resonance.
We
can now
return to the
subject
of
"
281 and find,
many
illustrations. It
was
there
pointed
out "
(1)
That
anything can
be
compelled
to vibrate at
any
rate
and to
any
extent
we pleaseprovided plenty
of force is used. One
can
take hold of the
prongs
of
a tuning-fork
and
move
them in
and
out
slowly, or
the
same
fork when
sounding
will
compel
the
table-top
to vibrate when
pressed on it, or sounding strongly
will stir
up
the air inside
any
cavity
whatever.
But
(2)
that when the
periodicity
of the force
applied
agrees
nearly
with the natural time of free
swing, a quite
small force will
gradually
work
up
a large
motion.
"
A
very
small
electro-magnet
induces
strong
vibration in
a large
fork which itself makes and
breaks the current at the
proper
moments. The air in the
resonance
tube of
"
309 oscillates
violently
and emits
a
loud sound
when excited
by
a
small fork of its
own
natural time of
swing.
There is
a
different size of
resonance
box
(likea cigar
box with
end knocked
out)
to mount each fork
upon
which will
bring
out
its note far better than the
table-top.
And
every
jar,jug, bottle,
box,
lamp chimney,
gas
globe,
etc.
etc.,
has
a
note of its
own
to which it will resound most
strongly
when
sung
to.
This
note
can
sometimes be elicited
by blowing across
the mouth. More- over,
they
will
pick
it
out
of
any
complex
sound that contains
it
as a
harmonic
component,
and resound to it.
(A
very
irregular
noise will
provoke
a
feeble
response
from
any
resonator,
e.g.
breakers and
sea shells).
It is the note
by
which
one
guesses
how the
filling
of
a jug
under the
tap
is
progressing,
for
'partly
fillingso as to
reduce the air
space
raises the
note
of a resonating
cavity.
On the other
hand,
partly closing
the mouth lowers the
note.
One's
own
mouth
cavity
is the
resonator to the vocal chords and
the
change
of its
note
can
be heard
as one
scratches the cheek
with the
finger-nail
and
slowly
opens
and shuts the mouth.
20 305
306 A HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS
In
a
small
room one
particular
low note will
come
out
very
loud as one
sings
or
hums down the scale
;
it is
a
natural note
of the
resounding
room.
K
Acoustic
resonance
is of
course not
peculiar
to air cavities
only.
A fork
pressed
on
the sound-box of
a
string
instrument sets the
whole box into
slight
vibration. If
one
of the
strings
is of the
same
frequency(or
double,or treble,
etc.)
the
tremor
of the
bridge
will
provide
the
necessary
periodicpush,
and the
string
vibrates
visibly
and
audibly.
Nor is solid contact
necessary.
Open
the
piano,depress
the
forte
pedal
to liftthe
dampers,sing
any
note,
and the instrument
answers
that
same note.
The air
waves
you
produced
set the
sound-board in
vibration,
but
only
the
correspondingstrings
took
up
and stored
energy
from
it,
to be thereafter returned to it
and thence to the air.
(There
may
be,however, an
improvement
in musical
quality,
because the octave
string
also vibrates
a
little.)
"
324. The
piano
contains
only
a
few dozen definite
notes,
but intermediate notes
are
resounded
to,though
the
frequencies
of the
strings
either
side of them will be
probably
a
dozen
per
second
wrong.
Now it
was
pointed
out in
"
282 that when the
resonator's motion was
'
damped,'
resonance was
neither
so
strong
nor so
sharp,
but occurred
fairly
well
over a
long
range
of fre- quencies.
A broad
sounding-board
is of
course
intended and
admirablyadapted
to
give
out
quickly
to
the air the
energy
of the
blow
on
its
strings ;
therefore its motion
quickly
dies
down,
it is
'
damped by
radiation
of
energy
'
and this
explainswhy
resonance
was
wider
spread. [Perfectlysharp
acoustic
resonance
is
a
paradox.
It would
imply
no
damping
at
all,
therefore
no
radia- tion,
no
increased
loudness,
but
on
the
contrary
must be
inaudible.]
Since a
broad board radiates sound-waves
powerfully
it
ought (1)
to
pick
them
up
easily(2)
over a
wide
range
of
frequencies
and
(3)
should therefore be able to emit
many
different notes
when
properly
excited. A thin
drawing-board
carried
along
a
city
street trembles at
every
loud
noise,
while the
immense
variety
of Chladni's
figures, "
336,
shows the truth of
(3).
An old violin owes some
of its excellence to the
equable
response
of the seasoned
sounding-box
to all notes.
Among
air
cavities,
open
boxes and broad-mouthed
sea
shells
must
emit their
energy
fast,
and therefore resound
broadly.Long
narrow
pipes,
and the resonators with small mouths
employed
for
analysing
sounds,
dissipate
their contained
energy
much
more
slowly
and therefore resound more
precisely.
308 A HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS
is
a broad
plate
round the
mouth).
Air
particles just
outside the
mouth
cannot move so
freely
as
in
space open
on
all sides
:
this
slows the motion and
can
be
regarded
in calculation
as a
lengthen- ing
of the
tube.
PIPES
Musicallyspeaking,
most wind instruments
are
pipes,
and from
a
physicalpoint
of view
a
pipe
is
a resonance
tube
provided
with
some means for
producing
a
commotion in the air at one
end of it.
"326. Pipes
and how
they are
blown.
(1)
The ancient
Pan-pipe
was a row
of hollow reeds of
graduated
lengths, stoppedby
the stem
'
knots
'
at their lower ends and
FIG. 135.
made to sound
by blowing
across
the
open
tops. Nowadays
one
occasionally
uses a
key
in the
same
way,
and the winter wind
uses a
keyhole.
Flutes and fifes
are
uniform tubes
open
at the
far end and with
a
large
side hole at the
near
end,merely
blown
across.
(2)
In the
'
flue
'
pipes
of the
organ,
Fig.
135
(A),
and in most
whistles,
there is the well-known
'
mouth,'
up
across
which blows
a
flat stream of
air,
from
a narrow
slitinside the lower
lip,
to
impinge
on the
thin wood
or
metal
edge
of the
upper
lip.
'
Stopped
'
RESONANCE. PIPES AND STRINGS 309
organ-pipes
are
closed at the
top by
an
adjustable plug
:
'
open
'
pipes
are
open
at
the
top.
Steamboat whistles
are
stoppedpipes
with double
mouths,
railway
whistles and
factory
bulls
usually
have mouth all
round,
to
get
most
noise.
(3)
In the
'
reed
'
pipes
of the
organ,
Fig.
135
(B),
there is
a
'
reed
J
consisting
of a narrow
elasticmetal
tongue
almost
closing
the
narrow
slot
through
which the wind is
supplied.
The
tongue
either
swings
in and out of
a
slot
slightly larger
than itself
(free
reed
C)
or
flaps
down
on
to a
smaller slot
(beating
reed
D),
thus
permitting
the wind to issue in
periodic puffs.
For
such reeds in miniature dissect
a
toy mouth-organ.
The reed
has
a
note of its
own
and the natural
frequencies
of tube
and
attached reed must be about the
same,
or resonance
is
defective
and the
pipespeaksbadly.
Clarionets,oboes,
and bassoons have
'
reeds
'
of
splitcane.
Stretched membranous
'
vocal
cords,'
with the resonant
pharynx
and
mouth,
produce
the human voice. E is
a
rough
model
larynx
constructed of two
pieces
of thin sheet rubber tied
over the
cut end of
a
pipe
so as to
leave
a narrow
slitbetween
them. A
resonance
tube
(dotted)
can
be added.
(4)
The
lips
are
the
vibrating
reeds for brass
instruments, and
also in
whistling,
when the mouth
cavity
is resonator.
(5)
Tubes
can
be sounded
by
a
flame
burning
inside them
;
F has
a
paper
tuning-slide
at the
top.
Recollect the
musical
efforts of
an
occasional incandescent
gas
burner,
and listento the
deep booming
of the
chimney
when
you
are
*
drawing
up
'
the
fire with
a
newspaper.
NOTE. " A reed is
practically
a
stopped
end,
it is
only
a small
aperture
and there is
a
wall of
compressed
air behind it.
One
can
understand metal
reeds,
but how is it that
blowing
contrivances which of themselves make
only
a
feeble
irregular
noise "
a
very
'
dry
whistle
'
" can
call forth loud
musical
notes
from the tubes ?
Any
fluid
flowingthrough
a narrow
crack at
more than
a
very
slow
speed
sets
up
eddies. It is these that make the
dry
whistling
sound
:
they
are
heard and
seen
when
a
flat
gas
flame is
turned
too
high
and flares. These eddies
mean
local variations of
speed
and
pressure,
"
87,
and send little
impulsesfluttering
into
the
pipe.
The
large
mass
of air
begins
to
pulsate
and
soon
alternately
blows the thin
stream of wind
away
or
sucks it in in
puffs
*
at
times to suit
itself,
taking
up
the
energy
of the
puffs
to
produce
its
310 A HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS
own
note
;
justas a
heavy pendulum
takes
energy
when it
pleases
from the
scape-
wheel and
keeps
its
own
time.
How
preponderant
is the control of the resonator
anyone
can
feel in
whistling
a tune. The
lips
remain
fixed,
while the
tongue
is
busy
allthe time
altering
the size and
shape
of the
resounding
cavity.
*
A
badly
aimed stream
or
misshapen
upper
lip
of
course
enfeebles this action
: steamboat whistles
are
often
husky
on
this
account
even
after clear of water.
"
327. From what has been said in
""
309 and 325 itwillbe clear
that in
a
soundingpipe
the air is acted
on
by
waves
running
both
up
and down and is therefore in the state of
stationary
wave
motion described in
""
302 and 320. Read these
four paragraphs
again.
Stopped pipes,
Fig.
136.
Taking
these
first,
the
stopped
end
is
a
Node of
no motion and the
open
mouth an
Antinode of maxi-
FOURTH HARMONIC. FREQ:
9
THIRD HARMONIC. FREQ:
7
_N
A N
A N
SECOND HARMONIC. FREQ: 5
N A
N
FIRST HARMONIC. FREQ:
3
FUNDAMENTAL FREQUENCY
1
FIG. 136.
mum motion,
the wind
blowing
to and fro most
freely
there.
(4
cm.
motion has been observed
by
the aid of smoke at the end
of
a
pipe
125
cm.
long.)
If
no
other nodes
are
present
the
pipe
is
now
sounding
itslowest
or fundamental
note,
and the
wave length
of this,4AN,
is four
times the length
of the pipe.
RESONANCE. PIPES AND STRINGS 311
Then in
"
325 it
was
pointed
out that a tube 3 times
as
long
could
give
the
same note, having
now an extra
node and antinode
at the thirds of its
length.
That
is,
it is
giving
a note
whose
wave
length
is
four-thirds
the
lengthof
the
stoppedpipe.
This is calledits
firstovertone,
and its
frequency
is
evidently
3 times that of
the
fundamental,
since
wave
lengthxfrequency=
constant
Speed.
It is
a harmonic
overtone,
for the ratio of
frequencies
is
a
small
integral
number and itliesin the harmonic scale
("346)containing
the fundamental
(G
in the octave above the fundamental
C).
Indeed all the
overtones
of
plainpipes
are harmonics.
It was
further
pointed
out that
a
tube 5 times
as
long
could
give
the
same note,
having
now
2 extra nodes and 2 extra
antinodes at the fifthsof its
length.
That
is,
it is
giving
a note
whose
wave
length
is
four-fifths
the
lengthof
the
stoppedpipe,
its
second
overtone,
5 times the
pitch
of the fundamental.
So
one can
go
on as
in
Fig.
136
dividing
up
the
stopped pipe
into
any
odd number of
equalparts,keeping
the
stopped
end
a
node
and the
open
an antinode,
putting
in alternate nodes and anti-
nodes
along
the
pipe
and
producing
successive harmonics of
frequencies
1, 3, 5, 7, 9,
and
any
odd number of times that of the
fundamental.
These
notes
can
be
brought
out
in
succession
by blowing
the
(narrow)pipe
harder,
but the fullnatural tone of the
pipe
results
from
a
complex
air motion which contains them all
as
its
simple
harmonic
components
or Partials,"" 277,
343.
"
328.
Open pipes,
Fig.137,
which
are
tubes
open
at both
ends,
must have antinodes at both
ends,
and the
simpleststationary
wave
motion
possible
in them has therefore
a
node in the middle
of the
pipe.
Such motion is
possible,
for
as
explained
in
"
302
reflection
can
take
place
from
a
loose
or
open
end. The
pipe
acts like
a
couple
of
stoppedpipes
of half its
length,put
bottom
to bottom.
The wave length
of the fundamental of an
open pipe,
4AN,
is therefore twice the
length
of the
pipe,
so
that
unstopping
a
pipe
raises its
pitch
an
octave,
and vice
versa.
Blow
across
any
bit
of
tubing,
and
try
it.
The next
possible motion,
got by putting
in
one extra node and
antinode,
has
an
antinode in the middle and nodes at the
quarters,
its
wave
length
is twice
half
the
lengthof
the
pipe
and its
frequency
twice the fundamental.
In the next there is
again
a
node at the middle and the
pipe
is
again
like
a
stoppedpipe standing
on
its
own
reflection
;
the
frequency
is three times the fundamental.
312 A HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS
So
one can
go
on as
in
Fig.
137
dividing
up
the
open pipe
into
any
even number of
equalparts,keeping
both ends
antinodes,
putting
in alternate nodes and antinodes and
producing
successive
harmonic overtones
of
frequencies 1, 2, 3, 4, 5,
and
any
number
of times that of the fundamental. The
presence
of the
even
harmonics
gives
the
open
pipe
a
fuller musical tone
("343)
than
FOURTH HARMONIC. FREQ;
5
THIRD HARMONIC FREQ: 4
A N A
N A N A
SECOND HARMONIC. FREQ: 3
A N A N
A^
FIRST HARMONIC. FREQ:
2
A
N
A
FUNDAMENTAL FREQUENCY 1
FIG. 137.
the
stoppedpipe
:
compare
the 8-ft.
open
diapason
with the
4-ft.
stopped.
It
can
be shown that
a conical
pipe,
whether
open
or
stopped
at
the small
end,
has the full series of harmonics of
an
open
pipe.
Hence the
tapering
form of
practically
all reed
instruments,
for
the reed is almost
a
stopped
end.
"
329. Wind Instruments.
The
production
of several notes
from
one pipe
in wind instruments is effected
by altering
the force
of the blast
(a),
or
by altering
the
length
of the
pipe (c),
or
both
(b).
(a)
The
cheerysimple
compass
of few notes of a
bugle
or
post
horn consists of the first five harmonics " into which the conical
pipe
breaks
by
harder
blowing.
The most
perfectexample
of this is the
long
French horn which
gives
the sixteen notes
got by multiplying
the fundamental
RESONANCE. PIPES AND STRINGS 313
(herein
called C for
simplicity) by
the natural numbers from 1 to
16 as
follows
:
"
1
4 f * t I
V5
Diatonic scale
. .
C D E F G A B
1st octave
. .
1 - - - - -
2nd
"
. .
2 3
3rd
"
.
.4-5-6-7-
4th
"
.
.89 10 11 12 13 14 15
5th
"
. .
16 - - - -
11 is
a
trifletoo
sharp
and 13 a
trifle
too
flat,
7 and 14
are
A
sharps.
(b)
Brass
piston
instruments have their tubes
temporarily
lengthenedby
crooks
brought
into circuit
by pressing
the
piston
valves. This enables the
gaps
in the natural
trumpet
scale to be
filled
up
without
goingbeyond
the seventh harmonic.
(c)
Fifes and flutes
are
virtually
open
tubes
extending
from
the
mouthpiece
to the firsthole that is
opened.
STRINGS
Stringsare
supposed
to be
perfectly
flexible,
uniformlyheavy
throughout
their
length,
and stretched with
a
force uniform
throughout
and
quite
unaffected
by
their vibration. Those
mostly
in
use are
catgut
and thin
steel,
wrapped
with wire for
lower notes to increase
mass
without
spoiling flexibility.
Thick
wires
are
very
unmusical.
As
everyone
knows,
their musical vibrations
are
transverse
;
whether in
one
plane
or
like
a
skipping-rope
does not matter in the
least
(cf.pendulum). They
can
be studied
visually
thus
:
"
"
330. Melde's
experiment.
To
a
stronglyvibrating
prong
*
is attached
a
long
horizontal thread of white crochet cotton
stretched
over a
pulley
at
the far end
by
50
grm.
or more.
The
transverse
waves sent
runningalong
the
string
are
reflected at
the
pulley
and the two
equal
wave
trains
runningopposite
ways
set
up
a
stationary
wave
motion, dividing
the
string
into
a
succession of nodes and
loops,
as
in
Figs.
123 and 138. At first
the motion is
unsteady
and
dodges
about,
but after careful
adjustment
of the
weights
in the
pan,
shows well-defined
segments
and
steadynodes,
becomes
more
ample (resonance),
and then
the
average
length
from node to node
= half
length
of
running
wave.
*
A small electric-bell mechanism
can
be
pressed
into service.
314 A HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS
Now
gradually
increase the
pull
on
the
string
and after
an
interval of
unsteady quivering
it will settle down to
steady
vibration with
one
less
segment (B, Fig.138,
weight
increased
B
FIG. 138.
about
one-half).Putting
more
weights
on
the
pan
causes
this to
be
repeated, segments disappearing
one
by
one.
Measurements of
lengths
and
weights
will have shown that
Lengthofsegment
varies
as
square
root
ofstretching pull,
e.g.
to
get segments
of double
length
the
pull
is
quadrupled.
Now
loosely
twist four threads
together
so as
to
get
a string
4 times
as massive,
and
hang
on
the
same
weight
used to
pull
one
thread. The
segments
shorten to
half their
length,
C.
Lengthofsegment
varies
inversely
as
square
root
of
mass
per
cm.
Hang
on
4 times the
weight
and
segments
resume
original
length,
D.
Finally,
if the
experiment
is made with double the
frequency
*
(n)
the
segments
are
halved in
length
E.
Putting
all
together,
length
of
segment
oc
-
.
/
:
" " and
by weighing
a
n V mass
per
cm.
*
Same fork
serves,
turned at
right angles.
In first
position
the
reader can
make out that
frequency
of
string "
half that of fork.
316 A HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS
nent
;
the
stringvibrating
in
two halves. Touched at
"
the
twelfth
sounds out
(G
in octave above
C),
at
J
the double
octave,
and
so on.
In all that follows the
string
is assumed to be
vibrating
in
one
piece,
and I becomes its whole
length.
B.
Lengths
in
tune with the various forks will be found
proportional
to their vibration numbers.
Tuning
is tested
by slowing
out of
beats,or
by
a
little
paper
jockeyjumping
off when the wire is
exactly
in tune and resounds
to the fork
pressed
on
the sound board.
(2)n oc
\/P,frequency
is
proportional
to
square
root
ofstretching
force. Tighteningstringssharpens
their
pitch.
The
stretching
weights
necessary
to tune the
same
length
of the
same
"wire
to
different forks will be found
proportional
to the
squares
of their
vibration numbers.
(3)
n oc
\/l/m"frequency
is
inversely as
square
root
of mass
per
centimetre.
Different wires
are
stretched with the
same
force and the
same
length
of each is used. Another
bridge
is moved under the
additional wire and
lengths
on
that found which
are
in unison
with the notes of the differentwires. Then these wires
are cut and
weighed,weight4-length=
mass
in
grm. per
cm.
The
tuned-up
lengths
on the side wire will be found
oc \/w,
hence
by (1)
B
above,
n
oc\/l/m.
"
333. What substance the
string
is made of does not matter
in the
least,nor
how the
mass
is made
up,
nor
whether it isround
or
square
or a
flatribbon. It is
only
the
mass
per
unit
length
that
counts,
and this should be
computed first,
in
preference
to
inventing
new
formulae for various
cases.
Notice the
use
of the monochord in
comparing
the
pitches
of
notes
producedby
any
instruments.
They
are
inversely
as
the
lengths
of wire in
tune with them. And
a
knowledge
of P and
m
will further enable them to be calculated
absolutely, using
the
whole formula.
The
overtones
possible
on a
string
are
all those that have the
bridges
for
nodes,
i.e. the
string
may
vibrate in
any
integral
number of
parts,givingfrequencies
1, 2,3, 4,
5
. . .
times the
fundamental.
"
334. The longitudinal
vibrations of rods and wires are
the
only
others that lend themselves to
simple
theoretical
treatment.
RESONANCE. PIPES AND STRINGS 317
They
have been referred to in
"
322. The rod is held in the
middle,
or
the rod
or
wire
clampedfirmly
at one or both
ends,
and
wiped lengthwise
with
a
wet leather
or
rosined
cloth,
when
without
any
visible vibration it emits
an unmusical shriek.
Like the air in
a
pipe,
it is in
lengthwiseoscillation,
for
a
pellet
hung
in contact
with the flat free end dances oft when it
sounds,
Fig.
133. The
shuddering
motion of rubber
tubingpulledthrough
wet
fingers,
and the wet and
dryrings
left
on it,
evidence
a
slower
vibration of the
same
sort and
glasstubing
has been set into such
violent motion that it shattered into
rings.
The thickness of the wire
or
rod makes no difference to the
pitch,
each
square
millimetre of cross-section
(of
any
shape)
looks after
itself,
and
a
thick rod
can
be
regardedmerely
as a
bundle of thin
ones
each
giving
the
same
note.
Clamped points
are
nodes. Free
ends,or
the middle
point
when
clamped
at both
ends, are
antinodes. The
wave
length
in the
material is 4AN
as usual,
e.g.
bar
clamped
at end has w.l.
= 4 times
length
and the harmonics of
a
stoppedpipe;
wire
clamped
at ends has w.l.=
twice its
length
and full series of
harmonics. The
speed
of travel of the
longitudinal
disturbance
"
of
course
the
speed
of sound in the material
=\/Young's
modulus
4-
density
and
=frequencyx
wave length.
Torsional vibrations. Rods can
also be set into shrill torsional
oscillation
by pulling
a
rosined
string
wound round them. The
speed
of
a
torsional
wave
is
-y/rigidity-i- density.
The treatment
is the
same as
above.
1. If the ]
EXAMPLES." CHAPTER XXXVI
1. If the handle of a
vibrating tuning-fork
is held
against
a
wooden
board the amount of sound
produced
is
considerably
increased.
Explain why.
Is the time
during
which the fork
goes
on
vibrating
affected,
and if
so, why
?
[L.]
2.
Explain why
a vibrating string
is
scarcely
audible unless
a
sounding-box
be
employed.
How do the
shape
and size of
a
sounding-
box influence the
audibility
of the note ?
[L.]
3. When A sounds its fundamental B
resounds,
but A does not
resound to B's fundamental. Which has the
higher
fundamental
pitch,
and
why
?
[M.]
318 A HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS
4. Describe the construction and mode of action of
one
form of
organ-pipe.
How has the motion of the air in such
a
pipe
when
working
been
investigated,
and with what results ?
[L]m.
5. How find
frequency
of fundamental of
organ-pipe
?
Pipe
5 in.
long,
at 15"
C.,
find
frequency
and nearest note in musical scale if
c" = 540.
[Ab.]
6. Forks of
frequencies
125, 250, 500, 750,
1000
are
successively
held
over
the
open
end of
a stopped pipe
which resounds best to the 250.
What
happens
with the others ?
[L]m.
7. Two
straight
tubes of effective
lengths
48 and 64
cm.
resound to
the
same
note. The shorter tube is closed at
one end, the
longer
is
open.
Show the nodes in the
tubes,
and find the
frequency
of the
note,
the
speed
of sound
being
333
m.
per
sec. [L.]
8. Given
a
stretched wire of variable
length
and
a tuning-fork,
how
would
you
find the note emitted
on plucking a
thin
bicycle-spoke
?
How does this note
change
as
the
spoke
is
tightened
?
[L.]
9. State
concisely
the laws of transverse vibration of
a
stretched
string.
Bowed
transversely near
its middle
point, a
wire emits
a
note
of
frequency
256 vibrations
per
second when loaded with
a weight
of
100 Ib.
;
what is
frequency
of note of double the
length
loaded with
225 Ib. ?
[L.]
10. A
bridge
is
placed
under the
string
of
a
monochord at a
point
near
the middle,
and
on plucking
the two
parts
of the
string
3 beats
per
second
are produced
when the load is 8
kg.
Determine the rate of
beating
of the two
parts
of the
string
at 11
kg. [L.]
11. Two
strings
otherwise
equal
have densities 1-3 and 21-8. Find
ratio of
frequencies. [L]m.
12.
Compare frequencies
of two
strings
of
same
length
and diameter
stretched with 10 and 1
kg. respectively,
and densities 7-8 and 1.
[L]m.
13. Calculate the
frequency
of vibration of
a
55-9-cm.
length
of
wire,
of total
weight
-3324
grm.,
stretched with 11-2-lb. wt.
14. Give
an
account of Kundt's dust- tube method of
comparing
velocities of sound in different
gases.
Trace effects of
changing length
section and material of the rod.
[L.]
15. Find
Young's
modulus for
a
rod 1-72
m. long, density 8-5,
which held at the middle
point
and stroked
lengthwise gives
1000 vibra- tions
per
second.
16. Show how
periodic
movements of
a
stretched
string can
be
represented by
the
passage
along
it of
waves
in
opposite
directions.
[M.]
17.
Distinguish clearly
between the motions of the air
particles
in
an
open
tube
(a)
when a
sound
wave simply
passes
along
it and
(b)
when the tube is blown
as an organ-pipe.
On what condition
can
motion
(a)
set
up
motion
(b)
?
[L.]
CHAPTER XXXVII
VIBRATORS PRODUCING MORE COMPLEX TONES
"
335. Transverse vibrations of bars.
From the
days
when
we essayed
tunes
on a row
of
pins
driven
to different
depths
in the table
we
have all been familiar with the
sonorous
transverse
vibration of
'
bars.' In the little clockwork
musical-box
there
was a
whole
row
of them in
a
'
comb
'
plucked
by
pegs
in
a revolving
barrel. One is the
mainspring
of that
curious
instrument,
the
Jew'sharp.
Worked
by wind,
thin
'
bars
'
form the reeds of the
mouth-organ, harmonium, concertina, etc.,
and with the addition of
resonance
boxes
or pipes
of the American
organ,
the
organ,
and
"
the motor horn,
voiceless without its
trumpet.
The old American clock hammered
out the hours
nasally
on a
wire
gong
and the modern
drawing-room
clock
chimes
quite tunefully on
what
are really long curled-up
steel
bars,
struck
near
the fixed end with soft hammers. All these
are
bars
clamped
at
one
end and free at the other.
In the
tuning-fork
two
equal
bars balance each other's motion
and
clamping
is
unnecessary
: a
bit of
wax
stuck
on one leg
destroys
the balance and the fork
spends
its
energy
in
shaking
the
hand,
and
soon
stops. Undamped
also
are
the
straight
bars
of the
harmonicon,
supported (not
too
rigidly)
at
the nodes of
their fundamental vibration about one-fifth
length
from either
end.
Additional nodes
are
present
in bars
sounding overtones,
and
can
be demonstrated
by scattering
sand
on
the horizontal bar.
When sounded the sand
gathers
at the
quiet
nodes. In this
way
a
node
can
be found about one-third
way
down
a tuning-fork
prong,
when the shrill first
overtone,
more
than 6 times faster
than the
fundamental,
is
ringing.
The clock
gong
is struck
near
its
root
and overtones
ripplealong
it
;
its fundamental vibrations
when the free end is
plucked are
slow
enough
to count.
The Overtones of bars
are
not
Harmonics,
for
they are
not
in the
simple
ratios
2, 3, 4, 5,
etc. times the
fundamental,
"
327.
319
320 A HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS
It is
easy
to
see
that the thicker and stiff
er
[Young'smodulus]
the bar is at the fixed
part
the
greater
will be the elastic forces
called into
playby
a
slight
bend.
This,
and
lightness
in the free
moving
parts,
means
rapid
vibration.
Filing
a
fork near
the
tip
raises its
pitch;
near
the
base,
lowers it. On
a large
scale all
this is of interest to
engineers, bridges
and
ships
under
'
live
'
forces
are
vibrating
bars.
"336.
Plates.
The vibrations of
plates
are
very
complex
and
numerous,
patterns
of nodal lines
can
be obtained
by scattering
sand
on
them
when
vibrating.
These Chladni's
figuresare
usually
demonstrated
on a
square
metal
plateclamped
in the centre and bowed
some- where
on the
edge,
while another
point
is touched
by
the
finger
FIG. 139.
to induce it to remain
a
node. A few
figures
are
given
in
Fig.
139
and
many
more
will be found in
Tyndall's
Sound. Each has its
own
note.
They depend
on
where the
plate
is bowed and touched
and how it is
supported.
A
very
simple
mode of vibration of
a
plate
fixed at the centre
produces
a
nodal
cross,
the alternate
quadrantsmoving opposite
ways.
A uniform disc
supported
at
points
on a
circletwo-thirds its diameter and struck in the middle
acts as a
gong
with this
as a
nodal circle.
The mica
or
metal
diaphragms
of
telephones, gramophones,
etc.,
are
plates
fixed round the
edge; they
can
vibrate in
so
many
different
ways
that the
'
resonance
'
to be
expected
at their
own
'
natural
frequencies
'
hardly
shows
up
at
all,
and
they respond
to all notes
without
exaggerating
any.
VIBRATORS
321
"
337
: Gongs
and bells.
The
ordinary
dinner
gong
is
a
plate
with
a
turned-upedge,
the stiffness and extra
weight
of which
brings
a
nodal circle out
to
the
suspendingstring
holes.
Bells
can
be looked
upon
either
as
deeply
'
dished
'
plates
or as
short
cylinders.
When struck in the
ordinary
way
the circular
mouth becomes
elliptical
and vibrates between
this and
an
ellipse
at
rightangles
to it,
Fig.
140.
Four
points
90"
apart
are
moving radially,
and
sincethe outer arcs are
longer
than the flatinner
arcs
the
points
at 45" have
to
move
tan-
gentially.
Hence the
tangential drag
of the
wet
finger
on a
tumbler rim evokes its note.
These 45"
positions
are
nodal
'
meridians
'
FlG- 14"-
(diameters
in
plan)
; pellets hung
in contact with the bell there
are not driven off. Besides this motion characteristic of
a
cylinder
the bell also has
nodal circleslike
a
plate,
the whole rim
heaving
up
and down and
making
the bell
alternately
shorter and
taller.
The five
partials
of the best modern
English
bells
appear
to
run as near
the
frequency
ratio -25 :
-5
:
-6
:
-8 :
1
as
the founder
can
get
them. The
highest
is the loudest after the usual hard
blow and
gives
the bell its
name.
The lowest two are
heard in
a
muffled
peal.
The -25 has 4 nodal
meridians,
the -5 a
nodal
circle in
addition,
and the 1 has 8 meridians. The
beating
as
the sound dies
away
originates
from accidental
irregularities
in
the bell.
A chime of steel
tubes,
8 diameters
long,slung
on a
rope
through
two holes about
one-eighth
below the
top,
and struck
on
the
top edge,
costs little
more
than
a
solitary
monotonous
church bell and sounds
very
well,
unless the
ringerattempts
hymns.
"
338
: Singing sand,
etc. Some sands have
acquired
a
repu- tation
for
emitting
a
musical note when disturbed. Such
are to
be found in
patcheson
the beach
at
Studland and in
Eigg.
A
smooth basinful
gives
a more or
less definitenote when
prodded.
The
explanation
is
obscure,
but these sand
grains
are
very
clean
and uniform in size. I have noticed
parts
of the
path
up
Ben
Nevis,
about
1QOO
ft. below the
summit,
where the footfall is
a
loud clear
'
clink
'
(about
A 880 and itsoctave
below)
and where
the
stones
certainly
are
particularly
uniform in
size,
tight,
and
as
clean
as
superabundant
rain
can
wash them.
21
322 A HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS
"339:
Membranes.
Membranes
are
to
plates
what
strings
are to
bars,
their
power
of vibration is due to the tension
put
upon
them and not to
natural stiffness. Their vibration bears
some
general
resemblance
to that of
plates
and
can
be studied
experimentally by scattering
sand
on
them in the
same
way.
The blow of
a
drum-stick
on
the
drum-head can
be likened to the fall of
a
drop
into
a
teacup,
circular
ripples
flow out and reflected at the
fixed
circular
edge
return and
produce
nodal circles
as
the disturbance continues.
The soft stroke of
a
'
muffled
'
stick smothers out short
waves
and dulls the tone. In
SedleyTaylor'sPhoneidoscope
a
soap
film is stretched
over a
cup sung
into
through
a
short
speaking-
tube,
and shows the different and beautiful nodal
patterns
in
brilliantcolours for
every
note. The
toy
stringtelephone
shows
how well membranes
can
take
up
and
reproduce
notes
and the
string
transmit them
by longitudinal
vibrations.
A membrane with
freeedge
is the
grass-blade
between the thumb-
knuckles of the hands closed
as
in
supplication.
Its
squall
when
blown
on
is
probablypitchedby
their
resonatingcavity.
These two
types
of membrane will be
recognized
in the
following
:
"
"340.
The Voice.
Stretched
across
the
windpipe
are two
membranes,
the
'
vocal
cords,'
very
roughly
imitated
by
the
strips
of rubber in
Fig.
135 E.
When breathed
through
and
tightened
so
that the
'
glottis
'
between them becomes
a narrow slit,
they
vibrate. For
high
notes
they
are
very
tight
and
only
the thin
edges quiver.
The
re- sonating
cavity
of the
pharynx
and mouth controls the
pitch,
and the
tongue,
teeth,
and
lips
the articulation of the sound
(see"344).
Shouting
with
wide-open
mouth
means
overblowing
and
straining
the cords. A
Megaphone
becomes useful
now,
for in it
a narrow
conical mass
of air firstreceives all the
energy
formerly
spread
out
almost
spherically,
its vibrations have therefore much
greater
amplitude
and
at
the
nearly
nodal reed end
("326)
provide
a
greater
back
pressure.
This
supports
the vocal cords
and enables them to be blown
very
hard without
injury.
You
work harder. The directive action of
a
megaphone
is
limited,
for
the 5-ft.waves
of
a
man's voice diffract
widely
from its 1-ft.
aperture,
"
295.
324 A HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS
and it is claimed that
a millionth of
an
erg per
second
can
just
be heard.
Ordinary
loudness
probablysupplies
tenths of
ergs.
The lowestaudible
pitchprobably
liesbetween
15 and 30
per
sec.,
depending
on the instrument.
The
highest
audible
pitch
as
tested
by
a Galton's whistle
(a
very
small whistle with
a
graduatedplugsliding
in the end of the
tube)
lies between
30,000
and
40,000,
but diminishes in
age
; elderly
persons
being
often unable to hear the
squeaks
of
bats,etc.
A
seven-octave
piano
extends from 30 to 4000. Our
perception
of musical values
gets
very
feeble at these
frequencies, one
note
sounding
very
much like another.
"343. Quality.
The
quality,
tone, or timbre which enables
one
to
distinguish
what
sort of instrument
a
note is
beingplayedon,
is
undoubtedly
due
to the co-existence with the
principal
note of overtones whose
numbers,
relative
pitches,
and loudnesses
are
very
characteristic
of the instrument.
Several considerations
go
to show that
a
simple
harmonic
disturbance,corresponding
to a sine-curve
wave, produces
the
impression
of
a
simple
or
pure
tone. One
may
be
given
:" As
a
note
is
dying
away
it loses its distinctive
quality
and reduces to
the
pure
fundamental tone : now we
know from Mechanics
that
always,
as
any
motion dies
out,
the
energy
of the little
rapid
parts
is
dissipated soonest,
and it is
only
the slowest swell that
persists
to the last.
Analysis
of tones.
A
note on
any
musical instrument
can
be
analysed
into funda- mental
and
overtones. This
may
be done to
some extent
by
a
trained
ear,
but much better
by
resonators
ready
tuned
to the
expected
overtones. The
plain
resonance
tube
can
be used
(for
instance it often confounds the
over-
vigorous
wielder of
a
tuning-
fork
by resounding
to an
unsuspectedoctave),
but
a
battery
of
tuned resonators like those of
"
323,
each connected to its
own
manometric flame
capsule,
is better.
A
new
way
is to
photograph
the vibrator's motion
on a
moving
plate,
or
else to record the sound
on a
phonographcylinder,*
and
then
magnify
the indented
wax
record
by
an
arrangement
of
lightlevers, etc.,
on to a
moving plate.
In these
ways
one
obtains
wave curves
which
can
be
mathematicallyanalysed
into
com-
*
I think there is
no
need
to
attempt
any
description
of
phonographs
and
gramophones.
VIBRATORS 325
ponent
S.H.M.'s,
"
276. Results
so
obtained have
agreed
with
the
resonators,
thus
confirming
the
equivalence
of the
simple
harmonic motion and the
simple
note.
Synthesis
of tones.
But the best
proof
of the
theory
is that the
battery
of resonators
can
rebuild the tones of different instruments. Each resonator
is
provided
with its
appropriate
fork,kept goingelectrically,
and
when the
proper
ones are
excited to the
same
extent as before,
judged by
the
flames,
the
original
tone is
reproduced
"
flute,
trumpet,
violin, bell,
and the vocal
sounds,
the Vowels.
"
344. Constitution of certain tones.
In these
ways
one
finds
that forks and wide
organ-pipes givenearly
pure
tones,
flutes
their
fundamental-)-
weak
octave,
narrow
pipes
and
stringsgive
all at
once
the
long
series of harmonics
already
described,
into which
they
so
easily
break. The
2, 3,4,
5
frequency
harmonics
improve
the musical tone
(compare
a
fork with
a
piano,
and then with the
note
and its octave
together),
but too
great
loudness of
higher
harmonics
produces
a
brilliance
apt
to become strident.
6, 7,8,
9
are
choked
by
the soft blow of the
piano
hammer
near
the
place
they require
nodes
(about " length),
or
in the violin
by
a
good
sounding
board. The
very
high
are
weak in
any
instrument that
can
pretend
to be
musical,
but sometimes afflictthe user
of the
monochord. Harsh tones contain overtones not in harmonic
ratios,
squeaks
mean
exaggeratedhigh
ones.
The
peculiarity
of bells in
normallyhaving
the
highestpartial
loudest has been
noticed in
"
337. Silver,
beloved of
popularfancy,
contaminates
bell
metal, leading
to flaws.
By
the
way,
some
Brazilian
frogs
make
perfect
bell sounds.
The Vowels.
The human voice is
very
remarkable. Each vowel sound has
one
most
prominentpartial,
of
a
perfectly
definite
pitch,
without
which the vowel is
unrecognizable.
The
strengths
of its
higher
and lower
partials
vary
according
to the
singer's
voice and the
total effect
gives
more or
less
successfully
the
impression
both of
the vowel and of the
key
intended. But
eee
...
for instance
cannot be
sung
in
a
very
low
key,
nor uuu
...
in
a
high one,
because their essential
partials
are
too far
away
from the desired
note and the
singer
cannot
bring
them out
without
spoiling
it.
Even the best
singers
must often
use
substituted vowels and trust
to articulation for
intelligibility.
326 A HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS
"
345. The reader of
"
277 will not
fallinto the
very
common
state of wonderment that all these
partials
can co-exist,
that
e.g.
an octave which wants a node in the middle is discoverable
in the tone of
a
wire whose middle is
visiblyswinging
to the
fundamental. What
reallyhappens
isthat the
sharp
bend formed
in the wire where
plucked
breaks into two
peaks
which run
to
and fro
(there
is
photographic
evidence of
this)
and the
bellying
shape
is
merely
due to the
persistence
of retinal
impressions.
And from
a
pipe
and from the
syren
there come
separate sharp
puffs,something
like H H H H and the marvel is
thaj:
the trained
ear can
get
from this the
same
impression
of
component
notes as
the mathematician
gets
of
component
S.H.M.'s.
"
346
: Musical Scales.
The diatonic scale consists of
seven notes
(and
the
octave)
whose
frequencies
are
in the ratios to the
keynote
C D E F G A Be
1 9.
5. 4, H 5. JL5
O
1
8
4.
8 S 3
8.
*
do
re mi
fa
so
la
si
do
[For
instance 264*297*330 352*396*440*495
528]
It makes
no
difference to these ratios what the actual
frequency
of the
keynote
is. Addition and subtraction have no
place
here.
Expressing
each note
in
terms
of the
next below it
we
get
D E F G A B
c^
C D E F G A B
fl
0 1 "" 0 10 0 10
V
15 t -IT "8 15
|-
iscalled the interval of
a
Majortone, -^
a
Minor
tone,
and
if
a
Semitone.
Into the
large
gaps
additional notes are
inserted
by multiplying
the
frequency
of the note below
by |f
(sharpening
it
a semitone)
and
dividing
the note above
by -}-f
(flattening
it
a semitone),
giving
a
pair
of notes in the
position
of each asterisk shown above.
Perfect concord demands that the
very
small difference between
say
C
sharp
and
Dflat(|
5-~
".
x
\"
=
about
^a)
should be
respected,
and
probably
this is done
by good singers
and
violinists,
but it
crowds
a
keyboard.
Further,
musicians wish to
use
various
keynotes,
to select the
present
value of
G,
say,
as
the
starting-
point
of
a
complete
set of ratios. Then its next note should be
"
of itand does not coincide with
A,
which is
-1/-
G,
and
a
lot
more
slightly
varied notes
spring
into
being.
VIBRATORS 327
Fortunately
the latitude nature allows in
everything
does not
fail here
;
for
resonance
is
never
perfect.
It is
only
a
hyper- sensitive
ear
that is offended
by squeezing
the C
sharp
and D flat
into
one
note, by making A/G
the
same
ratio as
C/D
and
so
on,
i.e.
by ignoring
the difference between
major
and minor tone arid
making
the semitone half either of them. The modern
keyboard
contains twelve notes to the
octave,
each 2^ = 1-0595
times the
frequency
of the
one
below it.
Starting
on
any
keynote
the eleven
above it form its chromatic
scale,
and
skipping
those
in the
asterisk
position,
its diatonic scale. The asterisks
are
all blacks
in the
key
of C
only.
How
nearly
your
piano
is tuned to this
equal temperament depends
on
the tuner.
The actual
pitch
of A lies between 440 and 455 in London
nowadays,
and
seems
to be
a matter of enthusiastic
disagreement
among
musicians.
"
347
:
Combination tones.
It used to be
taught
that the
simplestpitch
ratios
(2:1,
3
: 2, etc.)produced
the best concords because numerical sim- plicity
was
charming.
Helmholtz
replaced
this dictum
by
an
explanation
in which he used the combination tones described
by
Tartini,
of
*
Devil's Sonata
'
fame. To hear these tones the
very
best
way
is to
get
two
penny
tin whistles and
paper
over
allthe
holes
except
say
the third and fourth
on
each. Now
put
both in
your
mouth at
once,
leave
only
the third holes
open,
and blow.
Whirring
beats will be
heard,
for
thoughnominally
the notes are
identical,
exact
tuning
is not to be had at the
price.
But
open
the third hole on one and the fourth
on
the
other,
and
you
will
hear
a
growl
as
if the
beats,now too fast to hear
as a tremolo,
had blended into
a note.
The
frequency
of this difference tone
is,just
like
beats,
the
difference between those of the
primary
notes between which it is
produced.
One
can
prove
this
on a harmonium, or piano
with forte
pedal
down,
by sounding
a
high
C and
G,
when the C below sounds
out,
one
being
twice and the other 3 times its
frequency.
At first
sight
it
seems
obvious that the note is blended
beats,
but beats
are
onlywaxings
and
wanings
of
a
definite
note,
and
not at all the
same
thing
as
directed
puffs
of air. Mathematical
theory,
however,
shows that there
are
several circumstances in
which notes sounded
together
can
and must
give
rise not
only
to
this
difference tone but also to
a summation tone
of
frequency
=the
sum
of the
primaries,
but
a
very
weak
tone,
seldom
actually
audible.
328 A HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS
Difference tones become feebler
as
the
primaries
get
farther
apart
in the scale.
"
348
:
Concord and discord.
Pure tones. Sound
a fork,
and its octave fork. The difference
tone is the note
itself,
and introduces
nothing
fresh. But if the
octave
is
a
little
sharp
the difference tone is
a
few vibrations
per
second above the
note,
and beats
rapidly
with
it,
and
rapid
beats set
anybody's
teeth
on
edge.
Sound,
say,
forks
F, A,
and
c,
frequencies
4,5,
6. F~A=A"v-c = l and F
~c
= 2 and the effect
is
a
string-like
tone
composed
of
1,2, 4,5,
6. But
frequencies
200
and
275,
say,
have
a difference tone
75, a
slow swell which seldom
fitsin with
either,
but
keepsdisturbing
the
ear
at
varying
intervals
before and after the
primaries.
Here is
imperfect
concord.
Compound tones.
All
ordinary
instruments
produce
notes
accompanied by
series of
overtones. This
greatly
accentuates
concords
and discords. For
instance,
in the first
case above,
ordinarily
the firsttone contains its octave as
well
(probably
much
louder than the difference
tone)
and this beats with the mistuned
octave.
And take
again,
with their harmonics
:
"
200 400 ^600 ^ 800
...
275 550^ 825^ 1100
...
There are
here small differences of 50 and 25
giving
rise to
tones,
weaker than the initial difference tone of
75 because between
overtones
only,
but
stronger
because between closer
frequencies.
Is it unreasonable to
suppose
that their low
grumbling
distracts
the
ear
and
spoils
its
appreciation
of the
two
notes,
much in the
same
way
as
the hum of conversation
spoils
one's
enjoyment
of
a
concert ?
The above is such
a
partial
account of concord and discord
as
one can
givephysically.
It is assumed
throughout
that the first
note is still
sounding
when the second is struck. Without
this,
odd
notes are
often not
unpleasant.
The Arab has evolved
a
musical
scale different from
our
diatonic
scale,and, on our
theory,
presenting
more
opportunities
for discord. The desert music
of the tent door and the
bagpipes
on
the brae
can
charm
us
by
those same
imperfect
harmonies that unfit them for the
prolonging
echoes of the aisle
or
the concert-room.
"
349. Doppler'sprincipleapplied to Sound.
The
following
numerical
example
will show how this
principle,
fullyexplained
in
"
303,
applies
to sound
:
"
VIBRATORS 329
Example
1. The whistle of
a
locomotive
travelling
56 ft.
per
sec.
emits 525
waves
per
sec.
Find
frequencies
of notes heard
by a
passen- ger,
and
by an
observer beside the line
as
the train
comes
and
goes.
The
passenger
hears the natural note. As the train
approaches
the
stationary
observer the
frequency
rises to
[1100/(1100"
56)] x
525
=
553 and
as
it recedes falls to
[1100/(
11 00
+ 56)] x
525
=
500.
This
principle comes
in with
swinging
bells,
etc., together
with
the alteration in loudness due to their
change
of
position
:
and
the reader
can supply
many
other instances for himself.
"350.
Wind.
Sound
'
carries
'
down wind
mainly
because the air
moves
faster
higher
up,
where not
impeded by
friction with the
ground,
and makes the
spreading waves overhang
and beat downwards.
Up
wind the sound lifts off the
ground
and
goes up
:
from
a
70-ft.
roof in
a
strong westerly
breeze I have heard conversation
on
the
ground-level
100
yards
east.
To
get some
idea of the distortion of sound
waves
caused
by
wind blow
on a hemispherical soap-bubble.
In
Fig.
142 the
speeds
of the wind low down and
higher
up
are
marked
as
frac-
FIG. 142.
tions of the
speed
of sound. The little
arrows are
the directions
of travel of the
wave
fronts to which
they are perpendicular.
The
good
'
carrying
'
of sounds
over
water
is
mainly a question
of the absence of obstacles and the wind eddies
they cause.
The
exaggeration
of sounds in the
night
may
be ascribed to the
surrounding
silence.
330 A HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS
EXAMPLES." CHAPTER XXXVII
2. How would
you
determine whether
any
of the notes of
a
bell
were
harmonics
? [L.]
3.
Knowing
that 10 to 20 beats
per
second sound
unpleasant,
explain
whether
you
would rather hear,
on a piano, a
note whose
fundamental is 264
quickly
followed
by
440
or
470.
4.
Explain why note of
cycle-bell
differs when
approaching
and
receding. [L]m.
5. A
person
hears the whistle of
an approaching
train. Two notes
of different
pitch
are,
however, heard,
one
being
due to
reflection of
sound from
a bridge beyond
the train.
Explain why
the notes
heard
are
not of the
same pitch,
and show how to calculate what the alteration
in
pitch amounts to. [L]m.
6. At what
speed
of
approach
would
a
whistle in D be
sharpened
to
E and at what
speed
of
departure
would it be lowered to C ?
7. It is said that in
a
tunnel sounds
are
heard best
up
wind. Give
a
possible explanation.
8. What is meant by
the
quality
of
a
musical note ? How is the
difference between sounds of fork and violin
string
accounted for ?
332 A HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS
quitedefinitely enough
with
a stick,
and its
edge spreads
very
hazily
indeed when
a
thin cloud blurs the
sun.
In
Fig.
143,
L is
a
broad
source
of
light
and 0 a
circular obstacle.
Into the
space
PQZ no
light
from L enters at
all,
here is the dark
umbra,
to
an
eye
placed
in it L is
quiteeclipsed.
Outside the
space
RPQS
there is
no
shadow at
all,
but to
an
eye
in the inter- mediate
spaces
ZPR and
ZQS,
L is visible in
part
behind
0,
and
the
penumbral
shadow here
graduallydeepens
towards the umbra,
On
a screen
in the dotted
position
there is
a
central
uniformly
dark umbra surrounded
by
a
penumbra fading
tillit vanishes.
Beyond
Z the shadow is all
penumbra,
0
appears
smaller than
L and
can never cover it
entirely ;
such is
a
little
far-away
cloud
or
tree in front of the
setting
sun.
The little
patches
behind the
eyes
show the fractions of L
they
can see.
The total
brightness
in the shadow at each
eye
is
proportional
to the
apparent
area
of the visible
patch,
e.g.
the
lowest
eye
on
the left is in rather
deep shadow,
the lowest
on
the
righthardly
shaded at
all,
but isfarther from L.
NOTE. " Of
course
all shadow is
a
question
of
contrast. When
the
sun
peeps
out it is not darker in the
new
'
shadows
'
than it
was
before.
"
353. In the Pinhole Camera
straight
rays
from
lighted
objects
pass
through
a
small hole and
form, on a
platebeyond,
an
inverted
picture
of them. For the
light
that each
part
of the
plategets
from the
one
small
patch
of the
object's
surface
facing
it
through
the hole is
proportional
to the
brightness
of that
surface,
and hence the
light
and shade and colour of the
object
are
reproduced.
A small hole in
a card,
and
a candle
flame,
enable
one to show
that the
shape
of the hole does not matter
much
:
the
sun
shining
through
the
irregular
gaps
in
foliage
throws rounded
patches
on
the
ground.
The roundness of the dots in
a
'
half-tone block
'
is due to the
same cause.
Half
an
inch in front of the
plate
in the
camera
is
a screen
ruled with
opaque
cross
lines,
about 120
per
inch,
leaving
of
course
square
transparent
spaces.
But the
lightcoining
through
each of these forms
an
image
of the
bright
round window
of the
camera,
the lens. For
some
purposes
the
shape
of the
dots is varied
by putting
a
square
or
cross-shaped stop
in the lens.
Too
large
a
hole
causes
*
penumbral
'
haze,
but
a
very
small
hole also
gives
a
hazy picture.
This is
inexplicable
from the
RAYS AND SHADOWS. PHOTOMETRY 333
'
straight-ray
'
theory,
but is to
be
expected
from the train of
waves
of limited
length
which constitutes the
ray
on
the
wave
theory
of
light,"
295.
Using
a
pinhole
whose diameter is
one
three-hundredth its
distance from the
plate,
one can
obtain
photographs
which
softly
but
clearly
define
everythingbeyond
an
inch from the
pinhole,
and
give
a more
pleasingsolidity
in the
stereoscope
than do
sharper
lens
photographs.
PHOTOMETRY
"
354. In these
days
of the
'
rapiddry-plate
'
and
nights
of
high-pressure
gas
and flame
arcs,
when tinder-box and snuffers
are
prized
'
antiques
'
and
a
farthing rushlight
is not to
be had for
a
sovereign,
we
all take
some
interest in
Photometry,
the
measure- ment
of the
brightness
of
lighting
or
the
'
intensity
of illumina- tion.'
It is the useful illumination of
a
surface
that is in
question.
When
a
surface
squarely
faces
a
'
standard candle
'
one
foot
away
it is said to be litwith unit
intensity
"
one
'
candle-foot.'
A
lamp
that,
put
in
place
of the
candle,
litthe surface
equally
brightly
would be said
to be of
one
candle-power(1 c.p.).
A
lamp
that at 1 ft.
lights
a
surface with
intensity
50 candle-feet
and would
require
the
(theoretically)
concentrated
light
of
50 candles to
replaceit,
is of 50
c.p.
The intrinsic brilliance of
a
lamp,
i.e.its
candle-power
per
square
centimetre of
flame,etc.,
does not
concern us
here.
(See
iation.)
"
355. The law of inverse
squares.
In the board 1 ft.from the candle
(Fig.144,
top)
cut a 3-in.
square
hole and hold
up
behind it another board twice
as
far from
the candle.
Lighttravelling
in
straight
lines
through
the hole
marks out
a
brightpatch
twice
as
broad and twice
as
high
as
the
hole,or
4 times its
area
;
at 3 ft. it is
'
thinned out
'
over
9 times the
area
and
so on.
Hence it would take
a
9-c.p.lamp
to
give
a
brightness
of 1 candle-foot at 3 ft.
Thus the
brightness of
illumination
of
a
surface
is
inversely
proportional
to the
square
of
its distance
from
the
source
oflight.*
cf.
"
291.
CAUTION. " The
source must not be broad
compared
with the
distance,or the law fails
;
the
diagrambecoming
confused like
*
Hence the Continental unit 1 candle-metre is almost
exactly
one-
tenth of the British 1 candle-foot.
334 A HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS
Fig.
143. A
printing
frame is not
quite
4 times
as
well lit
at 3 in.
as
at 6 in. from
a
gas
mantle. A sunlit whitewashed wall sends
nearly
as
bright
a
light
to
your
book at
a
yard
away
as at a
foot.
"
356
: The Cosine Law.
Hold
a
card to face the
light.
Turn it
obliquely,
as
in
Fig.
144
(left),
the shadow it throws
gradually
narrows
" to
nothing
when the card is
c
edge
on.'
Simultaneously
the
lighting
of its
K
FIG. 144.
surface decreases " also to zero.
The amount of
light
the card
retains is
proportional
to the width of its
shadow,
i.e. to the
cosine of the
angle
of incidence of the
light,
i. This amount
has
to be
spread
over
the whole
surface,
and hence Lambert's cosine
law " the
brightness of
illumination
of
a
surface
is
proportional
to the cosine
of
the
angleof
incidence
of
the
light.
The
converse
is
fairlytrue,
the
intensity
of radiation in
any
direction from
an
extended luminous surface is
proportional
to the
cosine of the
angle
between that direction and the normal
;
the vectors in
Fig.
144
(right)
show the
intensity
of radiation in
their directions. But the
apparent
area
of the surface
seen
obliquely
diminishes in
just
the
same
proportion.
Therefore
it
appears
equallybright
in all
directions,
foreshortening
of
area
compensating
reduced emission. For in
Fig.
144
(middle)
BQ
= BZ
cos
i and breadth AC=AB
cos
i. A sheet of
paper
RAYS AND SHADOWS. PHOTOMETRY 335
illustrates
this,
but
glazed
paper
and
highangles
must be avoided.
This also is the
explanation
of
a
lamp globeappearingmerely
a
flat luminous disc. A flat flame is not
a
surface.
"
357. Taken
together
these laws
give
Brightness
of illumination
(in candle-feet)
=
candle-power
of
.
source x cosine of angle
of incidence on surface :
square
of
its distance in feet
I=~2cos
/
and for
perpendicular
incidence
(/=0)cos
/=!.
The standard illuminant.
The standard of
candle-power
is the Vernon Harcourt
Lamp,
which burns
a
regulatedsupply
of
vapour
of
pentane (a
very
volatile
petrol)
in
a
well-ventilated
room,
and is
legally equivalent
to ten times the
"
Standard
sperm-candle
"
now
obsolete.
"
358. Photometers.
Look at the
moon
and
guess
how
many
candles at a
foot she
appears
equivalent
to.
Set
an
inexperienced
amateur to
photo- graph
an
'
interior
'
without
any exposure
guide.
Catch
chequered
sunshine
on a
paper
and
say
how
many
times
brighter
is the
sunlit
part
than the shaded. Then look at the end of this
chapter:
do we
agree
?
But the
eye
can
judge
ivhen two illuminations become
equal(with
a
little
practice,
within 1
%)
and this is the
foundationof
all
Photometers.
These
are
the instruments used in
comparing
the
candle-powers
of
sources
of
light.
Some few
are
described in
"
359.
For
accuracy,
in all
photometers
:
"
(a)
The two illuminated
patches
on
the
'
screen
'
must touch
each other
along
a
line
quite
fine and
sharp.
(b)
No other illumination whatever should be in
sight
to
distract the
eye.
(c)
All
stray
reflected
or
day light
must be excluded from the
screen.
Then when each
patch
islit
solely by
its
own
lamp,
and receives
its
light
at the
same
angle(90"
in
most)
. , c.p.
of 1st
lamp c,
L of 1st
patch
=
.-^7-
.0
. ,.;"
"
-rz
(distance)
2
of ditto
d^
c.p.
of 2nd
lamp
c9
I2
of 2nd
patch
=
,-^~ ^r= A
(distance)
2
of ditto
d22
336 A HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS
and when the
lamps
have been moved
to and fro tillthe
patches
appear
equallybright
The
candle-powers
are
directly
as the
squares
of
the distances
of
the
lampsfrom
the
'
screen.'
"
359.
Photometers, a
few
patterns.
Rumford
;
so-called
'
Shadow,'
Fig.
145
(R).
The
patches
are
produced
as
the shadows of
a rod
standing
in front of
a
white
wall,
each shadow of
course
being
lit
by
the other
lamp only.
It
is
a domestic contrivance
; equally
broad shadows
mean
equal
FIG. 145.
anglesi,
which is
necessary;
they
should
just
touch each other
;
the
brighterlight
on
the rest of the wall is
a
hindrance. It is
lessaffected
by straylight
than other
patterns.
Ritchie
wedge.
A dead- white card is bent to a
rightangle
and
put
in the
straight
line
joining
the two
lamps
with each face at
45".
In the modern
flicker
photometers
this
screen
is in various
ingenious
ways
oscillated
sideways
about
seven
times
a
second
so
that the
eye
sees
alternately
its
right
and leftfaces and
equality
is obtained when
*
flicker
'
ceases.
These
are
easy
to
use,
but often
disagree
with the usual
patterns
from
some
physiological
cause.
RAYS AND SHADOWS. PHOTOMETRY 337
Bunsen, Fig.
145,
B. The
screen,
at
rightangles
to the line
joining
the
lamps,
is made
locally
translucent and
adjusted
till
the translucent
part
is neither
brighter
nor
darker than the
opaque,
and
*
disappears/
The
translucency
means
that most
of the
light
from the
right
passes
through
and is
lost,
and its
place
has to be taken
by
an
equal
amount of
lightcomingthrough
from
the left.
Of translucent
spots
the worst ismade
by
a
greasy
dirtyfinger,
the best is
printed
on
clean soft white
printing
paper
by
a
clean
hot metal disc rubbed with white
wax,
and is
ring-
or star-
shaped.
The
mean
of
readings
taken
on
both sides of the
screen must be
used.
In the
Lummer-Brodhun
the
screen
is
a
white
plasterplate
in
a
box shown in
plan
at
Fig.
145,
L. The box is
put
in
place
of
the Bunsen
screen.
Two
right-angled prisms
are
squeezed
in
contact with each other
except
over
cut-out
patches
of their
surface. An
eye
looking
as
shown
sees
the
right
side of
plate
reflected in the
right
mirror
through
the
prisms,
while the
cut-away
patchestotally
reflect
light
from the left side of
plate,
via the left
mirror.
Brightnesses
are
equalized.
Abney's
photometer
does not
employ
the
photometric
laws,
but
depends
on
retinal
persistence,
a
distinct
physiological
principle.
The
lamps
are
fixed
equidistant
from,
say,
a
Eitchie
wedge.
In each distance is
a
rapidlyrotatingdisc-shutter,
having
sectors cut out of
it,
which when wide
open
are
quadrants,
but
can
be closed
gradually
while the discs
are
spinning.
When
the
screen
halves
are
equal
the discs
are
stopped,
and the
angular
width of
sectors
open
is read. If
only
10" on one
let
through
as
much
light
as
80"
on
the
other,
its
lamp
was
8 times
brighter.
With
practice,
it is not difficultto
equate
within 2
%
or less
lights
of
very
differentcolours.
"
360. One candle-foot is reckoned
justadequate
for
reading
fair
print
at
night;
less is bad. Much
more
is wanted for
small work
presenting
less clear
contrasts,
e.g.
sewing.
During
the
greaterpart
of
an
average
brightday
the vertical
illumination
on a book
lying
flat
on
the table in the middle of
a
fairlylight
room
will be
something
like 20
candle-feet,
while
outdoors it is
20,000
and often more.* No wonder
one
is blind
on
coming
indoors
suddenly
after
sunlight.
Sunlight
varies,one
hour at Aden has been found
equivalent
22
338 A HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS
to 48 hours' winter sunshine in Manchester. A white cloud
may
be several times
brighter
than blue
sky.
The Moon is obliterated
by
the
daylightsky
and is therefore
less than
a
hundred-thousandth of
good daylight.
At full
it
giveson a
surface
facing
it,
according
to
my
measurements,
about the illumination of
a
candle at 14
ft.,
say ^^
candle-foot.
*
Evidently
actual
excess
of
illuminating
power
is not
likely
to be the
cause
of the occasional
complaint
that
an
artificial
light
is
'too
bright.'
But
Contrast,
difficult to avoid in artificial
lighting,
vexes
the
eye
exceedingly.
We have measured the iris
and found it
more
contracted when
looking
at
a
bare
glow-lamp
than at the
same
lamp
with
a
white card behind
it,though
in
the latter
case
the
eye
is
receivingnearly
double the
light.
EXAMPLES." CHAPTER XXXVIII
1.
Explain
the
production
of luminous
images by
means
of
a screen
having
a
small
aperture
and state the considerations which would
influence
you
in
choosing
size of
aperture.
How would
you
determine
the distance of
an
inaccessible luminous
object
of known size
by
means
of the
pinhole
camera ?
[L.]
2. Define
intensity
of illumination. How can
it be shown
experi- mentally
that the
intensity
of illumination due to
a
small
source
of
light
varies
inversely
as
the
square
of the distance ?
[L.]
3. How would
carry
out
experiments
to test the laws of illumina- tion
?
[L]m.
4. Describe
a
practicalphotometer
and state the chief
precautions
for
accuracy
in its
use. [L.]
5.
Explain
how to find the variations of the
intensity
of
an
electric
light
due to
changes
in the current.
[L.]
6.
How,
by
aid of
a photometer,
would
you
show that
light
is
partly
absorbed in
passing through tracing-paper,
and how determine ratio
of
light
absorbed to
light
transmitted ?
[L]m.
7.
Explain
how the variation of the illumination due to
a
small
source with the distance
can
be determined
experimentally
without
assuming
the inverse
square
law.
[L.]
8. An
8-c.p.
and
a 16-c.p. lamp are
24 in.
apart.
Where, on
the
line
joining them,
do
they give equal
intensities of illumination ?
9. At what
angle
must
light
from
a 50-c.p. lamp
5 ft.
away
strike
the wall to
give an
illumination of 1 candle-foot ?
340 A HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS
increase
by
twice
as
much. See dotted
lines,
Fig.
146. For in- stance,
the reflections from the facets of
a
cut-glass
tumbler
move
round
on
the tablecloth twice
as
fast
as
the
glass
is turned.
This
gives
an
excellent
way
of
measuring
small
angular
motions
such
as occur
in delicate
galvanometers,
etc.
A small
mirror,
Fig.
146,
reflectsthe
image
of
a
divided scale into
a
telescope,
which is
fixed and therefore defines the direction of the reflected
ray.
When the mirror
moves
the scale
appears
to
move,
the
ray
from
s
is reflected
away
and s'
comes
in
sight,
where sms' is twice
angular
motion of mirror. If all the
angles
are small,
angular
motion =
|
diff.of scale
readings
-!-distance
from mirror to scale.
If
a
lamp
is used it stands behind
a narrow
slitin
place
of the
telescope,
and
a
reflected
spot
of
light
moves
from
s to
s'. The
mirror is
concave
("395)
with radius
"
distance of
lamp
and scale.
In the
optical
lever M is stuck
on a
littlebar
(dotted
in
fig.)
which has
a
pin-point
foot at each end and
a
pair
in the
middle,
and stands
on
three of them
on a
fixed
plate.
The thin
object
of
thickness t to be
found
is
put
under the middle feet and tiltsthe
mirror
throughangle"-f-Jlength
of
bar=J
scale
diff.-f- distance.
Hence t.
"
363
:
In the Sextant
(Fig.147)
a
small
telescope
T looks
through
the clear half
(upper,
nearest
reader)
of the
'
horizon
FIG. 147.
glass
'
H at one
object,
and also receives
a
ray
by
reflection in the
silvered lower half of H from the
'
index mirror
'
I,
whither it
comes
from another
object.
When I and H
are
parallel (B
at
extreme
right, readingzero)
these
rays
are
parallel
and start from
the
same
distant
source,
but when the
swinging
index bar B
REFLECTION AND REFRACTION 341
carrying
I is moved round the
graduated
frame F to which
H and T
are fixed,
the
ray
SI turns
through
double the
angle.
The
angle
SIH',
e.g.
the altitude of
a
star,
is therefore obtained
by moving
I round tillthe reflectedstar
appears
on
the
horizon,
and in
general,
the
angular
distance between two
objectsby
making
one
apparently overlap
the other.
On
land,
where the horizon is
obstructed,
the reflectionof the
star
in the level surface of oil
or
mercury
('
artificialhorizon
')
is
sighted
instead,
and
now
the
angle
measured when star
and its
reflectionlieside
by
sideisdouble itsaltitude. For ES and RS'
are
parallel,
RE makes the
same angle
with the horizontal
as RS',
/.
SER=2A.
For convenience the sextant's
graduations
are
figured
double.
The
diagram
shows the fine
adjustment
screw
and
magnifying
glass
for the vernier which reads to 10
sec.
of
arc.
The
sun
is
being
observed
through
the dark
glasses
d which
can
be turned
out of the
way,
as are d',
when not
required.
"364.
The reflected
image
in
a plane
mirror.
Somehow
one
always
thinks of Echo
as a
spritedwelling
at
the
very
margin
of the
mockingwoods,
but in
a
looking-glass
one
sees
the
image
some
distance behind the surface. What distance ?
In
Fig.148,
E
sees
the
object
0 reflected
along
ME where
angles
at M
are
equal.
E'
(the
left
eye
say)
sees
it
along
E'M' where
angles
at M'
are
equal.
Consequently
it
must
appear
to be at I where these direc- tions
cross,
and the reader
easily
proves
that I is
on
the
perpendicular
OP
produced
as
far behind the mirror
as
the
object
isin front.
Having
no
real existence it is described
as a virtual
image
and
its
apparent
distance is
actuallyjudgedby
the
means
described
in
"
444,
for
a
single
line
OME
gives
no information
as to the
distance of I. These
means soon
fail. You
never
thought
of the
moon's reflection
as 100,000
miles
or more
below the
pond.
Treatingsimilarly
other
points
0'
on a
solid
object
the
image
is found to be
equal
in size but
'
laterally
reversed
'
i.e.
upside
down
only
or
leftfor
rightonly,
not both
together.
FIG. 148.
342 A HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS
"
365
: Multiple
reflections in
parallelmirrors.
Sitting
in
a
tea-room between
parallel
mirrors
on
opposite
walls
one sees
vistas of
rooms
fading
off each
way
into
green
distance,
and the waiter
standingfacingopposite
ways
in
suc- cessive
rooms.
His back is reflected in X
;
his
face,
the visible
frame of mirror
X,
and its contained reflection of his
back, are
all mirrored in Y
|
then mirror Y and all these contents
are
reflected in
X,
and
so on.
Draw
(Fig.149) parallels
at
equal
distances XY and
a
per- pendicular
to them
through
the
object
B. Then mark off the
images
in two
series,
thus
:
"
X series
:
BX in X
;
then itsreflectionBXY in
Y,
as
far behind
Y
as
BX is in front
;
then its reflection BXYX in X and
so on.
Y series
:
BY in Y
;
its reflection BYX in X
;
BYXY in Y
and
so on.
[Suffix
a
letterfor each
reflection.]
Then
a
ray
which has been reflected twice
on
its
way
to the
eye
isobtained
by joining
BXY and
eye
;
but BXY isBX reflected
in
Y, .'.
from where the line meets Y draw to
BX,
and
similarly
from where this meets X draw to B. This is for the twice-reflected
image
seen
by looking
into Y. For the twice-reflected
image
seen
in X
draw from
eye
to
BYX, BY,
B.
One of the two thrice-reflected
rays
from BYXY is
shown,
via
BYX, BY,
B.
[NOTE.
" The
image
is
seen by looking
in the mirror whose
letter stands last in the
string
of suffixes
;
this
stringdrops
the
last letter
as
each reflectionis
'
undone
'
; angles
of incidence and
reflection
are
equalthroughout
the
ray.]
"
366
:
Inclined mirrors.
If the mirrors
are
slightly
inclined to each other the
images
are seen
to lie
on a
circular
arc
whose centre is where all the
now
radiating
'
mirrors
'
run
in to meet. In either mirror the
images
now
go
out of
sight
round the
corner.
You draw back
to
the
outer end and
go
close to
the
glass
to see as
far round
as
possible,
but
you
now
find
a
limit to
their number.
If
you
wish to know
anything
at all about this
subject
of
inclined mirrors
you
must
actuallyget
two
good-sizedpieces
of
looking-glass (unhitch
a
couple
of bedroom mirrors from their
supports),
set
them
parallel,put
an
object
between
them,
gradually
turn them
so
that their
straightedges
close
together,
and
continuing,
open
to
any
angle.Compare
what
you
see
with
your
own
figures,
which
you
draw with
anglesgradually
increased
REFLECTION AND REFRACTION
343
from
parallelism.
Draw first the succession of
equally
inclined
1
mirrors,'
then
plant
out the two series of
images,always
in
the
same fashion,
except
that
now
the
straight
line has curved
round into
a
circle centred at the
point
whence all the mirrors
radiate.
XYX
C3
FIG. 149.
FIG. 150.
FIG. 151.
344 A HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS
You should also dissect
a
toy kaleidoscope.
A
diagram
for inclination 80" is drawn in
Fig.
150.
Images
X,Y,
and XY
are
visible to an
eye
anywhere,
and
are
all that
are
visible to the lower
eye.
An
eye
above the line
joining
YX to
the
corner, produced,
sees
also YX in X, XYX is
so
far round that
to
see
it at all the
eye
must be
very
close to mirror X and then
it is
seen
very
close to the
angle
which
probably
cuts off the view
of
part
of it. The actual
path
has been drawn in" from
upper
eye
to
XYX,
from where this cuts X to
XY,
from where this cuts
Y to
X,
from where this
cuts X to
object.
YXY cannot
possibly
be
seen
by looking
into
Y,
i.e.it cannot
be
seen
at all.
Any diagrammaticattempt
to construct
a
line
of
sight
to itwill end in
unequalangles
of incidence and refraction
;
try
it. Hence both series
stop
short of the first
image
which has
worked round far
enough
to lie
out
in front of the mirror whose
letter ends its
name
;
the line
joining
this
image
to the
eye
cannot
possibly
appear
to
come
from that mirror.
As the inclination increases to 90" the
failing
XYX
passes
out of
sight
behind the
angle
and YX and XY
join,
to
appear
as
only
one
image lying
across
the
angle.
The
part
of the
image
seen
in X is
YX and the remainder
seen
in Y is XY.
If the 90" is exact these
join
without
a break,
but in
Fig.
151 the mirrors
are
opened
to
92" and
an
eye
in the
position
shown
sees
the combined
image
being
crushed
out,
for it
can see
nothing
of XY
in
X and
nothing
of YX in Y.
Note that the thick line of mirrors in
Figs.150,
149,
151
divides
*
real
'
from
'
imaginary
'
space.
"
367. Laws of refraction. Part of
the
light
that falls
on
the surface of
a
transparent
substance
(or
*
medium
')
passes
into
it,
but in
so
doing
becomes
suddenly
bent from its
course.
In
terms of
rays,
the laws of this
'
refrac- tion
'
are :
"
I. The incident
ray,
normal to
sur- face,
and
refracted
ray,
liein
one
'plane.
[The angles
made
on
opposite
sides
of the normal
by
the
ray
before and
after
refraction,
called the
angles
of incidence and
refraction,
must be measured
by
their
sines,
then
:
"
]
FIG. 152.
REFLECTION AND REFRACTION 345
II. Ratio
of
sine
ofangleof
incidence to sine
of angleof refrac- tion
is
constant,
and is called the
Refractive
Index
of
the
second substance with
respect
to
the
first.
Graphically(Fig.152)
describe
a
circle about the
point
where
ray
meets surface. Draw
normal,
and draw
AD,
CE
parallel
to
surface. Then
AD/AO
=
sine
i,
CE/CO=sine r,
CO=AO.
sine i AD
.'.
-;
=
7^=
=
a,
the refractiveindex.
sine r
CE
(Bending
is towards normal
on
entering
more
refractive
medium.)
These laws have
already
been derived from the
wave theory
in
"298,
where
/x=ratio
of
speed
in
firstmedium to
speed
in second.
On the older
theory
which
supposed
the emission
of
elastic
particles
from the
source
of
light,
reflection
was
a
bounce off the
surface,
while
refraction
was
explained
as
due to an
attraction exerted
on
the
particles by
the second
medium, as
they approached
it,
which increased their
velocity
downward without
affecting
it
horizontally,
i.e.
on
the whole the
speed
in- creased.
Foucault's direct
experimentalproof
that
light
travelled slower in water
(/x=
than in air
upset
this and
agreed
with the wave or
'
undulatory/
theory. "
481.
Some Refractive Indices relative to
air
are
Flint
glass(dense)
1-72
"
1-62
Crown
glass
(common) ....
1-52
Rock salt 1-54
Fluorite 1-43
Ice 1-307
Media with
high
indices are
spoken
of as
'
optically
dense.'
The Sine Law
can
be tested
as
in
Fig.
153. The
rectangle
is
a
block of
glasslying
on a
drawing-board(ortrough
of
water
standing
beside
a
board).
0
js
a
scratch. Mark
on
board the
FIG. 153.
Realgar
2-45
Diamond 2-42
Phosphorus
2-16
Mono-brom-
naphthalene
.1-66
Canada balsam .1-53
Glycerine
1-47
Carbon
disulphide
.1-65
Ethyl
benzoate 1-51
Benzene 1-50
Alcohol 1-36
Water
. .
.1-33
346 A HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS
surface XY and ONZ
perpendicular.Sight
0 and stick in
pins
pp',qq',etc.,along
various lines of
sight.
Draw
p'p,
PA,
etc.,AO,
etc.,
and where PA
produced
meets NO
put
letterM.
AMN is
an
angle
of
incidence,
sine i=
AN/AM.
AON is
corresponding angle
of
refraction,
sine
r=AN/AO.
.'.
/x=AO/AM,
and
BO/BM', etc.,
should
givesame
result.
[This
is
an alternative
way
to
Fig.
152 of
performing
the sine
construction.]
"
368.
Apparent
reduction of
depth
in refractive media.
In
Fig.
153 two close lines
Q,
R will cut at
I,
light
from 0
appears
to
reach the
eyes
from
I,
which is therefore its
'
virtual
image.'
Looking nearlyvertically
down,
with both
eyes
to
judge
dis- tance
("364),along
ZN and
Ss,
C is the
position
of the
image
of
0
and the
apparent depth
SC is
onlyI///,
the real
depth
SO
or NO.
A
glass
block
appears
only
two-thirds itstrue
depth
and
water
onlythree-quarters ;
stand
shoulder-deep
in it and look down
at
yourself.
A
poleslanting
into
water will
appear
bent
upwards
for
all
parts
of it under water
appear
lifted
up.
Looking obliquely
I is much
nearer
the surface. The shallow
bottom of the
pond
appears
impassable,
but sinks down under
your
boat
to
reappear
just
as
shallow
a
few
yards
astern.
"369:
Successive parallellayers
of different indices.
When
a
ray passes
from medium
//j
to medium
//2
its refraction
takes
placeaccording
to sine
angle
in
(1)/sineangle
in
(2)=/x2//xl5
which is the Index
of(2)
relativeto
(1)(e.g.
water
4/3,glass3/2,
water-glass9/8).
Further refraction into
a third medium is
governedby
sine
new
angle
in
(2)/sineangle
in
(3)=//3/^2
and
so on.
If
successive
surfaces
are
parallel
both
angles
in each
layer
are
equal(alternate angles)
and the whole refraction
becomes
sine
angle
in
(1)
sine
(2) .
_
pz /x,
"
7
"
t(\\
"*" "
/o\
v/uv^.
^ ^ til/O.
sine angle
in
(2)
sine
(3)
^ //2
or
sine
first angle/sine
last
angle=fj. lastj^ first
the final direction
dependsonly
on
the first and last media and
is the same
however
many
different
parallellayers
the
light
has
traversed.
[This
will
probably
appear
plainer
if
one
recollects
that
n
is the ratio of
wave-velocities.]
Light
therefore
resumes
its
original
direction after
passing
through
a
parallel-faced
sheet of
glass,
and this must
always
be
348 A HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS
elevation which is too low to
escape
this hot air therefore bends
'
away
from the normal
'
and reaches the
eye
as
if it
came
from
a
lower
point,
such
as
A' instead of
A,
Fig. 155,
while
rays
FIG. 155.
venturing^still
lower and
getting
into hotter strata
may
become
so oblique
that
at last
they
suffer total reflection
("373)
at the
lowest and hottest
layers
and reach the
eye
as
if from
B',
etc.
"
372. The Prism.
Looking through
a
triangular prism (e.g.
the
'
lustre
'
from
a
Victorian
vase) objects
appear
lifted
up
towards the
narrow end,
the
refracting angle,
of the
wedge.
That
is,lightpassingthrough
a
plate(of higher
refractive
index)
whose sides are not
parallel
has been
permanently
deviated
'
towards the thick end.' The amount can
be found
by applying
s
FIG. 156.
Fig.
152 to both faces in
turn,
but when the
light
passes sym- metrically
the deviation
proves
to be least"
a minimum deviation,
D " and from
Fig.
156
from
triangle PQR, angle
x=
JD
"
QRS
"
o=|A=
Lr in
glass
anglesx-\-o= angle
PQS=
external
L
i in air.
sine i
_
sine
-|(A-f D)
" P
~
sine
r
~~
sine i^
REFLECTION AND REFRACTION 349
NOTE. " For
a
very
thin
prism
this reduces to D
=
(/x"1)A
since small
anglesapproximately"
their sines
(cf." 300).
And
it
now
makes
no
significant
difference whether the
light
passes
symmetrically
or not.
"
373. Total Reflection.
In
"
299 we saw
that
waves
travelling practically parallel
to the
surface of
a
slower medium send into it
waves
at
a
sharpangle.
Or in
rays,
when
Fig.
152 has become
Fig.
157
(thickline)
the
ray
AO at
'
grazing
incidence
'
is refracted
along
00 where
or
sine 90"
=
l=jn
sine
r or
sine
r
=!///.
A
ray
FO cannot
pass
back
through
the
surface,
for
exceeds the radius AO or
JM
sine
r
exceeds
1,
which it is
impossible
for sine i to do.
CON the critical
angle
has therefore its
sine=l-f-//,
of medium
(relative
to
lighter).Any
ray
which
attempts
to
pass
out of the
FIG. 157. FIG. 159. FIG. 158.
heavier medium
more
obliquely
than the critical
angle
cannot do
so,
but is
totally
reflected back from the surface
according
to the
ordinary
laws of reflection.
This
accounts for the brilliance of the under side of the water
350 A HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS
surface in
a tumbler,
the
silvery
look of air bubbles in
liquids,
or cracks in
glass
or
ice
; light
in the dense substance
happens
to
strike the crack
or
bubble too
obliquely
and is
reflectedfrom it.
The reflectionisnot
absolutely
total
("299),
but often exceeds
99
%
even
for surfaces which fall short of
perfect
smoothness
and cleanliness.
Mercury poured
into
a
test-tube
dipping
under
water
appears
less brilliant than the air-filled
part.
A littlewater
on
top
of the
mercury
apparently
cuts the tube in halves.
The lustre of
a
cut diamond is due to the abundant total
re- flections
from the facets at
the
back,
resulting
from the small
critical
angle.
The insides of the backs of
glassprisms
are
total
reflectorsfor
rays
striking
them at incidence
greater
than
41J".
Different
ways
of
using
a
right-angled prism
are
drawn in
Fig.
158
;
(i)
is
reflecting skylightvertically
down,
(ii)
is used
by photo-
engravers*
to
laterally
reverse
process
negatives, (iii)
is
put
in front of
a
magic
lantern to erect
the
picture
on
the
screen,
(iv)
is used in
prismatic binoculars,
and
(v)
answers
question
21.
Fig.159,
in which the
angles
are
accurate,
shows that
a
fish
might
see
in the calm surface the whole
sky
and
landscape(badly
flattened)
in
a
circular
picture
97" in
diameter,
framed in reflected
pond
bottom.
"
374. Visibility
and
invisibility.
A self-luminous
object
is
visible,
but most
objectsdepend
on
obstructing, bending,
and
reflecting light
from
without,
and
so
producing
contrasts.
Everyone
knows the
protective
in- visibility
of birds and animals in their natural
surroundings,
but
we mean more
than this.
'
Clear
'
water,
a
sheet of
'
clear
'
glass,
or a
good
mirror
may
show the reflected
images
of
objects(and
often leads from
experience
to
a
suspicion
of its
presence),
but is itself invisible.
We have all blundered into such surfaces.
Smash
the
glass,
and the
fragments
are
visible
by
their
varying
refractions
and total
reflections,
the most visible
part
of a
chip
depending
on
the direction it is viewed in.
'
Grind
'
its surface
or
powder
its
fragments
and the multitude of reflections from
scratches
or
grainsflings lightpractically equally
in all directions.
A cloud is
a swarm
of
droplets ;
froth,
of bubbles
; snow,
of
crystals ; paper
and
fabrics,
of fibres. Each individual,
under
the
microscope,
is
perfectly pellucid,
but
light
incident
on
the
*
With whom it is the fashion to silver the
prism
face. This
merely
protects
it from the
atmosphere
and
keeps
it clean.
REFLECTION AND REFRACTION 351
innumerable and
irregularly placed
swarm
suffers
so
many
local
and
.differently
aimed reflections, etc.,
that it is scattered
(or
'
irregularly
reflected
')equally
in all
directions,
i.e.the
object
is
equally
visiblein all directions.
Similarlylightgets
through
them,
but
irregularly, they
are
translucent.
The face of
pressed
paper
has been
so
far flattened that it shows
much
nearlyregular
reflectionor
gloss, especially
very
obliquely.
Polishingglass
and metals is
a
process
of
making
finer and
finer scratches until all
are
much
smaller than the
wave length
of
light.
Reduce refraction,
and reflection isreduced also. Ice has
nearly
the
same
refractive index
as water,
and in water its outline
nearlydisappears
while itscontained air bubbles remain
extremely
visible. A
glass
rod is
more
refractive
and not
so
invisibleas
the
ice in
water,
but in
ethyl
benzoate
or
oil of cedar it
utterly
disappears.
Oiled silk and oiled
ground glass
are nearly
transparent.
It is difference in refractive index at
irregular
interfaces that
produces
the well-known visible
streaming
of hot air in
cold,
of
petrol
vapour
in
air,
of
whisky
in
water,
etc.
Opacity helpsvisibility ; directly,
as
in
threading
a
needle
against
the
light,
or
in
obscuring
the reflection from white
paper
(Indian
ink
v.
watery
ink)
;
or
indirectly by letting
less
light
leak
through
and
so
maintainingreflecting
power
(contrast
clearness of
printing
on
heavy
opaque
white
paper
and
on
tracingpaper);
and also
by casting
shadows.
Colour is
a
selective
opacity("420),
its
utility
in
producing
contrast needs
no comment here.
Uniform illumination in alldirections
destroys
all contrast and
causes invisibility.
Take
one instance,
striking though
very
im- perfectly
conditioned
; floating
dust
enough
to make an
indoor
sunbeam look solid is invisiblein the broad
daylight
outdoors.
EXAMPLES." CHAPTER XXXIX
3. State the laws of reflection and refraction of
light
rays
and
explain
how
they
can
be
accurately
verified
experimentally. [L.]
4. State the laws of reflection and
prove
that the
image
is
as
far
behind the
plane
mirror
as
the
object
is in front.
[L.]
5. Prove that the
angular
convergence
or divergence
of
a
pencil
of
light
is unaltered
by
reflection in
a
plane
mirror.
[L]m.
352 A HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS
6. How would
you arrange
mirrors to illuminate the
larynx
from
a
lamp
behind the head ?
[L]m.
7.
Investigate
the Rule that the number of
images
visible in inclined
mirrors is 360" -~
angle
of inclination.
8. Define the refractive index of
a substance,
and
explain
how that
of
a
liquidcan
be measured.
[L]m.
9. Show how the
bending
of
a
ray
of
light passing
from air into
a
liquid
is accounted for
on the
wave theory.
What
meaning
has the
refractive index
on
this
theory
?
[St. A]m.
10. Show that the
depth
of
a liquid
is
always greater
than it
appears
to be and
prove
that it is at least the refractive index times
greater. [L]m.
11.
Why on
looking vertically
into
a pond
does
depth
appear
only
three-quarters
? If
eye
were
in
water,
how would
apparent
distance of
object
in air be affected
by
the water ?
[M.]
12. Show that
a
thick mirror of
glass (M 1-5)
silvered
on
back
reflects
normally
incident
light
like
a
metal mirror one-third thickness
of
glass
in front of silver.
[L.]
13. A candle in front of
a
thick
glass
mirror is viewed from the
right,
Ai
= l'5. Draw
path
of
rays
to
eye;
why
is
more
than
one image
seen ?
[L]m.
14.
Explain carefully
how the deviation of
a parallel
beam of
light
by
a glass prism
varies with the
angle
of incidence of the beam
on
the
first surface of the
prism.
How does it
depend
for
a particularangle
of
incidence
on
the
angle
of the
prism
and
on
the refractive index of
the
glass
?
[L.]
15.
Explain
how
a right-angled glass prism
with its
largest
face
horizontal inverts without
colouring objects
viewed
through
it in
a
horizontal direction.
[L.]
16. What is the
'
critical
angle
'
? How
may
a
real erect
image
of
a
luminous
object
be obtained
by
means
of
a convex
lens and
a glass
prism
whose
angles
are
45" and 90" ?
[L.]
17. Prove that the
largest refracting angle
of
a prism
which will
transmit
a
beam of
light
is twice the critical
angle. [L.]
18. i = 60", r=30",
calculate
/j.
and critical
angle ;
define latter.
[M.]
19. Two bodies of indices T8 and T3 are
in
contact,
find the
angle
at which total internal reflection
begins. [M.]
20. Show that
a man
in
a diving-bell
covered with
a
flat horizontal
plate
of
glass
would not see
the distorted view in
Fig.
159.
21.
Looking
into the
largest
face of
a right-angled prism
an
eye
is
seen
in the
corner.
Whichever
eye
is
shut,
that reflection remains
open.
Explain
this.
22. Show that
through
hot air
overlying a
cold
sea
it
may
become
possible
to see
very
distant
objects usually
hidden below the horizon,
and that instead of
being
drawn out
vertically
as in
Fig.
155, ships,
etc.,
will
appear very
flattened and low in the water.
CHAPTER XL
LENSES
"
375.
A Lens.
Suppose
a
small
prism
of
narrow
angle
A
at
height
AL above
an
axis
LF,
Fig.
160. At L
on the axis is
a
prism
of
anglezero,
i.e.a
flat
piece.
Of the
planewaves
of
a
broad
'
parallel
'
beam of
lightarriving
from the
left,
the
portion
FIG. 160.
falling
on
A will be bent down
("" 300, 372)
and
overlap
the
portion
from L
at
F,
where the illumination will be increased at
the
expense
of the stretch of shadow AP.
The
slope
of the beam AF is the small deviation
producedby
A
and
can
be
expressed,
as
always
on
railways,
as a
Gradient of
AL in AF
or
AL in
LF,
since AL is
hardly distinguishable
from the
arc
of
a
circleof radius AF
or
LF
[recollect
that
angles
get exaggerated
in
making plaindiagrams].
Half-way
between L and A
put
a
prism
of
angleJA,
this inclines
its
lightJAL
in LF and
again
increases the
light
at
F,
leaving
P'
in
shadow. And if all LA is filledwith
prisms
whose
angles
are
proportional
to their distances from
L,
all the
light
will be
concentrated
near F.
With
advantage,
a curved
piece
of
glassreplacesseparate
prisms(mere
thickness
matters
little)
and the
curve must
be such
that the
angle
increases
regularly
in
proportion
to the distance
from the axis LF. Now
to walk in
a
circle
one
must
change
one's
direction
equally
at
every
step
and the whole
change
is
propor- tional
to the distance
walked. That
is,a
circular
arc
will suit
23
353
354 A HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS
our
purpose,
provided
that it is
so
slightly
curved that it does
not
signify
whether
we measure
along
the
arc or
along
the chord
LA. We have
arrived at
a
piece
of
a
'
plano-convex
'
lens which
will
concentrate
all the
sunlightfalling
on
it
to a
small focus
(hearth)
F in the midst of
a
cold shadow PP'.
Lenses
are
pieces
of
refracting
substance bounded
by
surfaces
which
are
portions
of
spheres(plane
= infinite
sphere).
Half
a
dozen varieties
are
distinguished
in
Fig.161,
double
or
bi-convex
1 and
-concave 2, plano-convex
3 and
-concave 4,
and meniscus
or
periscopic convex
5 and
concave 6
[orconcavo-convex].
Of
course
they
merge
one
into
another,one seldom finds
a
perfectly
flat face. The
spectacle-maker
will sell
you
the half-dozen for
a
shilling or so.
Convex lenses
are thickest in the
centre and
concave
thinnest.
Do not be
surprised
if these
'
optical
middles
'
of
your
chipped-
FIG. 161.
edge
lenses
are
not
just
in the
middle,
the size and
shape
of the
edge"
round, oval,oblong,
etc." is
more or
less
an
accident.
Break
a
lens and examine the bits.
*....
We shall treat of
*
thin
'
lenses whose thickness is small
com- pared
with the other distances
concerned,
and
our
angles(ex- aggerated
in
diagrams)
must
never
exceed
a
few
degrees.
The reader will think that the
spherical
surface which demands
this limitation is
a
poor
makeshift. Curves better suited to
particular
purposes
are known,
but
are
deficient in
all-round
utility.Only plane,cylindrical,
and
spherical
surfaces
can
be
accuratelyground
and
polished;
a
great telescope
lens
can
be
touched
up
by
trial in the final
stages,
but all others
are
finished
spherical
and combined
to correct
one another,
"
433. In
a
modern camera
lens there isnot much
to
grumble
at but the
price.
"
376. Consider a Convex Lens then,
with
planeripples
of
sunlight falling
on
it
(burningglass).They
leave it
not as
separate
streams as
in the
disjointed diagram,
but curved to
circular
ripples
which all
closein
on
the
burning
focus F and then
spread
356 A HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS
the
moon.
Put
your eye
in the
cones
and the size of the
bright
patch
seen
becomes less and less the farther
you go
from
F,
i.e.
the less
light
you
are
getting.
Conversely,
let F be
a
little
lamp emittinglight
on
its
own
account.
Bulgingspherical
waves
spreadalong
all
rays
or radii.
Those that fall
on
the lens
are retarded in the middle
by
the
greater
thickness of
slow-speed
substance
there,
issue
as
plane
waves,
and travel
straight
in the
same
parallel
beam
as before
(Fig.
162,
B)
but backwards. This
occurs
in
railwaysignallamps,
brilliant
only
when seen
fullin front
;
a feeble
light
fillsthe dark
space
because all
parts
of the lantern box
(suggested by
the dotted
lines)are
lit
up
and scatter
lightthrough
the
bull's-eye
window.
"377.
Now consider
a Concave
Lens,
Fig.
162
(C).
All its
constituent
'
prisms
'
are
turned the other
way
about and
plane
incident
waves
become
spreading
circles"
parallel
rays
become
divergent
"
just
as
if
they
came
from
a centre F'.
Standing
behind,
your eyes
receive
lightalong
directions
LE,
L'E' and
are
convinced that the
source
is at
F',
whence both lines
appear
to
come.
For
instance,
the
'
direct-vision view-finder
'
is a
strong
concave
lens held 8
or
9 in. from the
eye ;
the
sun
and the
whole
landscape
appear
in miniature at a distance LF'
(inch
or
two) beyond
it.
Conversely,
ifanother
(aconvex)
lens
were
concentrating light
from the
right
on
F' the lens would
prevent
it
getting
there,
sending
it
away
in
a
parallel
beam,
the thicker slow-motion
substance
at
the outside
retarding
the
ripple-ends justenough
to
make the
ripples straight.
There is
nothing
at
F'
to be
caught
on a
screen,
no
hearth of
light
and heat
; onlythrough
the
glass
there
appears
to be
some- thing
there
;
F' is
a virtual focus.
In
practice
it islocated as
the
intersection of
sight-lines
EL,
E'L'
produced.
[CAUTION.
" In
sunlight
a
weak real focus
may
occur near
F',
due
entirely
to
lightreflected fromfront
of
bi-concave.]
"
378.
Optical
centre of
a
thin lens.
If the lens is slanted
a
littlewhere will F be ?
Experiment,
and
you
find it
stops
where it is. Near the middle of the lens
a
point
L
can
be found such that
straight
rays
drawn
through
it
meet
both
facesof
the lens at
places
ivhere
they
are
parallel.
These
rays
therefore
pass
without
bending, suffering only
a
trifling
lateral
displacement("369)
which in
a
'
thin
'
lens is
ignored.
L is the
opticalcentre of the lens in
Fig.
161,
it has been found
as
the
LENSES
357
intersection of
two
rays
(shown),
each of them
satisfying
the above
condition. Lens
diagrams
are
started
by drawing straight
rays
through
it. One of them
happens
to be
perpendicular
to the
lens,
but this is hard
to find in
practice, single-lens diagrams
have
no
fixed
'
centre-line.'
On
any
of these central
rays
are
points,
F for
convex,
F' for
concave,
on
both sides
at
the
principal focal
distance
f of
the lens
from
L. This is the
same on
both
sides,
the
illusory
difference
with
a meniscus
'
landscape
'
lens
explains
itselfin
Fig.
161
(V).
"
379.
Rays
from miles
away
are
parallel enough,yet why
isthe
focus of the
sun,
with
a good lens,a
sharp
round
patch
and not
a
point
? Bundles of
parallel
rays
come
from different
parts
of the
sun,
but the bundles
are not
parallel
to one another. Each has
its
own
pointfocus,
all these
lying
side
by
side build
up
the
patch.
Some bundles start from lessbrilliant
parts,
their focilook dark "
sunspots.
An
Image
of the distant
object
has been formed in the
principal
focal
'
plane
'
of the lens.
I
trust it is clear from the
foregoingwhy
a
lens should not be
drawn with
a
solitary
dot
on
each side
invidiously
exalted
as
*
principal
focus.'
"
380. Now take
lightspreading
in circular
ripples along
rays
from
a
point
not far
away,
Fig.
163.
These,
hindered
so
much
FIG. 163.
in their middles
by
the thicker
slow-speed region,
become
concave
and travel down radii to a
centre,
which isfound thus
:
"
(1)
It lies
on
the undeviated central
ray
00
...
(2)Ray
OA is bent
just
the
same amount as before,
since the
particular
direction of incidence
hardly
affects the deviation
by
a
thin
prism(""
300,
372).
When
some
of the radiation from
one
point
concentrates at
another,
the second
point
is the
image
of the first
object
point,
and
they
are
at
conjugate
focal distances from the
lens,or
mirror.
358 A HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS
0
can
be
a
pinhole
in
a
dark
lantern,
the
eye
placed
at C will
see
the whole lens
flashing
full of
light,
as
in
"
376. 0 and C
are
interchangeable
as
far
as
the lens is concerned.
A Concave Lens lets the middles of the
waves
through
faster,
and
theybulgemore,
as
if
they
came
from the virtual
image
of
0,
on
the
same
side of the lens
as
0. It isnot
interchangeable
with 0.
"
381. Thus lenses
produceimagesby distorting
the waves
of
light,
and
a
full
description
of their action
can
be obtained
only
by
the mathematical
study
of these
waves,
which is
vastly
difficult.
In this book the bare outlines of the
process
will be obtained
by forsaking
waves
and
plottingonly
a
few of the
rays
which
map
out their directions of motion. This GEOMETRICAL OPTICS
is
an
artifice
alwaysemployedby
those who
design
or use
lenses.
It demonstrates
many
thingsclearly ;
that it does not
explain
all that minute observation detects is
only
to be
expected(see
""474-8).
Notice the distinction between Real and Virtual
Images.
Real
Images
are
formed where
rays
come
and
meet, they
are
to be
seen
actually
in the air
by
an
eye
anywhere
within the
cone
of
rays
beyond
them. I have
seen a
parrot industriously pecking
at
one
and
getting
very
perplexed
at its
unsatisfying
lack of
flavour and its
indestructibility.
But Virtual
images
are
apparitions
seen
only
'
through
'
the
glass.
"
382. Relations
will
now
be worked out to connect the
refractive index
p
of the material of
a lens,
the radii
r" r2
of
curvature of its
faces,
its
principal
focal distance
/and conjugate
focal distances a
and b.
In
Fig.
164
(I)
the
angle
A between the faces of the lens at its
edge
is also the
angle
between their radii of curvature there,
for each radius is
perpendicular
to
its
sphere.
A is therefore
the difference between the
angles
at
Cx
and
C2,
or
speaking
railway
fashion,
between the
gradients
AL in
LC^
and AL in
LC2,
where L is the
optical
centre
and
Cj C2
are
the centres
of the
spheres
of which the left and
right
lens faces form
parts. Putting
AL=1,
AC1=LC1 [Y angles
all
supposedsmall*]
=71,
LC2=r2.
*
Actual values in
diagram
A
16",
Cx
28",
C2
12", D 8",
/*
1-5.
In II A 16",
each C 8",
D 8".
In III
C2
=
16",
Ci-00.
Distances
equal
to AL are
marked
along
from the
optical
centre.
LENSES
359
Now
taking
a
ray
through
A at the chosen unit distance
from,
and
parallel to,
the central
ray
LC,
it isbent down
throughangle
D =
(/x"1)A,"300,
and meets
the central
ray
at
the
principal
focal distance LF. D theref
ore =
gradient
AL in LF=1
in/.
1 /I l
Hence
=*-!)--
n
FIG. 164.
"
383. A word
as
to this
importantI//
the Focal Power of the
lens.
Speaking
in focal
lengths
the most
imposingfigures
mean
least,a
lens of
huge
focal
length
is
nearly
flat
glass;
the lessthe
focal
length
the
more
the lens does. Hence the
optician prefers
to describe lenses
by I//,
their
'
focal
power
'
or
'
strength,'
and has invented
a
special
unit for the
purpose,
the
Diopter.
The focal
power
of a
lens in
diopters
is the reciprocalof its
focal
length
in metres."
Thus
a
1-m. focus lens has
a
power
of 1
diopter;
a
5-diopter
lens,
written
+5D,
is
a convex
of 20
cm.
focal
length;
*"
-8D
is
a concave
of 12-5
cm. or 5 in. focus.
Strength
in
diopters
=
100 40
"real/in
metres
/cm. /in.
1/r
is
a
'
curvature
'
(" 113),
hence the relation
we have found
may
be
put
:
"
To calculatethe
focal
power
of
a lens,
multiply
the
difference of
the
curvatures
of
its
first
and second
facesby
its
[refractive
index
minus
one].
For
common
glass
this
M"
1 is
approximately J.
If the
faces
360 A HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS
bulgeopposite
ways
the difference of
curvatures becomes their
sum
;
the
spectacle-maker
reckons
nearly enough
thus
:
"
Strength
=
-|sum
of
curvatures, calling
convex
-(-,
concave
"
.
"
384.
Suppose
the lens
placed
in
lightalreadyconverging
on
a
point0', Fig.
164
(II).
Of
many rays,
one
passes
straight
through
its
optical
centre
L,
another cuts its
prismaticedgeA,
is
bent
throughangle
D,
and meets the axial
ray
in I.
By "
375
all
the other
rays
will also
meet
in I. The lens has increased the
ray'sdown-slope
to AL in
LI, by adding
the
angle
D to the
gradient
AL in LO'.
A
ray
at A
parallel
to the axial
ray
would have been bent
through
the
same
angle
D
(for
the
particular
direction of incidence
on a
thin
prism
does not
matter, " 372)
to meet the axial
ray
at the
principal
focal distance LF
;
angle
D=
down-slope
AL in LF.
.'.
gradient
AL in LI =
gradient
AL in
LO'-f-gradient
AL in LF.
PuttingAL=1, Ll=a, L0'=6, LF=/,
this
can
be written
Taking now
the
more
usual
case
in which
rays
are
spreading
from
a
real
object
0,
Fig.
164
(III),
the lens
again
causes
the
definite
change
of
gradient
D downhill to the
right,
and this alters
the actual
gradients
from AL in OL
uphill
to AL in LI downhill.
One
can
think of the
change
of effort
experienced
in
walking
or
ridingover
the
hill-top
A
;
or
looking
at the
triangle
AOI,
its
exterior
angle
D is
equal
to the
sum
of the interior and
opposite
angles
at 0 and I.
Hence
measuring
from lens and
putting
a
distance of
image ; referring
to
light
after refraction
b
" "
object;
" "
before
r
uphill-!--"
do wnhill
=
- downhill.
b
"
j
a
In
algebra
we
must use
the
algebraic
way
of
representing
opposites,by oppositesigns,
hence
l/a=
"
1/6-f-l//,
or
what
comes to the
same
thing
i=i+i
a'-b^f
So that if due
regard
is
paid
to b
having
now
to be measured
on
the
opposite
side of the lens from
/and a, by giving
it
a "
sign,
there is
no
need to alter the main
signs
of the formula
already
found.
LENSES 361
"
385. To
recapitulate.
A
convex
lens
causes a
definite
change
of
gradient, I//
downhill,
in the
gradient
of
any ray
meeting
it at
the unit distance above the centre. A
straight
central
ray
is the
base-line of the
gradients.
Per
contra,
a concave
lens
causes
an
uphillchangeI//.
Putting
these into
algebra,
where
uphill
and downhill must
have
oppositesigns,gives
Or if
we
choose to write this
(")b~r(")f~(")*
We
are
replacing
the
'
uphill
= " downhill
'
convention
by
another,
that distances measured
opposite
ways
from the lens have
oppositesigns.
These alternative conventions "
I,
that
uphill
is minus downhill,
II,
that distances measured
opposite
ways
from
lens or mirror
have
opposite signs,
are
of
course only
two different
ways
of
putting
the same
thing.
Recollect that
they
are alternatives,
choose
one
and stick to
it,
don't be misled into
using
both at
once or
you
will be
contradicting yourself.
I. Call the downhill
action,
characteristic of the
convex lens,
positive.
II. In the alternative
plan,
of
measuring distances,
this
means
that the direction the
light
goes
offafterencountering
the
lens
or
mirror is
positive.
As
a matter
of convenience I have drawn all lens and mirror
diagrams
so
that this is towards the
right,
the natural
way
one
draws
a
line.
"
386.
Why
have I chosen the
signs
this
way
? The lens in the
diagram
is of the kind that bends
rays
together
and makes them
pass
through
a
real
focus,an
actual hearth of
light
and
heat,
(situate
of
course on
the side
light
goes
off):
it is
a
burningglass,
a
magnifyingglass;
the sort that
everyone
thinks of as soon as
the word
'
lens
'
is mentioned
;
the
convex
lens that
every
maker
and
user
of lenses
always
calls
positive.
The lens that
comes as
an
afterthought(except perhaps
to
the
short-sighted),
that
enfeebles
light
and diminishes
things,
the
concave
lens that
362 A HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS
of itself can
produce only
virtual
images,
is
negative,
"I//,
"Diopters.
Later
we
shall
see
that
concave
mirrors and their real foci also
come
positive,
as
in
practice,
while
convex
mirrors and their
virtual
images
are
negative.
There has hitherto been
taught
to
elementary
students a
convention which has made the
position
of the
object
all-
important,always-f.
It
contrarily
makes
magnifying
mirrors
-f-
and
magnifying
lenses "
,
it condemns the whole
study
of lenses
to be carried
on
under the shade of the minus
sign;
it is
an
academic convention that
one
gets
tired of
warning
men
is
right
against
universal
lens-practice.
In
rejecting
this
we
shall have this
one
trouble to meet
:
for
lenses,
and for lenses
only,
the real
object
will be affected with
a
minus
sign.
But
we
shall have real
imagesalways-f-
and our
eye
will
always
be on
the
-f-
side. And after all it is the
Image
that is the raison d'etreof the lens
or
mirror.
"
387. Learn the statement of
"
385. Learn also the formula
if
you
like,
but learn all about it. For it looks
so
simple,
but it
can
trip
you up
five times
out
of
six,
and it
probably
will. Far
better stick to the
statement,
and
always
make
a
rough
sketch.
The
lazy
man
who will
not make
diagrams,
and
just
memorizes
'
lenses
'
as
'
1
upon
etc.,
etc.'
might
more
profitably
teach it to
the
parrot.
NOTE. " The
down-sloping
and the axial
rays
are two of a
convergent pencil
of
rays,
and
down-slope
measures
'
convergence.'
The increase in
convergence
is the focal
power
of the lens.
'
Divergence
'
is minus
convergence,
best stick to 4-
'
con- vergence
'
only.
Here is the whole
argument
in
a
typical
case.
Light
goes
off
to
right.
Given
a Lens,
of
course
it has
passedthrough,
.'. came
from left.
[Real]objectactuallyemittinglight
/. on [left],
b from lens.
Ray
OA
uphill,
its
gradient"1/6.
Lens
[thickest]
in middle bends it down
throughangle
D =
[-f-]
I//,
therefore
gradient
now=
"l/b-}-l/f=l/a.
Does 1
/a
come
out
-}-,
the
ray
AI is downhill towards the
central base-line
ray
and
actually
meets it in
a
real
image
I
(distanta on
right).
Is
I/a
"
,
the
ray
still
goes
uphill,
but at a
different
slope,
as
ifit
came
from
a
displaced source,
i.e.
a virtual
image.
364 A HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS
The two
parallel
rays
can
be
regarded
as
*
Rails.'* The
object
runs on
the
rails,
alwayskeeping
its ends
on
them.
They,
and their 'crossover' at
F,
remain
fixed,
and
only
the line
OLI alters its
inclination,
scissors
fashion,see
Fig.
166.
FIG. 166.
When 0 is far
away,
OLI is
onlyslightly
inclined to
OLF,
and
I is
near
F
;
as we
expect,
for F is the real
image
of 0 at
'
infinity.'
As 0 travels
nearer
OLI tilts
more
and
more,
and I recedes
along
AFI
away
from the lens and
getsbigger.
When 0 is
at twice the
principal
focal distance from the lens
I is also at
2/";
for then OLI is
at
half the inclination of
AF,
therefore the
length
of the hill
LI,
alwaysnearly
=LF+FI,
is
just
twice
FI,
i.e.is
2/.
Hitherto 0 has
approached
faster than I
receded, now
object
and real
image
have
come to their
closest,
4
times the
principal focal
distance" shown
by measuring
on a
diagram,
or
by calculating
in the
appropriateI/a
"
(
"
\jfy=\jf
what
a
makes
(a-\-H)
a minimum, or by experimental
*
copying
full size.'
Henceforth I recedes
faster,
till when 0 reaches distance
/,
I has
gone
to
infinity,
OL
having
become
parallel
to AF.
0
moving
nearer still,
within the
principal
focal
distance,03L
and AF
spreadapart,
never to form
a
real
image,
but
appearing
to
eyes
on
the
right
of the lens
as
if
they
came
from
a
pointI'3"
a
pointon an
enlarged
erect virtual
image.
This isthe
important
case
of
a magnifyingglass.
As 0 moves
close
up
the construction failsin exactness because
the
angles
become too
large,
but it shows that
ultimately object
and virtual
image nearly
coincide
on
the lens surface
: a
reading
glass
laid
right
on
the
page
has
practically
no
effect.
"
390. Concave lens. The action of
a concave lens,
with its
virtual
images,
has
already
been
explained
in
"
377. In calculation
its focal
power
must be written
"I//.
The standard construction
*
Of course one
'
rail
'
is also
one
'
scissors
ray,'
but in
practiceyou
will not find this
causing
any
confusion.
LENSES 365
is
applied
to it in
Fig.
167. The
same
two axial
rays
are
drawn
and the third laid down
parallel.
But this
now
bends
up
in the
direction found
by joining
A and
F',
which is at
the
principal
focal distance
along
the
parallel
axial
ray
on
the
same
side
as
the
FIG. 167.
object.
Virtual I' is at the
point
where this
prolongation
AF'
cuts the
fellow-ray
from
0,
OL
;
for itis
seen
along
LO and
along
the deviated direction EA. The whole
image
lies between the
'
scissors.'
As 0
runs
along
the
'
rails
'
from
infinity
up
to the
lens,
I'
runs
from F'
up
to
the lens.
Image
is
always
virtual and smaller
than
object,
m
increases from
0,
up
to 1 when lens touches
object.
"391.
Magnification.
The
Magnification
is the ratio
of
the
length
of
the
image
to that
of
the
object.
Since both lie between the
'
scissors
'
axial
rays
their
lengths
are
evidentlyproportional
to their distances from the lens.
distance of
image
from lens
Magnification,
w=^"
,
, .
, ,
;
"
distance of
object
from lens
and if
they
lie
on
opposite
sides of the lens the
image
is inverted.
Taking
heed
as to conventional
signs,
for a real
imagem
=
"a/b
where " is
interpreted
to mean
'
inverted.'* For virtual
images
m=a/b.
Inspection
of the
diagram
shows that
m
for
a convex
lens
can
have
any
value whatever for real
images,
but must exceed
1 for virtual.
*
Hence
multiplying
the usual lens formula
throughby
a
;
m
for real
images
convex
lens=1"
a/f
m
"
virtual
,, "
=
l-fa//
"
392
: Longitudinal magnification.
If the
image
of
a
small
object
is
magnified
m diameters,
its thickness
along
the axis
appears
greatly
out
of
proportion, beingmagnified
m2 times.
366 A HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS
For let front of
object
be at b from lens and its back at
b+db,
where db is
a
small
thickness,an
increase in b
(not dxb,
the
letters
are
inseparable).
The
correspondingparts
of the
image
are
at
a
and
a-\-da.
Then
-=T+"
and
"
;"=-=,
77+;?
a
b
'
/ a-\-da b+db
'
/
rH-"fc"*v,v?
Multiplying
out
by ab(a-\-da)(b~\-db) gives
after
cancelling
a*db=b2da+(b-a)dadb.
db is
very
small,or
else back of
object
is
hopelessly
out of
focus,
.'.
da is
small, .'.
dadb
negligible
and
da
_
thickness of
image
_
a2
_
2
db~ thickness of
object~"62~
Thus the
cheap-jack
who advertises
microscopes (x
100
diams.)
made of
a
little
globule
of
glass,
as
magnifyingmerely
a
million
times
cube,
is
sadlycheating
himself.
LENS PROBLEMS
"
393. We will
now
apply
the
foregoing,
to solve
a
variety
of
lens
problems
both
graphically
and
by
calculation.
Graphically
the
draughtsmanship
must be
very
exact,
and all
angles
must
be
kept
as
small
as
is consistent with
getting
decisive intersections
of fine lines
:
my
sketches have
angles
too
large,
for clearness'
sake.
Algebraically,
beware of
signs.
Make
a sketch,
just
the
axial
ray
OLI and the
slopes
OAI. The
picture
is
right
as
it
stands
:
when
you
are
translating
its visible
ways
into structure- less
symbols,
then
begin
to use
signs.
I. An object is distant 6 from
a
lens of focal
length/.
Find
position
and magnification
of image.
This has been done in
Figs.
165, 166,
167. Draw
lens,
and
object
at b to left,
then
rays
drawn
as
described in
"
388
give
the
image.
Measure its distance
a
and its size
compared
with
object.
By
calculation
:
"
'slope
before'
1/6-f-
focal
power
!//='slope
after'
I/a.
The
'
slope
before
'
is
negative, beinguphill
to
right.
Cases
are
shown for
1/6
,
1//+
H
,
respectively ;
a
and
a/b
to be
found.
LENSES 367
II. Distance of
image
from object,
and its magnification, are
fixed. What lens is
required
?
Three
cases
in
Fig.
168.
Draw
object
1 and
image
2 the
proper
relative sizes,
distance
apart,
and
way up
(m"
,
real,
inverted
;
tn-f-,
virtual,same
way).
Draw
rays
in numbered order
;
where
FIG. 168.
3 and 4
cross
givesposition
of lens
;
draw 5 and
6,
which
gives
focal
point
F, measure
its distance
/from
lens. The
figures
show
m=3 virtual and
real,
and
m"^
virtual.
If
m "
1 either the small
diagram
redrawn for
real,or
the third for virtual
:
notice how
latter shows lens must be
concave.
By
calculation
taking
e.g.
distance
apart
10 in.
(eighths
of an
inch in
fig.), magnification-(-|-.
Since
m=a/b=-\-$
and for real
object1/6
is
an
uphill,
.*.
I/a
is
uphill.
Distance
apart
of 0 and I is difference between
length
of
longuphill
b and short
uphill
a
(lines
5 and
6,using
3
as
base-line)
to the summit
A, .'.
10=6"
a.
Since
b=3a, .'.
10=2a
;
a=5,
6=15,
these
are
the
lengths
of the
uphillslopes
from
image
and
objectrespectively
to
lens
[thirdfig., 168].*
The
gradient"1/15
is converted
by
addition of
I//
into
gradient"1/5.
-l/15+l//=-3/15.
/.
l/f=-2/15
the lens is
negative[with
a
focal
power
"2/15x40 (see"383)
="
5JD]
a concave
of
7J
in. focal
length.
*
In
figure
the
arrow 6 is more
than 5 units
long,
it is
at too
large
an
angle,
but distances to centre
of lens will be found
correct.
Example
1. If
m were
"
" (real
inverted reduced
image)
and OI
10
in.,
show lens is
convex, /=!$",
a =
2"" [second fig.].
Ex. 2. For
m =
+3,
OI = 10
in.,
calculate
/ [firstfig.].
368 A HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS
Ex. 3. A lantern
objective
is to
project
an
image
8 ft.
square
on a
screen 20 ft.
away
from
a
slide 3 in.
square.
Find
/
and distance from
slide.
Ex. 4. In
a photographic
studio the sitter cannot be farther than
21 ft. from the
plate on
which
an
image 5V
l^6 size is
required.
What is
greatestpermissible
focal
length
of lens ?
III. An
image magnified m times is produced by a
lens of focal
length/;
how far apart
will
image
and
object
be ?
Three
cases
in
Fig.
169. Draw 1 the
lens,
lines
2,
3
;
then 4
through
end of
/till
it cuts a dotted line
placed
m
times
as
far
from 2 as
3
is,
in the
image point
I. Draw 5 the
image,
line
6,
and 7 the
object.
Measure distance
apart
10. The
figures
show
m=3,
real and
virtual,
and
m
=
^-virtual.
FIG. 169.
Calculation.
1. Case
of
real
object of
which
convex
lens
J
=9
forms
real
image
magnified
thrice
[first fig.].
i.e.
a
=36. Lens adds
gradient+1/9
to
gradient
"
1/6
and
produces gradient+ l/a=+ l/36.
-1/6+1/9=1/36.
/.
1/9=4/36.
.*. 6=12, a=36,
and
a+6,
the distance between the feet of the
oppositegradients,
=48.
2; Can a
10-cw.
focusconcave produce
a
real
image magnified
twice
of
real
object
?
By adding!//=
"
1/10
to
"1/6
from real
object
the
necessary
/a
cannot be
produced.
3. But
try
putting1/6positive.
+7
"
in=H
"
=01,
is
quitepossible
and
gives
6=5, a
=10.
0 1U a 2iD
LENSES
309
Hence
'
object
'
is 5 cm.
and
image,
real,
and
same
way up
since
a/b
is
-(-,
is 10
cm.,
both to
right
of lens.
This is
a new
state of affairs. No real
object
can
have
passed
through
the
glass
to the
wrong
side
;
this is
a
*
virtual object.'
(Such
was
the
point
0' in
Fig.
164
(II).)
It
was a
real
image
formed
by
rays
converging(downhill)
to the
right,
but
now
the
concave
lens has been
put
in their
path
and lessens their
con- vergence
;
they
form
a
largerimage
a
littlefarther
on
;
see
Telephoto
Lens,
"
469,
Fig.
220.
Try
now
puttinga/b
="2 or a ="26
i
i_i
__
L
^b
10~a~~-26
gives6=-fl5
cm.
and
a"" 30
cm.
There is
a
'
virtual
object
'
on
the
right
and
a
'
virtual
image,'
other
way up,
on
the left.
The lens farther from the
original
real
image
has
actually
bent
the
convergent
rays
uphill,
as
if
they
came from
an
image
on
the
left. See
opera
glass for
near vision,
"
468.
4. Let
us
again attempt
the
apparentlyimpossible ; require
a
convex
lens to
produce
a
diminished
uprightimage.
-
i.e.
a
virtual
object
and
a"
-f
6-7 a
real
image.
This isthe
case
contemplated
in the
original
all
positive diagram
Fig.
164
(I),
and
see
field
lens
ofHuyghenseye-piece, Fig.
210.
FIG. 170.
IV
: Lens of
given focal
length forms
image
at
given
distance
from
object,what will be the
magnification
and where must lens
be placed ?
Three
cases
in
Fig.
170. Draw
lens,1,2,
3.
Sticking
a
pin
in
24
370 A HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS
centre
L,
layagainst
it
a
straight edge
4 with
given
distance
apart
marked
on
it and
move
it about tillit cuts 2 and 3 at the ends of
this distance. Then 5 and 6 are
object
and
image,
compare
their
sizes
;
measure
OL.
Calculation." The
cases
shown have
1/6
"
,
1//+ H
"
I/a-\-
- "
respectively,
a
~6 is
known,
replace
a
by
6-f-
differ- ence,
solve and find
a/b.
But firstmake
a
sketch.
Ex. 5. Work out
diagrams
for
a
virtual
object.
For
problem
V see
"
448.
EXAMPLES." CHAPTER XL
6. Give
experiments
which
distinguish
between
shadow,
real
image,
and virtual
image. [L]m.
7. Show how to construct
image
in a thin biconvex lens.
Object
being
at a
distance
exceeding /
from
lens,
will an increase in
/
increase
or diminish size of
image
?
[Ab.]
8. Draw
diagrams showing
formation
by
convex lens of
(a)
inverted
magnified, (b)
inverted
diminished, (c)
erect
magnified, images. [L]m.
9. Draw a curve
showing
for a convex lens the connection between
distance of
object
from
one
principal
focus and of
image
from the other.
[L]m.
10. A lens
interceptslightconverging
to a
point
6 in.
beyond
and
alters its
point
of
convergence
to 12 in. Find its focal
length. [M.]
11. What focus lenses would
produce
an
image
distant 15 in. of an
object
distant 3
yd.
?
[L]m.
12. Where must a 10-in. lens be
placed
to
project
a
magnified image
on a screen
5 ft. from
object
?
[L]m.
13. A
convex 6-25
diopter
lens
projects
an
image on a screen
1
m.
from
object.
In what two
positions
may
the lens be
placed
?
[L]m.
14. With a camera lens of 6 in. focal
length
a
photograph
is taken
of a man 70 in. tall and 5
yd.
away.
Find
height
in
picture.
15. Prove that a lens with a
plane
mirror behind it behaves" like
a
spherical
mirror whose radius of curvature is
equal
to the focal
length
of the lens.
16. A 10-cm. convex
lens is held
horizontallyjust
above
a
liquid
filling
a tank 20 cm. deep.
The
image
of
a
point
30
cm.
above the lens
is focussed
on the bottom. Show
paths
of
rays
and calculate index
of
liquid.
17. A
convex
lens is
projecting
an image
9 in.
away
of an
object
2 in.
away
from lens. Calculate distance of
image
of
object
1-9 in.
away;
does this
agree
with
"
392 ?
18. A horizontal
telescope
contains
a
pair
of horizontal
cross- wires
one-tenth of an
inch
apart.
It is focussed
on a
vertical staff 10 ft.
away
from the
object-glass,
which has
a focal
length
of 10 in. Find
length
on staff
apparently
intercepted
between the wires.
[L.]
19. Calculate the curvature
necessary
for the faces of
an
equi-convex
lens of 6 in. focal
length
made of
glass
of refractive index 1-55. Find
the focal
length
of a
lens which
gives
a 3 times
magnified image
of an
object placed
2 in. from it.
[L.]
372 A HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS
AC and meets
its
returningfellow-ray
in
I,
which is therefore
the
imagepoint
of 0.
[All
the
rays
of
a
whole
cone
starting
from
0 and
meeting
the mirror will be concentrated
on I.]
As with
lenses,
all
angles
must be
small,
"
375.
Gradient of AI is
greater
than that of AC
by L e
IAC.
AO
"
less
" " "
/.eOAC.
Adding
up,
these
equalangles
cancel and
Gradient of
AI+of
A0= twice
gradient
of AC.
Putting
AM=1,
AO
or
MO = b,
AI
or MI=a,
radius AC=r
V-2
a^b
r
Now
put
0
very
far
away,
OA becomes
parallel
to OM,
gradient
1/6=0,
and MI
becomes the distance
/of
the real
principal
focus.
"
396. With
a
Convex
Mirror,
Fig.
172,
the first
ray,
aimed at
the
centre,
returns
straight
back
on
itself from M. The second
FIG. 173.
is reflected at
A, so that the
anglesOAN,
NAE
on
opposite
sides of
the radius
(normal)
CAN
are
equal.
Reflected
rays
MO and AE
both
appear
to have
come
from
I',
which is therefore the virtual
image
of 0.
Dot in AH
parallel
to
CO, L e
NAO = L e HAO+ Z e
HAN
L e
NAE=
Ze
HAE-
Ze
HAN
These
are
equal.
/.
HAO-j-HAN=HAE-HAN
or
HAO-HAE=-2HAN
or
down
gradient
of AO"
up
of I'A= "
twice
up
gradient
of CA.
Now
leaving
the
diagram
and
plunging
into
algebra,
we
must
replace
'
down
'
by -j-
and
'
up
'
by
"
.
2
SPHERICAL MIRRORS 373
With the usual convention
as
to
sign
then this holds in either
case.
The whole
may
be stated
:
"
"
397.
The
sum
of the
right-hand
downhill
gradients
of the
going
and
coming
ray
s
= the r.h.d.
gradient
of the
ray
to
the
principal
focus = twice r.h.d.
gradient
of radius to centre.
Or
briefly,
but less
easy
to translate into
practice
:
"
The
sum
of the
conjugate
focal
powers
of
a
mirror = its
principal
focal
power
= double its curvature.
The focal
power
is
evidently-f-
for concave
and " for convex
mirrors.
It is measured in
Diopters
as
for lenses.
l//=2/r,reciprocally /=Jr,
focal
length
=
|
radius of curvature.
"
398. Standard geometrical
construction for
mirrors,Fig.
174.
Concave.
From the ends of
an
object
draw
'
scissors
'
rays
through
centre of curvature C
[which
now
replaces optical
centre
of
a
lens].
Both strike mirror
radially(perpendicularly)
and
return back
on
themselves.
From
one
end draw another
ray
parallel
to that from the
other
end,
to form the
'
rails.' This is reflected back and
crosses
over
the other axial
'
rail
'
at the
principal
focal
distance,
half-way
between mirror and centre.
Continuing
it meets its fellow
ray
in
I,
the
image
of the
point
from which both
sprang.
Draw in
the rest of
image parallel
to
object
and
mirror,
and between
'
scissors
'
rays.
Evidently
it is real and inverted.
Convex.
'
Scissors
'
rays
return on
themselves before
reaching
centre.
The
parallel
ray
is reflected
directly
away
from
F',
at the
virtual
principal
focal
distance,
half-way
to
C,
and I' is where it
crosses
the direction of its fellow
ray.
Fill in
image,evidently
it is
a
small erect virtual
image,
the familiar little
picture
inside
the
reflecting globe,
flask,
teapot,
etc.
"
399.
Magnification.
Since both liebetween the
'
scissors
'
rays,
evidently
the ratio of
diameters of
image
and
object
=m=
ratio of their distances from
the
centre of
curvature.
A
more
practically
convenient relation
can,
however,
be deduced
by
calculation
or as
in
Fig.
173. From
mid-point
of
object
draw
374 A HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS
through
0 to
M, join
OM,
oM. Ends of
image
lie
on
these
rays
;
for if
not
let I'
be
end.
By symmetry
/_e
OMC=
L e CMI,
by
law
of reflection
Z.e
OMC=Ze
CMI'.
/.
I and I'
coincide,
and
similarly
i is
on
OM. Hence
again
m=a/b
m
is
now -j-
for real inverted
image.
"
400. Motion of
image.
As the
object
runs
along
the
'
rails
'
of the standard construction all that
happens
is that the
slanting
'
scissors
'
ray
OCI alters its inclination and
cuts
the fixed line
AF
(produced)
at different
conjugate
distances,as
in
Fig.
175.
There is
no
limit
to
its
inclination,
but those who wish to
rely
upon
actual
rays
all the time
can use
instead of it the
rays
MO,
Mo
(produced
if
necessary)
of the last
paragraph.
The virtual
image
in the
convex
mirror starts at
\r
beneath the
surface for distant
objects
and
slowly
comes
forward till
image
and
object
touch
on
the surface
;
m
increases from 0 to 1.
With the
concave
mirror much more
happens.
The real
image
starts at
F,
\r
out
in
front,
and
comes
forward to meet
the
object
till
they
meet at
the
centre of
curvature, image
being
inverted and
same
size
as
object (w=
"
1).
The
scissors
ray
now
slants
the
other
way
and carries I
rapidly
out
along
AFI
;
the
FIG. 175.
mirror is
producing
a
large
distant aerial
image
of
a
small
object(m" large).
When
object
reaches
F,
OC and AF
are
parallel,
I has
disappeared
at
infinity, "
451.
When the
object
is within its
principal
focal distance of the
mirror,
OC slants less than AF and
can never
meet
it,
but both
appear
to come
from
a
point
I"
behind the mirror
on an
enlarged
upright
virtual
image,Fig.
175, which
comes forward,
diminishing
till
image
and
object
touch
on the surface. This is the
use of a
concave
mirror
as a
magnifying
shaving-glass,
etc.
In calculation
put "*=/-f(a" /)
and
"=/+(""/),
then
(a-/)
and
(""/)
are
distances from the
principal
focus. Then
L_
!
1
m^=f+
-/[/+"
.
, .,..,
or
f*=(a-f)(b-f)
SPHERICAL
MIRRORS 375
Plotting
these distances
of
Image
and
Object/row
the
Principal
Focus as
ordinates and abscissaeof
a curve
we
get
the
rectangular
hyperbola
of
Fig.
176,
which
sums
up
all there is to be said about
distances and
magnification
in mirrors.
Measuring
from dotted
axes
gives
a
and b.
REAL.
concave
dU"r.
ojobje
VIRTUAL
FIG. 176.
"
401
:
Mirror
problems.
The standard construction solves mirror
problems
similar to
those of
"
393, taking
similar
precautions.
I.
Object
b
from
mirror
offocallengthf; findposition
and
magnification ofimage.
Done in
"
398.
II. Distance
ofimagefrom object
and its
magnification
are
fixed.
Where and what is mirror ?
Very simple
construction
; join
ends of
object
and
image by
the
'
scissors
'
rays
and
by
the two
rays
of
"
399. The intersec- tions
of these
pairsgive
C and M
or
M and C
according
as
image
is inverted
or
upright.
Two
cases
in
Fig.
177
(II).
III.
Image magnified
m
by mirror-}-/ ;
where
are
mirror and
Four
cases
in
Fig.
177
(III).
Draw
'
rails
'1,2
and dot in 3
parallel
to them and
m
times
as
far from 1
as
2 is. On 1 mark
M, F, C,
describe M
cutting
2 in A. Draw A
F,
itcuts 3 in
I,
draw
1C,
itcuts 2 in 0. Draw in
image
and
object
to line
1,
thus
arriving
at standard construction.
In the
cases C, D,
E the
object
is virtual
; lightalready
con-
376 A HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS
verging
toward
a
real
image
is
always
more
sharplyconverged
toward
a
smaller
one
by
a concave
mirror
(C,
left
as an exer- cise)
;
may
be formed into
a
larger
real
image by
a convex
mirror
D
as
in the
Cassegraintelescope,Fig.
212, or
if not
convergent
enough
appears
as an
inverted virtual
image
which
may
be
enlarged(E).
I
_
_3_
FIG. 177.
IV. Mirror
ofgivenfforms image
at
given
distance
from object,
what is
m
and where is mirror ?
Two
cases, Fig.
177
(IV).
Draw mirror
1,
rails
2,
3
;
4 to
F,
stick
pin
in
C,
and with marked
length
on
straightedge
rested
against
it find 10
on
3 and 4.
V. Given distances
ofimage
and
object from
mirror
findf.
Draw
0,
M
;
between
rays
1,
2 from ends of 0
crossing
at M
mark I at
given
distance,
the other
two
rays
joiningobject
and
image
cross
at C
;
CM
=2/1
The
diagrams
come
identical with
those of
Fig.
177
(II).
SPHERICAL MIRRORS 377
EXAMPLES." CHAPTER XLI
1. A luminous
point
is inside
a reflecting circle, half-way
between
centre and circumference
;
draw the reflected
wave
front after each
portion
of the disturbance has travelled
a
distance
equal
to diameter
of circle.
2. Show that the focal
length
of
a concave
mirror is
equal
to half its
radius of curvature. How would
you
find the focal
length experi- mentally
?
[L.]
3. Show in
a diagram
the
cone
of
rays
by
which
an
eye
looking
into
a concave
mirror
sees one point
of
image
of
an object
close in front.
[L]m.
4.
Why
is the
rear-reflecting
mirror attached to
a car
made
convex
?
Draw
diagram showing positions
of
eye
and
object seen. [L]m.
5. Two reflections of the
landscape are seen
in
a
hollow
glass sphere
(e.g. a lamp bulb).
Where
are they
inside the
sphere,
and what is the
difference between them ?
6. In 5 how do the
images change as
the
object approaches
? Can
they
coincide
as regards
distance ?
7. Give
diagrams
of
production
of virtual
images by convex
and
concave
mirrors. Galvanometer mirror
/ =
2
ft.,
lamp
is at 3 ft.,
where must scale be ? What if
lamp were at 18 in. ?
[M.]
8. An
object
is 6 ft. in front of
concave
mirror 5 ft.
radius,
find
image. Diagram. [Ab]m.
9. A
pin
3
cm. long
is 48
cm.
in front of
a concave mirror, the real
image
is formed at 16
cm.
The
pin
is moved 24
cm.
towards the mirror,
draw
a diagram
and find the
changes
in the
image. [L]m.
10. Convex lens
produces
real
image
of flame 50
cm.
from itself.
Concave mirror 100
cm.
from lens reflects the
light
back
though
lens
to form
an image
close to
flame, what is
/
of mirror ?
[L]m.
11. Show that if
a
horizontal
concave
mirror is filled with
a liquid
its
apparent
radius of curvature is diminished in the ratio of
/x
of
liquid. [L.]
12. The
plane
side of
a
plano-convex
lens is
silvered,
and the lens
then acts like
a concave mirror 30
cm.
focal
length,
fj.
= 1-5,
calculate
radius of
convex surface.
[L.]
13. A
plano-convex lens silvered
on
its
plane
side acts like
a concave
mirror of
20
cm.
focal
length.
When the
convex
side is silvered it acts
like
a concave mirror of 7
cm.
Calculate
p.
[L.]
CHAPTER XLII
PRACTICAL METHODS FOR MIRRORS AND
THIN LENSES
OUT of
a
host of
practical
methods the
following
few
are
recommended
as
good
and
adequate
to the
elementarystudy
of
mirrors and thin lenses such
as are
commonly
met with.
"
402. For
supportingthings
in
position
the
*
optical
bench
'
of
Fig.
178 is
simple
and most
satisfactory.
On
a stout board is
nailed
a
wooden
metre scale
; against
this slide wooden
uprights
of the
plainshape
shown
(pretty
bits of
cabinet-making
or
metal-
work
cause infinitetrouble in
use.
Over the
large
holes in these
are
strappedby
elastic bands the
lenses,mirrors,post-card
screens,
or
glass
millimetre scales
(formagnification
measure- ments).
"
403. A broken
skyline
in
sightthrough
the
open
window at
least 100
ft.
away
ivill
serve
for
an
indefinitely
distant
object. (Sun
itself
too
dazzling.)
Convex lens. Catch
sharpimage
of the distant
chimneys,trees,
etc.,
on screen
behind lens. Lens to screen
==/*, Fig.
178
(i).
Concave mirror. Ditto
on screen
half
covering
hole in
upright
in front of mirror. Mirror
to
screen"/,Fig.(ii).
"
404. Methods
by
return
image.
A luminous
object
is made
by cutting
a
very
small
cross,
or
pricking
a
few
pinholes,
in
a
card
on
the first
upright.*
Some- where
behind is
a
lamp
with
a
broad flame, or
else with
a
diffusing
ground glass.
*
Instead of this
a pin,
well
illuminated,
may
serve as object ;
its
image
is looked for in the air
by an
eye
2 ft. or so
to
right,adjusted
till
same
size and
always touching object,
as
tested
by moving
head
sideways
and best
by getting
both in focus
together
under
strong
pocket
lens. More troublesome than
lamp
and
screen,
it is beloved
of examiners.
378
380 A HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS
Conjugate foci.
Convex lens, Fig. (v).
Involves calculation
by ready-for-use
formula
l/a-\-l/b
=
l/f.
Pet examination method
.
Conjugate focus
and
return image.
With the best
convex
lens
you
can get (say a
6
-in. lantern
objective)
form
a
real
image
I
on
a
second
screen
at end of bench
: "
Convex mirror. Insert
as
in
Fig. (vi)
and
move
till
sharp
return
image seen
beside
cross.
IM=r=2/,
for the
directly
returned
rays
must
be radii.
Concave lens. Set
up
the
plane
mirror. Insert lens and
move
till
sharp return image seen
beside
cross. IL=/, Fig. (vii),
for
the
light to and from the
plane
mirror is then
parallel.
NOTE.
"
The
faces of
lenses
are of
course
mirrors, unsilvered, and
can
be measured
as
above.
"
405. A
convex
lens's faces
can
also be studied
as
in
Fig. (viii).
Having
found
/, as
in
(iii),
move
lens closer to the
cross
till
at b
sharp image returns
from back
surface,
on
which
rays
in
glass
must therefore be
falling radially (most passing through)
as
if
they
came
from its
centre. Hence
a=r2
and
l/r2"l /"=!//.
Turn
over
for other face.
CHAPTER
XLIII
COMBINATIONS OF LENSES
"
406
:
Focal
power
of
a pair
of lenses in contact.
In
Fig.
179
(I)
rays
from 0 at the
principal
focal distance
/x
of
the first lens
are
rendered
parallelby
it and the second then
converges
them to its
principal
focal distance
f2.
The total
bending
is the
sum
of the focal
powers
[or /i
and
f% are
conjugate
foci
on opposite
sides of the
combination]
The
focal
poiver
of a
close combination is the
algebraicsum of
the
focal
powers
of
the
components.
If
one
is
negative, as
in the
concave component
of
an
achro- matic
lens, algebraicsum
is of
course
numerical difference.
"
407
:
Focal
power
of
a pair
of lenses separated by
distance d.
Taking
two
convex lenses, Fig.
179
(II),
the axial
ray
L1L2Fl
passes
straightthrough,
the
parallel
ray
is bent at
A^
and travels
at
gradient l//t
towards
FI}
but
meeting
second lens is bent down
to F,
the
principal
focus of the combination.
Fx
and F
are con- jugate
foci of
L2; L2F1=(/1-^),
hence
381
382 A HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS
This
givesposition
of F.
Of
more
interest is the
'
equivalent
focal
power
'
of the
com- bination,
i.e. the
slope
of BF.
By
similar
triangles ^iL2/AlLl
=
~L2F1/~L1Fl=(f1"d)/fi
and
puttingA1L1(
=
A2L2)
= 1
as usual,
EL2
"
(fi"d)//i-
Now
we saw
in
"
375 that the refraction caused
by
a
lens is
proportional
to the distance from the axis
:
the full
refraction of second lens at
A2=l/f2,
.'. at E refraction
(
L
e
F
Final
gradient
of EF=
gradient
of
EFj-f
Le
EFXF
or
focal
power
of combination
7=7+7--
/-?
J Ji h hh
This is less than when
close,
becomes 0
when
d=fljrfz(tele- scope),
and is thereafter "
.
The theoretical
*
Equivalent Lens,5
which would have the
same
focus and focal
power
as both,
is situate where FE cuts direction
of
ray
it
sprang
from in A. To find
it,
position
of F would be
calculated
as
in first
section,
then
f
measured back from it. This
'
equivalent
lens
'
is in the
'
second
principal plane
'
of the
com- bination.
If
light
were
passedthrough
the other
way
we
should
find the
same
focal
power
but the
'
equivalent
lens
'
in
a
different
position,
the
'
first
principal plane.'
See further Thick
Lenses,
"410.
"
408
:
The whole of this
can
be done
by
the
exceedingly simple
Geometrical Construction of
Fig.
179 II
(andIII).
Draw axial
ray
and
LjLg.
Parallel
ray
at
Al
becomes
AjEF^
Parallel to
A1EF1
draw
L2F2,
the refracted
EF2
meets this at
F2,crossingoriginal
axial
ray
in
F,
Focus
of
combination. Produce FE back to meet
original
ray
in
A,
draw in
equivalent
lens AL
;
Focal
Length
of combination =AF
or
LF.
"409.
A Lens in Water. If the thin
prism
of
"300
were
immersed in
a
medium of
higher
refractive index
/*'
than
air,
the
speed
outside is
now
only1/jn'
of what it
was
and the ratio
of
speeds
outside and inside diminishes to
l//x/
:
I//* =/*//*'
or
H/p'
:
1. That
is,
p
of
prism
relative to air is to be
replaced
by
its index relative to the
surrounding
refractive medium.
This
gives
D =
(/*//*'" 1)A
and for
a
lens 1
//=(/*//"
1)
(1/rj
"
1/?"2),
so
that the focal
power
is less than
before,
in the ratio
.'"
1); (/x"1).
e.g.
if
a
lens of
/*
1-5 is in
water
/x'1-33,
I//
COMBINATIONS OF LENSES 383
changes
from
proportional
to
(1-5"1)
= -5 to
proportional
to
(1-5/1-33" 1)
= -125
;
the lens retains
only
a
quarter
of its
strength.
Such is
an
oil
drop
in water.*
[And
see
" 442.]
If the
surrounding
medium is of identical index refraction
ceases
altogether(invisible, " 374).
If of
greater
index,
e.g.
glass
in carbon
disulphide
1-671,
I//
becomes
proportional
to
(1-5/1-67
"
1)
= "
1,
i.e.
changessign,
and
begins
to
gainstrength
as a concave
lens.
Optically
it is
a
cavity
between two hollow
refracting
cheeks,
like
an
air bubble in
water,*or a water
drop
in
oil.
**
A
drop
of milk frothed and
put
under the
microscope
shows both in abundance.
THICK LENSES
"
410
:
No actual lens is
indefinitely
thin. In
"
368 we saw
that
a
pond
or
thick flat
glass
looked into
perpendicularly
appears
shallower than it
really
is,
i.e.
a
virtual
image
of the
bottom,
parallel
and
quite
unaltered in
size,
is
seen
in
a new
position,
and
the
intervening
distance is
annihilated, so to
speak.
The action of
a
lens
may
therefore be divided into "
(1)
The action of
a
thin
lens,
due to itscurvatures.
(2)
The
space-annihilating
effect of its thickness.
It
can
in
geometricaltheory
be
replacedby
a
thin lens of
equivalent
focal
power
("407)
which takes in
light
in
one
position
called the
first
principal
'
plane
'
and then
jumps
the annihilated
gap
to
a
parallel
second
principal
'
plane
'
and
gives
out the
light.
Graphically
this
means
cutting
the
ordinary
thin lens
diagram
in halves down the middle of the lens and
putting
the cut
edges
in the
positions
of the
principal planes.
For
an
ordinary
thick
bull's-eye
these would be about one-third its thickness
apart.
A combination of
separate
lenses
(like
a
'
rectilinear
'
lens,or
micro,
o.g.
or
e.p.)
also ranks
theoretically
as a
'
thick
lens,'
but
now
duplicates
space,
the lens
jumps back,
the
diagram
halves
overlap,
sometimes
very
much
(telephotolens),
and the
planes
may
be far
away
from the actual lens. We have
seen
how to
find them
by geometrical
construction in
"
408.
Evidently
the
ordinary
formulae
apply
when the distance of the
object
is
measured from the first
principal plane
and the
image
from the
second
principal plane.
384 A HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS
"411
: Below is
given
an
easy
practical
process
which facili- tates
accurate measurements of lens combinations instead of the
bunglingguesswork
that results from
pretending
them
'
thin.'
A.
Focal
length of
*
thick
'
convex
lens.
In "
1=?
multiplyby of
and
put r=^
the
magnification.
.'.
(l-m)f=a
For
a different
magnification(1" m')f=a'
Subtract and divide out
by
m
" m'.
.*.
/=
m" m
changeof
distance
ofimaqe from lens
focallength
=
--
..
J
,
"7-*
"
rf-J"
"
its
changeofmagnification
Put
up
two
cross
scales with the lens between
them,
illuminate
one
and focus its
image
on
the other. Observe the
magnification
w,
i.e.the number of millimetres which 1
mm. division of the
image occupies.
Move the
observing
scale
a
definite distance
farther from the
lens,
then
move
object
scale
only
till
imageagain
clear,
observe m'.
Then/=the
definite distance
-i-(m"m'}.
NOTE. "
m at the
principal
focus =0
(pointimage)
and itfollows
that
an
axial
ray
can
be divided into
parts each=/
and then
m
of
image
is
simply
the number of
parts
it is distant from
F,
Fig.
180. This
very
useful device
applies
of
course
to all lenses.
erecf
vii fucvl
image.
real inverted
tmage.
FIG. 180.
B.
Principal
focal
points.
Put lens both
ways
in
sun
(or
method
iii,
"404)
and record distances of both foci from
a
scratch made
on
the lens mount. These distances
are not
equal,
you
do not
expect
them to be.
C. Measure inwards
/from
each
principal
focal
point
and
you
have the
positions
of the
principal planes(or
the
'
nodes
'
of the
lens in
air).
If either focus was inaccessible, mf
and
(m-j-1)/
COMBINATIONS
OF LENSES 385
measured inwards from an m
times
magnifiedimage
on
that side
give
focus and
principal plane.
Example.
A certain
f-in.
micro,
objec- tive
by
Crouch.
Placing
on
stage
and in
e.p.
(field-
lens
removed)
scales of -1 mm.
1
stage
division = 8-6
e.p.
divs.,and
pull- ing
out draw-tube 2
in.,
= 11-5.
."./
= 2 in.
-f-
2-9 = -69 in.
Focal
pt.
found -16 in front of nozzle.
.*.
1st
pp.
is -53 above nozzle.
A -1
mm.
scale laid
on
back of mount
showed
image
when formed there
was
magnified
1-25
times, .'.
back focus is
1'25X'69 = '86 in. from back of mount
(in
among
the
glasses),
a
further -69
below this is the 2nd
pp.,
-05 below the
nozzle.
2 5 here.
FIG. 181.
EXAMPLES." CHAPTER XLIII
1. A lens of "1
diopter
is
placed
in contact with
one
of
+30
cm.
focal
length.
What is focal
length
of combination ?
2. Prove that F of two lenses in contact is
given by 1/F=1/FX
+
1/F2. [L.]
3. Two thin 6-in. focal
length plano-convex
lenses
are
gradually
moved
apart.
Where will
they
focus
parallel
rays
when
separated
(a)zero, (b)
1
in.,
(c)
6
in.,(d)
12 in. ?
4. Show that if the
convex
and weaker
concave
lenses of an achro- matic
lens be
graduallyseparated
the
equivalent
focal
power
increases.
5. Draw the construction
appropriate
to a
pair
of lenses
separated
more
than the focal
length
of the first.
6. Show that focal
length
of thin lens index 1-5 immersed in
a
flat
cell of water is 3 times that of lens.
[L.]
[Notice
difference from
"
409
;
the
rays
here
escape
into the air,
suffering
further refraction
;
there
they
were
entirely
in water. This
is
a
combination of
a
glass
convex
and
a water lens of
equalconcavity.]
2 it
CHAPTER XLIV
COLOUK
"
412.
Spectra. Light
a
bunsen burner in front of
a
dark back- ground,
and shut its air-holes. From the far side of the
room
look at it
through
a
glassprism standing
on
its
triangular
end.
You have
to
look in
quite
a
different direction and
you
see
the
luminous flame drawn out into
a
broad rainbow
band, a continuous
spectrum,
the blue farther
away
from the real
position
of the
flame
than the red.
The breadth of colour
depends
on
the material of the
prism,
a common
'
lustre
'
givesonly
narrow
colours. A
prism
made at
home from three 3-in.
squares
of
plateglass
set in
a
triangle
on
a
piece
of
wood,
cemented bottom and
edges
with
plaster,
made
tight
with
gum
and filledwith
liquid
carbon
disulphide (|
lb.,6d.,
chemist's,
malodorous and
highlyinflammable)
will
give
mag- nificent
spectra.
Now
open
the air-holes and
support
a
littlesalt
or
soda
on an
iron
wire in the bluish flame.
Only
the wire makes
a
streak of
colour
now,
and
you
see
only
one
distinct
deep yellow
flame.
Put
a
little
saltpetre
on
the
wire, as
it flares
up you
will
see
through
the
prism
not
one mauve
flame but three distinct flames
(overlapping partly
with the
'
lustre,'
quiteapart
with the better
prism),
viz.
a
red flame
on one
side of the
yellow
and
a
fainter
violet
on
the other.
Open
the air-holes wide
to
get
the
roaring
green
cone,
and
you
will
see
in
a row a
citron-green,
a
green,
a blue,
and
a
violet
cone.
If bothered
by overlapping,put
before the
flame a
piece
of tin with
a narrow
vertical slit cut in
it,
and
you
will
see
distinct
narrow
coloured slits.
Stand
your
good prism
near one
end of
a
2-ft.board and stick
a new
pin upright
at the other end.
By
the
light
of the flame
you
see
several coloured
pins.
In the sunshine the
pin
becomes
a
coloured
streak,
down
across
which
are
faint dark
lines,
at
least
one
each in the
red,
yellow,
green,
and blue. Crook the
pin,
and the dark lines
go
crooked likewise. You
now
realize that this
388 A HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS
principal
focus and
'
collimates
'
it
(brings
it into
line).
And since
the
spectrum
is
small,an
eye-piece
E is used to
magnify
it. Then
for
measuring
purposes
a
scale of
some sort is
provided
in the
-
,
FIG. 183.
eye-piece,
or
else the
telescope
LE turns
on a
graduated
scale
;
and the
spectroscope
becomes
a
spectrometer,Fig.
183.
The
prismusually
stands in its
position
of minimum deviation.
Large spectroscopes
have several
prisms
in succession.
In
pocket
and
micro-spectroscopes
there is
a slit,
magnifying
lens focussed
on it,
and
'
idirect-
vision
'
prism,Fig.
184 and
"
440.
FIG. 184.
"414.
The fact that
a
Diffraction
Grating,"296,
will do
instead of the
Prism,
shows that
different
colours
correspond
to
different
wave lengths
of
light(orreciprocally,
different vibration
frequencies),
the red
to
the
longer
waves (slowervibrations).
The
grating
enables
spectrometer
readings
to be translated into
wave
lengths,"
296. A
gratinggives
a
very
long
but not
very
brightspectrum.
The colours and lines follow in
precisely
the
same
order
as
with
a
prism
but the red is
enormouslyelongated,
whereas
a
prism
makes this
short,
and draws the violet
out
long.
"
415.
Putting
the bunsen flame then before the slit of the
spectroscope,
there
appears
a
spectrum
of
separate
bright lines,
meaning
that certain definite
frequencies
of vibration
can
be
detected in their
source. Bright-line Spectra characterize in- candescent
gases
and
vapours
of metals. See
Fig.
185.
The Flame
brings
them out from the alkali metals and
thallium,
and the alkaline-earth metals
:
the latter contain also broader
COLOUR 389
lines
or
'
bands.' The volatile salts
put
in the flame
soon
oxidize
and their non-metallic constituents make
no
difference after the
first 2
or
3
sec. Mixtures
give
the
completespectra
of
every
metal
present.
The
pretty spectrum
of the
greenish-blue
flame
itself,
with its four
bands,
sharp
on one
edge('
flutings
')
isthat of
carbon. 10
~10
grm.
of sodium suffices to
give
its
yellow
line.
The
greater
violence of the Electric
Spark
between
points
of the
metal, or wet
with solutions of metallic
salts,or
of the Electric
Arc between
polescharged
with
salts,
volatilizes all metals
and
brings
out
spectra
of
many
brilliantlines from their
vapours.
Gases
are
made luminous
by passing
electric
discharges, "
672,
through
them,
rarefied to about 1
cm.
pressure,
in
capillary
tubes.
FREQUENCY
OF VIBRATION IN
BILLIONS (id*)
PER SECOND.
51oo
600
-
TOO
7'" 6'o 5*o
4o'
WAVE LENGTH IN MILLIONTHS
OF A CENTIMETRE.
Ted,
i
orange,
yeZ.I
green,
"
line \
violet
FIG. 185.
In addition to
lines,
nitrogen
in
a
tube
or
in
a
leyden-jar spark
gives
many
flutings
in the violet. It
gives
the violet tint to
lightning.
Nebulae show the
bright
lines of
hydrogen,
helium,
etc. Comets show the fluted carbon
spectrum.
"416.
When
hydrogen
is
compressed
its few
bright
lines
broaden out into indistinct bands. Matter
being
much closer
packed
as
solid
or
liquid
than
as
gas,
it is not
surprising
to find
390 A HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS
that incandescent solids and liquidsgive a Continuous
Spectrum,
all characteristic lines
being
blurred out. One
may suppose
that
atoms close
together
interfere with
one
another's vibrations
and
produce
a
confused
jumble
of indefinite
frequencies.
On this view the candle flame
owes
its
luminosity
to in- candescent
particles
within
it,
easilydeposited
as
soot. The
continuous
spectrum
of the
arc
lamp
is crossed
by bright
lines
:
by forming
a
real
image
and
spectroscoping
it bit
by
bit the
continuous is
seen to arise from the hot carbons and the lines
from the faint
arc
itself. The latter has
nowadays
been made
long
and luminous
by loading
the carbons with calcium
salts,
etc.
(seeFig.
185, Ca),
which
give
brilliance
even to a
cool
gas
flame,
and the
highly
efficient
'
flame
'
arc
lamps
are
the result.
"417. Absorption Spectra.
But the continuous
spectrum
of the
sun
is crossed
by
the dark
lines of which
our
prism
revealed two or three,
of which Fraun-
hofer listed
some hundreds,
naming
the chief
ones
alphabetically,
and of which modern
spectroscopes
show thousands. It
was
noticed that several of these tallied in
appearance
and
position
with the
bright
lines of the
laboratory,
D with the sodium
yellow,
b with the
magnesium
green,
C, F,
and G with the
hydrogen
red,
blue,
and
violet,see
Fig.
185.
But
why
were
they
dark ?
Sir
George
Stokes used the
argument
of
"
301. Like the
boats,
the atoms
of sodium in
vapour
should
chiefly
check and
'
absorb
'
vibrations of their
own
natural
frequency.
A few
years
later
(ca.1860)
Kirchoff viewed
limelight through
a
salted flame and
saw
the sodium line dark
by
contrast on
the
bright
continuous
background.
Had then the
sun a
cooler
atmosphere
of
hydrogen
and metallic
vapours
to select and absorb
parts
of the
light
from
a
dense
central
sphere
? If
so,
at the moment when the
eclipsing
moon
just
blotted that
sphereout, might
not
the
glowingatmosphere
round the
edge
show these
same
lines
as
bright
lines,
since it
was
only by
contrast that
they
looked dark ? At the next
eclipse
the red
ring
of
'
chromosphere
'
that flashed round the dark
moon
showed the
spectra
of
hydrogen,calcium,
and the element first
discovered and named from its line
there,
helium. Since then
a
closer
layer
has been
glimpsedshowing
many
more
of the Fraun-
hofer lines
bright.
Sometimes the outer
chromosphere
is
so
thick
('prominences')
that it
actuallyproduces
a
bright
line down
the middle of the broad black line" it absorbs
broadly
and
re-
COLOUR 391
emits vibration concentrated
accurately
in
one
frequency
" and
by
the
light
of
these, hydrogen
and calcium clouds
are now
dailyphotographed
all
over
the surface of the
sun.
Several hundred solar lines have been identified with
Fe, Ti,
Ca, Mn, Ni, Co, Cr,Ba, H, Na,
etc.
Stars have been classified
according
to their dark lines
;
some
have
even more
than the
sun
;
Arcturus is
very
like him
; Vega,
Kigel,etc.,
bluer and
probably hotter,
show
only hydrogen
absorption.
The
strongest
bands in the
red,
A and
B,
get
darker as
the
sun
sinks and shines
through
a
longerlength
of the earth's
atmosphere.
They
are
due to
absorptionby
oxygen
(which
owes
its blue tint
as a
liquid
to
their
presence).
A broad band in the
yellow
is due
to
aqueous vapour,
and darkens before
rain,
which it is used
by
some
in
forecasting.
The Solar
Spectrum
thus
represents
the,continuous emission
of
a dense incandescent
mass,
less the
absorptionof
the
gaseous
envelopes of
sun
and earth.
"
418
: Application
of
Dopplers principle,
"
303. If
source
and
spectroscope
are
approaching
each other the
frequency
of
vibration
appears
increased,
i.e.
well-recognized spectrum
lines
are
shifted
a
trifletowards the
quicker
violet,
and the
speed
of
approach
is
easily
calculated in
terms
of the
speed
of
light.
In
this
way
the
speeds
of
approach
or
recession of several stars have
been
measured,
Saturn's
rings
have been found to revolve faster
inside than outside
(meteorswarms),
etc.
"419.
Extent of
spectrum.
The visible
spectrum
is
only
a
small
part
of the whole known
spectrum,
which extends far
beyond
the red into much slower
vibrations
(longerwaves)
of
'
dark heat
'
as
the
infra-red,
and
beyond
the violet to
higherfrequencies
"
photographic
"
as
the
ultra-violet.
The
flint-glass prism
of
an
ordinary
spectroscope
practically
blots out these extensions with their contained lines and bands.
See also
"
499.
Substances at lower
temperatures
emit
mainly
infra-red
radiation
;
as
the
temperature
is raised the emission contains
higher
and
higherfrequencies
of
vibration,a
red
glow
becomes
visible,
brightening
in tint
as
yellow
and
green
frequencies
appear
(red-hotiron)
and
whitening
as
blue and violet
begin
to be
emitted.
'
Blue-hot,'a
popular exaggeration,suggests
the
392 A HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS
way
in which the
increasing approximation
to
noonday
whiteness
of the
very
hottest metal contrasts with the tint
ordinarily
accepted
as
'
white heat.'
COLOUR
Colour of emitted
light
has been
already
dealt with.
"
420. Colour
by
transmitted
light.
All coloured substances
produceAbsorptionSpectra
when the
light
from
a
white
source
which
gets through
them is
analysed
in the
spectroscope,
and this discloses the
cause
of their colour.
The
absorptionspectrum
of the
photographer's ruby glass,
for
instance,
is
a
broad black shadow
blotting
out all
except
the red.
A red
signal
shines
through
it with
transparentbrightness ;
to
a
green
signal
itis
opaque,
the received
energy
merely
goes
to warm- ing
it. A test-tube of weak
pink permanganate
solution held
between
lamp
and
spectroscope
slit
produces
five dark bands in the
green,
a
stronger
solution blots out the
green
altogether.
Hence its
colour is what is left of white
light
after the
green
has been
removed.
Restoring
this would
complete
the white
again,
and
that is what is meant
by
the
statement
that crimson and
green
are complementary
colours.
Cobalt
glass
lets
through
the extreme red without
absorption,
and the whole
range
of blue and violet with
a
slightabsorption.
There is much
more
of these last to start with and the
light
appears
blue,
but
many
thicknesses of
glass
increase this
veiling
of blue and violet and
one sees
through
the bundle the unhin- dered
red.
Chlorophyll(steep
green
leaves in
alcohol)
serves as a
type
of
sharp
local
absorption
in several
places,
see
Fig.
185, haemoglobin
(fewdrops
of blood in
water)
has
a
very
characteristic
spectrum
changing
with its state of
oxidation,
iodine
vapour
and
N02
have
very
complex
dark-line
spectra,
didymium
salts absorb several
scattered
portions
with the curious result that
they
appear
almost
colourless.
"421.
Colour
by irregularly
reflected
light.
Thus colour
seen
through
is accounted
for,
but what of the
colour of
leaves,flowers,
and
earths,
of
feathers,fabrics,etc.,
looked at
and
seen
by
the
lightthey
scatter
("374)
?
(1)
A
glossy
leaf,or
varnished
picture,
when
regularly reflecting
light
to the
eye,
shows
hardly
a
trace of its
own
colour
;
the smooth
sea
reflects
noonday
blue
or sunset
gold
im- partially.
COLOUR 393
(2)
Under the
microscope,by
transmitted
light,
individual
coloured
grains,
cells,
and fibres
are
remarkably
trans- parent,
and
(3)by
reflected
light
each shows a
certain amount of internal
reflection,
like cut
gems
or
rods of coloured
glass.
That
is,
part
of the
lightthings
scatter has dived
through
absorb- ing
material,
and therefore
they
show much the
same
colour as
by
transmitted
light.
The other
part
has
come
back uncoloured
from the front surface. The
proportion
of the two
parts
varies
greatly;
silkdilutes itscolour with surface
light,
velvet does
not,
satin looks either rich coloured
or
merelyshinyaccording
as
its
surface
light
misses
or
catches the
eye.
Wetting
a
sponge
or
varnishing
wood
means
filling
it with
a
medium of about its
own
refractive
index,
which does
away
with the
more
superficial
reflections and
permits
the
light
to dive
deeper
and return
more
richly
coloured.
Conversely,finelypowdered
bichromate,
froth
on beer, etc.,
show
only
a
slight
orange
tint
;
so
many
littlesurfaces
are
flinging
back the
light
before it
can
traverse
any
appreciable
thickness of
coloured substance.
"422. Composition of the incident
light.
Thus the natural colour of all these
things
is the unabsorbed
residue from full white
light,
and
they
will
appear
more or
less
altered if the
lightfalling
on
them is not white. Hence the
difficulty
in
telling
colours
by ordinary
artificial
light,
which is
deficient in blue and violet
(e.g.try
chrome alum
solution).
In monochromatic
light,
of
course, everything
reduces to
one
colour in
varying brightness.Passing
a
geranium along
a
spectrum,
it is dark in the
blue,
in the
green
a
black flower with
green
leaves,
in the
yellow
all dull
yellow,
in the red
a
red flower
with black leaves. The face and
lips
are
dull and
grey
in the
yellow
light
of
a
salted bunsen flame. The
pretty
green mercury-vapour
lamp
has
a
spectrum
of
a
yellow,
a
green,
and
a
violet
line,
it
shows
up
objects
of these colours
vividly,
but is
trying
to the
complexion,making
it
green
and
unspeakablydirty.
"
423. Metallic colours arise rather
differently.
Gold leaf
transmits
bluish-green light
about
complementary
to the colour it
reflects. But it transmits
very
little,
though only
-00001 cm.
thick,
and
one
may suppose
that metals
are so
exceedingly
opaque
that
any
light
which does enter them is
quenched
in
394 A HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS
perhaps
-0001
cm.,
while the
remaining
colours cannot even
get
in and
are
flung
back forthwith.
(And
see note
in next
section.)
Several
very
intensely
coloured substances behave
similarly.
Indigo
has
a
coppery
sheen
; crystals
of
permanganate, magenta,
etc.,
opaque,
but crimson when thinned out
(as
in
solution),
have the
complementary
green
lustre
; purest methylene-blue
is
golden.
"
424
:
*
Anomalous
dispersion.'
Very
thin hollow
prisms
can
be filledwith
strong
solutions of these
dyes. They
throw
spectraunexpectedlylong,
broken in
pieces,
and coloured in
quite
the
wrong
order.
By
the
analogy
of boats
("301)
it
appears
that
a medium,
containingparticles
which
can
vibrate with
a
definite
frequency
of their
own,
will absorb
waves
of that
frequency
and
prevent
them
passingthrough(absorption band).
It
can
be shown that
waves a
little shorter travel
through
very
fast,
while
waves a
little
longerstrugglethrough only
very
slowly.
That
is,
close
to the blue side of
an
absorption
band the
speed
in the medium
is
great; -y/V=/x
is
small,
sometimes less than 1.
Crossing
to
the red side where the
waves are
longer
the
speed
is
very
small,
P
is
very
large,
but sinks
quickly
to
a
normal value farther
on.
NOTE. " This sudden
slowing
of
speed,
almost
equivalent
to
an
abrupt stop,
of
course
produces
a
reflected
wave,
i.e.
a
surface
colour,a
littleredder than the
absorption
band.
Thus
magenta,
with its metallic
absorption
and lustre in the
blue and
green,
when formed into
a
prism
refracts violet
feebly
and
yellow
very
strongly,
and the colours
run
Violet"
gap
"
Red,
Orange,
Yellow
(most refrangible)
a score
times
as
far
apart
as
glass
would throw them. This
was
called
anomalous
dispersion,
but it is
now
recognized
that
glass,etc.,
act in the
same
way.
For
glass
absorbs
stronglyjustbeyond
both ends of the visible
spectrum ("419),
so
that the red is the short-wave side of the
infra-red band and
/*
is low
;
the violet is the
long-wave
side of
the ultra-violet band and
p
is
increasing
fast.
The
vapours
of iodine and the metals retain all the characters
referred to in these
paragraphs.
Sodium
vapour
has well
repaid
study.
NOTICE the distinction between these anomalous
spectra
which
the
substance,
in
prism
form, constructs,
and its
absorption
spectrum
where it
merely
obstructs.
396 A HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS
and red
rays,
however,
best call forth the fluorescence of various
dyes,
and the red
glow
of
chlorophyll (green
leaves in
alcohol,
filtered).
'
Dark heat
'
(infra-red)never causes
fluorescence
or
phosphorescence although,
as heat,
it
may
modify
them. Hot
luminous
paint
shines
brighter
but briefer
;
many
things
will not
glow
at
"180",
but
eggshells
then
acquire
the
power.
The chemical luminescence of
oxidizingphosphorus,
the flash
between
lumps
of
sugar
rubbed
together
in the
dark,
the fluores- cence
excited
by
cathode
rays,
X-rays,
or radium,
and the vital
luminosity
of
fungi,glow-worms,
noctiluca
(of
the
sea),etc.,
can
be
only
mentioned.
"
427
: Interference colours.
In
a
soap
bubble,
in the
floating
shreds that mock
early
efforts
at
glass-blowing,
in the thin film of oil
on
water,
of oxide
on
hot
polished
metal,
of tarnish
on
Koman
glass,
of air
or
water
squeezed
between clean
plates
of
glass,
of air in cracks in
glass,
mica, ice,
and
opal,
there
appears
a
play
of
*
Newton's colours
'
which
are
due to interference
("292).
The thin
transparent
film has two
surfaces,
each of which reflects back
a
small fraction of the
incident
light.
That reflected from the back surface has had
farther to
go
than that which
came
to the
eye
at
once
from the
front surface.
Suppose
it
happens
to be
just
half the
wave
length
of
some
particular spectrum
colour behind
;
interference
smoothes out its
waves
and
so
destroys
that
colour,
and the
light
that reaches the
eye
is of the
complementary
tint. Examined
by
the
spectroscope
there is
a
black
gap
in its
spectrum.
As the film thickens the
wave
lengthdestroyed
must increase.
The thinnest coloured film
removes
the violet and
appears
straw-
yellow;
a
thicker
appears orange
as
the blue
goes
;
then
purple
as
destruction reaches the
green
while violet has
reappeared
in the
spectrum ;
then blue
as
the
long
waves
of red
interfere.
[The engineer
will
recognize
the
tempering
tints
of
steel.]
Thickening
still, more
than
one
colour
can
be removed at
once
by
the odd half
-wave-length lag,
e.g.
2|
waves
of red = in
length3|
green
=
4^-
blue. The
complements
amount to
pale
tints of
pink
and
green,
fading
away
altogether
in thick films to
a white,
which, however,
yields
a
spectrum showing
many
equidistant
dark
gaps.
The monochromatic
light
of
a
soda flame continues
to show
yellow
and black bands
even
in thick
films,
there
being
no
other colours to
overlap
them.
COLOUR 397
The
presence
of coloured streaks in
a film
evidently
means
that
itis
wedge-shaped,
the
brightest
tints
near
the thin end.
The tints
change
when looked at
obliquely
in the
same
way
as
by thickening
the
film,
for
rays
penetrating
across
the film and
back have farther to
go
when
oblique.
"
428
:
Diffraction colours.
In
"
296 it
was
pointed
out how
a surface,
divided into
equidistantpatches,
of which alternate
ones
reflect incident
disturbance,
will throw off trains of
waves
of different
lengths
in
different directions. Such
a
surface
therefore,
with several
thousand striae
or
dots to the
inch,
will break
up
white
light
and
throw off colours. This
diffraction-grating
structure exists in
mother-of-pearl,
in labradorite
(of
black
Norway granite),
on
the
finely
striated
microscopic
scales
producing
the metallic
glory
of
the
butterfly
or
the diamond beetle
(Entimus
imperialis), etc.,
and
possibly
accounts
in
part
for the lustre of the drake's head and the
peacock's
tail.
A swarm
of minute
particles,
all the
same size,
scattered
in the
path
of
light,
will break it
up
in a
similar
way,
the
angle
at which
a
particular
colour is thrown off
now
depending
on
the diameters of the
par- ticles.
In this
way
thin cloud
produces
coloured
'
cor once
'
round the
moon, particles
not
quite
in the line of
sight
diffract off
waves
which reach the
eye,
the farther
out of line the
longer
the
waves
(Fig.186),
i.e. the red
corona
is outside the blue.
Similar
rings
round all
brightlights
indi- cate
a
misty deposit
in the humours of
the
eye
and an indifferent condition of
health. With
particles
of various sizes the colours blend into
a
colourless haze.
What
happens
if the
spaces
in
Fig.
119, or
the
diffracting
particles,
are no
larger
than the smallest
waves
of visible
light
?
They
can
then throw off blue
only,
and that in
a direction at
rightangles
to the incident
light.
It
can
be calculated that still
smaller
particles
would not be
entirely
without
effect,
but would
scatter
a
lightpreponderatingly
blue. Dilute HC1
poured
into
hypo
solution sets free
sulphur
in
a blue
opalescenceturning
white
as
the
particles
grow.
Seen
through
the
liquid
a candle
FIG. 186.
398 A HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS
appears
orange-red,
for its blue
light
has been thrown out
sideways.
A
more
beautiful blue
largely
due
to this
cause
is
seen
in
water-softening
tanks when
a
fine
chalkyprecipitate
is
settling
out,
but the best
example
is the blue
sky.
On Ben Nevis 100
particles
per
c.c.
is the lowest record of dust in
air,so there is
no
lack of
reflecting
motes. Nearer the
horizon,
largerparticles
turn the blue into
white,as
happens
above the
dustytown,
and
completely
in mist and cloud. The residuum from white
light,
after
many
miles of
blue-scattering
air,
appears
in the hues of
sunset.
The action of
very
minute
particles
in
scattering
a
trifle
of the
lightfalling
on
them is utilized in the
Ultra-microscope,
an
instrument
employed
for
examining
the number and motions
("265)
of colloid
particles
in
liquids.
The
drop
of
liquid
is lit
from
one
side with
a
horizontal beam of intense
light,
and is
examined from above
through
a
powerful
vertical
microscope.
With
arc-light particles
-015 micron
diameter,
and with
sunlight
particles
-005 micron
diameter,
have been
made,
not visible
indeed, even
in
a
microscopicsense,
but manifest
as
specks
of
light
on a
dark
background. [1
micron=-001
mm.]
"
429
: Rainbows are
caused
by
refraction and internal reflection
in
myriads
of
spherical
water
drops
on
which the
sun
(or
the
moon)
is
shining.
The
brightprimary
bow is returned after
one
reflection
(nottotal)
inside the
drop.
In
Fig.
187 the
paths
of
several
equi-spacedparallel
rays
of
sunlightmeeting
the
upper
half of the
drop
have been
exactly
traced. It will be
seen
that
they
emerge
in
very
scattered
directions,
except
three which
are
practically parallel,
i.e. the
drop
throws back
a
much
more
concentrated reflection in this direction than in
any
other. This
is
a
direction of minimum
deviation,
the obtuse
angle
turned back
(between
the dotted
lines)being
here less than for
any
of the
other
rays.
Hence
raindrops
lower down in the
sky
will each
reflect
a
little
light
to the
eye
alongpaths
such
as PQ,
but
drops
near a
certain
greatestheight
reflect
a
lot and
appear very
bright.
As the
light
has suffered two refractions the minimum devia- tions
for red and violet
are
of
course
different
(180""42-1,
180
"40-2),
i.e.the
brightest
red and violet
come
from
dropsnearly
2"
apart,
and
a
spectrum
is drawn out in the
sky.
Referring
to
Fig.
188,
the line from the observer's head to its
shadow is 180"
away
from the
sun,
and therefore all
reflecting
dropslying
at 42-1" off this line
appear
red and all at 40-2" blue
;
COLOUR 399
i.e. the rainbow forms
part
of
a
circle with its centre
in the
direction of the shadow of one's head and with outer
angular
radius 42-1"
red,
and inner 40-2" blue. Inside the bow is
a
light
haze,
outside
a
dark
space.
At the
top,
inside,are
'
super- numerary
bows
'
caused
by
diffraction,
since the bow
suddenly
limits the broad reflected
waves (cf." 295).
Each observer sees
FIG. 189.
FIG. 188. FIG. 187.
his
own bow,
built
up
from all the
dropslying
in
a cone from his
own
eye
to the distant
margin
of the rain. The lower the
sun the
more
bow
can
be
seen
in the
sky;
the rest of the circle has
a
background
of
earth,
and to
get enough drops
to show it
one
must stand in the midst of
drenching
spray
from
a
fall
or a
hose.
The
diagram
for
a
drop
at the bottom of the circle would be
Fig.
187 inverted.
Other
lightshining
on
the lower
part
of the
drop
is twice
reflected inside and
emerges
to
give
the
larger
'
secondarybow,'
weaker
on
account of the double loss
on reflection,
and with
its colours
inverted,
red of
angular
radius 50-8" and blue
54-5",
400 A HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS
having
been
separated as
shown in
Fig.
189. It bounds the dark
space,
and outside it there is
hazy
reflection
again.
The little
figures interspersed
with the chief
drops are
marked
to show the directions
over
which diffuse reflection of the first and
second varieties takes
place.
There is
a
gap
of 9" in which
no
reflection
occurs,
for
drops
between the
two bows the observer
looks into this
gap
and
sees only
the dark cloud.
Bows from three and four internal reflections lie
on
the side of
the
sun,
where the
brightness
of the
sky
obliterates them. That
from five reflections lies
just
outside the
secondary
bow but is
of
course
very
faint and wide and has seldom been
glimpsed.
Many more
have been detected in the
laboratory.
"
430
:
The
Halo, a
white
ring
of 22"
angular
radius
surrounding
the
sun or
moon,
is due to
refraction at minimum deviation
through floating ice-crystals.
Colours
are
sometimes visible in
it,
the red inside and the blue outside
(contrast coronse),
and
one occasionally sees a solitaryspeck
of
cloud,
22" from the
sun,
brightly
iridescent,
a
'
mock sun.'
For
Coronse,
often miscalled
haloes, see "
428.
EXAMPLES." CHAPTER XLIV
1. Describe
experiment illustrating
connection between radiation
and
absorption.
What is the evidence for iron and
hydrogen
in the
solar
atmosphere
?
[M.] "
2. What is
an absorption spectrum
? Describe how
you
would test
for the
presence
of carbonic oxide in
a specimen
of blood. Draw
a
figure
to indicate the
arrangement
of the
apparatus.
[L]m.
3. Describe
an optical
test for blood in
a
red
liquid. [L.]
4.
Explain
the red colour of
(a) a
coke
fire, (b) a
dark-room
lamp,
(c) a
poppy
petal, (d) a
strontium
flame, (e)
copper,
(f) sunset, (g)
noble
opal, (h) chlorophyll
solution.
CHAPTER XLV
ABERRATIONS OF MIRRORS AND LENSES
ABERRATION
DEPENDENT ON
SHAPE
OP
SURFACES
OF
MIRROR
OR
LENS
"
431
: Spherical Aberration. Set
a
cup
of
tea in
a
direct
light.
On the surface
appears
the familiar
bright cusped curve
of
light,
called
a Caustic,
reflected from the semicircular
margin
of the
FIG. 190.
cup.
Pass
a
vertical
penholder across
the
lamplight
;
its
pointed
shadow
(Fig. 190, A)
sweeps
round,
the
tip 'rolling'on
the
caustic and in
every
positionblotting
out
a
little bit of it.
26
401
402 A HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS
This littlebit
was
evidently
the focus of all the
rays
that fell
on
the
now
darkened
patch
of mirror. The
rays
are
not all
reflected to
one hearth,
the
complete
semicircular mirror has
a
complex
succession of foci instead of the
singlepoint,though
the
brilliance of the
cusp
stilltells
us
that
a
largeproportion
of the
light
is condensed thereabouts. This
imperfection
in
focussing
of circular and
spherical
surfaces is referred to as Spherical
Aberration.
"
432 :
Mirrors
can
be made that
are
free from this.
Knowing
that the
image
is the
point
at which
light
arrives in the
same
time from the
object, by
whatever
path,
stick in
pins
at 0 and
I,
Fig.
1
90,B,
loop
a
thread round them and
pencil-point
P and
carry
P round.
OP-f-PI
is
constant,
hence
an ellipse
reflects all
rays
emanating
from
one
of its foci
strictly
to the other.
For 0 at
infinity,
fasten
one
end of the thread 0'
on
the
edge
of
a
T-square
on
which the
pencilruns,
hence the
parabola
0'P+PF=
constant reflects to its
geometrical
focus
(""451, 453)
all
rays
arriving parallel
to its
axis,
Fig.
C.
The lower halves of these
figures
show the reflectionof
waves.
"
433
:
Spherical
aberration
occurs
with Lenses
as
well. A
thick
bull's-eye
held in
a
brightlight
in
smoky
air
produces
a
'
pulled-out
'
cone, Fig.
D,
quite
like the middle
part
of the
re- flection
caustic. The outer
rays
are refracted too
much,
the
focal distance of the outer
'
zones
'
of the lens is
unduly
short.
Instead of
a
sharpcone,
and
image,
there is
a sort of
bottle-neck,
with
a
moderate
image anywhere
within half
an
inch
or
so,
and
always
round it
an
unpleasant
haze.
A
readingglassforming
on
the wall an
image
of
a
distant
lamp
shows this
quite
well. Or
lookingthrough
the
lens,
spherical
aberration accounts for the distortion and
smearing
of the
print
all round the outside.
"
434
: Means of
reducing spherical
aberration.
'
Stopping
down
'
the lens to
an
inch diameter with
a
perforated
card,
and
so
cutting
off the outer
rays,
removes
the haze and
gives
a more
definite focus. But the
objection
to this
way
of
reducingspherical
aberration is at
once
apparent ;
it cuts off
light.
It is all that
can
be
done, however,
with
spherical
mirrors.
Fortunately,
with
lenses,
the fact that the
larger
the
angle,by
far the
greater
the
aberration,
gives
another
means.
Reduce the
404 A HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS
where
passes
through
a
focal
point
:
hence the
name
astig- matic
"
pointless .
Images
built
up
of littlelines like these instead of
tiny
circles,
looking
as
if
'
smudged
while
wet/
irritatingly impossible
to
see
distinctly,
are
characteristic of
ObliqueReflection
or
Refraction.
Turn
your
stopped-downreadingglass
askew and it draws out
the
image
either
horizontally
or
vertically according
to its
distance.
One
might
say
that the focus of
a
large
lens is built
up
of the
littlefocal
lines,
pointing
in all
directions,
of the
oblique
beams
from all
parts
of it
;
a sort of
asterisk,a
spot
with
hazy margin,
an
image spoiledby
'
spherical
aberration.' Uncover the
reading
glass
while
askew,
the total aberration is
now
vastly
worse on
one
side and receives the
apt
name
of Coma.
CHROMATIC
ABERRATION,
DEPENDENT ON
NATURE
OP
SUBSTANCE
"
436. The
spreadingapart
or Dispersion
of the
spectral
colours
which
accompanies
the deviation of white
light
when
refracted,
and is of
course
the whole aim of the
spectroscopeprism,
becomes
a
nuisance
among
lenses. For
these,
bending
the blue
more
than
the red,
bring
it to
a
shorter
focus,
and
a
good image
becomes
impossible.
In
Fig.
192
(vastlyexaggerated)
at B there would
be
a
sharp
blue
image
of the star with
a
red
fringe
round it and at
E
a
red
image
with
a
blue
fringe.
This is called Chromatic
Aberration.
Fortunately
Dollond discovered in 1757 how to
correct this and make
images
and lenses
achromatic, Fig.
193.
FIG. 192.
FIG. 193.
"
437. The
difference of
the
deviations, or
the
Dispersion,
Hue "
red, producedby
a
'
thin
'
prism,
is P times the
average
deviation
where P is
a
small fraction characteristicof the material the
prism
is made
of,
and called its
dispersive
power.
In
Fig.
192
angle
br
is P times
angle
wg
(notlarge).
MIRRORS AND LENSES
405
The
dispersive
power
is related to the observed refractive
indices thus
:
"
In
a
prism
of small
angleA,
deviation D =
(/x"1)A ["300]
Hence
Dwtte"Dr"t
=
(/*""1)A" (//r"1)A
=
(/*""/*r)A
=Pxmean
deviation
=P(/Jtmean" 1)A
f^mecn
"T [accurate, independent
of 'small
angles']
In the
following
table are
given
the difference of index for the
brilliant
blue and red
hydrogen
lines
(Fraunhofer
F and
C),
the
mean index for
yellow(Na),
and
P,
for
some common
sub- stances.
These colours are
largely
used in
calculating
lenses
for visual
purposes.
Fig.
194 shows the actual deviation and
dispersionby
a
30"
prism
of
some
of these
substances,
and
Fig.
195 an
Achromatic
Prism of
English
crown (30")
and flint
(|x30") deviating
a
ray
15"_i
x
18"=6" and
dispersing
it -25""
Jx
-5"=0.
FIG. 194.
"
438. Achromatic Lens.
A
prism
or
lens which shall deviate all colours
equally
must
be made of two
parts,
the second of which
just
neutralizes the
colour-spreading
effect of the first"
producesequal
and
opposite
dispersion
" without
destroying
all the deviation.
Hence
(Dwtte"Dr"r)=PI
X
deviation of first
lens,
must be
equal
and
opposite
to
P2X
deviation of second lens.
In lenses close
together
the deviations
are
produced
at the
same
distance from the axis and measure
their
mean
focal
powers.
406 A HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS
Therefore
for
an
achromatic, lens the
product[dispersive
power
X mean
focalpoiver]
is
equal
and
opposite
in the two
component
lenses.
-7
Ji
~7
fa
Hence
one
lens is
concave,
and whichever lens is
focally
weaker
must be of the
more
dispersive glass.
The
joint
focal
power
is
got by adding,recollecting
one
is
negative,l/F=l/./i-l//a
("406).
Example
1. What lens of
glass
P' = -03 will achromatize
a
6-diopter
convex
of fluorite P = -01 and what is the combined
power
?
"01
X
6= " -03xo;. /. x=
"
2-diopter (concave)
and
together they
form
a
lens 6 " 2 = convex
of 4
diopters.
NOTE. " Three
glasses,
and sometimes
fluor-spar,
are
used in the
more
perfectly
corrected,
so-called
'
apochromatic,'
lenses.
"
439.
Separatedpairs
of lenses of the
same
glass
can some- times
be made
achromatic,as
in
an
eye-piece, Fig.
209,
lower
part.
The
more
bent
ray
strikes the
eye-lensjust
so
much
nearer
the
centre
that its
greaterrefrangibility
is neutralized
by
the smaller
angle
between the lens faces there. It leaves
parallel
to the red
ray
(longerdots)
and therefore
inseparable
from it
by
an
eye
focussed for
parallel light.
One can
write down from
"406 expressions
for the focal
powers
of
the
pair
for red and for blue
light.
These must be the
same
;
in their
difference
equated
to zero
substitute P and
one
finds that the
distance
apart
of
the lenses must be
half
the
sum of
their
focallengths.
"
440
:
Direct-vision
prisms.
Conversely,prisms
can
be combined to
give dispersion
of
FIG. 195.
colours without deviation of the
mean
ray.
deviations
equal
and
opposite
:
"
FIG. 196.
Making
the
mean
MIRRORS AND LENSES
407
D=(/*1-1)A1
.
A!_ /v-l
-D
= 0*a-l)A2
'A2-~/V-l
the thin
prism angles are inversely
as
the
(mean
ref. index"
1)
and
one
is inverted.
In
Fig.
196 the deviation is
(l-5-l)x30"-(l-6-l)x25"=0
and the
dispersion
0-25"-
(-5"X .25/30) =
--21"
(exaggerated
in the
diagram).
Since
dispersion
=Px deviation
.*.
net
dispersion =(P1" P2) X original
deviation.
Thick
prisms
of this
sort
are
very
useful in
pocket spectro- scopes,
Fig.
184.
EXAMPLES." CHAPTER XLV
2. A white stone lies
on
the bottom of
a pond.
Its
edges are generally
observed to be
fringed
with
colour,
blue and
orange.
Explain this,
and
state which is the blue
edge. [L.]
3. What is observed
near
the
boundary
of
'
total reflection
'
of
white
light ?
4. Draw
a
section of
a
30"
prism
and
paths
of red and blue
rays
through it, originally coinciding (a)
for normal incidence, (b)
for
any
other incidence.
[L]m.
5.
Explain
'
dispersion
'
and describe
some experiments
to illustrate
it. How would
you compare
the
dispersive
powers
of two substances ?
[L.]
6. Describe how to
measure dispersive
power
for different colours.
[D]m.
7. How
may
a
double
prism
be constructed
(a)
to
give
deviation
without
dispersion,
and
(b)
to
give dispersion
without deviation ?
[L.]
CHAPTER XLVI
THE EYE
"
441. An earthworm
seems
sensitive to
lightanywhere near
its anterior end. In several animalculse this sensitiveness is
supposed
to
be concentrated in
an
'
eye-spot.'
In the
'
compound
eyes
'
of insects better
provision
is made for
localizinglight
and
shade
;
the central
nervous
tissue sends
a
fibre into each of
surrounding
hundreds of
long narrow tubes,
like
so
many gun-
barrels,
radiating
in
most directions of the
sphere. Along
each
comes
the
lightgathered solely
from the direction in which it is
aimed, to
help
build
a patchwork or
mosaic
picture
of the world
without.
A mosaic could be obtained
by packing nerve-endings
like
a
velvet
pileon
the back of
a
hollow chamber in the front of which
was a
small hole
" a pinhole camera.
To
gain more
illumination
the
pinhole
is
enlarged
and covered with
a lens,
and there results the
eye
of vertebrates. The
ner- vous
'
pile
'
of the retina
is
so
fine that the
'
mosaic
grain
'
vanishes.
In
a
fish's
eye,
Fig.
197, a
dense
spherical
lens has to
do all the
refraction. In land
animals the clear hard
spherically bulged
front
of the
'
Cornea
'
does
FIG. 197.
most.
The Lens
separates
the anterior
*
aqueous
'
and
posterior
'
vitreous
' '
humours,'
both of them
jellies
which
are,
optically speaking,
water. It is less
curved,
and
is variable in
curvature
and
position
to
ensure
the clear
focussing
408
THE EYE
409
on
the retina of
light
from different distances and
so
to
'
accommodate
'
vision.
"
442. Hence
a
first
approximation
to the action of the human
eye
is obtainable
by regarding
it
as a case
of Refraction at
a
singlesphericalsurface,Fig.
198.
A number of
rays
are
alreadytravelling
towards
a
focus 0'.
In their
path
is
placed
the
spherical
surface
AS,
radius
SC,
of
a
medium of refractive
index,
/a.
The
rays
now
focus at I,
real
image
in the medium of
now
'
virtual
object
'
0' in air.
Selecting
two
rays,
one
passes
straight throughC,
the other EA is refracted
at A
(radius-normalCAN) so
that sine
NAE=/z
sine CAT. The
anglesbeing
small
are
practically equal
to their sines
;
dot in
HA
parallel
to SO
;
let SO'
=b,
SI
=a
;
then
L
e
NAE=NAH-EAH=/*CAI=j*(ACS--AIS)
or
slope
of NC-of
E0=/x
(slope
of NC-of
AI)
11
/I
T
FIG. 198.
If the
rays
were
parallel
in air
1/6=0
and
a
becomes
principal/
in medium
=
~~j
r
while if
light
were
parallel
in the medium
l/a=0
and b becomes
principal /in
air
=
r
r.
Thus the
focal
distances in the two media
are
different,
and
are proportional
to their
refractive
indices
(cf." 409).
This is
perfectlygeneral,
and the relationfound above
holds,
with the usual
sign
convention,
in all
cases.
To this
approximation
the
Eye
may
be considered
as a
bulk
of
water,
^=4/3,
with
a
refracting cornea
of radius -5 cm.
In the
case calculated such
an
eye
is
receivinglight
that has
come
througha convex
spectacle
lens.
Such
an
eye
would of
course lose all
refracting
power
in water.
410 A HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS
The
imperfectsight
that the human
eye
retains under water is
due almost
entirely
to the denser
'
crystalline
lens/
"
443. Accommodation of vision.
At rest the normal
eye
is
adapted
for
parallel light
from
a
distance. For
near
objects
the
'
ciliary
muscle
'
encircling
the
lens
pulls
on
it all
round,
causing
its rather flat front to
bulge
and thus
making
it
stronger.
See
Fig.197,
which is drawn to
natural size and correct curvatures.
In Birds the lens is forced forward
by
the
hydrostatic
pressure
of the vitreous humour when
encircling
muscles
squeeze
inwards
the
overlappingbony plates
which surround the
eye.
There isalso
a
highly
vascular
organ,
the
pecten,
into which blood
can
be forced
so as
to increase the total contents of the
eye
and
again
to
drive
the lens forward.
Distinct vision is
possibleonly
in the interval between limits
of distance D and
D',
called the
near and far points
of the
eye.
Both
can
be found with the
optometer,
which is
just
a convex
spectacle
lens with
an
objectslidingbeyond
it
on a
graduated
bar. The
nearest
and farthest distances d and d'
are
noted at
which the
object
can
be
clearly
seen
by
the
eye
close behind the
lens,
from their
reciprocals
is subtracted the focal
power
of the
lens,
and the
remainders,re-inverted, are
D and D'. The
accommo- dating
power
of the
eye
is
1/D" 1/D',
itis the
angle
marked
a.p.
in
Fig.
199.
As
an
example
of normal
sight(at
age
19)
G.L.S. had D -08
metre,
D'"
7-7 m.
(formeaning
of "
see "385)
and therefore
accommodating
power
12
diopters.
"
444.
Judgment
of distance. Stereoscopic
vision.
Shutting
one
eye,
the effort of
focussing
the other on near
objects
enables
some
estimate of their
comparative
distances,
and
practice,
such
as
the
one-eyed
man
gets,develops
this
faculty.
But the
possession
of two
eyes
gives
us
solid-seeing
"
stereoscopic
" vision and
a
far better
means
of
judging
distances.
Always
the distance is that at which two lines
cross.
For
a
single
eye
these
are
the extreme
right
and left
rays
that enter
the
pupil,only-J-
in.
across.
Rays
to two
eyes
separate
twenty
times
as
far
;
the
turning
inwards of the
eyes
increases
very
perceptibly
as
the
object
on
which both
are
bent
conies
closer,
and there is
no
difficulty
in
detecting
difference
of
distance.
412 A HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS
visual limit he will be
content,
i.e.
a concave
lens is added to
his
eye
to
give
a
normal combined refraction.
If the refraction is
abnormally
weak,
rays
divergent
from
near
points
cannot be
brought
to an
imageby
the time
they
reach
the
retina. A
convex
lens must be added to render such
rays
more
nearlyparallel
and enable the
long-sighted or hypermetropic
eye
to see
clearly
at the
near distance. For the trouble
now
is that
nothing
is clear till2 or 3 ft. from the
eye,
a
distance at which
most
print
istoo small to read.
A
spectacle
lens is
an
optical
instrument
:
through
it
one sees,
not
the
object
but the virtual
image of
it,
and the lens must be such
as to form this virtual
image
at
a
distance within the wearer's
range
of accommodation. You cannot
'
make the
eye
see
things,'
you
must make
images
where the
eye
can see
them. Glasses
are so
familiar that
one
is
apt
to
forget
or even
disbelieve
this
statement
;
but borrow
a
pair
and
try
to walk downstairs,
looking
at
your
feet.
"
448. In
Spectacle
Calculations the
problem
is
V. Given distances of
image
and
object
from lens,
find/.
a
is where the
patient
can see
;
givenb,
find
/.
Both a
and b
are
"
,
the
light
leaves
-j-
to enter the
eye.
Distances
are
reckoned
from the usual
position
of
a
spectacle
lens,an
inch from the
eye.
Example
1
.
A
short-sighted
person
can see
only
between 4 in. and 2 in.
Give him
glasses
to make his
'
far
point
'
very
distant,so that he can
safely
walk about. 6
very
great, 1/6
= 0,
while
I/a"
"
1/4
i.e.
a concave lens
of
4 in.
focus;
or
of "40/4=
" 10
Diopters.
This is
a
foregone
conclusion
; parallellight
has been made to
diverge
from
a"f by
definition.
His
near
point through glasses
will be 6 when a = " 2
1/6- 1/4= -1/2
i.e. 4 in. from the
eye.
[That
this is still
near
does not matter unless
perhaps
in
treating squint,
when
/ might
be
computed
for 6 = " 8
when a="
2.]
Ex. 2. A
long-sighted
person
cannot see nearer than 1 metre.
He wishes of
course to see
objects
at the normal 25
cm. Putting
a=
"
1,
6=--25
!//= -f
3
Diopters;
a convex lens
$
m. focus.
THE EYE
413
By
construction,Fig.
199.
Ex. 1.
Easy.
Ex. 2. Draw lens and axial
rays
1, 2,
mark in
object
3 and
image
at visible distance 4. Draw 5
parallel
to
2,
then 6
through
A cuts 2 at
/.
Elderlypeople
often lose
nearly
all
power
of accommodation-
presbyopia"
and
frequently
cannot
even
converge
parallel light
:
rays
must be
alreadycoming
to a
focus at
some point
behind the
eye.
They require
two
pairs
of
spectacles.
Ex. 3. An
elderly
person
whose
single
distance is 2 metres
(
=
+a)
behind
eye
requiresglassesfor
vision at 4 m. (walking)
and also
for
reading
at
J
m.
+ l/2
=
l//+(
"
1/4). .'. I//
= -75
Diopters
for
walking.
+ l/2
=
l//+ (
"
1/i).
"
5
Diopters
for
reading.
FIG. 199.
"
449. An
astigmatic
eye
contains
a
refracting
surface which is
elliptical,
curved
differently
in the vertical and horizontal
planes.
Any image
it
produces
is
distorted,
like
your
face in
a
teaspoon.
A
pattern
of
radiating
lines
cannot be
seen clearly
all at
once,
when
some are
distinct those
at
rightangles
are blurred,
and
requirerefocussing.
Print becomes
illegible
from the
blurring
of
the horizontal strokes.
Astigmatism
is
unhappily common
among
students
;
the
ellipticity
if
slight
is
practically
corrected
by appropriate
stress in
healthyeye-muscles,
but if
more serious,
eye-strain
and headache drive
one to the
oculist,
who
prescribes
for each
eye
separately
a
compensating
lens. This is
plane
or
spherical
on one
surface and
cylindrical
on
the other
; along
the
straight
axis
(dots
in the
row
of lenses in
Fig.199)
of the
cylinder
there is
only
the
sphere'scurvature,
at
rightangles
there is
sphere's
f
cylinder's.
Thus
one
gets
the effect of
an
ellipse (an
ungrindablesurface)
and distorts the
lightready
for the afflicted
eye.
414 A HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS
"
450. How the
eye
sees
colour.
It has been
tacitly
assumed
throughout
that the
eye
blends
all the
spectrum
colours into
a tint. If all
are
present
in normal
proportion
it is unconscious of tint" white
light;
when
some are
weak
or
absent the tint
perceived
is
complementary
to that
which the abstracted
parts
would add
up
to.
An overdose of
one
colour forced
on
the
eye
fatigues
and almost
blinds it awhile
to
that colour
:
feeble white
light
will for several
seconds afterwards
appear
defective in that colour and therefore
tinged
with its
complementary.
Hence the old
advertising
device of
a
red disc at which
one
stared for half
a
minute in
a
stronglight
and then looked
up
and
saw a
blue-green
disc
on
the
ceiling.
Hence also
a reason
for colour
harmony
and discord
;
the
eye,
fatiguedby
one colour,
makes its
perpetual
littleex- cursions
over
the other
;
if it receives the
complementaryonly,
the
fatigue
recovers
;
if the
new
tint stillcontains
some
of
the
old,
plus
a new
strong
colour,
there is double
fatigue
and
discord.
Now this red and
blue-green
which
together
make
up
white
light(i.e.
the whole
spectrum)
can
be
nearly
matched
by
two small
selected bits of
it,
say
Lithium red and Thallium
green
lines.
The
yellowish
tint of these combined needs
only
a
littleIndium
blue line to make it
practically
colourless. In fact there
are
three
spectrum
colours,
roughlyrecognizable
as vermilion,
emerald
green,
and
royal
blue,
by combining
which in
proper
brightness
any
colour whatever
can
be
closely
imitated. Maxwell did this
by puttingadjustable
sectors of
paper
of these colours
on a
disc,
and
spinning
it
;
also in better
ways
with
pure
spectrum
colours.
From this
arose
the three-colour
theory
of
vision,
that the
eye
has three colour-sensations
only,
red,
green,
and
blue,
and that
its notion of
any
colour
depends
on
the relative
proportion
in
which these three
are
excited. This
seems at first
sight
to
suggest
further
analysis
of
a
pure spectrum
colour of
perfectly
definite
frequency,
but the
case
is
reallyanalogous
with the
setting
in
motion of two
strings
on a
pianoby
a
fork intermediate in
pitch,
"
324. The
theory
is,however,
objected
to
by physiologists,
and
need not be insisted
on
; sight
and colour blindness
are
in the
province
of the sisterscience. Sufficient that it has
brought
forth
colour
photography
and
three-colour-process printing.
NOTE. "
Complementary
coloured
lights
added
together produce
".
THE EYE 415
white
: as
the first
green
flush of the
sprouting
wheat
spreads
over
the red fields of Devon both colours
are
blended and lost in
a
grey
paleness.
But
complementarypaints
mixed
together
look
black.
Compare
under
a
lens the white of
a
Lumiore
'
auto-
chrome
'
transparency
and the black of
a
three-colour
process
print.
For
evidentlyaddinglightstogether
is the
very
reverse
of
subtracting
red,
green,
etc.,
in succession from white
light
by puttingabsorbing
films in its
path.
Common blues and
yellows
transmit
a
little
green,
blue and
yellowlamps togethergive
a
white illumination
faintly
tinted
green,
blue and
yellowpaintsgive
a
green
mixed with
Hack,
i.e.
pure,
but not
nearly
so
brilliant
as
the
singlepigment
:
try
it.
The
SpectrumTop
is
a
4-in.card
disc,
divided into
a
black and
a
white semicircle. From the black half
projects
a
curved
arc,
concentric
with the
disc,
of
black,an
inch
long
and
J^
inch thick.
Spun steadily
to the
right
in
a
strong light
the
arc
appears
as a
red
ring;
spun
to the left it
appears
blue. It
seems
that the
light
of the white card
suddenlyappearing
on
both sides of the dark
line,as
the black semicircle
goes away,
tends to
spread by
'
irradiation
'
(dazzling)
over
the
narrow
dark
space,
but the red
sensation
spreads
fastest,
and the dark line
appears
red. And
conversely
the red sensation
disappears
fastest and the dark
line
invading
a
white
space appears
blue.
Similarly,
when
walking past
a
high open-paled
fence,
the
skylightflickering obliquely
into the
eye
from between the
palings
often
appears
tinged
with red.
EXAMPLES." CHAPTER XLVI
4. Describe the
eye
as an
optical
instrument. What forms of
lenses
are required
for
long
and short
sight
and what
disadvantages
are
experienced
in their
use ?
[St.A]m.
5. What is meant
by long sight,
short
sight,
and
astigmatism
? A
short-sighted
eye
cannot see clearly anything
at a
distance
greater
than 6 in.
;
what lens should be used to enable the
eye
to see distant
objects
?
[L.]
6. A
short-sighted
person
cannot
see anything distinctly
at a
greater
distance than 25
cm. What lens will enable him to see
things
distinctly
at a
great
distance ?
[L]m.
416 A HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS
7. What lens would enable
an
eye
of
D/-
8 in. to
see objects at 48 in. ?
What lens would enable
an
eye
of Dn 3 ft. to read at 1 ft. ? [L]m.
8. A short-sighted
person
can see
distinctly objects at distances
ranging
from 10 to 20
cm.
from the
eye.
Give the focal
power
or
dioptric strength
of suitable
spectacles,
and calculate the
new near
and far
points. [L.]
9.
Walking along
a
road
paved
with
granite
setts and
looking
steadfastly
at
a point
about 6 ft. before
your
feet,
a
curious
rippling
movement
appears
both before and behind the
point
looked at. How
do
you
account for this ?
10. How would
you
test
an
eye
for
astigmatism
and how decide
what kind of
spectacle
lenses to recommend ? [L]m.
11. Using a
lens of focal
length
7-3
cm.
the. limits of distinct vision
were
found at 7-6 and 4
cm.
Calculate the limits without the lens and
the
accommodating
power.
12. Prove that
an
air bubble in
a
glass ball
or a
goldfish
in
a globe
will
appear
nearer
than it
really is, at its true distance, or
farther
off,
according as
it is
nearer
the surface than the
centre, at the
centre,
or beyond
it.
CHAPTER XLVII
OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS
"
451.
Apparatus
for
projecting an
intense beam of
light.
The
Catoptric (cata" down, back)
lanterns of
a lightshipare
lamps
in the foci of
parabolic
mirrors. This
shape
reflects all
rays
from its
geometrical
focus
accurately
in
parallel
lines. The
flame
being,however, more
than
a
mathematical
point,
the whole
beam
gradually
widens
out
as
described in the next section.
In
searchlights
the brilliant
'
crater
'
of the
large positive
carbon faces the
parabolic reflector, Fig.
200. Direct
light
is
now prevented
from
scattering
out
by a
broad collar round the
carbon.
In
Dioptric (dia, through)
lanterns
(simplest
type
the
common
bull's
eye)
the
lamp
is at the
principal
focal
distance from
a lens,
which makes
the direct
rays
from
any
particular
point
of it into
an approximately
parallel
beam. If there is
a
reflector
FlG- 20"-
it
must
now
be
differentlyarranged,
for if it sent
parallellight
as before,
the lens would focus and then scatter
it.
Fig.
201 is
a
section
through a
very
perfect
'
catadioptric
'
lighthouse
lantern
designed
to utilize all the
lightpossible.
A
plano-convex
lens of diameter ab and short focus FL would be
very
thick. Thickness does
nothing
useful and
merely
absorbs
some
of the
light.
The lens is therefore built
up
of concentric
rings
of
glass,
each of which has had its
superfluous
thickness removed.
[These
'
echelon
'
lenses, cast
in
one piece,
are common on ships'
lights:
sometimes the flat face is
stepped
down instead of the
convex].
The
angle
of the outer
rings
is modified from the
'
spherical
'
to reduce aberration.
Encircling
the lens
are rings
of
prismatic
section
(6 triangular
27 417
418 A HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS
and
7
trapezoidal),
most
carefully angled
and
placed
so as
to
catch and
totally reflect
the
light
into
one direction,
without
getting
in
one
another's
way.
Revolving
'
flashing
'
lighthouse
lanterns have
2, 4, or more
panels
each built
up
in this
way,
and emit
this number of brilliant radii. Our
lantern is to send all its
light
through
one
panel,accordingly
the
back is filled in with
a
portion
of
a
spherical
mirror
reflecting
all the
radiation from that side of the
flame back into it.
Mostly,
this
passes
through
it and travels out
with the direct
rays
;
any
part
which is absorbed in the flame
makes it hotter and therefore
brighter;
either
way
it is utilized.
Since
a
silvered surface is
apt
to
tarnish the mirror is built
up
of
glass
rings
of
right-angled prism
section
which
totally
reflect the
light.[On
a
small scale the
'
Holophane
'
reflectors for
glow lamps
act in the
same
way.]
FIG. 201.
"452.
The character of the beam
produced.
Since each
point
of the flame is
approximately
a
principal
focal
point
of the
lens,or mirror,
light
from these devices
passes
out
in
many
parallel
beams
slightly
inclined to
one
another. Or
really,
in
a
solid
cone
of
angle
FLF',
Fig.
202,
but truncated at the broad
face of the lens
or
mirror. This
spreading
causes
it to
approxi- mately
follow the inverse
square
law
("355)
when examined at
considerable distances
away.
The ideal
parallel
stream of
light
that retains its
brightness
quite
undimmed
by
distance
cannot therefore be
artificially
produced.
The best
one can do,
in the absence of the mathematical
pointsource,
is to
use as source a
small
pinhole
in
a
plate
FIG. 202.
420 A HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS
"454.
The
camera
lens.
A
convex
lens
projects
a
real inverted
image
on a
plate.
In
Fig.
165, etc.,
the
image
of
a
straight
line has been drawn
as a
straight
line
parallel
to
it,
but if the
diagram
be constructed
carefully
for 3 or
4 distinct
points
of the
object
it will be found
that the
image
is
actually
curved
;
the
image
of
a
flatsheet would
be in focus
on
the inside of
a saucer.
This
difficulty
was overcome
in the
Landscape Lens, a meniscus,
hollow towards the view and with
a
limiting
circular hole
or
'
stop
'
about
'I/in
front of
it,
Fig.
205. This
gives
a
flat
image,
in focus all
over a
good-sized plate,
but distorted
so
that
a
square
has
bulging
sides. Turned the other
way
round it makes
a
square
'
cushion
shaped.'
Hence the
symmetrical
'
Rapid
Rectilinear
J
in which
a
pair
of meniscus lenses face each other
(front
lens
dotted,
Fig.205),
with
a
stop midway
between,
and
give
a
flat
undistorted
image.
The
Stop
is
a
very
essential
part
of the
complete
lens,
it
removes
the haze in which
'
spherical
aberration
'
would otherwise
envelop
the
picture.Diminishing
its size also reduces the obvious
outstandingdifficulty
of
focussing
on a
flat
plateimages
of
objects
at all
sorts of distances
away,
p
For
suppose
the
cone
of
light
""
from the lens is
not
coming
to
a focus till
F,
Fig.
205. Evi-
dently
a
smaller
stop
makes
the
cone
narrower,
and the
circular
patch
in which it strikes the
plate(the
cross line)
smaller
and
more
like
a true focus.
Unfortunately, cutting
down the size of the window in this
way
necessitates a
lengthened
exposure.
The diameter of the
aperture
is stated
as a fraction of the focal distance
(which
is
usuallynearlyenough
distance of
plate), e.g.//8,//ll,etc.
The
light
it transmits from
a
given
outside
brightness
is of
course
proportional
to its
area,
or
to
(//II)2,
etc. Hence the illumination
on
the
plate, c.p.-^d2, "355,
is
(//ll)2-^-/2, etc.,
and the
exposure
to catch
a
givenquantity
of
light
is
inversely proportional
to
this,
i.e.
directly proportional
to
(II)2,
etc.
Modern
'
anastigmat
'
lenses
are
elaborations of the
types
described and
can
work at wider
apertures
and wider
angles
because
their
astigmatic
and
spherical
errors
have been
greatly
reduced.
The
'
portrait
lens
'
type,
shown in
Fig.
206
(right),
consists of
a
OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS
421
convex
and about
//3
behind it
a
weaker
correcting
lens,
and at
wide
aperture gives
exquisite
definition
over a
rather
limited
central
area.
All
photographic
lenses are
of
course
carefully
achromatized.
That ancient seaside
joy,
the Camera
Obscura,
in which a
45"
mirror
or
reflecting prism
behind the lens throws
the
image
down
on to a
horizontal
screen,
has
now,
like the Cetacea,
taken
to the
sea
entirely,
and forms the head of the
periscope
of the
submarine.
"
455. The
Magic Lantern,
Fig.
206.
The
photographer
is often in
a
difficulty
because the dark
parts
of the
object
do not send
enough light
to affect his
plate.
Con- versely,
when he
comes to
project
the finished
picture
on
the
screen,
it is invisible wherever the lantern slide is too
feebly
lit.
The condition to be fulfilledin
lighting
the slide
can
be
put
thus
:
Regarding
the
projection
lens
or
'
objective
'
as an
eye,
which
is
to form
a
brightimage (enlarged)
on
its
retina,
the white
sheet,
it
must see
all
parts
of the slide
brilliantly
litfrom behind. In
'
daylightenlarging
'
a
broad white
painted
board reflects the
skylight,
but at
night
a flame three inches
square
is
impracticable,
a
diffusing piece
of
opalglass
in front of the
lamp
is wasteful of
light,
and what is
actuallyemployed
is
a
'
condensing
'
lens
system arrangedso as to
everywhere
bend and send the
light
re- ceived
from the
lamp
into the
'
eye
'
of the
projection
lens. The
face of this condenser
will then
appear
to it
as a
uniform blaze of
light;
its
image
of this constitutes the well-known circle
of
light
on
the
screen.
The
strong lens-system
of the Condenser most
commonly
consists of
a
pair
of
largecheapplano-convex
lenses back to back,
FIG. 206.
IL
this
arrangement reducing
the
spherical
aberration. The breadth
of the
source
of
light
smoothes out their
imperfections.They
focus the
lamplight
into
a
rough image
of the
lamp
somewhere
422 A HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS
inside
the
Projection
Lens. This must be
a
good
achromatic lens
of wide
aperture,
that shown is
a
'
portrait
'
lens. For if too
small,
the
image
of the
lamp
will
more
than suffice to fill
it,
and
any
overlappinglight
is of
course
merelystopped.
Such lenses
of
large
aperturebeingcostly,
the
source
of
light
should be
small,
a condition
admirably
fulfilled
by limelight
or
electric
arc.
In
Fig.
206 the
rays
are
drawn
as
they
would be refracted
by
a
thin lens at
LL,
about
equivalent
to the
portrait
combination.
The solid lines
are
converging
towards
points
on
the
screen.
The dotted lines and the middle solid line form the standard
construction for
a
small
portion
of the slide S.
In
practice
one
lights
up,
inserts
a slide,
and
moves
the lens
tillthe
scrap
of
picture
visible is in focus
;
then
one removes
the
slide and
moves
the
lamp
to and fro and
sideways
tillthe whole
circle is
bright.
A littlesmoke
or
dust in the air will then
show the
path
of the
light
as
described.
"
456.
Magnifying lens
or 'simple microscope,' and its Magni- fying
Power.
The
use
of
a convex
lens
as a
simplemagnifier
is
figured
in
Fig.
207
(see
also
Fig.168).
The
object
is within the
principal
focal
FIG. 207.
distance of the
lens,
and the virtual
image
appears
the
right
way
up
and at some
distance within the observer's
range
of distinct
vision.
The
'
Magnification,' "
391
[diam.
of
image-f-diam.
of
object]
may
be
anything
from 1 when
object
touches lens
(readingglass
lying
on
the
page)
to
infinity
when
object
is at
/from
lens and
image
is
seen
by parallel
beams.
But the
image
is
virtual,
therefore the closest
point
from which
it
can
be
inspected
is the other side of the lens. One cannot
always
go
close
up
to
it
as
to the real
image
on a
lantern sheet.
To
an
eye
placed
close behind the lens it
appears
to
vary very
OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS
423
little in size wherever it is. For it is not
clearly
visible until
several inches
away,
its ends
always
lie
on
the
'
scissors
'
rays
CX,
CY
so
that its
angular
diameter XEY
never
differs much
from XCY.
Now
one
naturallybrings
an
object
to the nearest distance of
distinct
vision,D,,
of
"
443,
before
calling
for
a
magnifyingglass,
so
the
Magnifying
Power
(m.p.)
is
defined
as
the number
of
times
the
apparent
(angular)
diameter
[XEY] of
the
image
contains
the
angle[xEy]
that the
object
would subtend when
placed
at
the
nearest
distance
of
distinctvision.
[Perhaps
the
simplest
way
of
stating
the action of
any
magnifier
is this
:
it enables the
user to
bring
an
objectnearer,
so as
to
subtend
a
greater angle
at the
eye,
and
yet
see
it
clearly.
A
pinhole
in
a
card held to the
eye
can
do
this,
for it is
a
'
small
stop,'"
454,
and reduces the size of the
'
circlesof confusion
'
of
an
out-of-focus
image.
A well-known
advertising
firm occasion- ally
provides
readers of Bradshaw with this
magnifier,
but it
demands
a
good light.]
This is
nearlyenough
the
same as (linear
size
of image
at Dn
-^-size
ofobject),
but this
as a
definition is
objectionable,
for it
arbitrarily
and
quiteunnecessarily
ties the
image
down to
a
fixed
distance,a
distance
moreover
which the observer
mostly
alters
by slightly drawing
back the
lens,
for itinvolves maximum
strain
on
the
eye.
In
a
diagram
of
course one
has to dot in virtual
images
possess- ing
real
size,
but
actuallythey
are
merelyapparitions possessing
onlyangular
diameter and
quasi-distance.
This should be borne
in mind whenever
they
are dealt with.
To Find the
Magnifying
Power
then,
look with
one
eye
through
the lens
at a scale,
and with the other
eye
at another similar scale
10 in.
away.*
With
a
little
adjustment
the
large
virtual
image
" the
magnified
scale"
can
be
seen
overlying
the second scale. Both
being
in
clear focus
they
must be at the
same
distance and therefore the
number of divisions covered
by
one
magnified
division=""
m.p.
Ten inches
(or
25
cm.)
is the standard
Dn
for which all
m.p.'s
are
specified,
but
a
short-sighted
eye
gainsrelatively
less ad- vantage
than
this,
not
on account of
a
difference of distance of
the
image,
but because it
can,
unaided
by
lenses,see
the
object
nearer,
under
a
largerangle,
than
a
normal
eye.
*
Or
as
under
microscope,"
462.
424 A HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS
The
relation of
magnifying power
to focal
length can
be deduced
thus
:
" In
Fig.
207,
taking
XC
as base-line,
Right-handdown-slope
of AF =
slope
of
OA+1//
i.e.
(_l/a)=(-l/")+l//
changing
sides and
multiplying by
a
throughout,
a/b=a/a-\- a/f
i.e.
(by"391)
'
m=l+ a/f
and
Magnification
m
becomes
Magnifying
Power when a=T"n,
e.g.
a
1-in. focus lens has
m.p.
11
;
but to a
person
with
T"n=3
in.
it is
only
4 times
as
effective
as
his shorter
sight.
If the lens is held
away
from the
eye
the least value of
a
is
(Dn"
distance lens to
eye)
and the
m.p.
is reduced. But
by
slightly shifting
the lens and
refocussing
the
eye
a can
be increased
till
vastlygreater
than the
separation
of lens and
eye,
XE'Y
again
==XCY and the normal
m.p.
is
regained
:
try
this with
a
pocket
lens.
"
457. The
largeangle
at which
rays
from an
object
0 strike
the
lens,
Fig.
208
(i)
results in much
spherical
aberration,
apparent
as
the
blurring
all round the
very
limited fieldof view of
a
strong
lens. The back of the lens has refracted the
ray
AE much less.
Fig.
208
(ii)
shows that
an
equallystrong plano-convex
lens,
flat face to
object,
shares the refraction
more
equally
between
the two
faces,
giving
much less aberration and therefore a
wider
clear field.
Magnifiers
of successive
piano
lenses like
Fig.
208
(iii)
up
to
m.p.
200 were
much in
use
before
compound microscopes
had been
successfully
achromatized. A
powerful pocket
lens is the
'
Coddington,'
a
little
sphere
of
glass
cut
away
to
a
dice-box
shape
as
in
Fig.
iv,
to
stop
off
marginal
rays.
Its field is
flat,
but its
working
distance is small. It is
a
development
of the
spherical drop
of melted
glass
with which the earliest studies of
'
animalculae
'
were
made. The best
pocket
lenses of the
present
OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS 425
day
are
the
'
aplanatic
'
cemented
triplets,
such
as
Fig.v,
in which
four surfaces share the refraction.
It is remarkable and fortunate
that
every
simplemagnifier,
used
correctly,
is achromatic. The
greaterbending
of the blue
rays
(shortdots)
causes
the blue
image
to
appear
farther
off,as
in
Fig.
207,
lower
half,
but since all the
images
lie between the
'
scissors
'
rays
they
appear
to an
eye
near
C to
cover one
another
very
exactly,
their
sum
total
being
a
colourless
image.
Contrast
Fig.
192.
"
458.
Eye-pieces
for
telescopes
and
microscopes
are interesting
varieties of
magnifyingglass,consisting
of two lenses
spaced
apart.
The
'
object
'
they
are
used to
magnify
is
a
'
real
image
'
formed
by
the
object-glass
or
-mirror of the instrument.
They
replace
the
single
convex
eye-lens
of
elementary theory,
which
givesonly
a
small fieldof view
very
badly
blurred and coloured all
round.
According
to
"
439 two lenses of the
same
sort of
glass
separatedby
half the
sum
of their focal
lengths
form an
achro- matic
combination. And
by sharing
the deviation
equallyamong
their four surfaces
spherical
aberration is
minimized, "
434.
These ideas
are
put
into
practice,
as
far
as
other considerations
permit,
in the
following
:
"
The Ramsden
or
*
positive
'
eye-piece,Fig.
209,
has two
plano- convex
lenses flat sides
outwards,
of
equal/)
and d rather less than
|(/-|-/), actually|/ apart.
The
principal
focal
planes
lie
\d
FIG. 209.
outside either end
:
in
one
lie the
image
and the
cross- wires,
micrometer, etc.,
for which this
eye-piece
is
usuallyemployed.
Parallel
light
then leaves for the
eye
at the other end
;
for
abnormal vision the whole
eye-piece
is
pulled
out
or
pushed
in
a
little.
[In
the
figure
the dotted virtual
image
'
formed
by
'
the
'
field-
lens
'
was
found
by
the standard construction of which the dotted
lines form
part.
This
image lying
at
/from
the
'
eye-lens/
the
long
line
was
drawn
through
centre
of
latter,
all
rays
will
emerge
426 A HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS
parallel
to this. Then
working
backwards such
rays
were
drawn
from
margins
of
pupil,eye-lens converged
them to dotted
image,
then field-lensto real
image.]
The
Huyghens or so-called
*
negative
'
eye-piece, Fig.
210"
has two
plano-convex
lenses,convex
sides towards incident
light.
The first
or
'
field-lens
'
has from 2 to 3 times
(for
minimum
spherical aberration)
the focal
length
of the little
*
eye-lens
'
and
the distance between them =
|
sum
of focal
lengths(for
achro- matism).
The field-lensreceives
rays
from the
object-glass beforethey
have
come to a focus and
brings
them
more
quickly
to an
image
FIG. 210.
in the
plane
of the field-of-view
diaphragm.
This isinside the
eye- piece
and liesin the focal
plane
of the
eye-lens,
it is
responsible
for the familiar black circle. On it
can
be
placedpointers,
micrometer
scales,etc.,
but since the field-lens has distorted the
image
somewhat at the
edges
this
eye-piece
has to
giveplace
to the
Ramsden for accurate
micrometry.
The
eye-lens
then
magnifies
everything
in the usual
way.
The
advantage
of the field-lensin
enlarging
the field of view
is evident from the
figure;
without it
rays
such
as
shown would
continue their dotted
paths
and miss the
eye-lensaltogether,
only
a
small middle of the fieldwould be visible.
[The figure
was
drawn
by
the
same
scheme
as before,
but
one
extreme
ray
at
present missing
the
eye
has been shown. Below
is
a
half-section of the brass
casing,showing
the
diaphragm.]
"459.
Telescopes.
Telescopes
are
contrivances to
improve
our
view of distant
objectsby increasing
their
apparent angular
diameter,
i.e.
by forming
an
image
of them which subtends
a
greaterangle
at
the
eye
than the
objects
did.
We seldom
use a
telescope
to
get
a
better view of small
objects
than
we
could
get
at arm's
length,
if accessible. We
are
content
428 A HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS
Usually
one
finds the
m.p.
by pointing
the
telescope
at
a
distant
brick wall
and,
keeping
both
eyes open,
counting
how
many
bricks the thickness of
one
magnified
brick
appears
to cover.
This number is the
Magnifying
Power.
In
practice,
the
object-glass
is
an
achromatic
lens,
of
long
focus
so as
to
produce
a
fair-sized
image,
and
large
to let in
plenty
of
light, "
472. Great
gain
in size of field of view and freedom from
colour is obtained
by replacing
the
singleeye-lens by
a
Ramsden
or
Huyghens eye-piece,"458,
or a
solid
aplanaticmagnifier,
Fig.
208
(V).
The
image
of
course
appears
inverted. This is
no
disadvantage
in
astronomical
work,
but is
remarkably
inconvenient when
attempting
to follow
moving
terrestrial
objects.
For how it
can
be
righted
see
""466,
467.
"
460
: Reflecting telescopes.
The
refracting telescope
was
handicapped
for
a
hundred and
fifty
years by
the chromatic aberration of its
object-glass,
and
before the
discovery
how to correct
this,
its
reflecting
rival had
attained to no
small size and
perfection,
for reflection
causes no
colour troubles. And
by
trial and skill in the
'
fine
grinding
'
and
'
figuring
'
the mirror is made
more
parabolic
and
spherical
aberration removed also. The mirror is of
speculum
metal,
or
nowadays
of
glass
silvered
on
the front
; having only
one
OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS 429
surface to make
true,
the
reflecting telescope
is much less
costly
than
a refractor,
which has four. Several
large
astronomical
reflectors
are
in
use,
but
distorting
variations of
temperature
affect them
more
than refractors.
[One
observer is
now
engaged
in
an
attempt
to
keep
the whole of his
great
5-ft.
reflector,
in
a
mountain
observatory,
at
a
temperature
constant within 2"
F.]
The
difficulty
of the observer's head
getting
in the
light
has
been
got
over
in various
ways
:
"
HERSCHEL tilted his
great
4-ft.mirror
so as
to
bring
the
image
to
one
edge
of the 40-ft.
tube,Fig.
212
(H).
This rather
spoils
the
image,rendering
it
astigmatic.
NEWTON
placed
a
small flat mirror at 45" to the axis
so as
to
throw the
image
to the side of the
tube,
in which the
eye-piece
is
inserted at
rightangles.
This is
perhaps
the most
common
arrangement, Fig.
212
(N).
In the
CASSEGRAIN,
Fig.
212
(C),
a
small
convex
mirror returns
the
rays, through
a
hole in the
concave,
to form the
image*
in front
of
an
eye-pieceplaced
in the usual
telescope position.
F and I
are
conjugate
foci of the
convex mirror,
which is
forming
a
real
image
I of the
'
virtual
object
'
at
F,
the
principal
focus of the
speculum.
This
pattern
of reflector has several
advantages.
[Without
its
eye-piece
it isthe
reflecting analogue
of the
telephoto
lens.]
GREGORY'S, Fig.
212
(G),
has
a concave
small mirror out
beyond
the
image F,
of which it forms
a
second
enlarged*image
I for
examination
through
a
hole in the
great
mirror.
[Without
its
eye-piece
it is the
reflecting analogue
of the
refracting telescope
used
to
project
an
image.
See Note to next
paragraph.]
"
4(51.
Focussing a telescope.
A
short-sighted
person
pushes
in the
eye-piece
so
that I
lieswithin its focal
length,
he then
sees an
image
of it
(foundby
the
common
magnifier
construction,
Fig.207)
somewhere within
his
range
of vision.
Always,
if the
object
comes
nearer,
its
image
retreats from the
o.g.
and
getsinside/'
of
e.p.
as
before. For
a
time the
eye
tolerates
this
by accommodating
for
a nearer
virtual
image,
but
soon one
*
As
drawn, enlarged
about 4 diameters
;
so
that with
equal
eye- pieces
the last
two
telescopes
have 4 times the
m.p.
of the others.
430 A HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS
has to
pull
back the
e.p.
and the
principal
foci of
o.g.
and
e.p.
no
longer
coincide,see
Fig.
213.*
As the
object
stilldraws
nearer
e.p.
must be drawn back faster
till
ultimately
the foci
are
separatedwidely,
the real
image
is
actually
farther from
o.g.
and therefore
larger
than the
object
itself. The
telescope
has become
a
microscope.
[NOTE.
" For
examining
the
sun
without
special apparatus
e.p.
is drawn back tillthe
image
is
outside/',
then
an
enlarged
re-
inverted real
image
forms
on a
card held
a
foot
or more
behind
the
eye-piece,
at the
conjugate
focal distance.
Compare Fig.216.]
Fio. 213.
FIG. 214.
"462.
The
Microscope.
The
length
of the instrument
produced
in this
way
is excessive.
It is shortened
by making
the
object-glass
now of
very
short
focus,
i.e.two
short-focus
convex lenses,
widelyseparated, form
a
compound
microscope,Fig.
214.* The
'
object-glass
'
forms
a
real inverted
enlargedimage
at
or
just
within the focal distance of the
magnifier
'
eye-piece
'
;
the
eye
then
sees a
further
enlarged
virtual
image
of
this at
some
distance within its
range
of distinct vision.
*
On the
drawing of
these
figures. Object-glassgives
I from O
by
standard construction. Ditto
(broken lines)
for
eye-lensgives point
of virtual I'.
Producing
the actual
rays
to meet
eye-lensthey
are
refracted and enter
eye
as
if from
point
I'
OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS 431
The
magnifying power
is
evidently
the
magnification
of the first
image,multiplied by
the
m.p.
of the
e.p.
The former
=
distance
a
of
image
behind
[emergentprincipal planeof]
o.g.
-^-distanceb of
object
in front of
[entering
p.p.
of]
o.g.,
and this=
(a/f"l),by
"
391. The latter is
(10in.//'+l)by "
456.
.'.
m.p.
of
microscope =(a/f"l)x (10 in.//'+l)
or
roughly
in
practice
with
o.g.
and
Huyghenian
e.p.
both of short
focus, a=
length
of
tube,
and
(multiplying out)
tube
length
10 in.
,-,1 n
O
\.s
111*!!*
/" f /\ /"/ i"
/
of
o.g. j
of
e.p.
The
magnifying power can
be measured
by
the
same method
as
for
a
simplemagnifier,"
456,
but
a
modification is
more
convenient in
practice.
The
microscope
is laid horizontal and is
stood
on a
steadypile
of books
so
that its
eye-piece
is
10 in.above
a
paper
on
the table. A little
piece
of
glass,
tinted
or
lightly
smoked
on
the back to dull the second
reflection,
is
supported
at 45"
against
the
eye-lens, Fig.
215. Then
an
eye
looking
vertically
down
sees
the
paper
and
pencilthrough
the tinted
glass
and also the whole
microscope
field
by
reflection, as
if
lying
on
the
paper.
A
'
stage
micrometer
'
"
a
very
fine scale diamond-
ruled
on
glassto,
say,
-001 in." is focussed
by
the
microscope,
and its
rulings
are
traced in
pencil
on
the
paper
:
the
average
distance be-
FIG. 215.
tween two
marks,
divided
by
the actual -001 in.= the
magnifying
power.
This 45"
device,
which facilitates the
making
of
drawings
of
microscopicobjects,
constitutes
a Camera Lucida. In
practice
the
simple
tinted
glass
does
very
well,
requiring
less
adjustment
than other
patterns
of the contrivance. The
pencil
and
paper
must be
brightly lighted.
"
463.
Focussing a microscope
is
effected,not
by pulling
out
the
draw-tube,
which would alter the
m.p.,
but
by moving
the
whole
microscope
towards
or
away
from the
object.
The
focussing
gear
must be
very
delicately adjustable(micro- meter
screw)
;
for
by "
392
an m
times
magnified
real
image
travels
along
the axis m2 times
as
fast
as
the
object;
say
with
a
"
in.
o.g.
m
about
32,
ra2=1000. This real
image
has
to be
examined
by,
say,
a
2-in. focus
e.p.,
and the reader
can
calculate
that
a
motion of
^
in. towards this carries the virtual
image right
432
A
HANDBOOK
OF
PHYSICS
through
the
range
of distinct
vision.
Hence
a
jerk
of
*JU;
in
would
throw the
object
out of focus
altogether.
'
For
photomicrography
the
microscope
is focussed
back
a trifle
(to
the
right),
the
first
image moves
(to
the
left)
out in
front
of the
eye-piece's focus,
and
a real
re-inverted
enlargedimage
forms
on the
plate, Fig.
216.
[The
faint dots
suggest
the
position
of the lenses for
ordinary
visual
use.]
But for
a useful
makeshift,
leave the
microscope
in
focus for
your eye
at
rest,
itis then
emitting parallel light
; put
over it
your
ordinary camera focussed for
'
infinity,'
and
expose.
FIG. 216.
"
464. The
object-glass
of
a
microscope
is
actually
an
achro- matic
combination of
many
lenses and is
capable
of
dealing
with
rays
from the
objectmaking
very
considerable
angles
with the
axis,
particularly
in
high
powers.
A
J-in.equivalent
focus
objective
should take in
a cone
of
rays
spreading
as
wide
as 45" all
round the axis.
Objectives
of the
highest
powers
require
to be
optically
connected to the
objectby
a
drop
of oil of cedar wood
(/*1-5).
This enables the
object
to send into them
rays
in such
a
wide
cone
that not
only
would
they
fill
a
hemisphere
in
air,
but
many
would be
totally
reflected
(Fig.159)
from the under-
surface of the
cover-glass,
back into the
highly
refractive balsam
in which the
object
is contained.
The
advantage
of this
wide-angle
illumination has been
men- tioned
in
"
453 and will be further considered in
"
476.
The sine of the
angle
the extreme
rays
make with the
axis,
multipliedby
the refractive index of the medium from which
they
are
received
(air1,
oil
1-5),
is the
Numerical
Aperture (N.A.)
of the
objective.
The
brightness of
the
image
is
proportional
to
(N.A.)2
and theultimate
fineness ofdefinition
" much
more
important
than
mere
magnification
" is
proportional
to
N.A.
A
high-powerobjective
of
large
N.A.
is,however,
of little
use
unless
adequate
illumination is
being
sent
up
by
a
substage
con- denser
of
large
N.A.
Failing
this,
everything
in the dim field is
bordered
by
'
diffraction
fringes
'
which
cross
and
recross
and
OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS 433
give
riseto abundance of
utterly
falsedetail. To
see
them at their
worst,
turn direct
sunlight
into
your
microscope
with the
plane
mirror. For low
powers
the
concave
mirror
provides
a cone
of
light
of wide
enough angle.
The
microscopeeye-piece
is
usually
a
Huyghenian
or
else
a
solid
'
compensation
'
triplet, Figs.
210,
208
(v).
"
465. Cross-wire and micrometer telescopes
and
microscopes.
Any objectplaced
in the focal
plane
of the
eye-piece
is of
course seen
along
with the
image,just
as was
the
grain
of the
groundglass
in
"
459.
Here therefore
can
be
placedpointers
of all
sorts,
and
'
cross-
wires,'
the line from whose
point
of intersection to the
optical
centre of the
object-glass
is the instrument's
optical
axis and
a
very
definite direction indeed. The
'
Meridian of Greenwich
'
finds its
only tangiblerepresentation
in
a
vertical
spider-line,
stretched
across
the focal
plane
of the
great
meridian-circle
telescope.
Here
again
can
be
placed
delicate
'
eye-piece
micrometers.'
A scale of tenths of a millimetre,
diamond-ruled
on a
glass
disc
and
dropped
on
the
diaphragm
inside the
Huyghens eye-piece,
isa
useful addition to
any
microscope.
The
field-lens, however,
distorts the outer
parts
of the
image
a little,
and
besides,the
whole
eye-piece
is often loose. More reliableand delicate is
an
arrangement
of the finest
spider-lines
on a little
frame,
which is
traversed
across
the tube
by
a
micrometer
screw
and is
examined
by
a
Ramsden
eye-piece.
With such
one measures the
separation
of
a
double
star,
or
the
length
and breadth of
a
bacillus.
The effective value of the scale divisions
or
the
screw
turns
is found
by measuring
with them the
length
of
an
object
of known
size viewed
through
the instrument.
"
466
: Erect-image telescopes
and
microscopes.
There
are
three
ways
of
modifying
a
refracting telescope
or
microscope
so as to obtain
a
view the
right
way up
:
"
I. The real inverted
imageformedby
the
object-glass
is examined
not
with
a common
eye-piece,
but ivith
a
compound microscope,
ivhich
of
course
gives
a
re-inverted view
of
it.
In
pocket,target,etc.,telescopes
the first
draw-joint
forms the
microscope,having
a
Huyghens eye-piece
at one
end and
an
'
erecting glass
'
(themicro-objective ; usually
a
couple
of
strong
convex
lenses with
a
small
stopbetween)
at the other.
Sometimes
28
434 A
HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS
this isusable
as an
ordinarymicroscope,
but often itis
so
perversely
designed
as
to
require
an
objectactually
on
its front lens
or even
inside it"
no trouble to
a
real
image,
but
impossible
to
a
real
object.
The re-inverted real
image J,
Fig.
217,
is
usually
about twice
as
ra
-U-JJ
FIG. 217.
big
as
the
first,
but
by varying
the
'
microscope
'
tube
length
its
size,
and hence the
m.p.
of the whole
instrument,can
of
course
be
widely
altered
['
Pancratic
'
(
= all
powerful)Eye-piece],
In
Fig.
217 the solid lines
are
standard constructions
applied
to alternate ends
(forclearness)
of the
images
I J. The actual
paths
of the two
rays
shown from the
top
of the
object
have then
teen
dotted
in,
they
enter the
eye
as
iffrom
top
of I'. The lower
figure
in
Fig.
217 is
a
-^-scale
section of
a
serviceable little
telescope
now on
the market. Its
m.p.
is
10,
and the first
joint
is
a
handy
microscopex
20.
These
telescopes
are
long,
are
adversely
affected
by
the
aberrations of the additional lenses"
producing
the too familiar
haziness of definition" and
they
are
exceedingly particular
about
exact
focussing, "
463.
In
microscopes
the
erectingglass
is
put
at the bottom of the
draw-tube
;
by moving
the latter the
m.p.
can
be varied
greatly.
Those who have
attempteddissecting
under the
microscope
will
understand the
utility
of the
arrangement.
"
467 : Erect-image
instruments.
II. The
rays
on
their
way
from
the
object-glass
are so
bent and
foldedby repeatedreflections
that
theyform
an erect
image.
The reflections
are total,
in
right-angled prismsplaced
at
right
angles
as
in
Fig.
218. The
image
is turned
right
way up
by
the
436 A HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS
foci and the virtual
image
is formed at
nearer
and
nearer
focal
distances,
conjugate
to
it,
of the
eye-lens,
until
presently
the
draw-tube has to be
pulled
out
more,
unless the
user
is short- sighted.
The aberrations of the two lenses
partly
neutralize each
other,
hence the view isclear and the instrument
short,
simple,
and
cheap.
But the fieldis
small,
especially
with
higher
powers
;
it all lies
inside a
circular window
(o.g.)
looked at
through
a
strong
diminishing
lens. This
sharply
limits the
m.p.,
which is
1-5 to 2
in
opera
glasses
and 3 to 5 in marine binoculars
;
and it
puts
micro- scopes
with
concave
eye-lenses
out of court
altogether.
"
469 :
Simplest
of
telescopes
is Baden Powell's
Unilens.
It
is
a
large
weak
convex
lens held
up
on
the far end of
a
walking
stick. The
eye
must be relaxed tillit focusses
alreadyconvergent
light,
i.e.is
equivalent
to
an
eye
focussed for
parallel light
with
a
weak
concave
lens in front of it. Thus the Unilens is
virtually
the
o.g.
of a
long
Galileo
telescope.
At 6 ft.
a
7?rdiopter
lens would
have
m.p.
3,
the maximum comfortable for most
eyes.
The
Telephoto Lens
is
a
Galileo
telescope
with the
concave
lens drawn farther
back, so
that I would liewithin itsfocal
length,
when
a
much
enlarged
real I' forms at the
conjugate
focal
distance,
by
the construction of
Fig.
220. Variation of the
camera
length
El',
and
simultaneously
the lens
separation, widely
alters the
magnification.
The faint dots show the lens
position
as
telescope.
FIG.
220.
"470.
The Ophthalmoscope.
Wishing
to look into
a
deep
dark
cavity
one
reflects
light
into it
by
a
mirror
as at
A,
Fig.
221. Better all-round illumination
would be
gained
from
a
mirror B with
an
eye-hole
in the
middle,
and far better stillfrom
a concave C, concentrating
the
lamplight.
Such a concave
mirror is the first
requisite
in
laryngoscopes,
ophthalmoscopes,
etc. :
it enables most
cavities to be examined
with
only
the further aid of
a
little mirror
on a
long
handle to
explore
behind corners.
Turned
on a
friend's
eye
it
soon
shows it
by
no means
the black-
walled chamber
you
imagined.
In
fact,
if
only
our
eyes
would
OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS 437
open
to the
enormous
aperture
of
a cat's,
they
would shine
a
faint
but noticeable
goldenpink
'
in the
dark,'
i.e. when
reflecting
a
gleam
from
a
light
near or
behind the
observer.
[The
cat's
eye
has the
faintly
re- flecting
retina backed
by
a more
brilliantly
reflecting layer
instead of the black
'
choroid.']
But the
eye
is
glazed
with
a
lenticular
window. If focussed for
parallel light
this
means
that the retina illuminated
as
in
Fig.
222
(upper)
will be
seen
clearlyby
another
eye
focussed for distance. But if
short-sighted,
rays
from the retina leave the
eye
converging.*
One of
a
trial series of
lenses
(concave
for
short, convex
for
long
sightedeyes)
is used to correct
this,as
shown.
If the
patient's
accommodation is
paralysed
with
belladonna,
the
instrument
quite
close
up,
and the observer's
eye
truly
focussed
for
distance,
this lens is
evidently
the
proper
spectacle
to enable
the
patient's
eye
at rest to
see
at distance.
X
FIG. 222.
A
general
view of the retina is
more
easily
obtained
by
the
indirect
use
of the
ophthalmoscope,Fig.
222
(lower).
A mirror
about 1-ft.focus forms
an
image
of the
lamp
in the air 2
or
3 in.
before
a convex lens,
of that
focus,
held to the
patient's
eye.
This
lens makes the dotted
rays
from the
image
about
parallel,
and
then the
eye converges
them
on a
small
patch
of retina.
Rays
from this
brightly
lit
patch
pass
out
through
the
'
crystalline
'
and
the
glass
lens and form
an
aerial inverted
magnified
real
image
of
*
Toward
an image
of it. Recollect that if this
page
is
clearly
imaged on
your
retina a
sharp image
of
your
retina is likewise
being
thrown
xm
this
page,
but of
course far too
faintly
lit for
anyone
to
see.
438 A HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS
it
near
the focal distance of the latter.
Focussing
his
eye
for
near
vision,
the observer examines this
image through
the hole in his
mirror. Thus at
nearly
the
same
point
in
space
the
patient
sees
the brilliant
image
of the
lamp
flame,
and the
observer,
looking
the
opposite
way,
sees
the
image
of the
patient's
illuminated
retina.
EXAMPLES." CHAPTER XLVII
1. A 2-in. focus
magnifier
is held 1 in. from
eye
with DH 9 in. Where
must
object
bo ?
[L]m.
2.
Figure
the essential
parts
of a lantern for
projecting.
If the lens
has
a
focal
length
of 8 in. and is 15 ft. from the
screen,
find size of
picture
of slide 3x3 in.
Compare
the illuminations of slide and
picture. [L.]
3. Where
are
the cross-wires
put
in
a
telescope
and
why
must
they
be
put
in
any
particular position
?
[L.]
4.
Why
is a
telescope
with cross-wires in the
eye-piece
used in
a
surveyors'
level or a theodolite for
observing
directions of
objects
which
can
be
quite easily
seen
directly
? How could
you
ascertain
whether the
cross-
wires of
a telescope
intersect on
its axis ?
[L.]
5. Describe with
diagram a
telescope or a microscope
;
how
ought
the
eye-piece
to be shifted for
a
long-sighted
person
?
[Ab.]
6. Show that two convex lenses,
of focal
lengths
1 in. and 2
in.,
can
be used
as a simple microscope, a telescope,or a compound
micro- scope.
[L]m.
7. Draw
diagrams showing
the
paths
of several
rays
through
two
convex
lenses of 2
cm.
focal
length
combined into
(a)
a
telescope, (b)
a
compound microscope.
With a number of lenses to choose
from,
what
magnitudes
of focal
length
would
you
select for these two instruments ?
[L.]
8. What is meant
by
the
magnifying
power
(1)
of
a telescope, (2)
of
a
microscope
? How
can
it be determined
experimentally
or
calculated
theoretically
?
[Ab.]
9. Describe
opera
glass,
and find focal
length
of lenses of
one
which
is 3 in.
long
and
magnifies
3 times.
[Ab.]
10. Describe the
principal
forms of
eye-piece
used in
telescopes
and
microscopes,
and
explain
their
advantages over a single
lens.
11.
Explain
the
ophthalmoscope. [L]m.
12. Describe
a
combination of lens and
concave
mirror
capable
of
always reflecting
back a
bright
beam of
light
to a
distant
source
which
moves
about
anywhere
within 10" of the axis of the
arrangement. [L.]
CHAPTER XLVIII
APERTURE IN OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS
'
APERTURE
'
has been defined in
"
454 as
beingproportional
to
the width of the
'
window
'
through
which
practically plane
waves
of
light
enter the
optical
instrument.
Aperture
is of
prime importance,
for it controls not
only
the
Brightness
of
illumination,
but also the minuteness of definition
or
the
'
Fineness of
grain
'
of the
image
when it is
'
in the best
focus
'
that
a
good
instrument
can
attain.
THE BRIGHTNESS
OF
REAL IMAGES
"
471
:
The
concentrating
action of
a
lens
tempts
us
to believe
that with
largeenough
lenses
we
might
obtain focussed
images
brighter
and
brighter
without limit. But
this,
by "
500,
would
mean
hotter and hotter without
limit,
hotter
even
than the
original
source.
This has
never
been
done,
and
experience
of
all sorts
(summed
up
in the second law of
thermodynamics)
is
against
its
ever
being
done. The
image
cannot
be hotter
or
brighter
than the
object;
one cannot,
for
instance/
focus
'
the heat
from
a
kettle and kindle
a
fire with it.
Figs.
166 and 174 show
that
as one
gets
closer to catch
stronger
radiation,
the
imageover
which it has to be
spreadinevitablygets proportionally
larger,
not
brighter
nor
hotter.
In the
camera
of
"
454 all the
light
sent from
a
small
patch
of
the illuminated
object
to the
opening
of the lens is concentrated
on
to
a
few
grains
of the sensitive silver bromide
on
the
plate
and the rate at which these
are
acted
on
is
proportional
to the
square
of the
'
Aperture
'
as
there
defined,
viz.
(diam.
of lens
opening
-f-
focal
distance)2, assuming
of
course
that the
brightness
of the
object
and the sensitiveness of the
plate
are
unchanging.
A
longer
focus lens of the
same
aperture,f/S
say,
would have
a
largerdiaphragm
and would collect
more
light,
but would have
to
spread
it
over a
proportionately largerimage.
439
440 A HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS
"
472
:
When
a
real
image
isformed
on a
diffusing
white
screen
it becomes visible in all directions with
a
brilliance
proportional
to the
lightbrought
up
to
it
per square
centimetre,
but if it
is not formed
on a screen
the
case
is different. It
now
radiates
only
into
a
limited
cone
of directions
;
to see
it the
eye
must be
placed
in this
cone,
e.g.
in the
diagram
of
a
Telescope, Fig.
211,
the
point
y
of the real
image
can
be
seen
onlyby
the
cone
of
dotted
rays
leaving
it. An
object-glass
0 of wide
aperture
(diameter-f-
focal
length)
widens this
cone,
and if at
length
all the
light
received
can
be
brought
into the
eye
the view will
brighten
as
the
aperture
widens. All the
parallel light, forming
a
beam
of width
W,
from
a
patch
of the
bright
surface of
a
distant
object,
will enter the
eye
provided
that
w,
the width of the
parallel
beam
leaving
the
eye-piece,
does not exceed the diameter
of the
pupil(2
mm.
by day,
5
mm.
at
night).
Now
W/t0=GI/IE
=M.P.,
and when w=5
mm.,
the diameter of the
pupil
at
night,
this is called the Normal
Magnifying
Power
m
of the instrument.
Any
increase of
aperture beyond
this,
without increase of
rn.p.,
widens
w
wastefully.
In this condition the whole of the
pupil
is
illuminated,
and
while it receives
(W/w)2=m2
times the
light
it did without the
glass,
it is
viewing
an
image
m2 times
larger
in
area,
i.e.the
image
is
just
as
bright
as
the
object,
bar
slight
losses due to reflection
and
absorption
in the
glasses.
Suppose
the
magnification
is
pushed
to
a
higher
M,
this involves
either
a
shorter focus
eye-lens
or a
longer
focus
object-glass,
in either
case
unless the
object-glass
is
enlarged
the width of the
beam
entering
the
eye
is
diminished,
the whole
pupil
is not lit
up,
the
eye
stillreceives m2 times the
light
but from
an
image
M2
times the
area,
the
brightness
of the
image
is
only(w/M)2
that of
the
object.[Look
at the
daylightsky
with
a
telescope
of
high
m.p.,
and notice how it is
darkened.]
Hence
night glasses
should not exceed their normal
magnifi- cation
m=W/w ;
or
W the
object-glass
diameter should be
MX
-5
cm.
=
[half
the
magnifyingpower]
centimetres.
Dainty
waistcoat-pocket telescopes
with small lenses and
high
m.p.
soon
fail at dusk.
Nightglasses
increase the
apparent
size of the
object
without
diminishing
its
brightness,
the
impression
on
the
retina is
more
widespread
and
more
easilyperceived, just
as a
collar is
more
easily
seen
than
a
dropped
collar-stud, on a
dark
morning.
And
further,
everyone
who has hunted for faint stars
APERTURE IN OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS
441
knows how much
more
sensitive
are
the side
parts
of the
retina,
on
to which the
image
now
spreads,
than isthe centre
point.
"
473
:
The
case
of
a Star
is different. Stars
are so
distant that
no one
has
ever
been able to
magnify
their
image
up
into
a
true
disc of
light.
The
image
is
not, however, a
mathematical
point,
but
a
patch
or
'
spurious
disc
'
the size of which is settled
by
diffraction and is calculable much
as
in
"474 (
= about
2z).
It
is therefore
inverselyproportional
to the
angular
breadth
d/F
of the
cone
of
light
from the
object-glass,
i.e. it is the same
whatever the size of the
telescope provided
that its
'
aperture/
usuallyF/16,
is
kept
the
same.
This
patch
is
so
small that
eye- pieces
giving
4
or
5
times the normal
magnification
can
be
used
on
it before it
perceptibly
broadens out.
Up
to this limit
the whole of the star's
light
that falls
on
the
great
object-glass
has been
poured
into the
eye
as
from
a
point
of
no
appreciable
extent,
and this therefore
appears
more
brilliantthan the star
in the ratio
(area
of
o.g./area
of
eye
pupil)
=
(normalw)2.
Thus
a
largetelescope
collects
enough light
from
very
small
stars to make them visible. And at
highmagnifications
it also
darkens the
surroundingsky,
and in these
ways may
enable
one
to
find the
brighter
stars in
daylight.
When there is
plenty
of
light
the
magnifying
power
is often
pushed
far
beyond
the
normal,
both in
telescopes
and micro- scopes.
This is not
objectionable
until the
emergent
beam w
becomes
so narrow
that it shows
up
specks
in the
eye-piece
or
eye
too
prominently.
SECOND EFFECT
OF
APERTURE. RESOLVING POWER
"
474
:
The
Resolving
Power
of
an
optical
instrument is
a
measure
of
the
finenessofdefinition of
detail in the
imagepresented
to
the observer's
eye,
and
upon
itthe value
of
the instrument
depends*
It is
quite
distinct from
Magnifying
Power. This
latter,
beyond
a
lower
limit,
merely
makes the observation of
already
'
resolved
'
detail rather easier. A lens
at//16produces
finer detail than
a
pinhole
camera
;
it has
a
greaterresolving
power.
Both
pictures
can
be
enlarged
afterwards,
but that
process
produces
no more
detail,
it
onlyenlarges
what detail
happens
to
exist,
and enables
one
to discriminate between the
pictures
at
a
glance.
The Interference
experiment
of
Fig.
116 is realized
optically
*
Perhaps
the
glamour
of
'
high magnifying
power
'
has to
pass away
before the
beginner
realizes this.
442 A HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS
by using,
as sources
P and
Q,
the two reflections of
an
illuminated
slitin two
plane
mirrors
slightly
inclined to each other. These slits
are not
lines,
but have
an
appreciable
width,
they
are
like lancet
windows,
perhaps
1
cm. X
-025 cm.
broad.
By reducing
the
inclination of the mirrors
they
can
be moved closer into
one
aperture
of double
width,
and then
even
be
superposed.
The
result is that the alternate
light
and dark interference bands
on
the
screen,
which
were
very
fine and
narrow
at
first,
become
continuouslycoarser,
until the two luminous
sources are
super- posed,
when
measurement of their width shows that
they
may
stillbe
regarded
as
producedby
the interference of two
point-
sources
which
are
the centres of the
narrow
halves of the
'
lancet
window.'
With
a
broader
'
window
'
the
light
and dark bands
are
blurred
into
a
uniform
illumination,
but
they
are
stillto be
seen
at the
edges,
or
at the
edges
of the shadow of
an
obstacle lit
by
the
'
window,'
i.e.
they
reappear
as soon as
any
structure
is
being
looked at.
In
every
optical
instrument there is
a
window which is
limiting
the breadth of the
comparatively
flat
waves
of
lightpassing
through
it
(breadth
of the
nearlyparallel beam)
" the iris of the
eye
or of the
camera,
the rim of the
object-glass
of
a
telescope,
the
square
face of
a
prism,
etc. " and the result is that
every
line
in the structure of the
thing
examined is
representedby
three
or
four
parallel
interference
bands,
every
point
becomes
a
target
of
light
and dark
rings.
With
a narrow
aperture
these
weave
into
a
tangle
of false
detail,
and
a
plain
view
can
be obtained
only
when the
aperture
is wide and the
bands,
whose distance
apart
varies
inversely
as
the
aperture-
width,
"
293, are so
close
together
that the
eye
cannot
separate
them.
Everyone
who has examined
a
half-tone block with
a
magnify- ing
glass,
or a
photographic negative
with
a
microscope,
knows
perfectly
well that these have
a
mechanically granulated
structure.
Now, we see
that
every
picture
that
any
opticalapparatus
can
produce
has
really
an
'
opticallygranulated
'
structure,
and
unless wide
aperture
has
given
a
fine
optical grain
the
picture
will
be as
unintelligible
as a
half-tone block under
a
pocket
lens.
Calling
the width of the window-like
aperture
2R,
Fig.
223,
the
interfering points
will be R
apart,
and
on a screen
distant a
from them the
bright
interference bands follow
one
another at
distances
z=Za/R,
where I is the
wave
length
of the
light.Bright
and dark bands alternate at
-5Za/R.
See
"
293.
444 A HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS
three bands like
Fig.
225
(where
the actual
position
of the
edge
is indicated
by
the
longerline).
Telescope.
The circular rim of the
object-glass
limits the
entering
beam. The minimum
angle
between details which
a
pocket telescope
with
a
1-in.
o.g.
can
distinguish
is hence
"6
X
-00002 in.
-^
-5 in.
= '000024 radian = -000024
x
180
X
60
X
60-^-TT
" 5 sec.
of
arc.
A
great
42-in. refractor
can
resolve double stars
onlyTV
as
far
apart"
-18
sec.,
or
details in the
moon,
240,000
miles
away,
about
a
furlongapart.
No matter what
magnifying
power
is used this is the limit of visual
telescopic resolving
power
at the
present day.
"
476 : Microscope.
Eemoving
the
eye-piece
from either
telescope
or
microscope,
one sees
the back lens of the
object-glass
as a
round illuminated window which is
sendinglight
up
the
tube. The
lightactually
entered the
telescope
as a
[planewave]
parallel
beam of this size
:
in the
microscope
the front lenses
of the
objective
have dealt with
a cone
of
light
from the
object
diverging
at
semi-angle
a
(see" 464)
and have
produced
a
parallel
beam of the observed
size,
which the last lens is
dealing
with
just
like
a
telescope
o.g.
With the usual short-focus
objective
the
object
is at
practically
the
principal
focal distance
f
from the
first
principalplane,
at which therefore the
cone
of
light
has
spread
to have
a
radius
R^/sin
a,
and this is the radius of the
illuminated window
seen
in the second
principal plane.
Hence
the minimum
angle "6Z/R=-6?//*
sin
a.
The distance
apart
of
points
in the
object
which send
light
at this
angle
to the
lens,
distant/,
is
evidently /x angle=/X -Ql/fsin
a =
-Ql/sm
a.
If the
object
is immersed in
oil,however, a
ray
making
a
small
angle
with the normal will make
a
ju,
times
greaterangle
when
it
emerges
into the air
(by
Snell's
law,
and
putting
small
angles
=
their
sines).
Hence the minimum
angle
in oil is
only l//x
the
above,
and the minimum distance visible
=-Ql/fj-
sin
a.
This
denominator has been denned in
"
464
as
the Numerical
Aperture
of the
objective,
therefore
The smallest distance
apart of
observable detail under the micro- scope
is six-tenths the
wave
lengthof
the
light
divided
by
the Nu- merical
Apertureof
the
objective;
or
lines
per
inch =N. A.
-f-
-6 w.l.
e.g.
a
f-in.
o.g.
of -2 N.A. should resolve
16,700
lines
per
inch,
a
^-in.
of -85 N.A. should resolve
65,000
lines
per
inch.
a
iVm-
oil-immersion of 1-3
N.A. should resolve
108,000
lines
per
inch.
APERTURE IN
OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS 445
This
assumes
that the whole of the back lens is illuminated
;
with
inadequate
substage arrangements
this
may
not be the
case
and the
resolving
power
suffers" it is
very
striking
how the
uniform
tint of
a
diatom will
suddenly
break
up
into
a
pattern
of
lines and dots as
the
substage
condenser is
brought
up
into focus.
On the other
hand, by stopping
out central
rays
and
illuminating
the outer
margin
of the lens
more
strongly,
the
'
interfering
centres
'
can
be moved
farther
apart
and the
resolving
power
increased,
for
special
purposes.
Light
of shorter wave
length
should reveal
proportionally
finer detail
;
in the
ultra-violet microscope photographs
are
obtained with radiation of half the
wave
length
of the usual
yellow-green
and
showing
double the detail.
Quite
distinct
is the
Ultra-microscope
contrivance
of
"
428.
This will disclose the existence of
particles
of diameter
only
one-
fortieth the minimum distance of
microscopicseparation.
But
it
can
give
them
no
shape,
and cannot
distinguish
two
particles
at less than this distance.
"
477 :
Prism
spectroscope. Taking
for
simplicity
in the
calculation
a
thin
prism,
the width 2R of the
rectangular
beam of
lightentering
the
telescope
is
practically
the width of
the
prism,Fig.
226. The base has
a
thickness T
= 2Rx
angle
A,
hence
2R=T/A.
Therefore the mini- mum
alteration in deviation observable
=-5Z/R
=JA/T.
The whole deviation D for
light
of
wave
length
I is
D=(/x" l)Aand
D' for w.l.
"'=(/*'"1)A ;
subtract- ing
we
get
the
change
of deviation
corresponding
to a
change
of
wave
length
from I
to l't
D-D'=(/*-j*')A.
FlG- 226-
Making
this D" D' the minimum
change
observable,we
have
=
(/x"ju')A,
whence
l-l' 1
~r
^-v
The left-hand side is the smallest
change
of wave
length
the
prism
can reveal,expressed
as a
fraction of the w.l. under observation.
(p"
/j.
')/(l" I')
is the rate at which the refractive index
changes
with
wave
length;
hence The smallest observable
percentage
change
of
wave
length
is
inversely proportional
to the thickness
of
the base
of
the
prismmultiplied by
the
dispersive
power
of
its
glass.
446 A HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS
e.g.
the twin sodium lines have
wave
lengths
-00005889 and
"00005895
cm.,
hence
(I"r)/J=6/6892=ab"mt1/1000. Ordinary
flint
glass
has
p.
= 1-617 for I
(red)
-0000656 and
p'= 1-635
for
I'
(blue) -0000486,
hence
(/*-/O/(Z-n
=
-018/-000017
= 1060.
Hence the smallest flint
prism
that
can
split
the
yellow
sodium line
into its twin
component
lines has
a
thickness of base
givenby
I5oo=f^l060
or
T=
The reader fond of
trigonometry
who will work this calculation
through
for the usual 60"
prism
will arrive at
precisely
the
same
expression.
The
resolving
power,
i.e. the fineness of definition
of the
spectrum
lines,
dependsonly
on
the difference in thickness
of
dispersive glass
that the extreme
right
and left
rays pass
through
before
entering
the
telescope,
and it does
not matter whether this
is contained in
one
largeprism
or
in several little
ones,
or
what
their
angles
may
be. Here
again,
little
spectroscopes
may
show
as
long
a
spectrum
as
bigones,
but it
can
only
be
comparatively
fuzzy
and ill-defined.
"
478 :
The
principle
of the Diffraction
Grating
has been
shortly
explained
in
"
296. A
piece
of fine wire
gauze,
for
instance,
placed
in
a
beam of
light,
will break
up
the luminous disturbance that
falls
on
it and will send
out waves
of
light
of various
lengths
in
various
oblique
directions.
AB,
Fig.
227,
is the distance from
centre to centre
of two
transparent spaces,
of which there
are n
per
cm.
A
^
planelight
wave
falls flat
on
the
grating
so
that A
and B vibrate in the
same
phase;
then if BC=a
complete
wave
length[or
m
complete
wave
lengths]
I \
A and C vibrate in the
same
phase
and
are
points
I
\
.^
on a
possible
wave
front. A
telescope
whose axis is
^^C parallel
to BC will collect all these from all
pairs
of
apertures
in the
grating
and focus them into
a
I
bright spectrum
line of
wave
length
BC
[or l/m
of
BC]
= Z. A shorter
wave
length
BC' will focus into
FIG. 227.
a
bright
line visible in the direction
BC',
and
so on.
BC=AB sine CAB =
(l/w)
cm. x
sine CAB =2
or
sine
(deviation)
= nl.
Thus
lookingthrough
the
regularly
woven
silk of
an
umbrella
at
a
distant
street-lamp,
there is
seen
running
across
both
warp
APERTURE IN OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS
447
and weft
a
series of
spectra,
blue ends
(short I) nearest the
light,
and successive
spectra
correspond
to BC
=
Z, BC=2/, etc.
For scientific
purposes
this
very
rough
sort of
grating
is
super- seded
by plates,
either
transparent or
reflecting,
on
which
15,000
lines
per
inch
are
ruled with the
utmost
attainable
accuracy.
The
largest gratings
hitherto ruled have about
75,000 lines,
covering a
space
about 5 in.x2 in.
on a speculum
metal mirror.
Resolving
power
of grating.
The
apparent
width of the
grating seen
in direction BC is
nearly
its whole actual width if deviation CAB does
not
exceed about 25".
.*.
Minimum
Angle =-5Z/R=Z/whole
width of
grating.
Now sine CAB
=
/n,
and for deviations below 25"
angles
in
circular
measure are nearly
the
same as
their
sines,
or
Deviation =ln.
.',
Difference of deviations for
waves
I and l'
=
(l"l')n.
Putting
this
angular separation equal
to the minimum observable
angle,
(/" Z"=Z/whole
width of
grating.
__ _
/
n
lines
per
cm. X cm.
width~total
no.
lines in
grating
e.g.
to
separate
the sodium lines
a
grating
of 1000 lines would
suffice,
and the
largest gratings
define about 75 times
more
clearly
than this.
CHAPTER XLIX
SPEED OF LIGHT
GALILEO endeavoured
to
ascertain the
speed
of travel of
lightby
stationing
two observers with dark lanterns
a long
way
apart,
B
to
uncover
his
light
when he
saw
A's
opened,
and A
to
judge
the
interval between
opening
his
own
and
seeing
B's. But the
speed
of
light
far exceeds that of
sound,
and
we
know
now
that the
uncertain small results in this
experiment
measured
only
'
personal
equation/
in this
case a
double interval between the
eye
seeing
a signal
and the hand
making an
effective
response.
It
was
by utilizing
the
great
distances of
inter-planetary
space
that the
speed
of
lightwas
first measured.
"479.
Rbmer's method.
The earth and the
planet Jupiter
revolve round the
sun
in
nearly
the
same plane, Jupiter taking
twelve
years
to
complete
his
year.
In
Fig.
228 the lower line
joins
their relative
positions
FIG. 228.
four
or
five months later than the
upper
pair. Again nearly
in the
same plane,
four well-known satellites revolve round
Jupiter
"
four
tiny points
of
light
that
are
the first test of
a field-glass
" so
close
that three
are eclipsed
every
revolution,
and
so rapidly on
account
of his vast
mass
that their
plunge
into his shadow is
complete
in
a
very
few seconds. In
fact,
the Jovian
system
is
a
celestial
448
SPEED OF LIGHT
timekeeper
made
use
of for
checkingships'
clocks
on
the
seas.
But it
was
observed that
during
a
month
(lowerpositions)
when
Jupiter
was a
morning
or
eveningstar,
the
eclipses lagged
several
minutes behind the times
predicted
from observations in months
when he
was
high
in the
sky
at
midnight.
At
length
the Danish astronomer Romer
gave
(ca.1675)
the
explanation
that in the former
case
the earth
was
farther from
Jupiter,
and that the
lagrepresented
the time
necessary
for
light
to travel the extra distance. Calculations made
on
this
assump- tion
showed that
light
averages
nearly
1000 seconds
(996)
to
travel the whole breadth of the earth's
orbit,
which
we now
know
to
average
twice 92 million miles. This
gives
a
speed
of
185,000
miles
per
second.
But this measurement
depends
on
the sun's
distance,
which has
to be
computed
from astronomical observations of
greatdifficulty
and
complexity,
and direct terrestrialmethods
are desirable.
"
480. Fizeau's method.
The trouble in Galileo's method
was
the slowness of the
experimenters.
Fizeau
replaced
A's hand and shutter
by
a
rotating cog-wheel,
which
gave
a
succession of
shutters,
and B
by
a mirror,
and
so
evolved
a
method
exactlyanalogous
to that of
SedleyTaylor
for the
speed
of
sound,
"
308.
FIG. 229.
Fig.
229 shows
a
cog-wheel
which had 720
square
teeth
separated
by
720
spaces,
teeth and
spaces
being
of
equal
width. From
a
limelight (theasterisk) light
is sent
through
a
lens and is then
re- flected
by
the inclined mirror to form
among
the teeth
a
bright
image
which liesat the
principal
focus of
a
second lens.
'
Parallel
'
light
therefore travels hence several miles to the reflector on
the
left,returns to the second
lens,
and is formed
by
it into
a
return
image
among
the teeth. This is
inspected through
a
hole in the in- clined
mirror with
a
magnifyingeye-lens.
The teeth of the wheel
29
450
A HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS
are
bevelled and
highlypolished
so
that the
outgoing
illumination
which falls
on
them
as
they
pass
is thrown
away
and not reflected
back to trouble the
eye.
Now ifthe wheel turns at
a
certain
speed
it will
happen
that the
flash sent out
through
one
of its
gaps
travels to the reflector and
back while
a
tooth
moves
in and blocks
up
the
sending
gap.
At
this
speed
the observer
sees no return
image
at all.
Speeding
up
the wheel the
image
reappears,
at twice the
speed
it reaches
a
maximum
brightness,
for the next
gap
has moved into the stead
of the
sending
gap,
at 3 times it
disappears,
at 4 times is
bright
again,
and
so on.
From
a
series of
speeds
taken likethis the
speed
which
justbrings
the firsttooth
over
the
gap
can
be
accurately
found
;
if this is
n
turns
per
second the time
occupied
is
l/1440n
second and in this time
light
has travelled to the reflector and
back,
a
distance 2D.
.'.
Speed
= distance-i-
time
=2Dx
1440w.
D
was
6-4
miles,n revs. .'.
V=
185,400
m./sec.
"
481
: Foucault's method.
In this
a
spinning
mirror
on
the left of
Fig.230,
lit with
'
parallel light
'
from
a
collimator
(the
tube of which is bent at a
rightangle,
to
get
the
lamp
out of the observer's
way),
sends
once
in
a
revolution
a
flash
to a
distant
reflector,on
the
right.
FIG. 230.
When this
returns,
the
mirror,spinning
at
perhaps
1000
revs,
per
sec.,
has turned
through
a
small
angle,
say
into the
dotted
line,
and reflects
it,
not now
in the
original
direction,
but into
a
tele- scope
(lyingjust
on
top
of the
collimator)
where the
angle
between
collimator and
telescope
=a"= twice the
angle
turned
throughby
the
mirror,
"
362.
CHAPTER L
POLARIZED LIGHT
WE
come
to
a
property
of
light
waves
that
compels
a
sharp
dis- tinction
to be drawn between the motion of the
particles
in them
and in sound
waves.
Of
two
beams of
light,perfectly
in- distinguishable
to the
eye,
one
may pass
unhindered
through
certain
pieces
of clear colourless
spar
which
quitestop
the other.
A
glossy
surface will
always
reflect
one
but
may
blot out
the
other,
or
reflect it
feebly,
or
fully, according
to
position.
Such
light
is said to be
polarized.
Nothing
like it
occurs
in
Sound.
"482.
Light
vibrations transverse.
Imagine
a
stick and
some
vertical
palings.
Held
lengthways
it
can
always
be
pushedthrough
the
fence,
but held
crossways
in the
middle it will
go
through
when
parallel
to the
palings
but be
bounced back when horizontal.
Let the stick
represent
the to- and- fro track of
a
particle
taking
part
in
a
travelling
wave
motion. In the first
case
the vibration
is
longitudinal
as we
know it in sound
waves.
In both the other
cases
it is
transverse
(Fig.
112, T)
and what
happens
resembles
the effects of
polarization
described above. It is concluded that
the vibrations in
light
waves are
transverse,
each
particle being
confined to its
own
planeperpendicular
to the direction of travel
of the
light.
In
ordinarylight
it
can
vibrate in that
plane
in lines and
ellipses wandering
in all directions in
turn
; anywhere
in
planes
cutting
the
paper
perpendicularly
in the
upright
diameters of
Fig.
112.
In
planepolarized light
it is confined to one
fixed direction
in that
plane,
e.g.
in the
upright
diameters of the
figure.
"
483.
Passage
of
light through a crystal.
Suppose
some
shot set
bouncing
to and fro
across a
circular
pipe,Fig.
231
(upper).
Each
can
continue to bounce
along
the
452
POLARIZED
LIGHT 453
diameter it starts in,
because it hits the wall
perpendicularly
at
each end. In
an
elliptical pipe,Fig.
231
(lower),
however,
it is
usually flung
back
a
different
way
at each
bounce and the
only
two
directions in which
vibration
can
continue
permanently
are
the
long
and short
axes of
the
ellipse
which are
perpen- dicular
to the walls at their
ends,
and
are at
rightangles
to
each other.
Instead of
a
sudden blow from
a
rigid
wall it is
not difficult to
imagine
elastic forces
applied
gradually,
with the
same
result.
Now in
a crystal
(except
cubic]
we
know the
elasticity
differsin different directions.
A
ray
ofordinarylightpassingthrough
a
crystal
splits
into
two.
These two
rays
ivhen
separated
are
found
to be
planepolarized,
and their vibra- tions
are at
rightangles.
$IQ. 231.
"484.
Double Refraction.
They
tend
to
separate
themselves,
for controlled
by unequal
elasticities
they
travel at
unequalspeeds
in the
crystal,
i.e.
are
unequally
refracted and
usually
follow different tracks. This double
refraction
is best
seen
in Iceland
spar
(calcite),
a
cleavagepiece
*
of which
lying
over Fig.
231
producedFig.
232.
As the flat
piece
is rotated on
the
page
one
image
" the
'
ordinary
'
" remains
fixed,
but the
'
extra- ordinary'
moves
round it and does
not
obey
the firstlaw of refraction.
A
prismatic rock-crystal (quartz)
held to
the
eye
shows two
little
overlappingspectra
of
a
flame.
To
get a single
beam of
plane polarized light.
From
a
largepiece
of
spar
the two
polarized
beams,
each half as
bright
as
the
original
beam,
will
emerge
quiteseparated,
but
large
spar
is hard to
get.
The
Nicol Prism
is
our
best
means.
It is shown in section
in
Fig.
*
Little bits
are cheap
at
any
mineralogist's,
or can
often be broken
out of chemical
laboratory
stuff.
454 A HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS
233. A
long
'rhomb' of
spar
is
sawn across
very
obliquely, polished,
and re-cemented with Canada balsam. Now
/z
balsam=l-55
and
\i
calcite,
ordinary
ray,"
1-6,
there- fore
when this
ray
tries to
pass
very
obliquely
into the
optically
lighter
balsam it is
totally
re- flected
and thrown aside, to
be
ultimately
absorbed in black
varnish
on
the side of the
prism.
But the
extraordinary
ray, p
cal- cite
1-5,
passes
through
unaffected,
for the balsam is
optically
the
denser
now.
Schorl
or
Tourmaline is
a
dark
mineral which absorbs
one
of the
vibrations much
more
than the
other. Therefore if
ordinarylight
falls
on a
i-in. slicecut
lengthwise
from
a
schorl
crystal
the dim
brown
or
green
light
that does
get through
is
plane polarized,
Fig.
234.
Most other
crystals
are
but
feebly doubly refracting,they
polarize
the two
beams,
but failto
separate
them to
any
extent.
In all
crystals
there is
an
optic
axial directionin which no
double
refraction
occurs.
It is
parallel
to
the
length
of
a rock
crystal;
it enters the blunt
corner
of
a
calciterhomb
symmetrically
to the
three faces.
Evidently
quartz (pebble)
for
spectacles ought
to be
sliced
up
straight across
the
crystal.Gypsum,
sugar,
etc.,
have
two
optic
axial directions. Rock-salt and
fluor-spar
are
cubic and
do not
doubly
refract.
"485.
Polarization
by reflection.
There is another
quite
different
way
of
polarizing light.Light
reflected
obliquely
from
any
glossy
surface
(but
not from
metals)
is
more or
less
polarized,
and at a
particular PolarizingAngle (of
reflection) lightreflected from
a
perfectly
clean
surface
is
wholly
planepolarized
and is
vibrating parallel
to the
surface.
Meanwhile
most of the
lightplunges
into the surface and contains a corre- sponding
excess
of
perpendicular
vibration,
and the transmitted
FIG. 233. FIG. 234.
POLARIZED LIGHT 455
light
is
therefore partially polarized. Players
of
'
ducks and drakes
'
will
easily
remember all this.
Tan
(polarizing angle)=p.
For water it is
53",
glass
57
J".
Inky water,
a
dark
glass,
or a
shiny
black book laid
on
the
window-sill and looked
at,
at about these
angles
from the
vertical,
makes
a
splendidpolarizer.
So does
a
stack of
glassplates,
while
a
dozen
microscope
slides cleaned
up,
stuck in
a
bundle
at
nearly
60" in
a
square
card
tube,
and looked
through,
does
as
well
as a nicol. The reader
can
puzzle
out
the virtue of
a
bundle.
"
486. Now if this
polarizedlight
meets a
second
polarizing
arrangement
of
any
sort
(called
the
'
analyser')
it will
(a)
continue
unchecked if the direction of
possible
vibration in the
analyser
is
the
same as
its
own,
(b)
be dimmed if
they
are inclined,
and
(c)
be
stopped
if
they
are
at
rightangles.
A motion has
no
component
at
rightangles
to itself.
For
instance,
light
is reflected
again
from a
second
plate
when
parallel
to that which
polarized it,
but not when turned
through
FIG. 235. FIG. 236.
90"
on
the
ray
as
axis. It
passes
through
a
bundle when
per- pendicular
but not when
parallel
to the firstreflector.
'
Crossing
'
tourmalines
or
nicols blackens the field of
view,
Fig.
234. In
Fig.
235 at the
top
is
a
pair
of nicols
'
crossed
'
;
below is
a
polarizing plate
with
'
bundle
'
extinguishing
reflected
light.
456 A HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS
"
487.
'
Depolarizing
'
effect of thin
crystallinefragments.
A
piece
of
a
crystal
held between
'
crossed nicols
'
appears
bright
in the dark field.
(Try chips
of mica between
your
inky
water and
analysingbundle,as
in
Fig.235.)
The
crystal
has to
split
the incident vibration
by
the usual
parallelogram
law into two
components
in its
own
possible
directions of vibration. One
component
travels
faster,
it reaches
the other side
a
fraction of
a wave
ahead of its
companion,
there is
a
phase
difference,
and
now
when these
rays
meet the
analyserthey
do leave a
component
in its
direction,
i.e.
light
passes
through.
[Of.Fig.108,
the
straight
line in the
corner
has
changed
into
one
of the
ellipses,
which has breadth
parallel
to the line in the
oppositecorner,
the
analyser, perpendicular
to the
polarizer.]
Thin
crystalplates
show
soap-bubble
colours when
one
colour
has
gained
a
whole
wave
and is extinct
again,
but thick
plates,
like thick
films,are not coloured
[cf.
"
427].
"
488. Uses of
polarized light.
Thus nicols
applied
to
the
microscope
are
invaluable to the
mineralogist,
and
they
enable the
biologist
to
pick
out under
the
microscopecrystals,
starch
grains,etc.,
in
a
smother of
tissue
(Fig.
236 left,
ordinary; right,polarized light).
All
transparent
solids become
doubly-refracting
under strain.
Light
will
gradually
reappear
in
a
bit of
glass
as
you squeeze
it in
pincers
in
your
dark field. Hence
glass
intended for
optical
purposes
is examined in
polarized light
to detect
any
temperature
strains,
etc.,
which would
warp
the finished surfaces.
Certain
substances,
e.g.
solutions of the
sugars
or
tartaric
acids,
the
terpenes
and all that contain an
'
asymmetric
carbon
FIG. 237.
atom,'
possess
the
property
of
rotating
the
planeofpolarization,
i.e.
as
the
polarizedlight
travels
through
them,
the direction of
vibration in it slews
round,
through
an
angle
to
right
or
left
characteristic of the
(substance
X
quantitypassedthrough).
POLARIZED LIGHT
457
In
polarimeters
the clarified solution is
put
in
a
glass-ended
tube 20
cm.
long,
between crossed
nicols, Fig.
237
;
light enters
the
polarizing
nicol
on
the left and the
angle
the
analyser,
mounted
in
a
graduated circle, has
to
be turned
through to restore darkness
gives
a means
of
estimating
the contained
Sugar,
say
(the
substance
for which
they
are largely used).
Since the
deepest
darkness is hard
to decide
upon,
they
contain also
a crystal
device
(e.g. a
'
biquartz')
and the
adjustment
is
to
equate
the dimness of
two
semicircular
halves of the little field of view in sodium
light,
or
in
daylight
to bring
both from red and blue
forget-me-not
hues
to
one
'
sensitive
'
lavender tint.
EXAMPLES." CHAPTER L
1. Contrast the
phenomena
observed in the
propagation
of
light
and
sound.
[M.]
2. How
can polarized light
be
produced
? State its distinctive
properties
and
some
of its
uses. [L]m.
3. Describe
a
Nicol
prism,
and trace the
path
of
a
ray
of
light
which
enters it.
[M.]
4. What is the
peculiarity
of
sugar
solution
as regards
its action
on
light ? Describe
an
instrument which utilizes this.
CHAPTER LI
RADIATION
BY
Radiation is
meant the transmission of
energy
from
place
to
place
without the aid of
intervening
matter.
It is the
only
process
by
which
energy
in the form visible to
us
as
Light can
travel
;
it is
one
of the three
ways
in which Heat
moves
;
the radiation of
electro-magnetic
energy
is
employed
nowadays
in
'
wireless
telegraphy.'
"
489. In
Chapters
XXXVIII
and XXXIX
we
have studied
the
transmission of LIGHT in
straight
lines,
its
reflection,
refrac- tion,
absorption,
etc. It
can
be shown that RADIANT HEAT
behaves
very
much like
Light.
That it travels
across empty
space
and in the
same straightpaths as light,
that it
can
pass
through some
material
substances,
and that it
cannot
pass
through others,
is
tacitly
admitted
by
everyone
who
pulls
down
the blind for
protection
from the sun's fierceness.
The
radiation-catching-and-measuring
contrivances to be
described below will tell
us
that the
intensity
of heat received
from
a
small hot
body
is
inversely proportional
to the
square
of the distance from it.
When the
conjugate
foci for
light
of
a good-sized concave
mirror have been found it is
easy
to show that
they are
also
conjugate
foci for radiant heat. For
a thermometer,
with its
bulb held at
one,
soon begins
to rise when there is held at the
other
a burning
match
or even a
knob of metal
only
'
black-hot
'
or a
test-tube of
boiling
water. There is the
same
need for
accurate
shape
of the
reflecting
surface
as
with
light,
but not
for the
same high polish.
Lenses refract
Light
and Radiant Heat both
very
much
alike,
though
not with exact
correspondence,
for here there is the
possibility
of
a
difference in refractive index and
absorbing
power
of the material for the different sorts of radiation. The
bright image
of the
sun
formed
by a burning glass
is
practically
its best focus of heat
;
its
burning
power
is
very
little diminished
458
460 A HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS
"
walls,clouds,
etc." at the
same
temperature
as itself,
it
gets
as
much
as
it
gives,
and remains at the
same
temperature.
But
if in
some
directions there
are colder surfaces in view "
ice,
clear
sky,
etc." it loses
more
radiant
energy
in these directions than is
returned to
it,
and it cools. Then
part
of the
surroundings
will
be
warmer
and
part
colder than
itself,
it will
gradually
settle
down
to an
intermediate
temperature,
at
which,
while
radiating
in all directions alike at the rate
appropriate
to
its
temperature,
it will absorb
justenough
additional radiation from the
warmer
aspect
to make
up
the
deficiency
in the return from the colder.
Incidentally
it forms
a
temporary resting-place
for the balance
of radiant
energy
passing
from the hotter to
the colder
places
around.
"
492. For the above
argument
to hold
good
it is
evidently
necessary
that the
Radiating
Power
(i.e.
the amount of
energy
radiated
per square
centimetre
per
second)
of
a
surface at
any
particular temperature
must be
precisely equal
to its
Absorbing
Power
for radiation sent
from other surfaces at
the
same
tem- perature.
At
high
temperatures
the
radiating
power
is
enhanced,
and
we
shall
see
later that the radiation emitted is
not
only
increased in
quantity
but also altered in
quality,
e.g.
it
may
beginaffecting
the
eye
as
red
light,
as
well
as
warming
the whole face
more.
The
equality
of
powers
demanded above therefore
means
that
the rate
of
radiation
from
a
surface
is
equal
to
the
rate at which
itabsorbs radiation
of
the
same
temperature-quality.
"
493. Eadiation
falling
on a
surface
may
be
disposed
of in
three
ways
:
"
I. Part of it is
reflected
back
"regularly
from
a
highlypolished
surface,
diffusedly
from
a
rougher
one.
About 80
%
of the
incident
light,
for
instance,
is reflected from
polished
silver
or
from
quicksilver,
'
frosted silver
'
reflects
as
much
diffusedly,
white
paper
70
%,
dark
cloth,earth,etc.,
5 to 25
%.
And the cook
knows that the tin interior of
a
Dutch
oven
reflects the fire-heat
to the
revolving
fowl
even
better than it does the
fire-light,
but
that it
must be
kept
clean and
bright,
i.e.
a
fair reflector of
light,
or
it will lose its
roastingefficiency.
II. The remainder is
partly
or
wholly
absorbed.
Evidently
if
a
largeproportion
has been reflected there is not
much left
to be absorbed. A
good
reflector is therefore
a
poor
absorber
RADIATION 461
of radiation. And since
absorbing
and
radiating
powers
at
any
particular temperature
are
equal,
the
Radiating
Power
of
a
good
reflector
is much less than that
of
a
good
absorber wlwn both
are
at
the
same
temperature.
We
may
fairlyexpect
therefore that
a
white tile with a
dark
figure
on it,or a
piece
of
platinum
foil with
a
spot
of iron rust
(where
an
iron salt has been
ignited
on it)
will show
a
brightspot
on a
dark less-radiant
ground
when maintained at a
bright
red
heat,
the
optically
more
absorbent surface
becoming visibly
the
better radiator
;
and this is
actually
the
case.
But
seeing
that
radiation differs
so
much in
qualityaccording
to the
temperature
of its
source,
does it follow that
a
good
reflector of
daylight,
which is the radiation from
a sun
at
6000",
will be
necessarily
a
good
reflectorand therefore
poor
radiator at low
temperatures
"
will
a
copper
kettle radiate*
any
the less warmth because
it
happens
to be
brilliantly polished
?
Very
often it
may
be said that
once a
good
reflector
always
a
good
reflector,
and
once a
good
radiator
(absorber) always
a
good
radiator
(absorber),
but different materials do offer remarkable
differences in the
way
they
deal with different sorts of radiation.
A
hardly
visible film of
lacquer
will treble the rate of radiation
of
hundred-degree
warmth from the
bright
kettle,or
will increase
the rate at which
poker
and
tongs
warm
up
as
they
lie in the
hearth
;
the
shining
bulb of
a
thermometer heats faster in
sunlight
than the brilliance of the
quicksilver
inside the
glass
would lead
us to
expect,transparentquartz
and
fluor-spar
reflect
certain
portions
of the infra-red
spectrum
almost
totally,
while
polished
silver reflects the ultra-violet
onlypartially.
III. The
remainder,
that is neither reflected
nor absorbed,
filters
through
or
is
transmitted,
the material
being
'
transparent
'
(light)
or
'
diathermanous
'
(heat)
to that
particular
sort of
radiation.
It is here that the most
striking
differences are
noticeable.
The selective transmission of visible
radiation,
which
gives
rise
to colour,
has been dealt with in
"
420. There is
a
similar selection
for the dark radiations of the infra-red
or
the ultra-violet. Thus
a
6-in.
trough
of clear water is
frequentlyemployed
to
filterout
the heat
(infra-red)
from
an arc
lamp
and
prevent
damage
to
the
micro-slide, etc.,
which it is desired to
project
on
the
screen.
Carbon
disulphide, just
as
transparent
to
light,
would let the
*
Not the total rate
of
cooling,
see
"
175.
462 A HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS
heat
throughfreely.
An
aqueous
solution of black
dye
can
stop
everything
but
a
trace of radiant
heat,
being
both
opaque
and
'
athermanous
'
:
the
diathermancy
of
an
opaque
solution in
carbon
disulphide
has been mentioned in
"
489. The absorbed
radiation
warms
the
water,
while the other
liquid
of
course remains
cool.
"
494.
Easilyperformedexperiments
are these
:
"
(1) Holding
one
hand
a
few inches in front of
a
bunsen
flame,
open
and close the air-holes of the burner. You will feel that
the luminous flame sends
more warmth to the hand than the
non-
luminous
flame,
in
spite
indeed of the less
perfect
combustion
giving
it
a
lower
temperature (1500"
instead of
1750").
The
luminous flame is
nearly
opaque,
i.e. it absorbs
light
and heat
strongly,
hence it also radiates
strongly.
The
'
atmospheric
'
flame is
nearlytransparent,
i.e.it absorbs but
little,
consequently
it
can
radiate but little. In
fire-place gas-stoves
an
opaque
solid,
asbestos,
is heated and radiates much
more
than could the
hotter clear flame alone. That
transparent
diathermanous
gases
possess
no
radiating
power
is
easily
observed
by lookingthrough
a
white-hot
tube,
the air inside is
as
invisible
as ever
;
and the air
near
the carbons of the electric
arc
remains
quite
clear.
(2)
A
transparent
bead of fused borax remains clear and almost
invisible while the
encircling
wire of
opaque
platinum
is
glowing
red. The solution in itof
a trace of
copper
makes itat
once a
nearly
opaque
fiery-red mass,
which cools to
a
glasspartially transparent,
but
greenish,
i.e.
absorbingjust
that red
light
which it radiates
vigorously
when heated.
(3)Using
a
thermopile(seebelow)facing
a
vessel of hot
water,
it is
easy
to show that thin
opaque
ebonite obstructs radiant heat
less than does clear
glass.
THE
QUANTITATIVE
STUDY OF
EADIATION
"
495. Radiation meters.
" To
study
radiation
quantitatively
we must first have
some means
of
catching
and
completely
absorbing
radiation of
"
all sorts.
Lampblack (the
fine soot of
burning oil)
is much the best
absorbent,
and when
properly
applied
to a
surface enables it to absorb
perhaps
99
%
of the
incident
light
and heat. A
patch
of sunshine
on
the
sooty
black
of
a
fire-place
is
quiteplainly
visible,however,
and shows that
the
absorption
isnot
total. A surface covered with a
deepvelvety
pile
is
better,as
the radiation is scattered
by
sidewise reflections
RADIATION 463
before it
can
reach the flat surface which
might
have Reflected it
back to its
source,
but there is
a
difficulty
in
measuring
the
heating
of the
velvety
mass
and
usually
we
have
to be content
with the
lampblacked
flat surface.
The oldest
way
of
detecting
the
warming
of the black due to the
radiant heat and
light
it absorbs is
by
spreading
it
on
the bulb of
a
little
air
thermometer, conveniently
the
differ-
ential
pattern
of
Fig.
238,
in which
an
index-thread of
liquid
moves
in the
^ 233
narrow
stem between the black bulb
and
a
second bulb
kept
out of the
way
and cool. Ether and its
saturated
vapour
make
more
sensitive
filling
for the instrument.
A
more
accurate and convenient
means
is
by measuring
the
current of
electricity produced
when the
junction
of two different
metals is heated. The
current-measuring galvanometer
is
a
fairly
delicate
one
such
as
described in
"
611
;
the
thermo-electric
junction
calls for
description
here. Bismuth and
type-metal
are
the two metals which show the
greatest
effect,
but
as
the
heating
may
be
very
small the effect is often
magnifiedby having
50 or
100 soldered
junctions
in
succession,
and
pairs
of little bars
are
packed (with
varnish
or
mica
insulation,
shown
black)
into
a
block
perhaps
an
inch
cube,
called
a
thermo-electric
pile
or
Thermopile,
arranged
as
in
Fig.
239. The current
zigzagsthrough
FIG. 239. FIG. 240.
the
pile,being
driven
always
from bismuth to
'antimony'
at
the
warm
junctions
(which are
gathered
at the face of the
pile
and blacked
over,
while the inevitable alternate
antimony-
bismuth
solderings
are
kept
at the back in the
cool).
The
pile
is embedded in
plaster
and mounted with
a
funnel in front to
protect
it from
stray sideways
radiation.
Fig.
240 shows it
464 A HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS
receiving
radiation from
a
candle and
actuating
a commercial
micro-ammeter.
This massive
pile
of
badlyconducting
brittlematerials is
being
supersededby
a
more
modern
thermopile
in which
a
thin wire
is
built
up
of half-inch
lengths
of
copper
and
nickel-copperalloy ('
eureka,'
" 619),
hard-
soldered
together,
and the
solderings
beaten thin
and blacked. The wire is twisted into
figures
of
eight
and
only
the middle
row
of
junctions
is
exposedthrough
a
slit in
a
sheltering
wall of
cork
to the
radiation,
Fig.
241.
In
Boys'
s Radio-micrometer the
single
bis- muth-antimony
junction
was
directly
attached
to the
moving
coil
(of
1
turn)
of the
galvan- ometer,
which would deflect
visibly
for the heat
FIG. 241.
from a
can(jie JQO ft.
away.
The
Bolometer is
a
platinum
resistance thermometer
("628)
in which
one
of two
very
slender
strips(lX'05x-0004 cm.)
of
blackened
platinum,
stretched side
by
side,
is
exposed
to the
radiation. The
strips
are
'
in
opposite
arms
'
of
a Wheatstone-
bridgearrangement ("627)
and the additional
warming
of the
exposed strip
increases its electrical
resistance,
upsets
the
electrical
balance,
and causes a
proportionalgalvanometer
deflection.
Over this instrument a
spectrum
with its lines
parallel
to the
strip
can
be
slowlymoved,
and the
photographic
record of
galvanometer
deflections
gives
an
exact
measure
of the intensities
of
every
bright
and dark line. And the bolometer is
so
sensitive
that it has
measured,
within a
few
per
cent,
the heat value of the
radiations collected
by
a
largetelescope
from various of the fixed
stars.
Another radiation measurer
isthe Radiometer of Crookes. The
little
spinner
with its four aluminium
vanes,
each
bright
on
the
forward side and black
on
the
back,
turningslowly
in its
vacuous
globe
in 'the
daylight,
or
buzzing
round at
a
great
rate in the
sunshine,
is
a
familiar ornament of the
optician's
window. More
delicately,
for
measurements,
the
vane
hangs by
a
quartz
fibre,
and radiation
falling
on
the blackened side deflects it to a
small
extent
measured
by
attached mirror and
lamp-and-scale.
The
action of the instrument is that the blackened surface becomes
heated,
and warms
the air molecules that strike
it,
i.e.increases
RADIATION 465
their
speed,
and the recoil
as
they
are
driven off faster
pushes
the
plate
backwards.
"
496. Relation between radiation and
temperature.
It
was
pointed
out in
"
172 that Newton's Law of
Cooling
was
derived from
experiments
on
cooling
in
a
draught,
and in
"
175 that this air convection accounted for at least
seven
times
as
much loss of heat
as
did
pure
radiation,
at moderate warmths.
Strangely
misconceived
attempts
were made, however,
to
apply
this law to
pure
radiation. As
a
matter of
fact,
for
quite
small
differences of
temperature,
the law is
a
mathematical
'
first
approximation
'
to
any
number of
possible
true laws. Between
15" and 30"C.
say,
when the
starting-point
is "273"
C.,
there would
be
cause
for
surprise
if it did not hold
fairly
well,
but
pushed
to
an
extreme it led to such
outrageous
results
as a
temperature
of
7,000,000"
C. for the
sun
!
Various
experimenters
cooled hot
bulbs,
electric
wires,etc.,
in
more or
less defective
vacua,
and devised formulae to
express
the
dependence
of
radiating
power
on
temperature,
but these
formulae were
all
empirical,
i.e.
they
fitted the results of
a
particular
set of
experiments
but
nobody
could find
any
theo- retical
basis for them.
It
was
left to Stefan in 1879 to observe that
an
old result of
Tyndall's,
that
a
platinum
wire at 1200" C. radiated
11-7 times
faster than
one
at 525"
C.,
agreed
with what is
now
called
Stefan's
Law
" The rate of radiation from
a fully radiating
surface is
proportional
to the fourth
power
of its absolute
temperature.
For
(1200+273)4/(525+273)4=ll-6.
"
497 :
Experiments
made to test this law
were
rather
contra- dictory
at
first,
but
we now
know that the
difficulty lay
in
getting
a
*
full
'
radiator. This is
a
surface best described
perhapsby
its
converse
property,
that it is
a
complete
absorber of all kinds of
radiation,
reflecting
none
;
a
*
perfectlyblack
body.5
Hence it
would
give
out
every
sort of radiation in full
proportionaccording
to its
temperature,
without bias
or
selection of
any
particular
sort.
We have
seen
that
lampblack
isnot
'
perfectly
black.' But the
tinydeep
cavities between the fibres of velvet
are dark, a
keyhole
is
alwaysdark,
the
pupil
of the
eye
is
black,
the
bunghole
of
an
empty
barrel
appears
utterlyblack, even
if the barrel had
contained white lead. That
is,a
small hole in the side of
a
large
466 A HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS
closed
cavity
acts
as a
perfectly
black
body. Conversely
it acts
as a
full radiator when the walls of the
cavity
are
kept
at the
same
temperature
all
over.
The radiation
escaping
from the hole
comes
from the
opposite
wall of the
oven
;
whatever of full radiation this wall cannot
emit because of its defective
radiating
power,
it reflects
diffusely
from the radiation
falling
on
it from the rest of the walls. A
mass
of
glass
inside the
oven,
between
radiatingpartially
on
its
own
account,
and
reflecting
and
transmitting
radiation from the
walls,
would likewise send full radiation
out of the small hole.
Indeed,
things
become
indistinguishable
when inside
a
closed
cavity
with walls of uniform
temperature.
In
a
long-closed
room,
without
lamps
or
heaters "
a
closed chamber at 285" A. " the
eye
is useless and the hand cannot detect warmth
or
coolness
radiated from
anything,
one
has to
depend on
other
senses.
Introduce
a
closed stove
(few
hundred
degrees)
or a
lamp (1500"),
or
open
a
shutter to
daylight(diffused sunlight6000")
and tem- perature-sense
and
sightregain
their usefulness. In the
depths
of
a
fire
only
the closest
scrutiny
can
detect
nails,
bits of white
crockery,
or
flakes of
transparent
mica when shut in
on
nearly
all sides
by
the
glowing
coals that themselves have lost their
outlines.
If it is not
sufficiently
evident that all the contents
soon
settle
down to the
temperature
of the walls of the
cavity
consult
"
558,
reading
'
temperature
'
in
place
of
'
potential
'
and
'
lines of flow
of heat
'
instead of
'
electric lines.'
Liimmer and
Pringsheim
therefore constructed
'
black bodies
'
on
this
principle.
One
was an oven
of thick
copper
with
a
small
hole in
one
side and heated
by
steam or
flame
gases.
Another
was
a
longporcelain
tube
wrapped
round with nickel wire
;
an
electric
current
through
this heated the tube and
a
contained
lump
of
porcelain
to
bright
redness,
the
glowing
interior
was
viewed
through
a
hole in
one
end. For the
highesttemperatures
the
tube
was
of carbon and the current
passed
from end to end
through
its
walls,heating
them and
a central carbon
lump
to
brilliant
incandescence.
A bolometer faced the
aperture,
and the
results,
between 100"
and
1535",
talliedwith Stefan's
Law,
with
an
extreme
discrepancy
of
only
3".
Theoretical
proofs,
thermal and
electrical,
have also been
given
for the
Law,
and it is
now
established.
468 A HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS
plates
sensitivedown to w.l. 2 '3 microns. Below
this,
and
always,
there is the invaluable
bolometer,
"
495.
"
500. As
everyone
knows,
radiation of
'
dark heat
'
begins
at
low
temperatures
and
onlyspreads
into the visible
region
of the
spectrum
at
a
'
red
heat,'
about 500" C. In the
spectrum
of fire-
redness,
600" to 1200"
C.,
green
asserts
itself,
above this blue and
violet and then ultra-violet
come in,
and at the
highest
tem- peratures
of
limelight
and
arc we
get
a
fair imitation of
noonday
whiteness.
In
Fig.
242 the abscissae
are wave
lengths[VR
shows extent of visible
spectrum]
and the ordinates
are
the in- tensities
of radiation. Each
curve
repre- sents
the
composition
of
'
full radiation
'
for the absolute
temperature
marked
on
it. The areas
between
curve
and base- line
are
proportional
to the total amount
of
radiation,
and show
plainly
how
rapidly
this
increases,
in accordance with
Stefan's
fourth-power
law.
Again,
as
the
temperature
rises,
the
curves
acquiresharperpeaks,
and these
peaks
are
moved towards the
higher-
frequency
shorter
wave
length
violet.
Concerning
this there is another
law,
known
as Wien's Law
"
In full
radiation the
frequency
of vibra- tion
of the radiation which is
being
emitted in
greatestquantity
is proportional to the absolute
temperature.
Or
[wave length],naa,
ex
1/T"A
And from Wien's law and
Stefan's it follows that the in- tensity
of
the
maximum-intensity
radiation
(heightof
the
peak)
is
proportional
to
the
fifth
power
of
the absolute
temperature.
As the
peak
travels violet-ward with rise of
temperature
the
colour of the
lightchanges;
'
red,'
'
cherry-red,' etc.,
are
familiar
in
judgingtemperature.
In the
Wanner
Pyrometer a
tinyglow
/ Z 3 4-
5" 6
uaire
length
in microns.
FIG. 242.
RADIATION 469
lamp
is held in front of the
glowingbackground
and the
lamp
current
regulated
tillfilament matches
background
in tint and
brilliance and
virtually disappears.
The attached ammeter is
graduated
to
read
temperature
direct.
If the
positions
of the
peaks
can
be
determined,
Wien's law
gives
the relative
temperatures.
In this
way
an
estimate of
6200" A. has been made for the solar
temperature,
and
23,000"
for
the
'
variable star
'
Algol(with
radiation 40 times
as
intense
as
the
sun's).
"
501
:
Modern
lamps
afford instances of the
practical bearing
of this. The trouble with
candles,
flat
gas
flames,
and carbon-
filament electric
lamps
has
always
been that their
temperature
is
so
low
(1500"C.)
that 99
%
of the radiation
comes
off
as
invisible
heat
(seeFig.242)
and
only
1
%
is visible
light.
In
regenera- tive
gas
burners the air
was
heated
as
it
entered,
the flame
was
hotter and
whiter,
and the luminous
efficiency
was
nearly
doubled.
The
acetylene
flame is likewise
hotter,whiter,
and
more
efficient.
The
'
intrinsic
brilliance,'
i.e. the
candle-power
per square
centimetre of radiant
surface,
is 86 for
a
carbon
glow lamp
:
for
the carbons of the
arc,
which
are
at double the absolute tem- perature,
it is about 25 times
as much, or 3000.
Unfortunately
the maximum emission is still of
invisiblylong
wave
length
and the luminous
efficiency
is
only
4 times
as
great.
[The
luminous
efficiency
of
a
full radiator should be 1
%
at 1500"
C.,
3
%
at 2000"
C.,
and 30
%
at 4000"
C.]
The intrinsic brilliance of
the
sun
(6200"A.)
is
90,000.
That of
a
candle is
only
about
-66,
and of
acetylene
gas
6. The candle flame is
as
hot
as
the carbon
filament,
hence if its
light
is due to incandescent carbon
particles
these
occupy
only
1
%
of the
flame,
if due to
gaseous
radiation it
shows what
poor
radiators
gases
are
at best.
"502:
The
tungsten-filament lamp
is at 1900" C. but its
efficiency,
3-5
%,
exceeds the 3
%
of
a
'
full
'
radiator at 2000" C.
Hence
we
must conclude that it radiates to
some
extent
'
selectively.'
A
more
marked instance of
Selective Radiation
is
the
gas
mantle,
which below 1700"
C.,
with
an intrinsicbrilliance
far less than the
tungsten
wire's,
yet gives
a
much whiter
light.
The
'
rare
earths
'
of which it is made
characteristically give
bright
band
spectra,
almost
as
do
vapours
("415)
and the
gas
mantle has been
developed
to have
a
broad
*
bright
band
'
from
yellow
to violetin which it
concentrates a
much
greaterproportion
of itstotal radiation than
mere
temperature
would warrant.
470 A HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS
Carrying
the
principle
to an extreme,
the selective
orange
and
green
radiation of the
glowing
vapours
of sodium and calcium
is used in
'
flame
arcs
'
and doubles their luminous
efficiency,
and
mercury vapour
is
an
equally
economical
green-and-blue
radiator
in
mercury-arc-lamps (J
watt
per
c.p.).
Per
contra, sunlight
is not
so
rich in ultra-violet
as
it should
be at 6200" A. The
atmosphere
absorbs much of it
:
in clear
weather and
on
mountains there is
notably
more
and it
helps
cause
sunburn and snow-blindness.
"
503.
The infra-red
spectrum
must of
course
extend to and
below the radiation which
according
to Pre vest's
theory
is
constantlygoing
on
from
everything
at
ordinarytemperatures.
Looked at in this
way,
the idea that
we
and all around
us are
constantlyemittingportions
of infra-red
spectrum
is
a
little
startling ; why
all this
rushing
about of radiant
energy
?
But does
one
realize the vast
outpourings
of radiation when
it
comes
to
a
question
of
maintaining
a
little
illumination,
say
?
Stand
on a
Thames
bridge
at
night,
look at the
rows
of
lamps
and
think of the hundreds of
horse-powerworking
to maintain their
radiance " and the end of it ?"
a
littleunheeded
warmth, a
faint
glimmer
over a
few
acres
of river
beneath,
and the dullest brown
tint
to
the darkness overhead. Think of the coal and oil trade of
the
country,
half of it
goes
to
keep
a
few million little
boxes,
called
rooms, carefully
contrived with
non-conducting
walls and
the minimum of
ventilation,a
few
degrees
warmer
than the
weather for half the
year,
and
to
give
them about the least
illumination
our
marvellously
sensitive
eyes
can
work with for
a
few hours
a
day.
Then think of the
power
that
lights
the
country-side
with
many
thousand times that
brilliance,
which
combats,
for the whole
earth,
the cold of interstellar
space,
and reflect that the
heritage
of
every
child born into the world is
200,000
horse-power
for life.
The
enormous
increase
expressedby
the
fourth-power
law iswell
exemplified by
this,
that
a
little disc at 6200" A.
putting
in its
appearance
in the
sky
for
a
few hours
a
day,
is able to
renew
all
the radiation that the earth's
surface,
at about 290"
A.,
loses to
the whole cold vault of
sky
in the
twenty-four
hours.
Indeed,
the
radiation,
low down in the
infra-red,
from
objects
of
ordinarytemperatures,
is
comparatively
so
slight
that it is
only
by utilizing
selective line-radiation from
a
silica-glass
mercury
lamp
that Rubens has been able to
get beyond
wave
length
RADIATION
471
"1
mm.
to wave
length
-3 mm. "
only
ten times shorter than has
been
producedelectro-magnetically.
Rubens
studied,
inter
alia,
radiation of
wave
length
8-85
microns,
which he
was
able
to
pick
out
by repeated
reflections
from
quartz,suddenly
very
'
athermanous
'
at this
wave
length.
It is said that much of the earth's radiation back into
space
has
a wave
length
near this,
and that
a
millimetre thickness of water
obstructs it
greatly.
"
504.
Theory of the Greenhouse. Clear
glass
is
transparent
to
visible radiations but
opaque
to almost all others. Hence the
sun's
radiation,
largely
of visible
frequencies,
passes
through
a
greenhouse
roof and falls
upon
and
warms
plants,
soil,etc.,
beneath.
Thereupon
these emit the low infra-red radiations
appropriate
to their
temperature,
and these radiations
are
trappedby
the
glass,
which either absorbs
or
reflectsthem. Rock-
salt,on
the other
hand,
would transmit them
freely.
Now Wood
has
recentlyexposed
to the
sun
miniature
greenhouses,
roofed
with
glass
and with
rock-salt,
and has found
no
significant
differ- ence
of
temperature
between them.
Evidently
there is
some
common
action
greatlyoutweighing
any
trapping
effect.
We
saw
in
"
175 that at moderate
temperatures seven-eighths
of the lossof heat
was not due
to radiation at
all,
but to convection.
If convection currents are
hindered from
getting
away
the rate
of loss of heat is
vastly
reduced. It is the
imperfect
ventilation of
a
greenhouse
then that
amply
accounts for its contents
retaining
a
highertemperature
than that in the free air outside.
"
505
:
Steam
power
from
sunlight.
Temperatureshigher
than
are
desirable in
a
greenhouse
are
frequently
attained
by objects
outside. On a
calm
sunny
day
a
paintedgarden
seat
gets
too hot
to sit down
on.
The
gardener
whitewashes the
greenhouse
roof
in
summer to reflect the
sunlight
and
save
the
plants
from
scorching.
Consider
a
square
centimetre of
*
black
'
surface
directly facing
the
sun.
Experiments
have shown that itreceives about 2 calories
per
minute. It rises in
temperature
until convection and radiation
carry away
the
same
amount,
when its
temperature
becomes
stationary.
If
quiteprotected
from convection itrisesto a much
highertemperature
at which it radiates 2 calories
per
minute to
a
hemisphere
of
sky,
etc.
Applying
Stefan's law
(and ignoring
the
small "4 of
sky)
this
temperature
can be worked out
as
about
150" C.
472 A HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS
In
experiments
in
progress
in
California water is
irrigated
over
the black floor of
a
large
shallow tank
;
a
double
glass
roof
transmits the solar radiation and
prevents
convection loss.
The
very
hot water flows off into
a
turbine where it boils under
reduced
pressure.
The steam is condensed in cooler water from
a
largeunderground
tank and the contents of this
are
irrigated
at
night
so as
to cool
by
radiation
and,
if
permissible, evaporation
[or,
for
pumping plant,
the well water is
used].
In another
scheme the hot water flows
over
pipescontainingliquidsulphur
dioxide under
pressure,
this boils and drives
an
engine
and is
condensed
again
in
coolingpipeskept
in the shade and in
a
fan
draught.
20
h.p.
and
more
has been obtained.
In older
experiments
a
huge built-upparabolic
mirror reflected
the
sunlight
on to
a
littleboiler at the focus.
Practically,
scores
of
suns
shine
on
the
boiler,
and it
soon
supplies high-pressure
steam.
"
506
:
Mean
temperatures
of the
planets.
It has been stated
above that
a
black surface
exposednormally
to the sun's
rays
can
rise to 150" C.=423" A.
Poynting
has
similarly
calculated that
the whole earth's
surface,
taking
into account the
varyingobliquity
of the sun's
rays
due to latitude and time of
day,
and the absence
of the
sun
by night,
should have
an
average
annual
temperature
about 290"
A.,
and this is not
many
degrees
from the truth.
Similarly
the
temperature
of Venus
comes to 343" A. = 70"
C.,
and that of Mars to 237" A. ="36" C.
"
507 : Radiation
pressure.
The
pressure
exerted
on a
surface
by
a
stream of
energy
falling
on
it has been mentioned in
"
290.
The
pressure
exerted
by
a
strong
beam of
light
has been
measured,
though
it is
exceedingly
small. A
radiatingbody
will of
course
experience
a
reaction
pressure.
No resultant force acts
on a
body
radiating,
and
being
radiated
to, equally
in all
directions,
but
two hot bodies
among
cooler
surroundings
will
repel
each other.
Consider
a swarm
of meteorites
approaching
the
sun.
Particles
are
attracted
to one
another
by gravitation,
but
are
keptapart by
the
sunlight
reflected from
one
to the
other,
and
by
their radiations
as
they
absorb the solar heat.
They
are
attracted to the
sun
with
a
gravitational
force
proportional
to their
masses
(x diam.3)
but
repelled
from it with
a
radiation force
proportional
to their
areas
("xdiam.2).
Below
a
certain small diameter the
repulsions
must exceed the
attractions,
and the smaller dust is driven out
of
the
swarm
and
repelleddirectly
away
from the
sun
in
a
broad
streaming
comet's tail.
RADIATION 473
EXAMPLES." CHAPTER LI
I.
Explain
Pre vest's
theory
of
exchanges
of radiation. Consider
the
special precautions required
to
get
the correct
temperature
of the
air
or
any
transparent
medium.
"
2.
Upon
what does the rate at which
a body
radiates heat
depend
?
Prove from
general principles
that the
radiating
power
of
a body
is
equal
to its
absorbing
power,
and describe
an experiment
which illus- trates
this relation.
[L.]
3. Describe
an experiment
to show that the sums
of the emitting
and
reflecting
powers
of different surfaces for heat radiation are equal.
Distinguish
between the
absorbing
power
of
a
surface and the absorbing
power
of the interior of
a
solid.
[L.]
4. How
can
it be shown
experimentally
that the heat radiation
from
a
hot
body obeys
the
same
laws of reflection and refraction as
light? [L.]
5. Mention three facts
bearing
upon
the
similarity
in character
between
light
and radiant heat. Describe
generally
the
change
in
character of the radiation from a
body, as
it is raised from the
ordinary
temperature
to white heat.
[L.]
6. How would
you
show that the amount of heat radiation received
from
a
surface
depends (a)
upon
the nature of the surface, (b)
upon
its
temperature, (c)
upon
the distance of the receiver ?
[L.]
7.
Why
on a frosty night
is it often colder in the
valley
than on
the
neighbouring
hill-sides ?
[L]m.
8. How would
you
show that
a large
amount of the
energy
radiated
by
a
gas
flame consists of non-luminous heat
rays,
and how would
you
measure the
percentage stopped by
a sheet of
glass
?
[L.]
9. What
experiments
would determine whether
a
glass
or a
'
pebble
'
(quartz) spectacle
lens absorbed less radiation from
a body
below
red-heat ?
[L]m.
10.
By
what
experiments
would
you
show that the radiation from
an electric
arc
extends
beyond
both ends of the visible
spectrum
? In
what
respects
do these invisible radiations differ from the visible ?
[L]m.
II. How would
you
test whether
a source
of
light
is rich in ultra- violet
rays
?
Why
does
sunlight
vary
in its content of ultra-violet
from
day
to
day
?
[L]m.
12. What difference will there be in the
general shape
of the curves
of radiation of
a black
body according as they are
drawn to a wave
length or a frequency
base-line ?
13. Describe
some form of radiation
pyrometer
for
measuring
very
high temperatures.
How would
you propose
to test the
accuracy
of such
an
instrument ?
[L.]
MAGNETISM
CHAPTER LII
MAGNETS AND MAGNETIC MATERIALS
"
508. It must have been
a
Palaeolithic
discovery
that there
was a sort
of black
stone
that had the
power
of
attracting
and
holding
little
fragments
of itself. The
name
by
which
we now
know this rich
ore
of iron "
Magnetite
"
appears
to be derived
from
a
locality
so
prolific
in minerals
as to have conferred its
name
also
on
two others
(magnesia,manganese).
In Britain it
was
the
Lodestone because it led
fragments
to
itself, or
perhaps
because
a
rod of it
hung by
a
hair would turn and
point
northwards,
towards
the steadfast
leading-
or
lode-star of the mariner.
Steel rubbed
by
the lodestone
acquired
its
powers,
and
being
more
workable than the hard brittle stone must
soon
have
replaced
it in the Mariner's
Compass, a
specimen
of which
was
brought
to
Europe
from China in 1260.
Examining
the attractive
power
of
a
Magnet
" the
lodestone,
or a
piece
of steel rubbed with it"
one
finds it concentrated in
parts
called
Poles,
whereto iron nails and
filings thicklycling
and
toy
compasses
vigorouslypoint.
There is
usually
a
strong pole
near
each
end,
but there
may
be
others,
called
consequent poles,
anywhere,
often where the steel has been
casually
touched
by
the
magnet.
"
509.
*
North
'
and
'
South
'
poles. Taking
henceforward the
usual steel
magnet
with
a
pole
near
each
end,
it will be found that
while both
attract
iron
(and
if movable
are
attracted towards
it,
by
the third law of
motion),one
will
attract
and the other
repel
one
end of another
magnet. They
are
evidently
of
opposite
'
polarity
'
and
are
distinguished
as
North and South.
The bar shows
no
signs
of
magnetism
at its
middle,
and
one
would
expect
that
breaking
it there would leave the
one original
474
476 A HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS
Apparently
the stream of
magnetism
runs
rightthrough
the
bar,
but
only
shows itselfwhere it enters and leaves.
In
agreement
with this is the fact that the
amounts
of
North and
South
magnetism
in
a
magnet
are
alwaysequal
to
each
other,
whether
collected into two
poles
or
scattered
among
several
consequent
poles.
For
a
magnet
set afloat
on a
cork turns and sets
itself
N. and S. and
makes
no
further
movement,
whereas if
one
of its
magneticcharges
were
stronger
than the
other,
the action of the
greatmagnet,
Earth, on
that
charge
would be
greater,
and would
drag
the
magnet bodilyalong
north
or
south.
"
510. We
can
follow the stream of
magnetism
as
it
spreads
out
from
the North
pole
into the
surrounding
space
" the
magnet's
'
field
'
" where it
gives
rise to all the various
magnetic
actions.
Fine iron
filings
are
sprinkled
on a
card laid
on
the
magnet,
the
card is
gentlytapped
and the
filings
arrange
themselves in lines
which
are
stream-lines of the
magnetic
flow in that
particular
plane
in which the card cuts the
magnetic
field. In the
photo- graph
Fig.
243 the card is
lying
on a
bar
magnet
and in
Fig.
244
on
the
poles
of
a
vertical
'
horseshoe
'
electro-magnet.
The stream that flows in at the S.
pole
is
just
the stream
that
left the N.
pole;
*
we
have
already
found it convenient to think
of the
stream
as
continuous
rightthrough
the steel
;
it follows
then that each
magnetic
line is
a
closed endless
loop.
NOTICE that the lines
never cross one another,
for that would
mean
flowing
in two directions at
once
at the
same
place.
Fig.
245 shows
two N.
poles,
each
sending
out its
own
streams
of lines
;
the
two sets
never
mix.
In
Fig.
246 an
iron nut has been
placed
in the
field,
notice how
the lines bend round and crowd into
it,
evidentlythey
find it
easier to
run
through
iron than
through
air,so
much easier that
the
filings
show
hardly
any
flow
on
the card
(in
the
air)just
above
the nut.
"511. Magnetic shielding.
Few
emerge
into the hollow middle
of the
nut,
it is easier to
run
round in the iron than to
jump across,
the thick iron shell shields the
space
inside itfrom outside
magnetic
influence.
.
This
plan
of
surrounding
a
space
with thick iron walls is the
only
known
means
of
keeping
out external
magnetic
influence.
Delicate
galvanometers
sometimes have to be
protected
from
*
All north
poles
and north
polarity
drift down the stream.
South
poles
and south
polarity
'
travel
up
against
it.'
MAGNETS AND MAGNETIC MATERIALS 477
electrical
machineryby
a
close-fitting jacket
of
'
soft
'
iron
;
a
small
dynamo-room
was
prevented
from
interfering
with
a
mag- netic
observatoryby building
round it
a
double wall filledwith
scrap
iron,
but
really
effective
shielding
on
the
large
scale demands
too much iron. The
conning
tower of
a
battleship
is
a
poor
place
for
a binnacle,
but
a
quarter
or more
of the earth's
magnetic
force
still
pervades
it.
"
512.
Magnetization by
Induction. The lines
crowding
in and
out
of the iron
give
it the
appearance
of
a
magnet ;
this is still
better seen
in
Fig.247,
where
a
wrought-iron
bar has been
placed
in the
magnetic
field. And
by
trial
we
find that for the time
being
it is
a
magnet.
An iron
nail,
for
instance,
held with
one
end
near
a
magnet pole,
will
pick
up
pen-nibs, etc.,
on
its far
end,
though
they
fall when the
magnet
is removed. A
yard
of wire
rope
will
carry
the
magnetic
stream round from
a
magnet
to a
compass
which
previously
was
but littleaffected.
These
things
are magnetized by
'
induction,'magnetization
is
induced in them.
This
explains
how
a
magnet pole (N.,say)
which attracts a
S. and
repels
a
N.
pole
and should
presumably
have
no
effecton
FIG. 247. FIG. 248.
a
neutral
body,yet always
attracts
ordinaryunmagnetized
iron.
Lines from the
pole
crowd into the
iron,
inducing
an
oppositepole,
and these two
poles
attract
each other.
478 A HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS
Every
little
filing
in the field becomes
an
'
induced
magnet
'
and sets itselfhead to tail with its
neighbours,
hence the
con- tinuous
dark lines of them.
The Earth is
a
magnet,
and all iron
upon
it is
more or
less
magnetizedby
its induction. In this
country
its
magnetic
lines
ran
steeply
downwards
slightly
west of N.
; holding
a
poker
N. and
S., or vertical,or
best in the described
direction,
and
hammering
it,
it will
acquire
and retain
magnetism enough
to
quickly
affect
a
compass
and
perhaps
to
pick
up
filings.
Hammering always
seems
to
help,
one
says
vibration
'
shakes
up
the molecules
'
as
tapping
shook
up
the
filings, easing
their
friction
on
the card and
enabling
them
to turn into line. Vibration
in
a
contrary
field reduces
magnetization.
Steel
ships
built
N. and S.
are a
magnetic
nuisance
to their
navigators
until
a
year's
roundabout
voyaging
has shaken out most of their
acquired
magnetism.
But iron
placedright
across
the lines
as
in
Fig.
248
(e.g.
a
girder
east and
west)
does not
get magnetized.
For the lines would
gainnothingby turningquite
at
rightangles
to
run
along
it,
and
the extra
facility
of
traversing
its small thickness is
not
sufficient
inducement to
bring
many
lines out of their short direct
courses,
i.e.the lines do not crowd
in,
but
pay
little
more
heed to it
than to a
bit of wood
;
it shows
no
magnetic
difference from its
surroundings,
itisnot
perceptibly magnetized.
It is
impracticable,
for
instance,
to
permanentlymagnetize
a
thin steel
plate
to have
one
face all N. and the other all S.
pole;
itisdifficultto
strongly
magnetize
a
bicycle
ball
;
it is
many
hundred times easier to
magnetize
a
rod
lengthwise
than
crosswise,
whatever direction the
poker
be held in when hammered its
poles
will be
near
its ends
and its
magnetization practically parallel
to its
length.
"
513. Methods of
magnetizing.
All
magnetization
is effected
by
induction. The commonest
process,
that of
stroking
the steel
from end to
end,
always
one
way,
with
a
magnet pole,
is
simply
exposing
every
particle
of it in succession to a
strong
field. If
instead of the solid
a
tube full of steel
filings
be
used,
they
can
be
seen
turning
to
point
to the
pole
as
it
passes
:
it
coaxes
them all
down
one
way,
and the tube
(orrod)showing
the
sum
total of all
these little
(molecular)
magnets
exhibits
on
the end at which the
magnet
left,
oppositepolarity
to the
strokingpole.
[Subsequentlyshaking
up
the tube
jumbles
the steel
filings
together
and obliterates their united
effect,
though
each
may
remain
magnetized.]
MAGNETS AND MAGNETIC MATERIALS 479
In the extra work
you
do in
separating
the
inducing
from the
induced
pole
is the
source
of the
magnetized
steel's store
of
potential
energy
which enables it to turn
compass
cards,move
iron,or
drag
itself towards it.
The
objection
to this
way
of
propagatingmagnetization
is that
the outer
layers
act as
magnetic
shields to
the
inner,
and
a
bar
J
in. thick will have
a core
of
scarcelymagnetized
steel.
Hence
it used to be the
practice
to
build
up
large
magnets
as
bundles
of thin
strips,
each
separately magnetized.
Now that
largeelectro-magnets
are
available
a
better
way
is
to
place
the bar to
join
their
poles(packing
in
any gap
with
lumps
of
iron)
and
tap
it. The intense
magnetic
stream
flows
through
the bar and
thoroughlymagnetizes
it.
Magnetization by circulating
electric currents must be deferred
till
later,we
may
only
mention here that
strong
local
magnetiza- tion
in native
magnetite(constituting
it
lodestone)
is
usually
ascribed to
lightning having
struck
near it,
for the
great
bulk of
the
ore, thoughmagnetizable,
is not
naturallymagnetized.
"
514
: Magnetic Permeability.
The ratio of the number of
lines which flow
through
1
sq.
cm.
cross-section of
a
long
rod of
iron,etc.,placedalong
their natural
course,
to the number
flowing
if the iron
were not there,
is called the
permeability,P,
of the
material.
The lines referred to
are
'
unit
'
lines,to
be defined in
"
525.
Their number
per square
centimetre in the iron is called the
'
density
of induction
'
and in air is the
magnetizing
'
field
strength.'
Thus
Permeability^
induction
density"field strength.
Magnetizable
substances therefore
possess
a
permeability
greater
than 1. Some
average
values
(for
an
'
induction
density
'
about
5000)
are as
follows
:
"
Soft cast iron
(fordynamos) . . .
500
Soft malleable iron
. . .
1000 to 2000
Cobalt 150
Heusler's
alloy(Mn.A1.2Cu)
annealed 160
Manganese
steel
(hard
white for
tramway points)
1-5
Steel,pianoforte
wire
(retentive)
.
160
,,
'
glass
hard
'
(retainsmuch)
80
Chilled cast iron
" ,,
50
Nickel
"",
200
Magnetite
,, "
4
"515:
Para- and
dia-magnetic substances.
The
very
intense
magnetic
fields
obtainable between the
pointedpole-pieces
of
a
greatelectro-magnet
disclose
a
feeble
magneticactivity
in almost
1-000002
1-0025
1-00033
1 00026
nil
480 A HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS
all
substances. Those that behave like
iron,
having
a
per- meability
greater
than
J^Jha-Yfi^Ijcencalled
paramagnetic,
but
there
are
others that behave
oppositely
and have
a
permeability
less than
1,
these
are diamagnetic. Some
permeabilities
are :
"
(Para)magnetic
"
Air
(compared
with
vacuum)
. .
1-0000004
"Oxygen .....
Liquid
air
(runs
up
tube to
strong poles)
Ferric salt solutions
(-1
gm.
Fe
per
c.c.)
Ferrous
,, " ,, ,,
Ferro- and ferri-
cyanides
Igneous
rocks
(containing
disseminated
magnetite)
-0001 to -036
Diamagnetic
"
Water, 1 - -00001
Bismuth
1--0002
Some bismuth-tin
alloys(greatestknown)
. .
1" -002
The littlerod of
bismuth,
since it refuses to
pass
the
ma.gnetic
stream
as
readily
as air,
gets
turned aside into the
position
where
it will
cause
the least
hindrance,
i.e.
(cf.Fig.248)
it sets
across
(dia-)
the
field,
placing
its ends in the weaker outer
parts.
"
516.
Temporary
and
permanent magnetization.
In soft malleable iron
magnetization
is
easily
induced,
P
averaging
1000 to
2000,
but it vanishes
immediately
the
mag- netizing
influence is removed
(except
see
below).
This
power
of
quicklyacquiring
and
losingmagnetism
is made
great
use
of in
electro-magnets.
In hard cast
iron,
chilled cast
iron,
and tool
steel,
especially
when
very
hard,
magnetization
is far less
easily
induced,
P
averaging
80 to
160,
but
now a
largeproportion
of it is retained
'
permanently
'
; thoughwarming,knocking
about,
the
proximity
of
contrary magnets, etc., gradually
enfeeble this
permanent
residue.
If,however,
provision
is made for the
magnetic
stream to
circulate
entirelythrough plenty
of iron the
magnetization
is
retained much better. The soft-iron
'
armature
'
or
'
keeper
'
should be left
on a
horseshoe
magnet,
and bar
magnets
are
best
kept
in
pairs,opposite
ways,
with
keepers
on
both ends. Even
a
soft-iron
electro-magnet
may
refuse to let
go
of
a
thick armature
to which it has
once
actually
stuck,
until
a
slight
blow
or
vibration
causes
separation
and
demagnetization.
A
piece
of
paper
between
poles
and armature
usuallyinterposes enough
'
air
gap
'
in the
iron circuit to
prevent
this unreliable action.
MAGNETS AND MAGNETIC MATERIALS 481
The
explanation
is
this,
the armature
gathers
into itselfmost of
the lines from the
poles
and leaves but few to
spread
in the air
and
proclaim
their existence. Now these lines
were
running
back
past
the
magnet
in the
opposite
direction to the
stream of
magnetism
inside
it,
i.e.
they
tended to
demagnetize
it
:
the
armature therefore
prevents
this suicidal
tendency.
Iron in the field
not
onlygatherstogether
the
magnetic
stream
but
actually
increases the total
flow,
having
made the circula- tion
so
much easier. Electrical
engineers
therefore build their
machines of massive soft iron with
as
littleair
gap
as
possible,
and
save
much of the
power
otherwise
required
in the
'
field-
magnet/
"
517
: Temperature.
At
a
red heat iron is
more
easily
magnetizable,
but
at 780", a
'
cherry
red,'
it
suddenly
loses
all
magnetic properties.
Permanent
magnetizationalways
diminishes as
the
temperature
rises
[^oVo
*"
"tro
Par*
Per
degree
C.
according
to the
magnet]
and
quitedisappears
at the
same
temperature.
Heating
to redness is therefore sometimes used to
demagnetize
specimens,
but
they
must afterwards be
placedmagnetic
east
and
west,
or
they
will
pick
up
no
little
magnetization
from the
earth
as
they
cool
through
the
temperatures
of
highpermeability.
Magnetite
likewise
demagnetizes
at
bright
redness,
cobalt
at
1100" and nickel at
only
320" C. A curious nickel steel de- magnetizes
at 600" and has to be frozen before
againbecoming
magnetic
at all.
"
518 : Magnetization Curves.
B/ooo
Steel
I
I
H=6o'
o u w
x
FIG. 249.
If
a
bar of soft iron
is
subjected
to a
gradually
increasing
field its
magnetization
increases in three distinct
stages,Fig.
249,
where B= induction
density,
H=
magnetizing
field.
31
482 A HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS
From 0 to A the
magnetization
is
proportional
to the field
strength,
P is
constant,
but
small,
and when the field is removed
the
specimenimmediately
and
perfectly demagnetizes.
From A to K the
magnetization
increases
enormously,
the
apparent permeability increasing
from its
steady
value
AU/OU
to a
maximum
KV/OV.
Further increase in field
strength
evokes
only slight
response
from the
specimen,
which
presently
becomes
practically
'
saturated.' The
permeability SW/OW gradually
diminishes till
at
very
intense fieldsit is less than
a
hundredth its value at K.
It is true that
beyond
the
'
knee
'
K the number of lines still
increases much faster than if
no
iron
were
present,
but it is
becoming disproportionately expensive
to maintain the
mag- netizing
fieldand in
machinery
the
magnetization
is not
pushed
beyond
K.
With
very
long
bars, or
rings,
as
the field is
reduced,
the
magnetism
remains
greater
than at the
same
field
on
the
way up,
but this is less noticeable with short
specimens("516).
The
long specimenapproximates
to
the closed
magnetic
circuit of
"
516
;
the
same
diagramserves,
but all the ordinates
are
inclined
as
the dotted
line,
which shows
a
3
or
4 times
greater
remanent
magnetism
at
zero
field
(seebelow).
The
magnetization
of hard steel rises far less
rapidly,
and the
A' and K' bends
are
smoothly
rounded. Saturation demands
a
fieldfar
beyond
the
diagram,
and
yet
means
much less
magnetiza- tion
than in iron.
Returning,
as
the field
diminishes,
the
magnetization
falls
only
slowly,
so
that at R where the fieldis
zero,
there
is stillleft the Permanent
Magnetization
OR,
and
it takes
a
reversed field
strength
OX to
remove
this. OX is called the
'
coercive force.'
This
'Hysteresis'
or
'sticking'
of the
magnetism,
like solid
friction,causes a
loss of
energy
which
goes
to heat
up
the
specimen.
In
alternating-
current
machinery
it absorbs 10
h.p.
per
ton with
the softest
iron,
and steel would be ten times
worse.
Demagnetization
cannot be effected in
practice
by
the reversed field
OX,
because the
curve
is
so
steep
at X that the least
overrunningputs
in
an
appreciable
reversed
magnetization.
De- magnetization
is effected
by reversing
the field
again
and
again,
meanwhile
graduallyweakening
it. The effect is to
carry
the
FIG. 250.
484 A HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS
violently
with
a
magnet,
then
removing
it and
leaving
them to
quiet
down
(adiminishingalternating field).
[The magnetization
of the molecule
may
be due to the revolu- tion
of
an
electron inside
it,
equivalent
to
a
magnet perpendicular
to its orbit. Then the orbit
can
tiltwithout the molecule
moving
as a whole.]
"
520. Now the
portions
of the
magnetic
lines outside the iron
may
be
regarded
in another
way,
and that is
as
lines of
Force,
elasticlines on
the
stretch,
tending
to
shorten,
pullingtogether
the
pieces
of iron
they
connect.
Thus in
Fig.
246 the iron nut is
beingpulledby
two
dense
bundles of
lines,
and in
Fig.
247 the bar is
beingpulled
round into
line with the two
poles.
In the actual
experiments
these had to
be fastened in
position.
Each line in
Fig.
252
(drawn
for
me
in
an
examination)
repre- sents
the track of a
little
compass
steppedalong
in the direction
I
FIG. 252.
it
pointed.
The needle of
course
set itself
along
the line of
greatestpull,just
as
if it had threads attached to each end and
pulledopposite
ways.
Being pivoted,
it turned
more
easily
than the iron
filings
of
Fig.
243 and the field is traced farther
out, past
the Neutral Points
XX,
into
regions
where the earth's
influence
preponderates.
The earth's lines when undisturbed
are
of
course
straight
lines
runningmagnetic
N. and S.
This
map
of the combined
or
resultant
magnetic
field which
we are now
calling
a
force
diagram
is
equally
the
map
of the
stream
lines of a
fluid
exuding
from
a
supply
at N. and
being
removed
equally
fast at
S.,
the
experimentbeing
done in
a
brook
MAGNETS AND MAGNETIC MATERIALS
485
gently flowing
up
the
page.
Where the flow is
rapid (force
strong
enough
to
move filings)
the slow
current
of the brook
(weak
field
of the
earth)
does
not
appreciably
distort
it, and it is
only
the
feebler
outer lines that show
signs
of its interference.
If there
were no
force other than the
lengthwise
tension in the
lines
they
would all
pull
up
into
one
shortest
straight
line
joining
the
two
pieces
of iron.
Evidently
there is also
a
sidewise
pressure
among
them, spacing
them out
over
the whole field. This
can
be
used in
explaining
the
repulsion
between similar
poles
as
in
Fig.
245,
the
mutually cramped-up streams of lines
tending to
swell
to their natural width.
"
521
:
But Iron
lying on a
curved line is
pulled tangential
and also
pulled sideways
into the hollow of the
curve.
For the
forces
on
its
ends, which lie at
separated points
on
the
curve,
are
not
exactly opposite
and have
a
small inward resultant. In
this
way
the
filings
in the densest
part
of
Fig.
247 have been raked
in,
as
the card
was tapped,
from the weaker
parts
of the field.
Thus iron
always
tends
to
move
into the
stronger parts of
the
mag- netic
field.
Work is done in
moving it, hence the
energy
left in the
field is less when iron is
present.
The
energy per
cubic centimetre
in iron is less than in air
;
it is inferred that the
pull
of
a magnetic
line is less in iron than in air
;
this
we
have
no experimental
means
of
measuring.
CHAPTER LIII
MAGNETIC FIELDS
IT will
now serve our
purpose
best to
lay
aside the idea of
stream lines and to
merely regard magnetic
action
as
direct
attraction
or
repulsion
between
point-poles
at a distance,
much
in the
same
way
as we
resorted to
geometry
in
optics.
This is
done
solely
because stream-line calculations
are
much
more
diffi- cult
;
it is
justified
because in all worked-out
cases
the two
methods have
given
the
same
results.
"
522. The
point-poles
of
a
magnet
can
be
regarded
as
the
*
centres of
gravity
'
of two
magnetic charges.
To find
them,
bring
up
one
end of the
magnet
to within
an
inch of
a
charm
compass
in such
a
way
that the needle is not deflected at
all,
ink
on
the
magnet
the line of
pointing
of the needle. Slew the
magnet
round to
some
other
position,
still
so as not to deflect
the
needle,
again
ink in itsline of
pointing.
The ink lines
cross
at the
'
pole.'
In
a
bar
magnet
the
poles
are
usually
-85 its
length
apart
(one-
fourteenth from either
end)
.
The line
joining
them isthe
magnet'
s
magnetic axis,
it is this line of
course
which sets
in the
magnetic
meridian when the
magnet
is free to turn
in the earth's field.
"
523
:
In
measuring
the strengths of poles
it must be conceded
that
a
polepossessing
m
units of
strengthproduceseverywhere
m
times the
magnetic
effect of
a
unit
poleplaced
in its
position.
I.
The unit
(N.) pole repels
with
a
force of 1
dyne
another
unit
(N.)
pole placed
1
cm.
away
from it.
II. A
pole
of
m
units
repels
unit
pole
with
m
dynes,
and
further,
it
repelspole
of
strength
m' with their
product
mm'
dynes.[South
poles
are
given
a
"
sign,
a "
force
means
attraction.]
This
can
be demonstrated
by
a
'
Magnetic
Balance
'
as
follows
:"
Several steel
knitting
needles
AA', BB', etc.,are
magnetized;
486
MAGNETIC FIELDS 487
let their
north-polestrengths
be
A, B, C,
etc. AA' is laid
on
the
pan
of
a
delicate balance and
counterpoised.
Above it is fixed
BB' with its N.
pole
B
vertically
above A 'at
a
distance
d,
Fig.
253,
and
repelling
it down. The
weight
necessary
in the other
pan
to
restore
equilibrium
may
be called
AB,
the
repulsion
between
poles
A
and B. It should be in
dynes,
but
A
as
the
experimental
accuracy
is
vitiated
by
cross
attractions with
FlG* 253-
the distant S.
poles
A' and
B', milligramweights
serve
well
enough as
units of force.
BB' is
now exactlyreplacedby
CO', DD',
etc.
:
weights
AC,
AD,
etc.,
restore
equilibrium.
Since the
repelled pole
has remained
the
same,
the
ratio of
pole
B to
pole
C to
pole
Deforce AB
:
AC
: AD,
etc.
This
givesa
relative
measure
of the
poles
: now
removing
AA'
and
taking
any
pairs,placing
one on
the
pan
and the other at
d above
it,
the
repulsion
between them will be
found
proportional
to their
product.
III. The force varies
inversely
as
the
square
of the distance.
Put
magnet
BB'
at other
distances,l-2d, d, -8d,
etc.,
and
the
repulsions
will be found to be
AB/144,
AB,
AB/-64,
etc.
[CAUTION.
" Like
polesput
too close
togetherpartiallydemag- netize
each
other.]
Puttingwood, etc.,
between the
poles
makes
no difference,
but
iron
plates
of
course
upset
the
experiment.
Hence the
complete
law of
magnetic
action
can
be
put
:
"
The
repulsion,
measured in
dynes,
between two
point-poles,
is
equal
to the
product of their
strengths
divided
by
the
square
of
their distance
apart
in centimetres.
/=
mm
We
can
calculate the absolute values of the
knitting
needles'
poles.
For
taking
B and
C,
their
repulsions
on
A
give
T"
A~R
Pole ratio
~=
repulsive
force ratio
-TQ
488 A HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS
Then
discarding
AA',
their mutual
repulsion
at distance d cm.
BxC
,2
=BC
dynes.
Multiplying
the two
equationstogether
B
BxC AB
units,
or
dividing, pole
C=dx
A
/""^f^ units.
"
524
: Strength
of field.
The
strength
of the
magnetic
field
(oftenbriefly
referred to as
*the
field')
at
a
place,
is defined
as
beingequal
to the force in
dynes
that would be exerted
on a
unit N.
poleplaced
there.
It is sometimes
(mis)called
the
magnetic force,
but it should be
carefully distinguished
from actual Mechanical
Force,
to obtain
which it must
evidently
be
multiplied by polestrength.
The mechanical force
on
pole
m' distant d from
pole
m
=
"
j%-=~"
X
m'= field
strength
X
polestrength [or
'
field'
X
'
pole']
-jgX
1 = field
X
unit
pole
=
dynes
force
on
unit test
pole.
Thus
strength
of field at distance d due to a
singlepole
=
+pole-^-tf2,
directly
away
from
a
N.
pole
or
towards
a
S.
pole.
"
525 : Magnetic
lines in relation to field
strength, pole
strength,
etc.
Here
we
may
bringtogether
the
geometricaltheory
and the
magnetic
stream lines.
Taking
a
square
centimetre at
right
angles
to the
lines,
let
a
field of
unit
strength
be
represented by
one
'
unit
magnetic
line
'
passingperpendicularly through
that
square
centimetre : a
field strength
H
by
H unit lines
per sq.
cm.
Actually
of
course
the stream
pervades
the whole
square
centimetre,
there is
no
striated structure in the field"
as
the card
is
tapped
some
of the lines of
filings
will
probably
move sideways
and settle down where blank
spaces
were
" but it is convenient to
think of unit
lines,
each the axis of
a
tube of
flow,as one
might
count wicks in
a
box of candles that had
accidentally
softened
MAGNETIC FIELDS 489
into
a solid
lump.
For
instance,
the earth's
'
total field
'
0-33 is
represented by
1 unit line to
each 3
sq.
cm.
of
an area
perpen- dicular
to it
(or
a
line of
i
unit
strength
per sq.
cm.,
or a
^^
line
per sq.
mm.,
etc.,
but the firstis most
convenient).
Since
a
unit
poleproduces
a
field of unit
strength(1-r-l2)
at
1
cm.
from itselfin all
directions,
and since the
sphere
of radius
1
cm.
has
an area
of 4?r
sq.
cm.,
each of which must have its unit
line,
therefore Unit N.
pole
must
be
regarded
as
emitting
4?r unit
magnetic
lines
;
and
pole
m
emits 4?rm
(about12|w)
unit
lines,
all of which have travelled to it
through
the metal.
"
526
:
The
strength
of
pole
per square
centimetre surface of
the metal is called its
Intensity
of
Magnetization (I).
If this
magnetization
is
entirely
induced
by
a
magnetizing
field
strength
H,
the ratio
Jj/jfl
is the
specimen's
Susceptibility
to
magnetization.
We have
already("514)
defined its
permeability,
and
can
put
it now=lines
per sq.
cm./H.
To these lines the field itself
contributes
H,
the induced
pole
contributes
4?rl,
hence
Permeability
=
- "
^
"
=
1
-f-
4?r
X
Susceptibility.
Permeability
is the stream-line
way,
susceptibility
the external
geometrical
way,
of
reckoningmagnetizability.
"
527
:
The
'
distribution of free
magnetism
in
a
magnet,'
or
in
other
words,
the
comparative
numbers of
magnetic
lines
leaving
its surface
per sq.
cm. at various
parts,
can
be studied
by finding
at
each,
with
a
weak
spring
balance,
the
force
necessary
to
pull
off
a
small
piece
of
soft iron
(-|
in. of french
nail)clinging
to the
magnet, Fig.
254. The iron
getsmagnetized,
by
the lines that enter
it,
proportionally
to
their number
per square
centimetre,
i.e.its
induced
pole
is
proportional
to the
strength
^VVN-
-." . .
of the
polar
surface it is
clinging
to. The
?"'
force observed is
proportional
to the
pro-
FlG- 254-
duct mm' of these
'
poles,'
i.e.to the
square
of the
quantity in
question.
It
can
be shown that the
force of
magnetic adhesion in
dynes
per sq.
cm.
is
Jg-(lines
per sq.
cm.).2
Thus
a tram brake-block
magnetized
to
20,000
line-density
adheres to the rail sixteen
490 A HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS
times
as hard
as if
magnetized
only
to the 5000
customary
in
electrical
machinery.
Bits of iron
alwayspreferclinging
to the
edges
rather than
to
the flat face of
a
magnet pole.
For the lines crowd into the
corners
(Fig.254)
so as to have
as
great
a
proportion
of their
course
in the
easilypermeable
metal
as
they can,
hence the
attractive force is much
greater
there.
"
528
:
Measurement of the
strength
of
a magnetic
field.
Theoretically
one
puts
a
unit N.
pole
at the
place
and
measures
the force
on
it in
dynes.
Doubtless this
might
be done satis- factorily
were itnot for the
persistent
presence
of the
correspond- ing
S.
pole
on
the
same
piece
of steel. The
problem
has to
be
attacked
indirectly.
We have at
disposal
two distinct
ways
of
comparing
the
strengths
of fieldsin which this south
pole
causes no
difficulty.
With the
second of these
we can combine the
experiment
of
"
523 and
get
absolute numerical
results,
but
only
within 2 or
3
%
(see
end of
"523). Fortunately,
however, a
littlecalculation
will
enable
us so to combine the two
comparative
methods
as
to do
away
altogether
with the
necessity
of
using"
523,
and to
give
field
strengths
and
magnet strengths
with
great
accuracy.
"
529
: Method I.
Comparison
of
magnetic
fields
by
Deflection.
The earth's field cannot be
got
rid
of,
ergo
the best
thing
to do
isto make
use
of
it,as a
standard.
[For
its
daily
variations
("546)
are too small to affect
any
but the finest work
(in
which
they
are
allowed
for),
and
though
itsvalue
may
be altered
by
the
proximity
of
girders,gas-pipes,etc.,
it will
keep sufficiently
constant
at
any
one
place,provided
one
guards against
movable iron
anywhere
near
" steel
tools,fire-irons,
gas-burners, straymagnets ;
pocket-knives, keys,
or
any
other steel in one's attire. One soon
recognizes
the transient
signs
of
passing
trams and
trains.]
Arrange
the fieldunder test so as to act at
rightangles
to the
earth's field
on a
compass
needle.
[Sometimes
mere
symmetry
facilitates
this,
but in
any
case
it
can
be effected thus
:
The whole
apparatus
is
arranged
on a
square
board in such fashion that the
compass
is
quite
undeviated,
i.e.the test fieldis in line with the
earth's. Now turn the
compass
box till90" is under the
needle,
and then turn the board
through
a
rightangle.
0" should be
under the
needle,
but instead there is
a
deflected
readingD".]
Then
(Fig.255)
the N.
pole
m
of the
compass
needle is
being
pulledmagnetic
northwards
by
the earth's field H with
a
force
492 A HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS
Hm
m
lid. Eliminate
error
of
centringby reading
both ends and
taking
mean.
A
more
delicate
magnetometer
has
a
gridiron
of half
a
dozen
horizontal 1-cm.
strips
of
magnetized
'
hair-spring
'
stuck
on a
flattened vertical rod
(magnesium
ribbon),
which also carries a
small mirror and is
suspendedby
2 or
3 in. of
very
thin silk fibre
in
a
small shallow
uprightdraught-proof
box
(cf.Fig.309).
Its
motion isobserved
by telescope
or
lamp
and scale
as
described in
"362.
"
530
: Moment of
a magnet.
Suppose
a
magnet
held at
rightangles
to the lines of
a
field H
as
in
Fig.
257. A force Hm acts at
rightangles
on
the N.
pole
and
an
equal
force in the
opposite
direction
on
the S.
pole,
both
tending
to turn it
one
way,
with
a
turning
moment
about
any
point
0
= Hmx
NO+Hwx
SO=Hwx NS
=
field
X
[pole
X
straightlength
of
magnet
between
poles].
Thus if the
magnet
lieswith its axis at
FIG. 257.
rightangles
to
a
field of unit
strength,
the
couple
or
turning
moment
acting
on
it
=
strength
of
one polex length between its poles
and this
product
is called the
Magnetic Moment, M,
of the
magnet.
Neither the
strength
nor
the
position
of
a
pole
can
be
quite
satisfactorily
ascertained,
but this
product
can
be measured
(as
below)
with
very
great
accuracy,
and it is
always
used to
express
the
magnetic
value of the
magnet.
"
531
: Method II.
Comparison
of
magnetic
fields
by
Vibration.
Let
now a
magnet, pivoted
or
suspendedby
a
torsionless fibre
and
perfectly
balanced,
be turned
through
a
small
angle
from
its
position
of rest
(straight
down the
field)
and then let
go.
It
oscillates under the
steady
uni-directional
pull
of the field
just
exactly
as a
compound pendulum
does under the
steady
vertical
pull
of
gravity,
and
according
to
"
55 its time of vibration
T
sec.
=
27TX\/(
moment of
inertia,
I
^-turning
moment
acting
on
it when held out at
rightangles
to the
force).By
the last
MAGNETIC FIELDS 493
paragraph
this
turning
moment = field H
X
moment
M,
of
magnet.
HM
provided
that the
arc
of
swing
is
small,
" 38,
or
MH=4-S
I is calculable from the
mass
and
size,"
54
;
T is obtained as
usual
by dividing
the time
occupiedby
a
number of successive
vibrations
by
their number. We stillhave M
to
find
(unless
we
accept
an
experiment
as
in
"523),
but without
that,
here is
a
valuable method for
comparing
fields.
Time the
swings
of the
magnet
first in
one field,
then in the
other
;
M and I do not alter and hence H
cc
1/T2,
the
strengths
of the fields
are
inversely
as
the
squares
of the
periods
of vibration.
A
swing
twice
as
fast
means a
field 4 times the
strength.
If
n
is
the number of
swings
per
minute,
say,
woe
1/T,
and hence Hocn2
;
the field
strength
is proportional
to the
square
of the number of
swings
per
minute.
Fields
compared
in this
way
are
of
course
the resultant fieldsof
magnet (orcoil)
and the
earth,
whereas Method I
distinguished
between these.
The vibration method is used in
magneticsurveys,
on
all scales
of
magnitude.
Thus in
Fig.
252 the values of field
strength
marked would be obtained from the
squares
of the numbers of
vibrations
per
minute of
a
magnetometer (afibre-suspended
brass
bob with
I
in. of
knitting
needle stuck
through;
vibrates
longer
and steadier than the charm
compass).
In the absence of the
magnet
the earth's field H=-185
gives
a
standard
N2,
hence the
actual values of the fields
"
squares
of vibrations -i-N2X
-185
c.g.s.
units.
[As
a matter of fact the
polestrengths
and fieldvalues marked
on
Fig.
252
were
obtained three
years
after it
was
drawn
by
graphic
calculation from the
shape
and size of the
field.]
[NOTE.
" If the
magnet
is of
complex shape
and I cannot be
calculated, a
brass bar of calculable I' is attached to it and
a
second
time T' of
swingobserved,
T' = 27T
Squaring
both T' and T and
subtracting, T'2-T2=47r2I'/HM.
494 A HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS
Now
removing
the
magnet,
if the silk
suspension
has
any
appreciable
torsional stiffnessit will
cause
the brass bar to oscillate
in the
long
time
T*=27rv/r/S
where S is the additional control
due to stiffness. Then
T/2-T2=47r2I'/(MH+S).
"
532
:
Calculation of field due to
a magnet
at
a point on
its
axis produced
" "End-on."
Let
magnet
have
poles
+m
separatedlength
I
;
to find fieldd
from its centre
along
axis
produced. Fig.
258.
K-
----
-----
d
-------
*!
-m .TTC
P
k" -I---1I
FIG. 258.
Field
strength
at P due to N.
pole=
-Q
"
jy-y
to
right.
tn
"
S'
"
Resultant field
strength
at P =
,^__
". 2"
, ,
.^
2
to
right
=
/^2
i;2)2
to
ng^*along
axis
and if d is much
greater
than I
(say
5
times)
this
very
nearly
=
2M/flf3,
so
that the field
strength
of
a
small
magnet
falls off
very
rapidly, beinginversely
as
the cube of the distance.
Example
1. Calculate field
on
axis at 25 cm. and at 85
cm. beyond
the N.
pole
of
a
10-cm. bar
magnet
of
pole strength
250.
Here d = 30
or
90
cm.,
1= 8-5
cm. ("522).
/.M = 250x 8-5.
Hence at 30
cm., accurately
-164,
approx.
-157
(too close)
90 -00583
,
-00582
MAGNETIC FIELDS 495
$ "
533
:
Calculation of field due to
a magnet
at
a point
in its
equatorialplane
"
"
Broadside-on,"
Fig.
259.
Field
strength
at P due to
-\-m
mm
i XTT"
=^p2= 72TT72
UP
al"ng
NP.
Field
strength
at
P due to "
m
Wl "VW
down
along
PS.
s o
FIG. 259.
To
get
their resultant,
resolve each
along
PO
and
PQ
;
the
components
along
OP
are
equal
and
opposite,
and cancel
;
along
PQ
the fraction
Po/Pw
of each
acts towards the
left,
where
o
"^
is the middle
point
of
PQ. Triangle
Pow
being
similar to
NOP,
this fr
action
=|J-7-"
.'.
Field
strength
is towards leftand = 2x
m
M
.X
and if d is much
greater
than I this
very
nearly"M/t/3,
which
is
justhalf
the
field strength
at the
same distance
along
the axis.
Ex. 2. For the
same
magnet,
d
"
30
cm., accurately
-0765,
approx.
-0785
(tooclose)
90
" "
-00291
"
-00291
"
534
: Gauss's proof
of the
Inverse-SquareLaw.
Now if the reader will rewrite these two calculations but
using
the inverse
pih
power
of the distance instead of the inverse
square
"thus
m/(d"%l)Py
etc." he will find that
approximately
the field
on
the
axis=pM/dP+1
and
on
the
equator" M/d^+1,
the ratio
being
about
p.
Only
if the
inverse-square
law holds is the ratio
of fields 2
(compare
the last
figures
in the
two
Examples).
Gauss,
experimenting
as
in the
next
paragraph,
with
a
magnet
'
end-on
'
and also
'
broadside-on
'
to
a
magnetometer, proved
the
inverse-square
law in this
way
to 1
part
in
10,000.
496 A HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS
"
535
:
Now to calculate both M and H"
Vibration
experiment.
Suspend
the
magnet by
a
silk fibre and
find its time T of small oscillation
MH
=
Deflection
experiment.
Place the
magnet
E.
or
W.
(magnetic)*
of
a
compass
and
pointing
towards
it,so
that the fieldF of
"
532
=2I\y/(d2-iZ2)2,
then:"
M__(^-i*2)2tanD
[or
^ R
throughout]
H~ U
Multiply
these two
equationstogether
and take the
square
root.
I tan D
Divide first
equationby
second and take the
square
root.
27T
~
tanD
*
For
accuracy,
place
4
ways
at
d,centre to
centre,
(1)
to E. N.
polepointing
E.,
read both ends of needle.
(2)
"
E.
" "
W.
"
(3) ,,W.
" "
W.
"
(4) ,,W.
" "
E.
"
The
mean
D of the 8
readings
is free from
numerous
possible
errors.
"
536 : Geometrical construction of
magnet's field.
To find the relative
strength
and direction of the field due
to a
magnet
with
poles
NS at
a
pointP,
Fig.
260. Join
PN, PS, on
PN
produced
mark off
away
from N in
any
convenient units
a
length
propor- tional
to
1/(PN)2
and
on PS mark off
towards S
a
length proportional
to
1/(PS)2(using
tables of
reciprocals).
Complete
the
parallelogram,
the
diag- onal
PP'
represents
the resultant field
FIG. 260.
strength
and direction at P.
Startingagain
at
p
another
vector
can
be worked
out,
and
so
on, approximating
to the
complete
curve
by
a
succession of
straight
lines.
MAGNETIC FIELDS 497
EXAMPLES." CHAPTER LIII
3.
Explain
how to
magnetize
a knitting
needle to have
a
North
pole
in the middle and a
South
polo
at each end. If then
suspended
horizontally
from its middle
point,
which end would
point
North ?
[L.]
4. What occurs when a
small
piece
of soft iron is
suspended
in various
typicalpositions
near a
bar
magnet
?
[L.]
5.
Represent approximately
the
magnetic
lines in and
near a bar of
iron 15
cm. long
and 2
cm. diam.,
placed
in an
originally
uniform field,
parallel
to axis.
[L.]
6. Show in
a
figure
the lines of force inside and outside
(1)
a
mag- netized
steel
tube, (2)
a
solenoid
carrying
a current.
[L.]
7.
Explain
how to
uniformlymagnetize a
wire.
[Ab.]
8. What is meant
by magnetic
induction,
and how do
you
account
for it on the molecular
theory
of
magnetism
?
[D.]
9. Define
magnetic moment, intensity
of
magnetization,
and
mag- netic
susceptibility.
An iron wire 40 cm. long,
and of cross-section
0-005
sq.
cm.,
is
placed along
a
field of
strength
0-5,
its
magnetic
moment becomes 2
;
calculate the
intensity
of
magnetization,
and the
susceptibility.[L.]
10.
Explain magnetic
'
permeability
'
and
'
induction.' Show how
the behaviour of different
specimens
of iron
may
be
conveniently
representedby curves.
How does
temperature
affect
permeability
?
11. Describe the
magnetization curve. [M.]
12. Show how it is
possible
to have
a
rod of soft iron
magnetized
to different intensities at different
times,
although
under the influence
of the
same
magnetizing
force.
[L.]
13. How would
you prove
experimentally
that the two
poles
of
a
bar
magnet
are of
exactly
the
same strength
? Describe an
experiment
which shows that the bar is
magnetized along
its whole
length. [L.]
14. What is meant
by
the
magnetic
axis of.a
magnet
? How wrould
you
determine the
magnetic
axis of
a
magnetized
steel
sphere
?
[L.]
15.
Explain
'
strengthof a magnetic fields Magnet
and soft-iron
bar of same size are placed parallel
;
draw lines
(a)
when well
apart,
(b)
when
nearlytouching. [M.]
16. Draw the lines of force for two
magnets
crossed at
rightangles.[M.]
17. Define
magnetic pole of
unit
strength,magnetic force
at a point.
How would
you
investigateexperimentally
the relation between the
magnetic
force due to a
pole
and the distance ?
[L.]
18. Define the
magnetic
moment of
a
magnet.
Describe
an experi- ment
by
which the moments of two
magnets
could be
compared. [L.]
19. Obtain an
expression
for the force due to a long straightmagnet
at
any
point
on its axis
produced.
How can the moment of
a
magnet
be determined in terms of the
strength
of the earth's field ?
[L.]
20. Calculate
strength
and direction of field at
point
distant d from
centre
along
axis of
magnet length I,poles
+m,
and find effect on
the field of
placing
an
equal magnet
on the firstbut at
rightangles
to it.
[M.]
32
498 A HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS
21. The maximum
intensity
of
permanent magnetization
in
a
steel
bar 10
cm. long by
1
cm.
square
has been found to be 225
c.g.s.
units.
Find
tangent
of
greatest
deflection of
a magnetometer
which this
magnet
could
cause
if centre of needle
were
30
cm.
east of centre of
magnet. [H =
0-18
c.g.s.] [L.]
22. Two 1
cm. long magnets are placed
in line, centres 10
cm. apart.
What is force between them if
poles are
4 and 3 ? [M.]
23. Two
magnets,
each of effective
length
8
cm.
and moment 80
units, lie in the
same straight line, with their N.
poles
6
cm. apart.
Calculate the
repulsive
force between them.
[L.]
24. A
long
thin bar
magnet weighing
22
grm. appears
to weigh
20
grm.
when
an equal
and similar
magnet
is
placed parallel
to it
2
cm.
below. Find the
strength
of each
pole
of each
magnet.
What
would be the effect of
placing
the lower
magnet so as
to attract the
upper? [L.]
25. Two thin
magnets
30
cm. long are parallel along two sides of
a
square,
moment of each
"
300. Calculate resultant force
on
either.
500 A HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS
The Declination
can
be measured
on an
ordinary
mariner's
compass
by taking
a
bearing
of the
pole
star
by
the
following
azimuth instrument
(a
home-made
one)
shown
on
the binnacle
glass
in
Fig.
268. Stuck
on
the
glass
cover
of the
compass
box
is
a
brass centre
having
in it
a
small hole
exactly
over
the
pivot
of the
compass
card. In this hole fits
one
of the three feet of
a
littlestool
;
the other two stand
on
the
glass,
thus the stoolrotates
concentrically
with the card. A
narrow
slitrisesin
a
vertical
plane
from the outer end of the
stool,
and
a
vertical wire from its inner
end.
Lookingthrough
the
slit, one
turns the stool tillthe wire is
seen
'
cutting
'
the
object
whose
bearing
is
being
taken,
then
carrying
the
eye
down the wire its lower end is seen
cutting
the
graduated
edge
of the
compass
card in the
magneticbearingrequired.
A
horizontal mirror
lying
on
the stool enables
bearings
of
high
stars
to
be obtained
by
reflection.
In
observing
the
pole
star in this
way
a correction is
necessary,
because the star is not
quite
at the
pole.
This is
easily
made
;
trace a
line from the
pole
star to the middle star of the Great
Bear's tail
(the
handle of the
Plough),
the
pole
lies
1}",say
two
moon's
diameters,
down this line
; sight
that
point.
The
use
of
any
other star involves
one
in astronomical calculations.
The Declination of the
compass
W. of true N. is then of
course
equal
to the
compass
bearing
of the celestial
pole
E. of N.
The
accuracy
of such observations of
course
depends
on
the
accuracy
with which the
compass
card is made and attached to
its
magnets,
and
on
the true
centring
and
verticality
of the azimuth
instrument. Land
magnetic-survey
instruments have elaborate
means
of
combatingerrors,
most
importantperhapsbeing
the
invertibility
of their
compass
needles
(which
are
directly
observed).
For the
magnetic
axis
may
not
quite
coincide with the
geometrical,
say
therefore the latter lies
a
littleE. of
magnetic
N.
Turning
the
needle
top
for bottom
now
changes
this
error
to
W. of
N.,
and the
mean is true.
"
539
: Dip was
discovered
by
Norman, a
London instrument
maker,
in 1576.
"
Always finishing
and
ending
his needles
before
touching
them with the
stone,
he
continually
found himself
constrained to
put
some
small
piece
of
ware on
the S.
point
to
make them level
again.
And
having
once
spoiled
a
large
needle
by cutting
too much off the north
end,
in
some
choler he
applied
himself
to seek further into this effect
"
and he
straightaway
made
the first
Dip
Circle and found
a
dip
of 71" 50'.
THE EARTH'S MAGNETISM 501
The
Dip
needle is
a
pointedmagnet
4 or 5 in.
long,originally
balanced
as
perfectly
as
practicable
on an
axle
passing
trans- versely
through
its centre. The
perfecting
of the
cylindrical
shape
of this axle makes
exceptional
demands
on
the skill of
the mechanic. It rollswith the minimum of friction
on
horizontal
edges
of
agate.
The
plane
of motion of the needle in front of its concentric
vertical
graduated
circle must first be set
into the
magnetic
meridian. This isdone
by
compass,
or
else
by finding
the azimuth
in which the
dip
needle sets vertical,
and then
turning
at
right
FIG. 262.
[For
if the horizontal drift of the field
pulls
the needle
neither
way,
it must be at
rightangles
to the
plane
of
motion,
which
was
therefore E. and
W.]
This
done, a
perfect
needle would
give
the
Dip
in
one reading,
but in
practice
it is the
mean
of 16. For
:
"
I. Both ends of the needle must
always
be read to
get
rid of
error
due to
eccentricity,
as
in
Fig.
262
(i),
where,
reading
con- tinuously
round, one
end is
evidently
as
much short of the truth
as
the other is
beyond
it
(-(-180").
II. The
zero
line of the circle
may
be not
quite
horizontal"
eliminated
by readings
with the whole circle
facing
E.,
and
facing
W.,
Fig.
262
(ii).
III. The
magnetic
axis
may
not coincide with the line
joining
the needle's
points,
and also the centre of
gravity
may
lie to
one
side of the
points
of
support
" both eliminated
by reversing
the
needle in its
bearings,
when the bias both faults
(say)
gave
it to
point
too
high
is reversed to make it
point
as
much
low,
Fig.(iii).
IV. The
e.g.
of the
needle
may
lie
some
distance
along
it from
502 A HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS
the centre of the axle. This must be remedied
by remagnetizing
it
equally
and
oppositely
and
repeating
all the
2x2x2 =
8
readingsforegoing.
The
heavy
end
(say)
now
dips
instead of the
light,
and
as
much
deeper
as
that
was too
high,Fig.(iv).
"
540
:
The
strength
of the earth's
field,
called itsTotal Intensity
or Total
Field,can
be measured
by counting
oscillationsof the
dip
needle and then
using
it
to deflectanother
dip
needle
according
to
the
principles
of
"
535.
Usually,
however, one
supposes
the Total
Intensity
T
replaced
by
two
components,
the Horizontal
Component Intensity
H
and the Vertical Component IntensityV. Then
(Fig.261)
:"
H=T cosine
(dip).
V=T sine
(dip).
The
compass
needle
rotating
in
a
horizontal
plane
is not
influenced
by
the
'
vertical force
'
V but is controlled
entirely
by
the
'
horizontal field
'
H. Hence the
more usual and
con- venient
experiment
is to measure
the
important
H with hori- zontally
moving magnets
as
in
"
535,
and
to deduce V and T from
H and the
Dip.
THE MAGNETIC STATE
OF THE
EARTH
In
considering
maps
of the
magnetic
state of the earth
as a
whole,
avoid
'
Mercator's
projection.'
The better
you
understand
that
deceptive
contrivance the
more
you
will
appreciate
the
advice.
"
541
: Dip.
The needle sets
nearly
horizontal in
equatorial
regions,
the N. end
dips
more
and
more as
it is carried
N.,
while
in the southern
hemisphere
the S. end
dipsincreasingly.
That
is,
the lines of force
run out of the southern
hemisphere
of the earth
into
space
and return into the northern
hemisphere,
very
much
in the
same
way
as
they
run
out of and into the circle in
Fig.
244.
The
great
circle of the earth
on
which there is
no
dip
is the
Magnetic Equator.
N. and S. of it
are
the successive
'
small
circles
'
of
magnetic
latitude
(called
also
Isoclinals)
on
which
the
dip
is
1",
2"
...
89". Those for
every
15"
are
shown in
Fig.
263. The two
places
at which the needle stands
always
vertical
are
called the
Magnetic
Poles.
This
system
of circlesis inclined to the
geographical system,
the
magneticequator
rising
to 10" N. latitude in the Indian
THE EARTH'S MAGNETISM 503
Ocean and
sinking
to 16" S. latitude in Brazil. The circles
are
more or
less distorted.
FIG. 263.
"
542
: Declination.
Dividing
the
magnetic equator
into
360",
starting
off from
each and
following
the direction of the
compass
needle N.
or S.,
there
are
traced out meridians of
magnetic longitude
all
converging
towards the
magneticpoles,Fig.
263. These
are
all
great
circles,
slightly
distorted
;
one
of them
practically
coincides with the
geographical
meridian 90" E.W.
(the
outside rim of the
figure),
the others
are
all
more or
less
inclined,
this of
course
reaching
a
maximum 90"
away
from the
foregoing,
or
practically
on
the 0"
180" meridian of Greenwich
(centre
lines of
figure).
The
indispensable arrows, indicating magnetic
N.S.,
drawn
at
various
parts
of
a chart,are
really
short
pieces
of these lines.
It must be noted that these
are
not lines of
force,
for the
latter enter and leave the earth's surface
steeply.They
may,
however,
be
regarded
as
the lines of the H
component
force.
[May
I here recommend the
holiday
tourist with
a
predilection
for
a
half-inch
map
and
a
pocket
compass,
to
get
a
compass
with
a
moving
card,
to unfasten the needle and slew it round and
re-
attach it at the
average
variation of the district in
prospect
? He
will avoid the constant bother of
allowing
for the
variation,
especially
troublesome when
lookingsouthward.]
ALTERNATIVELY,
Statistical Lines called
Isogonals
may
be
drawn
; along
each the Decimation has
some
fixed value.
They
run
much
more
irregular
courses.
A
straggling
agonic
great
*
circle,'
everywhere
on
which the needle
points
true
N.,
separates
504 A HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS
a
smaller Atlantic
*
hemisphere
'
of
westerly
declination from
a
larger
Pacific
one
of
easterly
declination. In Eastern Siberia there
is another
agonic
'
oval
'
within which the needle
goes
west
again.
"
543
:
Besides
these,
statistical lines
may
be laid down to
joinplaces
of
equal
H,
of
equalV;
or
of
equal
Total
Force,
Fig.
264.
H decreases from
a
maximum -36 in
equatorial regions(Borneo,
etc.
;
but not
on
the
magneticequator)
to 0 at the
magneticpoles.
V increases from 0
on
the
magneticequator
to about -66 in
polarregions(notjust
at
the
poles).
Total force increases from *36 in
equatorial regions
to maxima
at the four
Magnetic
Foci shown in
Fig.
264
as
plain
dots.
[The
Poles are marked
as
ringeddots.]
FIG. 264.
That these Foci show
a
stronger
field than the
poles
themselves
need not cause
surprise,
for the
poles
are
defined
so
differently
to those of
a
bar
magnet
" as
places
of vertical
dip,
instead of
centres
of distribution of
magnetism.
It isalmost
as
ifthere
were
two
magnets
buried in
a
sphere,
each
stretching
from
an
arctic
to an
antarctic focus
;
such
a
sphere
rolled in iron
filings
would
gather
them thickest at the four
points
nearest the buried
poles,
but at these
placesthey
would lean
away
from the twin
repelling
poles
and it would be at
some
intermediate
place
that
a
thinner
crop
stood
upright.
Wilde constructed
a
terrestrial
globe
inside which two
con- centric
spheres
were
each
wrapped
in wire
carrying
an
electric
current.
The
axes
of the
windings
were
somewhat inclined and
so
produced
the effect of two
magnets crossing
each other.
Having
THE EARTH'S MAGNETISM 505
in addition overlaid his
oceans
with thin sheet iron he did obtain
something
of
an
imitation of the actual distribution of the earth's
magnetism,
and
further,
by rotating
one
sphere
inside the
other,
he could
reproduce
the secular
change
of
"
545. But of the
true
origin
of the earth's
magnetism
we are
profoundlyignorant.
"
544
:
Before
leaving
the
Magnetic
Poles there
may
be recalled
an
academic
controversy
the echoes of which have
hardly
died out.
It dates from the
days
of the
geometrical
action of
pole
on
pole,
before the
more
valuable
concept
of a
magnet
'
setting
'
down
the
magnetic
stream lines had become
general.
Certain
people,
mindful that
'
like attracts
unlike
'
and solicitous as to the
magnetic
charge
of that inaccessible
northern
land,
insisted
on
calling
the
northern end of
a
compass
needle
a true south
pole.Others,
less
bold,
compromised
on
north-pointing
or
north-seeking pole,hardly
an
apt description
of
an
instrument which
placed
true
N. and S.
and let
go
immediatelyswings
round to somewhere N.N.W.
Sailors
speak
of red
magnetism
in the
northerly
end of the
needle and blue in the
southerly,
but
probably
most
of
us
obtained
our
early
notions of
magnetism
from the
products
of the
toy-
maker,
and he blues the
northerly
end of the
charm-compass
and
paints
red the south end of his bar
magnets.
Nowadays
the end of the
magnet
that would
pointnortherly
anywhere
on
the inhabited earth is called its N.
pole.
It follows that the
magnetism
of the earth's northern hemi- sphere
is S. and that of the southern
hemisphere,
N. The
possible
confusion
as to which is which of its
Magnetic
Poles " like the
question
as to which is the south border in the
garden
" is best
avoided
by calling
them the Arctic and Antarctic
magnetic
poles,or,
if
you
like,
the Boreal and Austral.
"
545
:
The earth's
magnetismcontinuously
alters,
the
magnetic
elements "
Dec.,
Dip,
and
Force" at
any
place
under-
W*"*oj"J*_S
going
a
slow but considerable
Secular
Change,
and
even
the
poleswandering.
For
instance,
Boroughs
at
Limehouse in 1580 recorded
FIG. 265.
a declination 11" 18' E.
;
his
reputation
suffered when in 1622 Gellibrand and Gunter found
6"
15',
but
was re-established when in 1634 the
same
two
observers found 4" 5' E.
506 A HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS
The recorded motion of the N.
pole
of the free needle at Green- wich,
as seen
from its
centre,
is shown in
Fig.
265.
"
546 :
There is also
a
diurnal variation which is
a sort of
miniature of the
secular,
the
pole
of the needle
travelling
round
in
a
cycle
of,
roughly,
8'
angular
radius,
every
day.
Breaking
in
on
this
quietdaily
march
come Magnetic
Storms
which
may
fling
the
compass
needle
to
and fro
more
than
a
degree
from its
mean
position.
It is known that these
daily
variations
are
due
to some cause
exterior to the earth's
surface,
and
magnetic
storms
are
often
accompaniedby
notable
displays
of the Aurora
Borealis,
mani- festing
electrical disturbance of the
upper
atmosphere.
That
both these
are connected with that variation of solar
activity
evidenced
by
the
prevalence
and
extent of
sunspots,
is deducible
from the occasional violent terrestrial disturbance
accompanying
a
particularly large
and active
sunspot,
and with
more
certainty
from the
occurrence
of
an
eleven-year period
in the
frequency
of
all
three,
their maxima
coinciding
within
a
year
or
two.
At Kew in 1911 the Declination
was 16" 0'
W.,
it is
decreasing
5
1'
per
annum
and
usuallyswingsduring
the
day
from 5' W. to
3' E. of its
mean
value. The
Dip
was
67"
0',
and decreases 1'
per
annum.
H"
-185,
very
slowlyincreasing.
Ross in 1831 obtained
a
dip
of
practically
90" in Boothia at
70" N.
lat.,
97" W. The Antarctic
pole
has been located thrice
much
more
recently,
it
seems to be
wandering
about somewhere
between 72" and 73" S.
lat.,
155" and 156" E.
THE ERROR OF THE
COMPASS IN IRON SHIPS
The
compensation
of the Error
or
Deviation of the
compass
in
iron
ships
involves
a
collection of illustrations of the
magnetic
principles
worked out above.
Part of
a
ship'smagnetism
is due
to the earth's induction,
part
is
permanent.
The induced
part
varies with
course
and
position,
and
can
only
be
compensatedby
an
equal
induction
in
soft iron
;
the
permanent part
can
be corrected
by
steel
magnets.
"
547
: Temporary magnetism.
To
a
first
approximation
the
ship
may
be
representedby
the soft-iron
bar, Fig.
266. On
a
N.
or
S.
course
this becomes
magnetized,
but the
compass
needle
lies
along
its axial line of force and is undeviated. On an
E.
or
W.
course
the bar is not
magnetized.
On other
courses,
however,
the bar becomes
more or
less
magnetized,
and
being
in an
oblique
508 A HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS
"
549
:
Without
going
into the usual method of
adjustment
it
may
be
pointed
out that,
when
correct,
the effect of the
ship on
the
compass
must
be the
same on
whatever
course
she is
laid,
or
the
joint controlling
force of
(earth -f-ship-|-
compensators)
is invariable. A
deflecting
mag- net,
on a geometrical carriage,
can
be centred
on
the
glass
of the
binnacle, and is
so
ad- justed
in
strength
that when
lying over
the E. and W. of the
card the latter is deflected 85".
The deflector is removed and
the
ship
put on
another
course :
the deflector
replaced
and
kept
on
the E. and W. of the card
must again
turn it
through 85",
and this
on
five different
courses
;
if it
does,
the
compass
is
correct.
Heeling
trials
can
be made with
a special dip
needle held in the
place
of the
compass
card.
Thus, thanks
chiefly to the
genius
of that
great
Sea
Father,
FIG. 268.
the late Lord
Kelvin,
it is
1
possible to float
a
serviceable
compass
on
board
a
20,000-ton steel
fort,
and to check its
correctness
even
in
a fog.
THE EARTH'S MAGNETISM 509
EXAMPLES." CHAPTER LIV
1. Indicate tho effect
on
the resultant
magnetic
field at
a place,
of
a
vertical iron column, (a) near
its foot, (b) near
its head
;
and of steam-
boilers fixed N. and S. in the basement
on
the field in the
rooms
above.
2. What measurements
would be
necessary
to ascertain the direction
of the
magnetic
field of the earth at
any
place
? If
a
soft-iron rod
were
placed (1) horizontally
N. and
S., (2) horizontally
E. and
W., (3)
vertically,
what would be the
general
effect
on
the earth's field in the
neighbourhood
of the rod ? [L.]
3. What
are
declination, dip,
and total force of the earth's
magnetic
field ? Outline
a
method of
determining
the last
experimentally. [L.]
4. A
dip
needle
oscillating
in the meridian makes 35 oscillations
per
minute in
a locality
where
dip
is 60". At another
locality,
where
dip
is
45",
the needle makes 40 oscillations
per
minute. Find
(a)
ratio of
earth's total intensities,
and
(b)
ratio of horizontal
components
of
earth's field at the two
places. [L.]
5. How would
you
determine
experimentally
the horizontal
com- ponent
of the earth's
magnetic
field ? [L.]
6. Describe and
explain
how
a magnetic needle,
free to rotate about
a
horizontal axis
through
its centre of
gravity,
will
move as
the direc- tion
of this axis
changes. [L.]
7. Describe how
you
would
measure
the
Dip. [D.]
8.
Explain
Declination arid
Dip.
Would
you
expect
latter to be
greater
in Scotland
or
in
Italy,
and
why
? How find resultant
intensity
given dip
and H ?
[Ab.]
9. What is
an isogonal,
and what
an
isoclinal ? Describe
briefly
the
character of the isoclinals in the northern
hemisphere.
10. A
dip
needle removed from its
bearings
and
hung by a
fibre
so as
to swing horizontally
makes 10 complete
vibrations in 102
sees.
Its
moment of inertia is 726. -1
grm.
wt. 6-7
cm.
from centre
causes
it to
set
horizontal when in its
bearings.
Calculate
Dip (tan
67"
2-356, tan
68"
2-475).
ELECTRICITY
CHAPTER LV
FRICTIONAL ELECTRICITY
"
550. The crackle and
sparkle
in
dry
hair and fur and its
lifting
towards the hand that stroked it must have been at
least
as
well known to the hunters of the
cave
bear and the mammoth
as to their descendants of the
presentday.
And to the
Egyptians
of the later
dynasties,
with their
employment
of
resins,
their
veneration for
cats,
and their torrid
climate,
the active attraction
and adhesion of dust and
light
stuff
was
doubtless an occurrence
too
familiar
to be
placedon
record.
It is
to Thales the
Ionian,
student in
Egypt,
one
of the
'
seven
wise
men
'
of
Greece,
whose
teachings
were not confined to
traditional
lore,
that the first discourses
on
the attractions of
magnets,
and of the fossil resin
r/AeKrpov(amber)
are
ascribed.
From that word is derived the modern
'
Electricity,'
and
lately
it has been
adopted bodilyas
the
name
of the
'
atom of
electricity
'
" the uncut unit" the Electron.
The first
important
record of advance
was
the book in which the
Elizabethan
physician,
William Gilbert of
Colchester,
discoursed
"
De
magnete . . .
etc.,plurimisexperimentis
demonstrata"
He observed that without Friction few bodies
gave
out their
natural
'
emanation and effluvium
'
and he made
up
listsof
things
in which friction excited this attractive effluvium and
gave
them the
name
of Electrics. Such
are amber, resin,lac,
wax, sulphur,
paper,
dry
wood, silk,
glass,
etc.
Substances from which friction
diew no
effluvium " metals,
stone,
etc." were Nourelectrics.
"Electrics attract
alT*
things
save
flame and
objects
aflame
and thinnest
air,
the effluvia
are
consumed
by
flame and
igneous
heat,
yet they
draw to themselves the smoke of an
extinguished
candle."
510
FRICTIONAL ELECTRICITY 511
"
551. Gilbert found the
necessity
of
getting
rid of the
damp
usually
adherent to
everything.
"
Moisture
suppresses
the
effluvium,
but olive oil does not." and
as a
practical point
in
frictionalelectrical
experiments
this is
all-important. Everything
should be
dry
and
warm
(though
there is
no
need to risk
melting
wax or
crackingglass);
and
so
should the
atmosphere.
The
room
should have been warmed for
some time,
and
even
then the
presence
of
a
number of
people
may
moisten the air too much
for
really
successful work
;
frictional electrical
experiments
are
among
those
things
that will
go wrong
in
public.
Amber is
always
reliable,
but unobtainable in
any
size. Sticks
and
plates
of Ebonite
(black
hard-vulcanized
rubber,
the stuff
your
fountain-pen
is made
of)are
expensive,
but
most
generally
useful
:
it should be
tough
and of
good quality,cheap
brittle
varieties
are not much
use.
Preferably
its
polish
should be
removed with fine
glass-paper,
and thereafter it should be
kept
in the dark,
otherwise its surface is
apt
to oxidize and
spoil.
Sulphur,
Shellac,
and
Sealing-wax
are
good,
but brittle
;
common
'
bottle-wax
'
is useless. Brown
paper
is excellent when
dry,
but is
hygroscopic
and must be scorched before the fire
every
minute
or
two. Celluloid electrifies
easily,
but leaks. All these
are
electrified
by rubbing
with
dry
fur
or flannel,or
the coat-
sleeve. Glass is
apt
to collect
a
surface film of moist
dirt,
it should
be washed in hot
soap
and
water,
rinsed in hot water and
wiped
dry,
and is then
freely
electrified
by
warm
silk.
The
property
of
becoming
electrified
by
friction
is,however,
not
confined to
'
electrics,' as
Gilbert
supposed.
No amount
of
drying
can
make metals
'
electrics,'
but if
a
tube
or
plate
of metal be
mounted
on a
handle made of
an
'
electric,' and be whacked with
dry
fur
or silk,
it will be found electrified.
Tests of electrification. The
picking
up
of
light
stuff"
paper,
feathers,hair,dust,
etc.,
is
a
rough
test. A curious
woollytickling
is felt
on
the
nose
and face when
an
electrified
plate
is held close
to it
; perhaps
this is due to the
lifting
of the fine hair of the
skin and to
slight
electric
discharges
to it. Much
more
delicate
is the attraction of
a
little
pill
of
elder-pith suspendedby
a
fine
thread.
[And
still
more
sensitiveisthe
gold-leaf electroscope,
to be
described
later.]
"
552. There
seem
to be two
opposite
kinds of
electricity
obtained
by rubbing
different substances
;
much
as
there
are
two
oppositepolarities
of
magnetism.
The mutual
repulsion
of
512 A HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS
bodies
charged
with the
same kind
(same
'
sign')
of
electricity
is shown
by rubbing
two sticks of
sealing-wax, placing
one
in
a
stirrup
of wire
or
card
suspendedby
a
plaited
thread
or
very
narrow ribbon,
and
bringing
the other
near
it. The
same
repul- sion
occurs
with
glass
rods,
but
glass
and
sealing-wax
attract
each other. The
repulsion
is
very
easily
shown
by stripping
a
doubled silk ribbon
through
the
fingers,
the two halves straddle
wide
apart.
And
on
occasion one's
own hair,
dried after
a too-
thorough
wash,
becomes electrified and
quiteunmanageable.
Indirectly,
the
repulsion
can
be shown
by
use
of
a
pith
ball
hung by
a
thread
or
fibre of silk. It
comes
up
to touch the
electrified
glass
and then flies
away.
That this
repulsion
is due to
its
havingpicked
up
electrification from the rod is
provedby
the
now
increased
strength
of its attraction towards rubbed
sealing-
wax :
the ball
jumps rapidly
to and fro between the two
opposite
rods.
The electrification
developed
on
glass
was
called
'
vitreous
'
and
now positive(4~)j
that
upon
resin,
sealing-wax, sulphur,
ebonite,
etc.,
'
resinous,' now negative (" ).
"
553. If the
pith
ball is
suspendedby
cotton
or
thin wire from
a
glass
or
sealing-wax
holder it will be found
to
gain
an
electrical
charge
from the electrifiedrod drawn
across
the thread. The
electricity
has
travelled,or
has been
conducted,
along
the
'
non- electric
'
material.
This
immediatelyexplainswhy
non-electrics do not
ordinarily
show electrification after friction
; they
conduct the
developed
electricity
away
to
the
hand,
and it
passes
through
the
experi- menter's
body
down to the
earth,
the
great receptacle
for all
stray
electric
charges.
Consequently
'
norj^electrics
'
are nowa- days
called Conductors
;
while
'
electrics
'
are
non-conductors
or Insulators,
for
on
them the
electricity
cannot travel
about,
but
remains isolated in
patches,
often difficultto
remove.*
"554.
The Gold-leaf
Electroscope
takes
advantage
of conduction. There is
a
metal
FIG. 269.
stem
bearing
at the
top
a
knob
or
plate
to
which the various
charged
bodies to be tested
*
Wiping only
makes
more.
Clasp
in
a damp hand, or best,
pass
over a flame.
FRICTIONAL ELECTRICITY
513
are
presented.
The stem
passes
down
through
an
insulating plug
of
wax or
ebonite into
a
draught-proof
box of metal and
glass,
to its
flattened lower end
are
gummed
a
pair
of
strips
of
gold-leaf
*
[or
for all
ordinaryuse,
Dutch-metal].Chargegiven
to
the
top
of the
stem travels down and is shared
by
the
leaves,
which
thereupon
open
out
by
mutual
repulsion.
"
555. The attraction exerted
by
electrified
on
unelectrified
objects
leads
by
the
argument
of
"
512 to the idea of Electric
Induction.
The
mere
proximity
of
an
electric
charge
induces
a
separation
of
-f-
and "
electricity
in the
unchargedbody,
which- ever
charge
is of
oppositesign
is drawn nearest to the
inducing
charge,
and the attraction between these overbalances the
repulsion
between the
inducingcharge
and the
more
distant
residuum of the
same
sign.
That this
separation
does
occur
is shown
by
an
experiment
like
Fig.
270. A
'
conductor
'
is made
up
of
two
separable
halves,
e.g.
two
apples
hung by
silk threads and
touching
each
other,a
charged
rod is
brought
near
one,
and
they
are
separated.
Both will
now
affect
an
electroscope,
but
oppositely,
and the effect of the
one
that
was nearest
the rod is
opposite
to the rod's
own
effect.
Thus
as
in
Magnetismoppositecharges
have been induced to
separate,
but
quite
unlike
Magnetism they
can
be isolated
on
separated
halves of the conductor.
[They
reunite if the
two halves
are
touched
togetheragain
in the absence
FIG. 270.
of
neighbouring charges(iii).]
On
a non-conductor these
charges
cannot move
apart,
and if
this
explanation
of attraction of
uncharged
bodies is
true,
a non- conductor
ought
not to be
appreciably
attracted towards
a
charged
rod. A
very
simple
and
striking experiment
shows
this,
cotton
and silkthreads
hang
side
by
side
over
the
finger,
a
rubbed rod of
glass
or
sealing-wax
is
broughtnear,
the
conducting
cotton rises
high
to meet
it,
the
non-conducting
silk
hangs
indifferent.
The third law of
motion,
that action and reaction are
equal
and
*
For
measuring
purposes
it is better to make one
'
leaf
'
a
vertical
strip
of stiffmetal
as
in
Fig.
269.
33
514 A HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS
opposite, applies
of
course to forces of electrical
originjust
as to
any
others.
That there is attraction between two
bodies leaves it
an
open
question
as
to which carries the
'
inducingcharge.'
Other cir- cumstances
sometimes tell
us,
e.g.
if
a
pith
ball
spontaneously
moves
up
to meet the hand
we
know that it
was
the ball that
was
electrified.
Mutual
repulsion necessarily
means
electrificationof both.
"
556. Since the
two
opposite
induced
charges
sprang
into
being
without the conductor
being
touched in
any way
(and
without
any
conduction
through
the air
by spark],
and subse- quently
neutralized each other without
leaving
any
residue,
they
must have been
exactlyequal.
There
was a
temporary
separation
of
electricities,
but
no
creation.
There
never
is
a
creation. Mount
on
sealing-wax
handles
a
disc of ebonite
as
big
as a
penny
and
a
similar disc of card
covered with cloth. Rub them
together,
the handles
prevent
either of them
losing
any
of the
chargedeveloped
on
it
by
the
friction. Hold them
together
near a
pith
ball"
no
effect"
separate
them and the ball dances from
one to the
other,
showing
that
they
are
oppositely charged.
Ordinarily
the
cloth;etc.,
used
as
rubber is held in the
hand,
and
as
it isnot
a
very
good
insulator its electrification
soon
travels
down
through
the
experimenter
to earth and is lost
sight
of,
and there
appears
to have been
a
production
of
one
sort of
electricity only [and rubbing
a
metal
plate
both
charges
travel
away,
leaving
no
signs
of electrification at
all].
Why
friction should
cause
this
separation
of
positive
and
negative
electricitieswe
do not know.
Conceivably,
however,
it
produces
local
heating
and increases the natural
tendency
to
oxidation of the
sulphur,
resin,
insulated
metal, etc.,
and this
may
be the obscure
beginning
of
an
electro-chemical
process.
This makes it
depend
on
the
presence
of
an
atmosphere,
but of
that the merest
clinging
traces would
suffice,
and the
question
is
not to
be tested
by merelypumping
out
'
a vacuum
'
over
the
surfaces.
"
557. Just as
with
Magnetism,
the
most
graphic
way
of
explaining
electricalactions is
by filling
the field with Lines of
Electric Force.
Each line links
together
a
+
and
a
"
charge;
it is said to
originate
on
the
-j-charge
and
run
from it tillit ends on
the "
516
A HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS
a
-f-
and "
charge
at its
ends,
and ifthese
are
situated in the
same
conductor the line
joining
them
immediatelypulls
them
together,
and line and
chargesdisappear.
Conductors
are
blanks
on an
electric-line
diagram.
"
558. Nor is there
any
need for the conductor to be solid
throughout.
For
suppose
there
were
-(-
and "
charges
on a
hollow
conducting
shell,
Fig.275,
and
a
line
joined
them
;
under its
pull
the
charges
run
round the shell to meet each other and
coalesce and the line has
disappeared.
But
might
there not be
a
line such
as
XY
crossing
the hollow
on
its
way
from
a
-}-
charge
on
the conductor to
some remote
"
charge
elsewhere ? This would have to
FIG 275
cut
through
the conductor at
Im,
the
piece
Im
disappears
since it is in
a
conducting
material,
therefore Iisthe end of
a
line XZ and must be
a
"
charge,
X? shrinks
up
as before,
and all that is left is the
beginning
of
a
line,
i.e.
a
-f-charge,
at
m.
In other
words,
X has travelled round
to m
under the
pull
of the line to Y.
Hence
a
chargeon a
conductor
produces
no
lines inside
it,
i.e.
no
electric
force
inside
it,
whether it is solid
or
hollow.
Faraday thoroughly
tested this remarkable result. He built
a
large
box,
suspended
it
by
silken
ropes,
and connected it with
an
electrical machine
so
that
sparks
several inches
long
could be
obtained from all
over
it. Meanwhile he
was
inside with delicate
electroscopes, trying,
and
failing,
to detect
any
sign
of electric
force there.
"
559. It has
an
importantpractical application
in Electric
Shielding.
Any
instrument
entirely
enclosed in
a
conducting
envelope
is
perfectly
shielded from all external electrical dis- turbance.
All that the latter
can
do is to induce various
charges
on
the sheath. This is
very
strikingly
shown
by
an
experiment
in
which a
pith
ball
hangs
inside
a
soap
bubble, an
electrifiedrod is
brought
near
and the
soap
bubble
bulges
out to meet
it,
but the
pith
ball
hangs quite
unaffected.
Bringing
the rod too
near,
the
bubble bursts and
instantly
the ball flies
up
towards the rod.
Coarse wire
gauze
makes
an
efficient shield. Recent
experiments
have shown indeed that
very
carefully paraffin-waxed
paper
is
the
only
substance
sufficiently perfectly non-conducting
to have
no
screening
action.
FRICTIONAL ELECTRICITY 517
"
560.
Since the
charge
on a
hollow conductor is unable to
produce
lines inside
it,no part
of the
charge
is
on the inner
surface.
For if it
were,
lines would arise from it and must
pass
across
the
cavity.
And
none
of the
charge
remains at rest in the
body
of the metal
by
the
argument
of
"
558.
All is
on
the outer
surface,brought
there
by
the
pull
of the lines
joining
it to the
equal
and
oppositecharges
on
other conductors
elsewhere. And the lines it emits leave the surface
perpendicu- larly,
otherwise their
'
resolved
component
'
parallel
to the
conducting
surface would tow the
chargesalong
it until the
pull
became
entirely
at
rightangles
to it.
This absence of
Charge
inside
a
closed hollow conductor is
easily
demonstrated. The hollow conductor
may
be
a
tin
can,
with
a
IJ-in.
hole cut
in its
lid,
insulated
by standing
on wax
or ebonite,
and
charged.
A small insulated conductor called
a
'
Proof
Plane,'
say
a
halfpenny
on
the end of
a
stick of
sealing-wax,
is lowered into the
can
and touched
on
its
inside,
then taken out
and touched on a
gold-leafelectroscope.
No effect. But if
touched
on
the outside of the
can
and then
tested,
the leaves of
course
diverge.
[Noticeparticularly
that if
a
wire attached to the
electroscope
and twisted round
a
sealing-wax
handle is lowered in to touch the
inside of the
can,
the leaves do
divergejust
as
much
as
if the
wire touched the outside. For
now
can,
wire,
and
gold
leaves
combine to form
one conductor,
and this is
not a
hollow
or
nearly
closed
one.]
/
Faraday
also showed that
an
insulated
chargedbutterfly-net
gave up
no
charge
from its inside to
a
proofplane,
and that when
pulled
inside out
by
a
cord attached to its bottom the
charge
travelled
through
so as
stillto be
on
the outside
only.
"
561.
Nothing
that has been said
precludes
the existence
of lines inside
a
conductor
provided
that
they
emanate
from
separatecharged
bodies inside and insulated from
it,
and these
lines then do induce
oppositecharges
on
the inner surface of the
cavity.
For
instance,an
electrified rod inside
a room.
But it does follow that
if
any
of these
charged
bodies is
touched on
the wall it
gives up
the whole of its
charge
to the
hollow
conductor,
instead of
merely sharing
it. Thus
we can
transfer the whole of the
charge
on
anything,
a
proofplane,
for
instance,
to an
electroscope, by standing
a
deep
narrow can on
518 A HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS
the
plate
of the
electroscope
and
lowering
the
proofplane
to
touch the
can
inside
near
the bottom.
Nearlyenough
it is then
inside
a
'
closed
'
conductor.
As the
chargedproofplane
is lowered into the
deep cavity
the
leaves
spreadout,
and it will be noticed that the final
touching
has
no
sudden effect. This leads
on
to the whole
question
of
Chargingby
Induction and its
explanation
in terms of electric
lines.
CHARGING
BY
INDUCTION
"
562. We have
seen
that when
a
charge
is
produced by
frictionthere is
an
equal
and
oppositecharge
on
the rubber. As
the
two
things
are
separated
the
quasi-elastic
lines of electric
force draw out and
spread
out so as to fillthe
surrounding
space,
but each
trying
to remain
as
short
as
it
can
consistently
with
the
sideways
pressure
of its
neighbours.
If
a
magnetic
line
ran near iron it bent
so as
to
run as
much
of its
course as
possible
in the iron. When
an
electric line
comes
near a conductor it bends towards it and
may
break in
halves,
the broken ends
on
the conductor "
meaning
that
equal
and
oppositecharges
are induced
on
it" and these broken ends
(charges)separate
without
difficulty.
The
weakening
of the
magnetic
line in iron is
supersededby
the total obliteration of the
electric line in the
conductor,
and the
pieces
left at the ends
are
together
shorter than the
original
line.
Thus the lines of the field
very
soon
resemble
Fig.
276,
and
now
if,as usual,
the rubber is not a
good
insulator and is connected to
earth
by
the
experimenter's body (represented by
the earth wire
HF),
the lines
(shown dotted)joining
it to the table have both
ends
on
the
same
conductor
(table-earth-body-rubber)
and there- fore
pulltogether
out of existence. There is left the
charged
rod
radiating
lines to
a
collection of
charges
on table,
experimenter,
walls,etc.,totalling
the
same
value of
oppositesign.*
*
The line
PQ
in the
figure
is
as
short
as
it
can be, why
should the
charges PQ
travel a
long
way
round to meet and neutralize each other ?
Recollect that this line is not alone. There are some lines
running
near
HF, these shrink
up
along
it
as
described, leaving
a
vacancy
in the field
which is filled
up
by
the
sideways expansion
of the tubes of force of
which
PQ, RS, etc., are the axial lines
(cf." 525). RS, etc.,
therefore
continually approach
HF and
presently disappear as they pull
R and
S
together
in it
(a
current
flows
in
HF).
The tube of which
PQ
is axis
swells
continuously
and its
strength
is
continuously sapped by
HF
;
axis
PQ quickly
loses all
significance
even
if it does not move.
FRICTIONAL ELECTRICITY 519
"
563.
Now
bring
the
charged
rod
near an
insulated
conductor,
conveniently
the
cap
stem
and leaves of
a
gold-leaf electroscope.
Near the
cap,
for of
course
the lower end and the leaves
are
screened by
the metal box. This box
now
representspart
of
FIGS. 276-280.
the
earth,
and lines will shorten
on to
it,
but
some
will find
a
still
easier
course
to earth via the
conductingstem, breaking
into
a
piece
from rod to
cap
and
a
piece
from leaves
to box
;
these latter
piecespull
the leaves
open.
Fig.
277.
In other
words,an
oppositecharge
is induced
on
the
parts
of the
conductor
nearer
to the
rod,
and
as
it is
insulated,
this leaves
an
520 A HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS
equalcharge
of
original sign
in the farther
parts.
This latter
charge
then induces
oppositecharge
in the conductor
near
those
parts,
i.e.in the
enclosing
box. The box's residue of
original sign
has
the whole earth to
spread
over.
Thus the leaves
begin
to
open
out with
charge
of the
same
sign
as on
the electrified rod. If the rod is removed
they
close
again,
but
we can
give
them
a
permanent
set in
two
ways
:
"
I.
By wiping
the rod
on
the
cap,
or
ifinstead of
a
glass
rod it is
a
charged
conductor,
merelytouching
it
on
the
cap.
This makes
a
conductingpath along
which the lines
joining
rod and
cap
shrink
up
and
disappear,
the
chargesneutralizing
one another,
Fig.
278.
The
'
field
'
between rod and
cap
has been
destroyed
and the rod
can
be taken
away,
but that between leaves and box remains
as
it
was,
the leaves remain
permanentlyapart,charged
with
electricity
of the
same
sign
as on
the rod.
II.
*
By Induction,'
Fig.
279. While the
inducing
rod is in
position
touch the
electroscope
cap
with the
finger
and
so
'
earth
'
it,
HF
(i),
thus
putting
it in
conducting
connection with the
case.
The field between leaves and
case
disappears
and the leaves there- fore
collapse.
But the field between rod and
cap
remains
unchanged,
and there is
a
considerable
negativecharge
on
the
cap
with
many
lines from the rod
ending
on
it. Now
removing
the rod these lines
spread
about and
as
there is
a
conductor
(table
-f-electroscope case)
in the
neighbourhood
many
of them break
into two
pieces,
one
from rod to
a near
part
of
table,
and
one
from
case
to
a near
part
of
(cap-f-stem+leaves)
i.e. to leaves.
Thus,
Fig.
279
(ii),
the leaves
now
open
with
a
chargeopposite
in
sign
to that
on
the rod. This is
commonly
called
'
chargingby
induction.'
"
564. If the
electroscope
case
is
insulated,as by standing
on
ebonite
or
wax,
more
puzzling
actions
can occur.
The
approach
of
a
charged
rod cannot
now cause so
large
a
divergence
of the
leaves. Each line that breaks and
jumps
from rod to leaves
via the table has
now
to make also
an
intermediate
jump
between
table and
case.
The
shortening
obtainable
along
this
course
is
not
much, accordingly
fewer lines
are
induced to take it and the
available forces
are
diminished.
It is
now
practicable
to
charge
the leaves
'
by
induction
'
with
the
same
sign
as
the rod. Hitherto stem and leaves have been
the insulated conductor and
case was
earthed. Now
use
the
FRICTIONAL ELECTRICITY 521
case as
insulated conductor and connect the leaves to earth
by
keeping
the
fingers
on
the
cap.
Bringing
the rod
near
the
case,
lines will
run
into it and thence to
earth,
via the
leaves,
pulling
them
open,
Fig.
280
(ii).[Note
that this does not contradict
" 558,
for the
case
has
an
aperture through
which another
con- ductor,
the
stem, etc.,
has been
inserted.]
Touch the
case
momentarily (dottedline),
case
and leaves
communicate,
field
inside vanishes and leaves
collapse.
That between rod and
case
remains and the
case
has
a
chargeopposite
to the rod. Remove
the
rod,
the usual
spreading
of lines
occurs,
some
break and
go
from
case
to table via the leaves and
cap,
and the leaves
are
pulled
open
with the
same
sign
as on
the
rod,
Fig.
280
(iii).
Fig.
280
(i)suggests why
if the leaves
are
not earthed
they
scarcely
open
when
a
rod is
brought
near
the insulated
case,
but
open
widely
when the
cap
is
touched, (ii).
Such
paths
as
AB
-j-CD+EF
are
long
from rod
to earth,as
in the last
paragraph,
and will be traversed
by
but few lines
(forced
into that
course
by
the
sidewayspressure).
When the
necessity
for EF has been
done
away
with
by
a
conducting
connection,
D becomes
'
earth,'
such
courses as AB-j-CD are
short and
many
lines crowd
along
them,
pulling
the leaves wide
open.
Ex. 5 is left to the reader
to
puzzle
out.
"
565. The
Electrophorus (electricity carrier)
is
an
important
instance of
chargingby
induction. It is the
simplest
sort of
'
electrical machine
'
by
means
of which considerable
quantities
of
electricity
may
be obtained without continual
waste of labour in
friction.
On the table lies
a
plate
of
ebonite,
glass,etc.,
or a
sheet of
scorched brown
paper,
rubbed
or
brushed to
electrify
it
as
usual.
Upon
this is laid
a
smaller
plate
of thin
metal,
usually
a
disc of
tin
or
brass 3 to 6 in.
diameter,
to which is attached
an
insulating
handle. Brown
paper,
and the lid of
a
tin which has been stuck
while hot
on
to half
a
stick of
sealing-wax,
is
a
homely
com- bination
but works
as
well
as
anything.
Any sharp
corners
and
edges
on
the metal
plate
should be
smoothed off
or
the
charge
would
readily
leak from them into the
air
("666).
The handle should be held
by
its
upper part only
or
the
charge
may
leak to the
fingers.
The handle should
occasionally
be cleaned
by
a
rag
moistened with
spirit.
The electrical condition is
now
represented by Fig.
281
(i).
The
"
charge
on
the ebonite receives lines from
a
-f charge
induced
up
522 A HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS
towards it
on
the table
top,
a
few of these arch
over
via the metal
plate
which has
a
small
-f-charge
induced
on
its lower surface and
a " left
on
top.
The metal is
by
no means
in that close contact
which is
necessary
to
actuallypick
off
charge
from the electrified
FIG. 281.
surface
("553),probably
this
occurs
at
only
a
few small
patches,
therefore
it is shown in the
diagram
as
distinctly separated.
Now
touch
the
plate,
i.e.earth
it,
Fig.
281
(ii)
;
the shortest
way
to
an
opposite+ charge
is
now across
the
narrow
air
gap,
the vast
majority
of lines take that
course,
the rest of the field
practically
disappears,
any
pith balls,electroscopes, etc., standingnear,
which had hitherto been
perturbed,
now
hang
dead.
Remove the
finger.
Lift the
plateby
its handle
;
the lines
are
drawn out
(Fig.iii) just
as were
those between rod and rubber in
"
562 and
presently
break off
on to
neighbouring
conductors,hand,
table,
etc. The slab is left with all its
original
"
charge
and the
-f-chargedelectrophorus
radiates lines in all directions
(Fig.iv),
ready
to concentrate on
any
near
object,
e.g.
the
knuckle,
and to
such
an
intensity
as
often to break down the electric
strength
of
the
air and
pull
the
opposingchargestogether
in
a
Spark.
The reader
will have
seen
that the
Electrophorus
is
just
a
convenient
improvement
on
the
two-appleexperiment
of
Fig.
270.
It
corresponds
to the
nearer
sphere.
In
one
of its
many
varied
forms "
a
plate
with
insulating
handle, a
knob
hung by
a
silk
thread, a
tray
supported
on
three
or
four
tumblers, a
patch
of
524 A HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS
FIG. 282.
insulated metal
jackets
J J. The
drops
fallinto insulated
leaky
cans
K K whence the water
drips
to waste. Jackets and
cans are
cross
connected
by separate
wires
as shown,
Jj
to
K2,J2
to
Kj.
Give
J1
a
-J-charge.
It induces
up
from the earth
a
"
charge
on to
the nozzle and
hangingdrop
inside
it,
the
drop
falls off
carrying
a
"charge
with it and
gives
it
up
almost
completely
to the
can
K1?
which at
once
shares it with
J2.
Drops falling throughJ2
therefore
acquire-f-chargesby
induction and
give
them
up
to
K2
which shares
them with
Jl5increasing
its
activity,
and
so on.
Thus the
charges
on
all four
go
on
increasing,
the
energy
of fall of
the water
being
converted into electrical
energy,
until the
drops
begin
to fall wide of the
repelling
K K and
probablyspoil
the
insulating quality
of the
glasssupports.
"
568. The Wimshurst machine. In this there
are two
glass
discs
a
foot
or more
diameter and
J
in.
apart,
rotated
rapidly
opposite
ways
by
a
hand- wheel and
open
and crossed
driving
cords.
In
Fig.
283
they
have been
represented
as
concentric
drums,
in
which form in fact
they
are
occasionally
made. Sixteen
or more
short
strips
of tinfoil
are
gummed
on
the outer sides of the
plates
(inside
and outside of
cylinders).
At
opposite
ends of the hori- zontal
diameter
are
double
'
combs
'
attached to insulated
prime
conductors. There
are
also two stiff wires fixed
across
the
machine at 45" and
carrying
tinsel brushes which
just
sweep
the
tinfoil
'
sectors
'
as
they
pass.
Give the sector at 1
a
-j-charge.
This isdone
by
induction with
an
ebonite
rod,
but unless the machine is too
damp
the
trifling
friction of the brushes will
electrify
it
enough
for
a
start. 1
moves
to
position
2,
here itinduces
a
"
chargealong
the 45" rod
up
to the
inner
sector at
I,
while J
gets
the residual
+ charge.
When 1
arrives at 3 it
gives
up
nearly
all its
charge
to the
points
of the
surrounding
comb and the attached
prime
conductor
gets
a
-f-charge.
Meanwhile I
moves on
to II and here induces a
-f-
charge
on an
outside sector at X while the
opposite
outside sector
at Y
gets
a
residual "
charge.
Thus "
FRICTIONAL ELECTRICITY
525
(a)
There is
kept
up
a
succession of
-f-chargesgoing
over
the
outer
ring
from X and
accumulating
on
the
right-handprime
conductor.
(b)
A succession of "
charges
travel from I and
pile
up
a "
charge
on
the left-hand
prime
conductor.
(c)
Meanwhile the
+
residuals
discharged
on
to the inner
sectors
at J
are
travelling
to
the
right,helping
in the induction
along
YX
and then
joining
the accumulation
on
the conductor.
(d)
And the outer sectors
carry
"
charges
from Y to the
left,
helping
induction
along
JI
as
they
pass.
(c)
and
(d)are
replicas
of
(a)
and
(b).
The reader will
see
that these
processes go
on
in
a
mutually
intensifying
fashion and in
a
very
few seconds the machine is
prepared
to
give
off
long sparks
from either
prime
conductor.
If there is
nothing
near
enough
to
spark
to,
brush and
glow
leakage("666)
takes
place
and the whole machine
fizzes,
shines
in the
dark,
and ozonizes the
air,
producing
a
strong
characteristic
smell.
When
activelyworking
the machine is
perceptibly
harder
to turn than when
rotating idly
without
charge,
work is
being
done
in
pullingapart attracting charges.
526 A HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS
Wimshurst machines
are occasionally
made with several
pairs
of
plates.
Small machines have also been worked in
compressed
air,
which reduces the abundant
leakage
from all
parts
and
con- siderably
increases the
efficiency.
EXAMPLES." CHAPTER LV
1. Describe the construction and action of the
gold-leaf electroscope.
How could the instrument be used to show the absence of
charge
inside
a
hollow conductor ?
[L]m.
2. How would
you
test whether
a
conductor is
charged positively
or negatively by means
of
a gold-leaf electroscope
?
[L]m.
3. How show that
electricity
has
greater density on corners
and
points
? Describe two
practical applications. [St. A]m.
4. An
uncharged
metal disc is lowered
nearly
into contact with the
flat
top
of
a charged electroscope.
What effect is
produced
in the
leaves if the disc is
(a)
insulated, (b)
earth connected ?
5. The
case
of
an electroscope
is
insulated,
and the stem and
gold
leaves
are given a charge. Explain,
in terms of
potential or
of lines
of
force,
what
happens
when
one
connects to earth first the
case,
then
the
stem,
then the
case again,
and
so on alternately. [L.]
6. How and under what conditions
can one
conductor be made to
give
up
its
charge entirely
to another ? How could
you
ascertain
which of two
charged
conductors had the
greater charge
?
[L.]
7. A metal
can
is insulated inside
another,
which stands
on a gold-
leaf
electroscope.
Account for behaviour of
electroscope
when
(1)
a -f- charged
ball is lowered into inner
can,
(2)
outer can
is earthed
momentarily, (3)
ball allowed to touch inner
can,
or (4)
ball removed
without
touching.
8. Describe the construction and action of the Wimshurst influence
machine. What would be the effect of
a
small
piece
of metal held
between the
rotating plates (a) opposite a neutralizing brush, (b)
opposite a
collector ?
[L]m.
CHAPTER LVI
ELECTRIC
FIELD AND POTENTIAL
"
569 :
The forces
acting
between electrical
charges
at a
distance
can
be
investigated
in
a
way
resembling
that of
" 523, or
by
a
delicate but troublesome instrument called
a torsion-balance,
or
by
the
following
contrivance
:
"
Blocks A B slide
on a
graduated
wooden
bar,
Fig.
284. From
them
hang by
silk fibres L
a
leaden bullet and P
a
pith
ball,
at the
same level,
both in front of
a
scale marked
on
mirror
glass..
L and P
are
both
chargedby
an
.
electrophorus.
L is
heavyenoughi
to
hang
as a
plumb
line under
all
circumstances,
by
its aid the
mirror scale is made to
tally
with
the beam scale.
Pushing
B
near A,
P is
repelled
by
L,
and LP remains
greater
than AB. The difference LP"
AB" deflection of BP from
ver- tical,
and
so
long
as
this is small
it is
directly proportional
to
the
repulsionacting
on
P.
[r/w=
PN/BN=PN/BP
if P
not
far
from N
;
w
and BP
are con- stant.
/.
rocPN.]
Putting
B at different dis- tances
PN is determined at
each and it is
found that
PNx(LP)2
is
constant,
i.e.
repulsion
x
distance2 is
constant,
or
forceocl/d2.
Now
bring
up
to L
an
equaluncharged
ball
on a
silk
thread,
and touch them
together, holding
the
new
bullet beside L
so
that
both
are
at the
same
distance from P. L's
charge
is halved
527
528 A HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS
between
them,*
removing
the
ball,
NP
[or strictly NP/LP2]
will
be found halved.
Eepeating,
NP is halved
again.
Or if P is
touched with
an
equalpith
ball,
NP is halved. Hence
one con- cludes
that
force
neither
charge,
i.e.
a
productofcharges.
Hence Force
a
ee'/d2.
Defining
the Unit Electric
Charge
$s
that
w,hich
repelsequal
charge
1
cm.
ajj^^in^ir^
urittLjiTie^unit force_o"J^dyne,
this becomes
[cf
.
" 523]
Force of electrical
repulsion
in
dynes
=
product
of
charges -fsquare
of
cm.
distance
apart
in air.
"
570 :
The best Proof of the
Inverse-Square
Law is that which
Cavendish
(ca.1772)
based
on
the absence of electric force inside
a
hollow closed
charged
conductor.
Suppose,Fig.
285,
the conductor
a
spherechargeduniformly
with
e
units
per sq.
cm.
of its surface. Place at
any
point
P inside
a
small test
eharge.
P
may
be chosen
as
the vertex of
a
pair
of slender
cones
;
the axis APB of these meets the
sphere
at the
same
inclination at both
ends,
and
hence the
areas
the
cones
cut out
on
the
surface
are
proportional
to AP2 and
BP2,
and bear
charges
a e
.
AP2 and
e
.
BP2.
These
are
distant AP and BP from P and
togetherproduce
no
resultant force
along
APB
on
the test
charge
at P.
This condition is fulfilled
by
the
equa- tion,
force e
. AP2/AP
2=
force
e
. BP2/BP2,
or
the force is
pro- portional
to the
charge
and
inversely
as
the
square
of the
distance.
Since the whole
sphere
can
be filledwith similar
pairs
of
cones
with vertices at
P,
and
every
pair
must fulfil the condition
independently,
this is the
onlypossible
solution.
"
571
:
The
strength
of the Electric Field at a
point
is
defined
as
equal
to
the
force
in
dynes
which would
act on a
unit
ofpositive
chargeplaced
at
the
point.
Since at 1
cm. from
a
unit
charge
in air the test unit would
experience
a
force of 1
dyne
there must be unit
field-intensity
there,
*
The examinee who
glibly
desires
one to
'
give
the ball
2, 3,
etc.,
times the
charge
'
is
proposing
a
task of
no
ordinarydifficulty, requiring
elaborate
appliances.
ELECTRIC FIELD AND POTENTIAL 529
i.e.all
over
the 4?r
sq.
cm.
surface of
a
1-cm. radius
sphere
sur- rounding
the unit
charge. Representing
unit field
strengthby
1 Unit Electric Line
per sq.
cm.
(inair),
we
must
say
that unit
charge
emits 4?r lines.
[4-7T
"
12-56.
...
It
may
be
helpful
to
think of
a
blackberry
of
12
plump drupels
and
a
smaller
one,
each
representing
a
unit
'
tube
'
and the contained seeds the axial lines.
Customarily
unit electric
charge
is looked
upon
as
emitting
only
1 unit
line,
which then is 4?r
times the
strength
of
our
lines.
But this
merely
obscures the
similarity
of the
magnetic
and
electric
formulae,
without
making
any
difference in the
end.]
The force
on
charge
E
placed
in fieldF is therefore EF
dynes.
"
572
:
If E is
pushed
1
cm.
forward
against
F,
EF
ergs
of work
must have been
expended
on it,
and to
push
forward unit
charge
s cm.
against
field
F,
Fs
ergs
of work
are
demanded.
This will be obtainable
againby letting
the
charge
move
back
the
s cm.
under the force F. It has been stored
as
potential
energy,
or as we
say
the Electrical Potential
of the
charge
has been
increased.
Having expended
100 ft.-lb.of work
on a
pound weightby
carrying
it
uphill
we
have increased its
gravitational potential
energy
by
100
units,we
have carried this unit
weight
to a
place
of 100 units
higher(gravitational) potential, simply
another
way
of
saying
100 ft.
vertically higher.Measuring
the work done
on
this 1 Ib. is thus
a
method of
measuring
difference of level.
It is
frequently
useful to think of
'
charge
'
as
electrical
weight
and
'
difference of electrical
potential
'
as
difference of electrical
level
through
which it is
lifted,
the work done in the
process
being
the
product
of the two.
"
573
:
We
can
do the
same amount of work
on a
unit
charge
and therefore rise
through
the
same
difference of
potential
either
by workingagainst
an
intense force for
a
short distance
or a
weaker force for
a
longer
distance,
just
as we can
reach the
same
heightby scrambling
a
few
yards
up
the face of the hill
or
by
walking
a
few rods
on
the
sloping
back. We
can
speak
therefore
of
a
steeper
or
easier
'
potential gradient
'
with obvious
meaning,
and
we can
draw
equipotential
surfaces
analogous
to the
'
contours
of
equal
altitude
'
on a
map.
Contours
are
crowded
together
where
they
run across
the
steep
slope;
so
equipotential
surfaces
are
close
together
where
they
cross
parts
of the electricfieldof
highintensity.
34
530 A HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS
In the alternative
more
picturesque
method of
marking
hills,
the
'
hill-shading
'
lines
are
packed
closest
together
where
they
run
down the
steepestslopes; just
in the
same
way
the unit lines
of force
are
closest in the
strongestparts
of the field.
Fig.
286
representsroughly
the
equipotential
surfaces and the
lines of force between
a
-fcharged
egg
at
potential
8 and
a
FIG. 286.
"
charged
ball at
potential
"4. It
might equallyrepresent
the
contour lines and
hill-shading
of
a
flat-topped
hill800 ft.
high
and
a flat-bottomed
pit
400 ft.
deep,
as
in the sectional elevation
beneath,
which
gives
a
side view of the whole of the
upper
figure.
The contours
or
equipotentials
are
marked with their
+
heights
above the
zero
level.
Difference of
potential
between two
places
is of
course
evidence
that electric force would be
acting
on a
chargeplaced
between
them,
and if there is
a
conductingpath
the
electricity
will be
driven
along
it from the
place
of
higher
to that of lower
potential.
Hence Potential Difference is
commonly,
in
dealing
with electric
currents,
referred to
as electro-motive force,
E.M.F.
It follows that
ifelectricity
is at rest on a
conductor the whol
conductor is at
one
potential,
at the
same
electrical level
through
out,
the
surfaceof
the conductor is
an
equipotential surface.
And since there is
no
force inside
a
charged
hollow conductor
532 A HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS
30 ft.
high
is
perched
on
the side of
a
small hill 100 ft. above
the
stream at its
foot,
but the whole district is
on
the
longslope
of
a
distant
ridge
and the foot of the littlehill is
1000 ft. above
sea-level.
Very naturally
one
thinks of the altitude of the house- top
in three
independent
steps,30+100+1000
or,
1130 'units of
potential
'
(measured
by carrying
1 Ib.
up
to
it).
"
576
: Potential of
sphere,
radius
r,
due to
charge e on
itself.
By
symmetry
the
charge
will
spread
itself
uniformly
over
the
sphere
and will have the
same
effect at external
points
as
if
concentrated at its centre
[much
as
the
mass
of the earth
attracts
gravitationally
as
if situated at its
centre of
mass].
For ifit
were
eccentric the.
potential
of the
nearer
side would be
higher,
and
electricity
would be driven round to
equalize
it.
Every point
on
the
sphere's
surface is distant
r
from its
centre and hence its
potential,
in
air,
is
e/r.
"
577
:
Evidently
the
crowding
of
a
largecharge
on
to
an
isolated
conductingsphere
would raise it to
a
highpotential,
but
it
by
no means
follows that
every
heavilycharged
surface is at
a
high potential,
for there
may
be
largenegativecharges
on
neighbouringconductors,
lowering
the
potential
all around
them,
just
like
lumps
of ice
cooling
their whole
neighbourhood.
In
Fig.
281
(i)
there is shown
a
large+ charge
on
the earth's
surface,
yet
the earth is at
zero
potential,
it is the
proximity
of the "
on
the ebonite
plate
that
keeps
it
so.
There
can
be
largequantities
of
electricity
at low
potential
and
small
charges,
or
uncharged
conductors,
at
highpotential, just
as
there
are
largepopulations
in the
plains
and few
or no
inhabitants
of the
hill-tops.
Or there
can
be
very
different surface densities
of
electricity
at different
places
on one conductor,
which is of
course
at the
same
potentialthroughout.
If
a
wire held
by
a
sealing-wax
handle be
brought
from
an
electroscope
and touched
on
the
egg-shaped
conductor of
Fig.
286
the leaves will
open
to the
same extent wherever it
touches,
for the conductor
(egg+wire
+ electroscope)
is
throughout
at
one
potential.
But if
a
proof
plane
be touched
on
the
pointed
end and then carried
away
to
another
electroscope
there would result
a
wider
opening
of its
leaves than if touched
on
the round end. The closer
packing
of
lines shows that there is
more
charge
per square
centimetre "
a
greater
surface
density
of electrification"
on
the little
end,
and
this
spreads
to the
proofplane.
Now when the latter
gets away
ELECTRIC FIELD AND POTENTIAL 533
and is free from the
equalizing
influence of the
conducting
surface
it will have
a higher potential.
NOTE.
"
The lift of the
gold-leaf
is of
course a measure
of the
work done
on it,
i.e. of the
differenceof
Potential between it and
the
case.
EXAMPLES." CHAPTER LVI
1. Describe
experiments
to
verify
the law of inverse
squares
(a.)
in
light, (b)
in electro-static action.
[St.AJm.
2. Describe how the
inverse-square
law
may
be
accurately
established
for electro-static forces.
[L.]
3.
Explain
the
meaning
of electric
potential.
Is
a positively charged
conductor
necessarily at a positive potential
? Can
an uncharged
conductor be at
a high potential
? Show how the
approach
of
an
earth-connected metal
plate
alters the
potential
and
capacity
of
a
charged parallel plate. [L.]
4. How would
you
find
experimentally
the field direction
near a
charged
conductor,
and how
prove
no
field inside ?
[L]m.
5. A
-f
electrified
sphere
is in the
open
air 6 ft. above the
ground.
Draw the lines of
force,
and show how
they wo
aid be altered if
a large
earth-connected metal
plate were
held
horizontally
3 ft. above the
sphere.
6. Sketch the lines of electric force in the field of
(a) a charged
conductor with
an uncharged one near it, (b) a charged gold-leaf
electroscope,
and
give an
account of the
phenomena
which the lines of
force
represent
in each
case. [L.]
7. Show
by a diagram
the
general arrangement
of the lines of force
or equipotential
surfaces when
an
insulated
uncharged
conductor is
placed
in the
neighbourhood
of
a positive charge.
Is it
possible
for
a
conductor to be all at
one potential
while it has
positive
electrification
on one part
of its surface and
negative on
another ?
[L.]
8. A small
positively charged
conductor is
half-way
between
an
insulated
sphere
and the walls of
a room
in the middle of which the
sphere
is
placed.
Indicate
approximately
the lines of force and
equi- potential
surfaces
(a)
when the
sphere
is
insulated, (b)
after the
sphere
has been earthed.
[L.]
CHAPTER LVII
ELECTRIC CAPACITY AND ENERGY
"
578
: Only
very
small
quantities
of
electricity can
be stored
on
isolated
cgnductors
of
ordinary
size,
for
leakagethrough
the
air
inevitably begins
if
charged
to
more
than about 200 units of
potential.
The
charge
or
quantityof electricity
that raises the
potential of
a
conductor
by
1 unit is the
measure
of
the Electrical
Capacity
of
the conductor*
Charge
e
given
to
an
isolated
sphere
of radius
r,
in
air,
raises it
to
potential e/r,"
576. For this to be
equal
to
1, e=r
and
now
e=its
capacity.
Hence the
capacityof
an
isolated
sphere
in air is
equal
to
its
radius in centimetres.
[Not proportional
to its
surface,
in
spite
of
the
electricity beingspreadthere.]
Then Total
Charge=Capacityx
total rise in
potential.
Thus
a
football 9
cm.
radius could at most hold
only
about
9x200 = 1800 units of
charge.
[The capacityof
an
isolateddisc in air = diameter
^-TT.]
Take
advantage,
however,
of
" 577,
keep
the
potential
of the
charge
down,
and
so
obviate its
leaking
off,
by providing
another
charge
of
oppositesign
close
to it. It will
now
be
possible
to
crowd
on
much
more
electricity,
and
arrangements
of this
nature
are
called
'
Condensers.'
"
579
:
In the Concentric
Sphere
Condenser used
by Faraday
a
hollow
sphere,
radius
b,
encloses the
ball,
radius
a,
which is
given
its
charge
e
by
way
of
an
insulated wire
passingthrough
a
small
hole in the
outer
shell. This
causes a
potential e/a
all
over
the
ball'ssurface and
e/b
all
over
the inside of the shell.
Connecting
the shell
to
earth lowers its
potential
to
0,
and that of the inner
*
Comparable
to
measuring
the
capacity
of
a
tank
by finding
how
much water would fill it
a foot
deep.
Then
suppose
that all tanks
begin
to leak under the
pressure
of 200 ft.
height
of water.
534
ELECTRIC CAPACITY AND ENERGY 535
sphere
to
e/a"e/b,
the fixed difference between them.
Putting
this
potential
difference
equal
to
I, e
becomes
equal
to
the
capacity
of the inner
sphere,
called the
capacity
C
of
the
whole
condenser
e e
ab
a
b~ ~b"a
"
580. A Condenser
much easier to construct consistsoj.
a..pair
of
large.flat
Parallel
Plates,
sheets of
tinfoil,
for
instance,
gummed
on
the inner faces of two
pieces
of
plateglass,spacedapart by
bitsojglass
rod.
Giving
one
plate
a
-f-chargeby
an
electrophorus
or macliine,
and
keeping
the other earthed
by touching
it,or
by
a
wire to the nearest
gaspipe,practically
all the electric lines
run
straight
across
from
one
plate
to the
other,
that
course
being
so
much the shortest.
[Thus
one
plate
catches all the lines from
the
other,
just
as
the outer
necessarily caught
all the lines from
the
inner
sphere,
i.e.the
charges
on
the
plates
of
a
condenser are
equal
and
opposite,
hence
only
one
is considered in
stating
the
'
charge
of the
condenser,'or
its
capacity.]
If
e
is the
charge
per square
centimetre and each unit emits
4?r lines there
are
4?re lines
per square
centimetre,or
the field
between the
plates
has
strength
4?re. If d is the distance between
plates
the work done in
carrying
unit
charge
from
one
to the
other = 4:7rexd.
This is their
potential
difference
; putting
this
equal
to
I,e
becomes the
capacity
per square
centimetre of
plate
and =
l/4;7cd,
and the
Capacityof
an
air condenser with
parallel
S
plates
each
ofSsq.
cm. area
and d
cm.
apart
= - "
-=
[This
could have been obtained from the
sphere
condenser,
put
6=a-[-small
thickness
d,
then C
very
nearly
=
a2/d=4:7ra2/4:7Td
= area
of
sphereS/4?r^.
From this
expression
the radius has
disappeared
and there is
no
obligation
to
keep
to the
spherical
form
so
long
as
the
plates
are
close
together.]
"
581. Now the earliest
attempt
to collect
electricity
from
a
machine
(a large
ball of
sulphur
rotated in
a
lathe
against
a
man's
hands)
was
the
very
natural
one
of
holding
a
glass
of
water
so
that
a
chain
hanging
from the
'
prime
conductor
'
dipped
into
it,
with the idea that the electric
fluid
might
run
down the
chain and dissolve in the water. The
attempt
succeeded,
for
on
going
to liftout the chain with his other hand Cunseus of
Leyden
suffered a
shock that scared him
horribly.
536 A HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS
See
now
the resemblance between this
arrangement
and the
condensers
we
have been
describing.
The observer's hand
grasping
the
glass
is
an
earthed conductor which
closely
surrounds
the
charged
water
inside,
being
insulated therefrom
by
the
glass,
and into it
a
largeopposingcharge
is induced
up
from the earth.
Touching
the chain of
course
connected the
oppositecharges
and
they
flowed
togetherthrough
the observer's
arms
and
chest.
It
was soon
discovered that
a
tinfoil
coatingpasted
on
outside
and inside the
glass
did better than the hand and the
water,
and the form of electrical condenser called
the
Leyden
Jar was
evolved. It is still the most
common
and convenient
pattern
for
high-potential
purposes,
Fig.
287. There is
an
open-mouthed
jar
of
glass,preferably
'
flint/
and
fairly
thin.
Tinfoil is
pasted
on
inside and out about two-thirds
way up
;
the
glassmargin
is cleaned and varnished
with shellac and well baked.
[The
shellac
surface
retains its
insulating
power
better than
a
glass
one.]
From
a
thick wooden disc
lying
in the bottom
of
the
jar
rises
a
brass stem and knob
;
disc and lower
end of stem
are
wrapped
in tinfoilto
secure
good
conducting
connection. Small
jars
can
be made
by chemicallysilvering
'
boiling
tubes
'
inside
and
out,
a
wire twisted into
an
open
spiral
is stuck
in for
a
stem.
'
Franklin's Pane
'
is
a
sheet of
glass
with tinfoil
pasted
on
both
sides,
leaving
a
2 -in.
margin
all
round,
it is
not
very
handy.
"
582. In all these
practical
forms of Condenser there is
glass
between the
opposing
conductors instead of air, Does this make
any
difference ?
Faraday
filledin the air
space
of
one
of his
spherical
condensers
with shellac and
found that the
capacity
was
much
increased.
It took 3
or
4 times
as
many
sparks
from the
electrophorus
before
refusing
more
charge
;
when it
was
made to
share its
charge
with
a
similar air condenser it lost
only
a
quarter
or
less instead of
half,
as
judgedby
the
spreading
itcould still
produce
in
an electroscope.
And
experiments
with
plate
condensers show that
glass
is
more
effective
still,
the
capacity
with
glass
between the
plates
is 6 or 7
times
as
much
as with air.
The
insulating
material
gets
the
name
of the
Dielectric,
as
the
inductive action takes
place through (dig)
it,
and
FIG. 287.
ELECTRIC CAPACITY AND ENERGY 537
the ratio
of
the
capacity of
a
condenser made with the dielectric
to
that
of
an
equal-sized
one
with air
only,
is called the
Specific
Inductive
Capacity of
the Dielectric
(S.I.G.
or
in
formula,k).
The
Capacity
of
a
Parallel Plate
Condenser, area
of
plate
S,
dielectricof s.i.c.=k and thickness
d,
is therefore
Even
an
isolated
sphere
is of
course a condenser,
for the lines
from it end
on walls,
etc.,
somewhere. Hence the
capacity
of
a
sphere
immersed in
a
large
block
or
tank of dielectricis k
times
its radius.
[The capacity
of
a
pair
of
long
concentric
cylinders
such as a
submarine
cable,
radii
a
and
b,
separatedby
thickness b" a
of
dielectric
k,
is
l-l7k^-(\og
b"
loga)
per
cm.
length.]
Some
Specific
Inductive
Capacities
are :
"
Paraffin
wax or oil,
carbon
disulphide,
india-rubber 2-0 to 2-2
Resin,
vulcanized
rubber,
ebonite
. . .
about 2-5
Shellac,
sperm
oil
.......
3
Gutta-percha ........
4
Mica,
castor- oil
.......
5
Glass
.....
6 to 8
"
583
:
We
can see now
why
it
was
necessary
to
specify
'
in
air
'
in
defining
Unit
Charge,
etc.
For
a k times increase in
capacity
of
a
condenser means
that k times the
charge
must be
put
on one
plate
to
produce
the
same difference of
potential
between them. This difference=forcex distance, distance is
unaltered,
therefore force is unaltered
although
there
are
k times
as
many
lines
crossing(for
we
stillcredit unit
charge
with 4?r
lines).
In
a
dielectric therefore
an
electric line
representsonly
l/k
of the
strength
of field it did in
air,
just
as
in
a
magnetic
material
a
magnetic
line
represented only(1-fpermeability)
of the
strength
of
magnetic
field it did in air. The
force
between two
unit
charges
I
cm.
apart
in
a
dielectricis
onlyl/kdyne,
and the
field strength
is
onlyl/k
the number
of
lines
per sq.
cm.
In addition to the
gain
of
capacityby usingglass
between the
plates
there is the
advantage
that much
greaterpotential
differ- ence
may
be
applied
without
spark dischargeensuing.
A i-in.
air
gap
will stand
only
about 40 units of
p.d.,
even
ifit
can
be
kept
free of threads of
dust,a
^-in.glassplate
should
easily
withstand
500 :
beyond
this there is
a
risk of the
glasspuncturing
as
if
by
pressure
of
a
sharppunch.
There isalso the mechanical
advantage
that the attraction between the
oppositely chargedplates
cannot
possiblypull
them into contact.
538 A HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS
"
584.
Coupling condensers
*
in
parallel.'
Any
number of
jars,
etc.,
are
coupled
in
parallelby joining,by
wires
or
strips
of
tinfoil,
all the
right-hand(orinner)platestogether
in
one,
and all
the left-hand
(orouter)platestogether
in another bunch. The
total
capacity
of this
*
leyden-jarbattery
'
is
just
the
sum
of the
individual
capacities
added
together,
and the P.D. to which it
can
be
charged
is that at which the weakest dielectric breaks
down.
Compact
condensers of
very
largecapacity
for low P.D.'s
(used
for cable
telegraphy,
induction
coils,
etc., " 605)
are
made of
alternate tinfoilsand
larger
leaves of thin
mica, or more
cheaply
india
paper
baked
dry
and
steeped
in melted
paraffin wax,
the
whole
pilebeingsubsequently
consolidated between rolls while
hot. The odd foils all
project
at the left-hand end and
are
soldered
together,
the
even
foils
project
and
are
soldered at the
right.
In effect it is
a
heap
of
'
Franklin
panes
'
joined
in
parallel.
A
pocketable
condenser of this construction
may
equal
in
capacity
a
thousand
'
half
-gallon
'
leydenjars,though probably
it cannot
endure
a thousandth the electrical
pressure
without
damage
[and hence,see
"
586,
could contain
no more
energy
than
a
single
jar.]
"
585.
Coupling
"
in series
'
or 'in cascade.'
The left-hand
plate
of the first condenser is connected to the machine.
Its
m\-
-IIIH
IE
FIG. 288.
right-handplate
is
connected to the
left-hand
plate
of the second
jar,
and
so
on,
as
in
Fig.
288
(i).
The
reader will
see
that this
might
almost
as
well be
(ii),
and
now the
intermediate
plates
are
doingnothing
and
might
be left
out, as
in
(iii).
So that
assuming
the
n condensers all
equal
in
size,
this
arrangement produces'
merely
one
of the
same
area
but with
dielectric
n times
as
thick.
The
jointcapacity$Jc/"7r(nd)
is
onlyI/nth
of
one
of
them,
but the
combination is
n times
stronger
to resist
excessive
charging
pressures.
In
practiceleydenjarscan
be
connected
up
as
in
(iv),
each
well insulated
on a
glassplate;
or as
in
(v),
the
common
way
of
540 A HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS
FIG. 289.
rating
the
platesagainst
their mutual
attraction,
i.e.
to distance
X
force of
attraction,we can now
calculate the force of attraction
per square
centimetre between
parallel plates, or, putting
it in
a
more
convenient
way,
the Force
per square
centimetre
on a
charged
plate
in
a
field ofgivenstrength.
In
Fig.
289
(left),
the
platesbeingsupposedlargecompared
with their distance d
apart,
the electric lines
run
straight
across
between
them,
and number
everywhere
F=47re
per sq.
cm.,
e
being charge
per sq.
cm.
of
plate.
Potential difference
=4:7red.
Energy
per sq.
cm.=
py
=|ex
47red=27re2d.
Sepa- rating
the
plates
another
cm. to
d-\-\
increases
this,
to
%7rez(d-\-l), by
2?re2
ergs=JFe
ergs=
JFe dynes
X
the 1
cm.
lifted.
Hence the
force
in
dynesactingon
each
sq.
cm. of
a
chargedplate
in
a
fieldJ?=halftheproductof charge
per sq.
cm.
and
field, JeF
[or
27re2,or
F2/87r, by
substitution from
F=47re].
How is this to be reconciled with the definition of
"
571 that
the force
on e
in field F=eF ? Consider
a
square
centimetre
platecharged-\-e
in the uniform field F between
largeparallel
plates,Fig.
289
(right).
F lines connect it with the
"plate
and
pull
it with force
|eF.
F units of
charge
on
the
large-fplate,
which
originally
sent lines
straight
across to the
"plate,
now
send them round the
edges
of the
intruding
disc,
and their bent
parts
exert a
sideways
pressure
on it,
squeezing
it
away,
and this
supplies
the
remaining
half of the total force eF.
The
gold-leafelectroscope depends
on
this attraction be- tween
plates
" the
gold
leaf and the wall of the
case.
In the
Attracted Disc Electrometer the force
pulling
a
light
'
earthed
'
disc down towards the
chargedplate
is
directly
measured
by
springs
or
counterweights.
The
expressionF2/8?r
for the
attraction shows that the force between
plates
at
a constant
distance
apart
is
proportional
to the
square,
(Fd)2,
of their
difference of
potential,
and this is what the instrument is
em- ployed
to measure.
In the
Quadrant
Electrometer
there is
a
horizontal
figure-of-eight shaped plate
of thin aluminium
hung
by
its middle from
a
torsion-fibre of bronze
or
silica. The ends
of this
'
needle
'
are
drawn
by
an
oblique
attraction between
plates
into
quadrantal
boxes,
the rotation
measuring
the
(p.d.)2.
ELECTRIC CAPACITY AND ENERGY 541
"
588
:
The fact that the
energy
of the
'
system
'
increases with
the distance between the
plates,
i.e.with the volume of dielectric
traversed
by
the electric
lines,
rather
suggests
that
the
Energy
is
really
contained in the Dielectric,
which is strained
by
the
electrical
stress
and should therefore contain
energy
("100).
That this strain is
very
real is shown
by
the
puncturing
of the
glass
of
an
overchargedleydenjar,
or
by
the
following experiment.
Two
parallel
metal rods lie
J
in.
apart
in
a
liquid
dielectric,
carbon
disulphide.
A beam of
polarized light
is sent from end
to end of
the
narrow
space
between them and is
stoppedby
a
'
crossed
Nicol.' When the rods
are
connected
to the
opposite
conductors
of
an
electrical
machine, however,
lightbegins
to
get through
the
analysing
Nicol,
showing
that the
liquid
has become
doubly
refracting,
and it has much the
same
depolarizing
effect
as a
bit
of
glasssqueezed
between
pincers.
The
experiment
of
dissecting
a
chargedleydenjar
shows too
that the
energy
is stored in the dielectric. A
large
tumbler is
fitted with removable inner and outer
coatings
of
tin,
itis
charged,
the inside tin is hoisted out
by
a
loop
of
silk,
the outside is
pulled
off
by
hand,
and the two
are
laid
together
on
the
table. Yet when
the inner
casing
is
dropped
back and the
outer
shell
put
on
again
the
jar
will
give
the usual
strong spark
to the
discharging tongs,
or
to the
experimenter's knuckle,
whichever he
prefers.
Or
instead of
putting
back the
tins,some
strong sulphuric
acid can
be
poured
into the
jar,
which is then stood in
a
deep
dish of the
same
conductingliquid;
a
wire carried round from the outer will
spark
to the inner acid
just
before it touches.
Evidently
the function of the conductor has been
merely
to
distribute the
chargeover,
or to collect it
quickly
from,
the
insulating
surface of the Dielectric. The tinfoils
on a
Wimshurst
("568)
act
mostly
in the
same
way,
with
good
brushes the machine
can
work without
any
sectors at all.
"
589
:
We
can
say
then that the littlecentimetre
square
column
of
Fig.
289 which is
responsible
for %7te2d
ergs
in
all,
contains
2?re2
ergs per
c.c."
|eF
or
F2/8?r
ergs per c.c.,
in
air,or
"F2/87r
in
a
dielectric.
The
energy
in
ergs per
c.c.
in
a Dielectricin which is
an electric
field
F
(represented by
"F unit lines
threading through
each
sq.
cm.)
is
"F2/87T.
When the dielectric breaks down in
a
conductingspark
the
electriclines close in
on
the
sparkjust
as on to a wire,
bringing
their
energy
with them
to
provide
its
light, heat,
etc.
542 A HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS
EXAMPLES." CHAPTER LVII
1. Describe
any
means of
charging
a
ley
den
jar.
How is it
possible
to touch first the outside and then the inside without
discharging
?
[Ab.]
2. The inner
coating
of a
ley
den
jar
is connected to an
electroscope
and
a
charge given
to it. How would the deflection of the
gold-leaves
differ
according as
the
jar
stood on
glass
or on
the table ?
3. Two
equal leyden jars
are
charged
with their inner
coatings
connected
by
a
wire and their outer
coatings
connected to earth.
The wire is then removed and one
jar
is
placed
upon
a
glassplate,
and
its outer
coating
is connected to the inner
coating
of the second
jar.
What effect does this
produce
upon
the
potential
of the inner
coating
of the first
jar
?
[L.]
4. Define electrical
capacity.
How would
you
determine which of
two condensers had the
greater capacity
?
[L.]
5. Describe the construction of the
quadrant electrometer,
and
explain
how it
can
be used for
comparing charges
on conductors.
[L.]
6. A 24-cm. diam.
sphere
is
charged
with 15 units of
electricity
and deflects
an electrometer 48 divisions. On
connecting
it
by
a
long
wire to a 12-cm.
sphere
deflection is reduced to 36 divisions. Calculate
capacity
of the electrometer.
[Here 15-^(12 cm.+a;)
= 48d
15-^(12 + 6+tc)
=
36d,
solve
simultaneously. ]
7. Show that the
energy
required
to
charge
a condenser of
capacity
C to a difference of
potential
V is
"CV2.
What becomes of the
energy
when the condenser is
discharged
?
[L.]
8. What is the unit of
capacity
in the electro-static
system
of units ?
Two hollow conductors have
capacities
180 and
40,
and
they
are
charged
to
potentials
30 and 20. Find the
change
in
energy
when the
second is
placed
inside the first and in contact with it.
[L.]
9. Define dielectric constant or
specific
inductive
capacity.
Give
the
principle
of
some method of
determining
it.
[L.]
10. Define the electro-static
capacity
of
a
system.
Explain
the effect on
the
capacity
of two
parallelplanes,
one of
which is
insulated,
of
(i)moving
them farther
apart, (ii)inserting
a
plate
of ebonite between them.
[L.]
11. Discuss the
changes
of
charge, potential
and
energy,
that occur
when
a sheet of
glass
is inserted between the
plates
of a condenser
(1)
when the
plates
of the condenser are
joined
to the
poles
of
a
battery,
(2)
when the condenser is
charged
and disconnected from the
battery.
[L.]
12. Show that
capacity
of
a
sphere
"
its radius
multipliedby specific
inductive
capacity
of dielectric
surrounding
it.
[L.]
13. What is
capacity
of condenser of sheet
glass
2
mm.
thick with
tinfoils 30
cm.
square
if s.i.c.of
glass
=^7-5 ?
[L]m.
14. A sheet of
gutta-percha
0-15 cm. thick has
a
tinfoil 30x40 cm.
pasted
on each side. The s.i.c.of
g.p.
is 5. This condenser is
charged
ELECTRIC CAPACITY AND ENERGY 543
to 10 electro-static units of
potential.
It is allowed to share its charge
with
a similarly
coated sheet 0-45
cm.
thick. Find the
resulting
loss of
energy
of the
system
in
ergs.
15. An air condenser with plates
10
cm.
square
and -5
cm. apart
is
charged
with 100 units. Find loss of electric
energy
when it is plunged
under oil of s.i.c. 2.
[L.]
16. Show that stress
on a
conductor due to
electro-static action is
2?rx
(surface density)2.
17. Calculate the electrical attraction between two parallel plates
immersed in
a liquid
whose
specific
inductive
capacity
is k. [L.]
18. An attracted disc electrometer is immersed in oil s.i.c. 2. Disc
is 50
sq.
cm.
and -5
cm.
from fixed
plate, pull
is 500
dynes,
find
p.d.
19. Two
plates
2
cm. apart are
connected to the terminals of
a
battery
of 60 volts
=
-2 unit of
p.d. Express
the electric field in the
air
space
and find
dynes
per square
centimetre tending
to draw the
plates together.
State how these forces
are
affected when the
space
is filled with
a liquid
of
specific
inductive capacity
K.
[L.]
MAGNETISM AND ELECTRICITY
CHAPTER LVIII
MAGNETIC FIELDS AND ELECTRIC CURRENTS
ELECTRO-MAGNETIC INDUCTION
WE have
now
to endeavour to find
some
connection between
Magnetism
and
Electricity.
"
590.
Experiments
made in
any
of the
ways
suggested
in these
last two sections of the book would disclose
none.
A
magnet
has
no more
effect
on an
electrified
body
than the
unmagnetized
steel
would have
;
like most
things
it is
a
conductor of
electricity,
but
nothing
more.
Steel and brass balls
can
be
suspended
and elec- trified,
both attract
a
pith
ball but
only
one moves
towards
a
magnet.
A
suspended
electrifiedlath makes
no
attempt
to set
N. and S. So far there is
no
connection.
But set the
electricity
into motion. In the middle of
a
2-ft.
length
of
electric-light
wire twist
a
little helix of three
or
four
turns, lay
a
sewing
needle in the
coils,
and bend the
long
ends
of the wire to touch the outer
coating
and
come near
the knob
of
a
chargedleydenjar.
A
sparkjumps,
the electrical
charges
travel
along
the
wire,
and the needle will be found able to
pick
up
iron
filings
or
to set N. and S.
;
it has become
magnetizedby
the
passage
of
a
'
current
'
of
electricity
in the wire
encircling
it.
In
experiments
made
by
Rowland and others
a
charged
disc
was
quiteprevented
from
exerting
any
electric
attraction
on a
delicate
magnetometer
needle
by
the
interposition
of
an
earthed
metal
plate.
But when the disc
was
spun
rapidly
the
moving
chargeproduced
a
magnetic
effect which
was
felt
through
the
metal
plate,
for the needle
was
deflected.
Lightning
has
frequently
been observed to
cause
magnetization
or
demagnetization.
544
FIELDS AND CURRENTS 545
Hence electric
charges
in motion
can
affect
a
magnet ;
in other
words, an
Electric Current
gives
rise to
a Magnetic
Field.
"
591. Several devices for
separating
electrical
-f-
and -
charges
have
already
been described
;
the
flowingtogetheragain
of these
charges
constitutes an
electric current. But
although
these devices
yieldhigh
electric
pressures
(differences
of
potential)
capable
of
forcing
current
through
an
inch
or two of air
perhaps,
yet
the currents
they supply
are
usually
too
intermittent and
always
too
scanty
in total
quantity
to be of much
practical
value.
The abundant and continuous currents from Voltaic Batteries
(Chap.LXIII),
in which electric
charges
are
being separated
by
chemical
action,are most
commonly
used in
magneto-electric
experiments.
The chemical action
producesonly
a
very
small
electric
potential
difference,
only
a
thousandth
or
less of that
required
to
produce
a
very
small
spark
in
air,
consequently
a
current
path
of
good conducting
copper,
brass,solder,
etc.,
must
be
provided
all the
way,
and the current is
quite
unable
to
pass
out of this into the air. And
on
wire wound in close coils
a
thin
wrapping
of
cotton, silk,
paper,
etc.,
forms
ample insulation,
just
to
prevent
metallic contact of
adjacentturns, through
which
current
might
'
short-circuit
'
without
travelling
the whole
length
of the coils.
The electric current obtainable from the
public
mains,
and
producedby
the electro
-magneticmachinery
of
"
601,
is of 100 to
200 times
higher
pressure,
and not to be recommended to
beginners
for
laboratoryexperiments,
but it is not tillthe
'
extra
high-
pressures
'
of the electrical
engineer,
200 to 500 times those of
domestic
supply,
that
we
again
reach the
longsparks
and the
imperativenecessity
for
glass
and ebonite insulators that
we
found in electro-static
experiments.
And
considering
that all
the
unpleasantness arising
from
a
leyden-jar
shock is caused
by
the
passage
of
a
current for
a
few millionths of
a second,
the
reader will understand the extreme
precautions
taken
by
an
engineer
who is
supplying
current at these
pressures
con- stantly.
Suppose
then
we
have
a
suitable voltaic
battery
" one or more
cells of
a
*
bichromate
'
or some
large
'
dry
cells
'
"
by
which
we
can
send
a
strong
current
through
two
or
three
yards
of thin
copper
wire,
cotton covered. The current is
defined
to travel
through
the wire
from
the carbon
-fplate
to the zinc
"ylateof
the
battery.
35
546 A HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS
"
592.
Stretching
the wire
J
in. above
a
card
sprinkled
with
iron
filings,
the latter will
arrange
themselves,
when the card is
tapped,
in short
straight
lines at
rightangles
to the
wire,
giving
the clearest
proof
of the existence of
a
magnetic
field
near
the
wire
(and cutting
the
plane
of the card in directions at
right
angles
to the
current).
As in
"
520 a
small
compass
needle is
more
sensitive than the
filings
and also tellswhich
way
the lines
are
running. Stretching
the wire E. and W. and
bringing
it
just
above
or below the
compass
will not tell
us much,
for
we
have
just
seen
that the
fielddue to current is
perpendicular
to
it,
and
being
thus N. and S.
is
merely
added to or
subtracted from the earth's
controlling
field,
without
altering
its direction. But
holding
the wire
more
or
less N. and
S.,
parallel
to the
needle,
and
bringing
it above
or
below,
the needle will be
seen to deflect
opposite
ways
in the two
cases,
and
ultimately
set
practically perpendicular
to the wire
when
very
close. And its movement will be found to
agree
with
the Rule "
Swimming
in and with the
current,facing
the
magnet,
the north
pole
moves
towards
your
lefthand. As the N.
pole
sets
'
down stream,'
this
Ampere's Rule
may
be
more
generally
stated
thus "
Swimming
in and with the
current,
the fieldin front of
you
runs
towards
your
left hand.
If the wire is stretched on a
level with the
compass
the needle
is not deflected E.
or
W. " there is
no
field
straight
towards
or
away
from the wire" but
one or
other
pole
ducks
down,
and
as
one
would have to swim on one
side to face the
needle,
it is
evidentlyobeying
the Rule.
The
photographFig.
290 shows the lines of
filings*
round
a
wire which
ran
vertically
up
or
down
through
the
paper.
Taking
the results of these
experimentsaltogether
it will
be evident that the
magnetic
lines
are
circles
surrounding
the
current,
these circles lie in
planesperpendicular
to a
straight
current,
and the direction in which the lines travel round
(i.e.
N.
poles
move)
is
givenby Ampere's
rule
or
by
a
rule
easily
derivable
from it" that the directions of the current and of the
magnetic
lines
are
related like the forward motion and the rotation of
an
ordinary
screw.
Notice that there is
no tendency
to attract a
poledirectly
towards the
wire,nor
any
tendency
to
drag
it
along
the
wire,
the
magnetic
fieldis
strictly perpendicular
to both these
directions.
*
That these lines look
coarser
than those in
Figs.
243-8 is
merely
due to a
larger
scale of
reproduction.
548 A HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS
drives oil the
current-carrying
flame
of
the
arc
itselftowards the
right(atrightangles
to the direction of
approach
of the
pole)
and
may
stretch it
so
much
as to
extinguish
it.
Fig.
294 shows
an
apparatus
in which the N.
pole
of
a
pivoted
crooked
magnet
is
feebly
driven round and round
a
strong
current.
FIG. 292.
FIG. 294.
FIG. 293.
FIG. 295.
Fig.
295 shows how
a
slack
current-carrying
wire will wind
itselfround the
leg
of
a
greatmagnet,
or
willunwind and wind on
the
opposite
way
when the current is reversed.
In
Fig.
296 a
heavy magnetic
needle is
pivoted
in the middle
of
a
6-in.coil of wire
hung by
two
long
thin wires
through
which
current is
supplied.
The coil is at first
suspended
in the
magnetic
meridian
so
that
magnet
and coil lie
together
much
as
in
Fig.
297.
The current
circulating perhaps
100 times round the coil is
equivalent
to
a
100 times
greater
current
passing
once down
and
up
:
observe how the lines of force are
wrenchingmagnet
and coil round
opposite
ways.
In the
experiment
of
Fig.
296
the
magnet
swings
out
one
way
but
comes
to rest at
a
deflection
FIELDS AND CURRENTS 549
such that the
couple
exerted
on
it
by
the earth is
equal
and
opposite
to that due to the coil. And the coil
swings
round
the
other
way
under the reaction of the
magnet
tillthe twist
on
the
suspending
wires checks it.
|"
594.
Now look at
Fig.298,
a
photograph
of the
iron-filing
lines
surrounding
two
parallel
wires both
carrying
a current in
the
same
direction.
The circles have flowed into
one another,
and
the oval
lines,
like elastic
bands, are
evidently pulling
the wires
together.
Contrast
Fig.
299,
where
one
current is
going
down
through
the
paper
and the -other
coming
up.
The circles
runningopposite
ways
round
get squeezed
up
and
are no
longer
concentric with
the wires
; recollecting
the sidewise
pressure
between the lines
("520),
it is evident that the wires
are
beingpushedapart.
This
action,
the direct attraction between
parallel
conductors
carrying
currents the
same
way,
and the direct
repulsion
between
conductors
carrying
currents
opposite
ways,
was
discovered
by
Ampere.
It
can
be
easily
observed in two
thin wires
hung
from
a
picture
nail and almost
touchingalong
their whole
lengths.
A
current
from two
or
three
large
cells,
sent
up
one
and
returning
by
the
other,causes
them to
bulgeapart
an
inch
or more
;
if
sent
up
to the nail
by
a
third
separate
wire and
returningby
both
wires
theyclingtogetherclosely.Fig.
300 shows both attractions
and
repulsions.
550
A HANDBOOK
OFvPHYSICS
"595. Fig.
302
(A)
shows two
currents, one
down at
D,
the other
up
at U. The
magnetic
linesdue to
one
current
only
are
shown,
and this
one
current
may
be
regarded
as
entirely replaced
28w*"*""jrww"T-""-* "-l ^^p^c^51^^^^^.?^
'^^ww^^^^ I sg ^iiii
P^r;.T5
^iMvvm^^;^,-;.-^
feS;.^S^"::
FIG. 298.
FIG. 300.
FIG. 299.
FIG. 301.
by
its
magnetic
field.
Fig.
B shows the lines
running
from
a
magnet
and at
right angles
to them the
current-carrying
conductor U.
In
A, we
have
just
seen that the action is
a
motion of conductor
U
directly
away
from D. In
B,
it is
a
motion of U to
the
right
FIELDS AND
CURRENTS 551
FIG. 302.
(Fig.291).
We
see
that both these
can
be described as
the
same
action,
under
one
general
rule
:
"
A conductor carrying a current moves so as
to cut
across
magnetic
lines.
The Direction
of
the Motion is
always
obtainable
by
careful
application
of
Ampere's
rule
;
swimming
in the current
and
facing
the
place
the linescome
from,
that
place
must move off
to
the
left,
i.e.
the conductor is
pushed
to the
right.
Or a
mnemonic device
perhaps quicker
of
application
in
many
instances is this
:
"
Hold
up
the Left
Hand,
thumb and index
finger
out- stretched,
middle and other
fingersnaturallypartly bent;
then a
current
flowing
out
along
the middle
finger,
across
magnetic
lines
running
out
parallel
to the index
finger,
is acted
on by
a
force out
along
the thumb.
The conductor will
always
endeavour to
move so as
to cut most
lines,
i.e.at
rightangles
to itselfand at
rightangles
to the
mag- netic
lines.
This
way
of
alwaysreducing
the
experimental
conditions to
a
current
flowing
across a
magnetic
field
may
seem a
one-sided
way
of
looking
at the
problem,
but it is the
way
along
which the
electrical
engineer
has made all his
progress.
Looking
at
Figs.
292-6 in this
new
way,
it will
easily
be seen
how the
moving
wire is
'
mowing
down
'
as
many
magnetic
lines
as
it
can.
"
596.
Now if the current
flowing
across a
magnetic
field
causes a
body-moving
force
on
the
conductor,
what will
happen
when
an
empty
conductor is
bodily
moved across a
magnetic
field? Will there arise an
electricity-moving (electro-motive)
force
tending
to drive
a current
along
the conductor ? This is
by
no means
the
onlything
that
might happen,
but
experiment
shows that it is what
actually
does
happen.
For
instance,
instead of
attaching
a
battery
and
watching
Barlow's wheel
go
round,
Faraday
attached
a
galvanometer
and
spun
the wheel
by
hand
;
an
electro-motive force
was
induced
in each of the succession of
spokes
as
it crossed the
magnet's
field,
and
a
current
was
driven
through
the
galvanometer.
552 A HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS
Hence the
fundamental statements of Electro-magnetic
Induction
can
be
put
as
follows
:
"
A conductor
carrying a current tends to
move across a magnetic
fieldso as
to cut the lines.
Forcibly moving a
conductor
across a magnetic
field
so as
to
cut the lines tends to make a current
pass along
it.
Which
way
will the induced current flow ?
Suppose
it went
the
same
way
as before,
the
way
which would assist the
very
motion that
produced
the current. The motion would
go
on
faster,
causing
a
greatercurrent,
which would
helpmore,
and
so
on, always
faster and
stronger
without
any
help
from without.
This would be the
Perpetual
Motion, ever
vainlysought
for
through
the centuries. Therefore
The current is
always in such
a
direction
as
to
oppose
the motion
inducing it. Its direction is the
reverse
of that found in
"
595.
This is Lenz's
Law,
it is another fundamental statement of
electro-magnetic induction,
it is the
appropriate
form of the
principle
of the Conservation of
Energy.
"
597
:
Now I. How
great
is this
force
that acts
on
the conductor
carrying
a current in the
magneticfield
?
And II. How
great
is the electro-motive
force
that tends to drive
a current
along
a
conductor
moving
across a magneticfield
?
The
answers to these
two
questions
constitute the actual
Definitions of the Units of Current and Electro-motive force
fundamental in Current Elec- tricity
[or Electro-magnetism,
or
Electro-dynamics].
Fig.
303
represents
an
ap- paratus
which,
though incap- able
of accurate results,serves
very
well to
suggest
how both
questions
are
to be dealt with.
ABCDEFG is
a
frame of wire
pivoted
at B and F in
mercury
cups
scooped
out in
a
fixed
wooden bar.
Through
the
303
mercury
in these it makes
good
conducting
connection with the
remainder of
a
circuit. A
scale-pan hangs
at D
on
CE and the
whole frame is
exactly
balanced
by counter-weights
at AG.
FIELDS AND CURRENTS 553
The
straight
wire CE
moves
up
and
down,
parallel
to itself
and at
rightangles
to the lines of the
magnetic
field in the
narrow
gap
between the
pole-pieces
of
a
magnet
NS.
For
simplicity,
suppose
this field uniform in the
gap
and
negligible
outside it. It
can be measured
by magnetic
methods
and
we can therefore tell
to start with how
many
lines would
be
cut if the horizontal wire CE moved 1
cm.
vertically ;
it"lines
per sq.
cm.Xno.
of
sq.
cm.
the wire
sweeps
over
in its
motion =
fieldstrengthx lengthof
wire in
fieldxl
cm.
Let this
total number
=n.
Now I. Load the
scale-pan
at D with
n
dynes.
Send
a
current
along
CE
so as to lift
it,
and
adjust
the current till there is
equilibriumagain,
i.e.the
upward
force
acting
on
CE is
equal
to n
dynes.
This is then the theoretical Unit
Current,
the
Decampere
[=10 Amperes].
The Force
on the conductor
(indynes)
= current
(indecamperes,
herebydefined)
x
lines
cut ivhen conductor
moves 1
cm.
in direction
offorce*
OR " If
a wire
crosses
at
rightangles
a
magnetic
field of unit
strength,
and Unit Current flows in the
wire,
there will be
a
force of
one
dyne
exerted
on each centimetre of it.
The
Ampere
is one-tenth of this. It is the
practical
unit.
To
get
a
great
force
a
large
current must cross a
broad and
strongmagnetic
field.
II. Move the wire CE at the
steadyspeed
of 1
cm.
per
sec.,
so
that it
'
mows down
'
magnetic
lines at the rate of
n
per
sec.
The electro-motive
forcef
caused in CE=w units of e.m.f.
The Electro-motive Force in
a
conductor is
equal
to the number
of unit
magnetic
lines itcuts
per
second.
J
This is the modern form
of
Faraday's Law of
Electro-magnetic
Induction.
OR " If
a conductor is moved
so as to cut
one
unit
magnetic
line
per
second,
Unit Electro-motive Force arisesin it.
The
Volt" 100 million times this unit
[and
even
then
proves
to
be
only
^1^
the electro-static unit of
potential difference].
To
get
a
high
e.m.f.
a
great length
of wire
must be moved
rapidlyacross a
strongmagnetic
field.
*
Supposing
field uniform. It is the
'
space
rate of
cutting
'
for
those who
comprehend
that
expression.
1
Or
'
the
electro-magneticmeasure of the
potential
difference
'
caused between C and E.
J Supposing speed
uniform. It is the
'
time rate of
cutting.'
554 A HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS
What current the electro-motive force succeeds in
setting going
depends
on
how
good-conducting
is the circuit of which the
moving
conductor forms
part.
Example
1. Calculate the total force in
dynes acting
on a
30-cm.
length
of wire which is
carrying
20
amp.
at
right angles
to
a magnetic
field of 5000 unit lines
per sq.
cm.
Force = 2
decamp, x (5000 x
30)
=
300,000 dynes.
Ex. 2. A
telegraph
wire carries
a current of -1
amp.
magnetic
east
in the earth's horizontal field
(-18).
The wire
weighs
1
grm. per
cm.
By
how much will its
weight
be
apparently
increased
or
diminished
by
the
electro-magnetic
action ?
Diminished
by
-01
X -18-^981 = -0000018
grm. per
cm.
Ex. 3. The wire in Ex. 1 is moved at
rightangles
to itself and to
the field at
a
speed
of 15 cm.
per
sec. What difference of
potential
is induced between its ends
[e.m.f.
in
wire]
?
(5000 X 30)X
15 =
2,250,000
lines cut
per
sec.
= "0225 volt.
"
598.
Fig.
299 illustratesalso the action of
a
coil of wire of
one turn
(or
of several hundred bunched into
one)
round which the
current circulates. Notice that in the middle the lines
are
all
going
one
way.
and
just
in the centre
are
perpendicular
to
the
plane
of the
coil,
uniformlyspaced,
and
shortlyparallel,
i.e.the
fieldis
approximately
uniform for
a
small
space
hereabouts.
In
Fig.
300
the
current
is
going
down the
two
wires
on
the
right
and
coming
up
the two on
the left
;
this is
a
coil of two
turns,
the small
beginning
of the
long
helical coils or Solenoids
(ZwAei/,
an
eel)
familiar in electrical
apparatus.
Notice that
the lines
run
along
the axis of the
coil,
where
they
tend to
keep
uniform and
parallel.Consequently
a
pair
of
ring
coils such
as these,or a
long
coil,
is of
great
use
when
a
uniform
magnetic
fieldis
required,
e.g.
for
measurement,
or
for
magnetizing
steel
magnets uniformly.
The
running
of lines out from
one
end and into the other end,
shown to
perfection
in the
photograph Fig.
301 where two
magnets
have been
placed
with their N.
poles
near
the ends of the
*
solenoid,'
indicates that the coil acts like
a
magnet
(with
the
distinction that
now
the return of the stream
through
the interior
is
traceable).
A few dozen turns of wire wound
on a
paper
tube
and connected to
a
'
dry
cell
'
make
a
coil whose
opposite
ends
attract and
repel
a
compass
needle
just
like rather feeble
magnet
poles.
It does not matter whether the coils
are
in
one or more
longlayers(solenoid)
or
bunched into
a
ring.
556 A HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS
half-cylinders
of
copper
enclosing
the
axle,
quiteseparated
from
each other
by insulating
material
(mica,etc.). Against
these
press
two fixed
*
brushes
'
of
copper
or
block
graphite
to
which
a continuous
current is
supplied.
When the
loop
is vertical the
insulating
gap
has
come
under the
brushes,a
moment
later the
copper segment
that had
justescaped
from the left-hand brush
slips
under the
right,
and vice
versa,
so
that the current
is
now
being
sent into the
loop
the other
way
round.
The actual electro-motor suited
to
work with continuous
(or
'
direct
')
current is this machine modified in detail
:
"
(1)
There
are
many
similar
loops
of wire
arranged
at
equal
angles
to
fillthe whole circumference. The
half-cylinders
of the
'
Commutator
'
*
are
slit
up
into
narrow
strips
so
that each
loop
gets
its
pair
of
segments.
The
loops
are also all connected to
one
another end to end
(inseries),
and consideration will show
that
the effect is
merely
to
get
a
stronger
and
more
continuous rotation,
the
principle beingquite
unaltered.
(2)
The
cylindrical
space
is
nearly
filled with
a mass
of soft
iron. This
enormously
increases the number of
magnetic
lines,
and therefore the forces
acting.
Whether this iron
core
stands
still
or rotates makes little
magnetic
difference,consequently
for mechanical
reasons
the wire is wound
on
the iron and this
whole massive
'
Armature
'
revolves.
"
600
:
Now let
us turn to further instances of the
production
of electriccurrent
by moving
a
conductor across a
magnetic
field.
Consider firstthe Earth Inductor,
shown,
in section
by
the N.S.
plane,
in
Fig.
305.
Taking
a
rectangular loop
of
a
few
score
turns of
wire,
with its
ends connected to
a
sensitive
gal- vanometer
G,
hold
one
horizontal
side
magnetic
E. and W. and
steadily
rotate the
loop
on
this
FIG. 305.
as
axis in the earth's
magnetic
field. This side does not
move,
two sides
move
in
planesparallel
to the lines and cut none
;
atten- tion
can
therefore be confined to the fourth side
only.
As this
moves near
A itis
cutting
lines
fast,
and the electro-motive
force in-
*
If
alternating
current is
supplied
to a motor the commutator
can
be
dispensed
with.
FIELDS AND CURRENTS 557
duced in itdrives
a current which deflectsthe
galvanometer
needle
strongly
to the
right.Approaching
B it is
cutting
across lines
much slower and the
galvanometer
needle
creeps
back towards
zero.
At B there is
momentarily
no
cutting,
towards C it
begins
to cut lines the other
way
and the
galvanometerswings
to the
left,
reaching
maximum at
C, zero
at
D,
and
so on.
Thus
an
alternating
current is
beingproduced.
There is
no
obligation
to use one
side
as
axis. For
suppose
the
axis at
X,
the fourth side
moves
only
half
as fast,
but the first
side,
in which the wire
runs back,
is
now
also
cutting
lines the other
way
;
\" (" J)
= 1
;
i.e.
rotating
the coilon a
central
or
any
other
parallel
axis has the
same effect.
And
further,
the
shape
of the coil does not
matter,
so
long
as
its
area
remains the
same.
At OB the number of lines
passing
through
= field
strength x area
of
coil;
arrived at OD all these
pass
through
the
reverse
way.
The total
change
= total linescut =
twice field
strength X area
of
coil,
i.e.if the
area
is the
same
the
induced e.m.f. is the
same whatever
parts
of the wire
happen
to do
the actual
cutting.
The
electro-motive force=rate at which lines
are
being
cut.
So
long
as no
additional obstruction is
placed
in
a
wire circuit
the current moved in it is
proportional
to the electro-motive force
[Ohm's Law,
" 615].
Hence current is
proportional
to rate of
cutting
lines,
e.g.
in
this
apparatus
to
speed
of rotation.
Multiplying
both sides
by
the Time
spent
in the
process
Current
x
time of flow
oc
rate of
cutting
lines
X
time
spent.
The left-hand side is the total
Quantityof Electricity
induced
to
move
past
any
particular point
in the circuit.
.'.
Quantity
oc
total number
of
lines cut.
This is
a
general
and
important
result. The rush of
electricity
is often too
rapid
for the
moving parts
of
a
galvanometer
to
keep
pace
with,
but
a
heavy slow-moving
*
ballistic
'
galvano- meter
will
give
a
scale-swing proportional
to the total
Quantity
that
passed
in the
rush,
justas a
heavy pendulum swings
out
proportionally
to the whole momentum of
a bullet shot into it.
In the Earth
Inductor,
for
instance,
rotation from B to D
gives
a
swing proportional
to whole
area
of coil
X
earth's total
field
("540). Turning
over from H
to H'
gives
a
less
throw,
it
misses lines at the start and
cuts
some
backwards at the end.
But
resolving
the field into the Horizontal and Vertical Com-
558 A HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS
ponents,
this
turning
over
flat
on
the table
gives
a
throw
pro- portional
to
V,
and
turning
over
from N
to
Z
or
in
any
manner
from
facing
north
to
facing
south,
gives
a
throw
proportional
to
H. Hence the
apparatus
can
be used to find the
Dip,
etc.
Moving
the coil
parallel
to itself
produces
no
current,
for the
following
half,
in which the wire is
coming
back,
cuts
as
many
lines
as
the
leading
half,
and neutralizes the induced e.m.f.
"601.
The
'
Dynamo.5
Replace
the earth's field
by
the fieldof
a
magnet
as
in
"
599.
Taking Fig.
304,
instead of
supplyingcurrent,
turn the
loop
round
by
hand. The two sides of the
loopco-operate
to
produce
an
Alternating
Current,
and this
can
either be led out
as
it
is,or
be
passedthrough
the
commutator,
where the brushes
gather
rushes
of
current, always passing
out at the
same
brush
[left-hand,
""595, 596].
Then
by multiplying loops
of wire and
using
soft
iron,as before,
one
gets
a more uniform current from a much
more
compact
machine,
the electric
generator, dynamo-electric machine, or
*
dynamo
'
of commerce.
It is
precisely
the
same
machine
as before,
with
a new name
and function.
As Motor it is
supplied
with
current and does work.
As
Dynamo
it is
supplied
with mechanical
energy
and
pro- duces
current.
The
'
magneto
'
of
petrolengines
is
a
small
dynamo
in which
the
magnetic
field,
is
more
convenientlysuppliedby
steel
per- manent
magnets
instead of the usual
electro-magnets.
It has
very many
turns of fine wire
on
its armature and therefore
pro- duces
a
very
high
electro-motive force.
The crank
one turns on a
telephone
drives
a
magneto
which
sends
alternating
current
'
to
line
'
and round
electro-magnets
at the far end. These
alternately pull
and
push
a
magnetized
steel
rocker,
thus
oscillating
a
hammer between two bells.
The medical
magneto-electric
machine is
an
ancient
pattern
in
which
a
soft-iron
yoke
is driven
round,
by
hand- wheel and
gearing,
so
that it
alternately bridges
the
polar
gap
of
a
steel
magnet
and
stands at
rightangles
to this
position.
Thus
a
thick
stream
of
lines
alternately
pours
through
the iron and is wrenched out of
it,
therebycutting
the wire wound in
two
bobbins
on
the iron and
producing
an
alternating current,
which is led out to the handles.
FIELDS AND CURRENTS
559
FIG. 306.
"
602. So
long
as
there is
a
mutual
cutting
of
magnetic
lines
and
conducting
circuitsit does
not matter
in the least whether the
circuits
move
and the lines stand
still,or
the lines
move
and the
circuitsstand
still, or
perhaps
both
move.
There follow
some
instances
of
Moving
Lines. "
In
some
dynamos
it is
more con- venient
to
move
the
magnets
and
keep
the
loops
of wire
fixed,
e.g.
in
the
7000-h.p.
alternators which
supply
the
underground railways
of London a
huge cross-shaped
electro-magnet
is driven at 1000
revs,
per
min.,
and its
magnetic
lines
sweep
across
the strands of
wire shown in section as dots in the fixed
cage,
Fig.
306,
inducing
in them
an
e.m.f.
averaging
11,000
volts but reversed
four times
per
revolution.
Returning
to
laboratory
dimensions,pushing
a
magnet'spole
towards a coilof 50
yards
or so
of wire will
cause a deflection in
a
low-resistance
galvanometer
connected
to
it,showing
that
a
current is circu- lating
in the coil
as
the
lines,
moving
with the
magnet,
cut
through
the wire.
The direction of the current is most
easily
found
by recollecting
that it
will
always
oppose
the motion
[Lenz].
Thus
facing
the coil and
pushing
N.
pole
towards it the current circulates
against
the
clock,
giving
the face of the
coil N.
polarity
so as to
oppose
the
oncoming pole.
The current continues
till the
magnet
is
half-waythrough,
when the
lines,now
parallel
to the
magnet,
cease
to be cut. Then
an
equal
reverse
current flows
as
the S.
pole
passes
through.
Now this
might
have been
an electro- magnet,
and then instead of
moving it,
it could be
magnetized
in
positionby sending
a current round
it. The effect of this is
a
rapidspreading
of
magnetic
lines
as
FIG. 307.
560 A HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS
the
magnetism strengthens,
the weak
Fig.307,
W
changing
to
Fig.
307,
S. These
spreading
lines
cutting
the coil
induce in it
a
current
resisting
the
magnetizing
process,
just
as
previously
it
resisted the
coming
of the
magnet.
When the
magnetizing
current is
stopped
the lines
collapse again
on
the
failing
electro- magnet,
and
cutting
the coil
as
they move,
now
induce in it
an
equal
direct current
tending
to hinder the
demagnetization.
And the effect will be the
same, though weaker,
if there is
no
iron
present
at
all,
"
598. So that
sending
or
stopping
a current
in
a
coil of wire induces in
a
neighbouring
coil
transient
currents
tending
to
oppose
its
starting
or to
prolong
its
running.
"
603. The
Alternating-currentTransformer is
developed
from
this
pair
of coils. In
a
typical
transformer there is
a
long
core
of
'
laminated
'*
iron,on
which is wound
a
coil of thick insulated
wire. Around this coil and insulated from it is wound another
coil
containing
a
many
times
greater length
of thinner wire.
Sometimes the
core
is
straight
but
more
generally
it forms
a
closed
ring
of iron
; Fig.
308 will
serve as an illustration of the
straight pattern.
When
a current
is sent into the inner coil the
magnetic
lines,
starting
as
rings
round the individual
wires,
speedily
fuse into
elongatedloops
like those of
Fig.
300. The inner
straight
sides
of these
magneticloopspack togetherby
thousands in
the
very
permeable
iron
core,
the outer sides
bulge
out
rapidly, cutting
through
the wires of the second coil
as
they spread.
When the
current
is
stopped
all these lines shrink back
on to the
wire,
and
now
if
a reverse
current is sent the
system spreads
out
again,
with
each
magnetic
line reversed in direction
;
this continues the
current in the second coil induced
by
the
stoppage
of the direct
current in the first.
Thus,
when
an
alternating current,
i.e.
a current which is
reversed 50 to 100 times
a second,
is sent into the
primary coil,
another
alternating
current
flowingnearly
in
opposition
to the
first
can
be drawn from the
secondary
coil. As the
secondary
coilcontains
very many
turns of
wire,
the
rate of
cutting
of lines
and
wires,
and therefore the electro-motive force in the
circuit,
is
high,
and the transformer enables
us to
'
step
up
'
a
large
low-pressure alternating
current to
a
small
high-pressure
alter-
*
i.e.
composed
of
strips
of thin soft iron
separated by insulating
paper.
For in solid
conducting
iron currents would be induced to
circulate
;
these would
oppose
the
driving
current and
nearly
neutralize
its
effect,
besides
greatly heating
the iron.
FIELDS AND CURRENTS 561
nating
current much more
suitable for economical transmission
to
a
distance. A miniature transformer of this sort converts the
3-volt-pressure
current
in
a
telephone
into
a
high-pressure
current
capable
of
negotiating
several miles of line without much
loss,
while transformers
weighing
many
tons are
in
use
in distant-
power-transmission systems.
Per contra
when the
high-pressure
current is
supplied
to the
secondary
coil,a
largelow-pressurealternating
current can
be
drawn from the
comparatively
few turns of the
primary
coil.
Transformers are
therefore used to
*
step
down
'
from the dan- gerous
voltage
of the transmission line to the 100 volts
or so
safe for domestic
use.
"
604. The electro-motive force
produced
in the
secondary
of
the
'
step-up
'
transformer is
proportional
to the rate at which
the
magnetic
lines cut the wires.
Suppose
therefore
we
could
instantaneously stop
the
primary
current
;
the lines would travel
in at
enormous
speed (thespeed
of
light),
and at first
sight
it
seems
that
a
practically
unlimited
voltage
would result. But
on
trying
the
experiment,
say
by snatching
away
the
supply
wire
from the
binding
screw
of the
primary
coil,
the
secondaryvoltage,
thoughhigh,
will seldom be found able to drive
a
sparkthrough
half
an
inch of air
(45,000volts).
The
reason
is
seen
in the
primary break,a
flash of
light-J-
in.
long
or more
follows the
snatched-away
wire,
through
this flash the current continues
to
flow,
and its
stoppage
is
by
no means
the
utterlyabrupt
one
intended.
Whence this flash ?
As the current dies
away
in
a
coiland the wide
magnetic
lines
shrink down into little
rings
round the individual
wires,
each
has had
to cut
a
number of
neighbouring
wires,
i.e.
a
large
amount
of
cutting
of lines and wires has
gone
on
in the coil
itself.
There- fore
a
current has been induced in the coil itselfand this current
tends to
oppose
what is
being
done,
it is
a
direct current
delaying
the
dying
away.
Moreover,
the
quicker
we
attempt
to do
away
with the current the
quicker
is this
cutting
and the
higher
the
electro-motive
force,
which becomes
quite
able to drive this
'
extra current at break
'
across a
short air
gap
after the
retreating
wire.
Thus not
only
is there
'
Mutual Inductance
'
between two coils,
but
every
coil
possesses
'
Self-inductance
'
of its
own.
If there is
an
iron
core, enablingvery many
magnetic
lines to be
formed,
562 A HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS
this self-inductance
may
be
very
large;
a
regular
flame
appears
on
breaking
the circuit of
a
largeelectro-magnet.Compare
this action of the current in
a
self-inductive circuit with that of
the
stream of water in the
hydraulicram, "
65.
"
605. The Induction Coil is
a
step-up
transformer in which the
production
of
exceptionally high
electro-motive forces is
specially
aimed
at. A coilis shown in section in
Fig.
308. It
possesses
"
FIG. 308.
(1)
A
long
stout
core
of
laminated
soft
iron well
magnetizedby
a
largebattery
current in the
'
Primary
'
winding,
of
one or
two
layers
of thick
copper
wire. This
primary
coilis
connected,
through
a break,
with the terminals
on
the left.
(2)
A
secondary
Coil
containing
an enormous
number
of
turns
of
(necessarily)
thin wire. This coil must be
extremely
well
insulated
; usually
a
tube of ebonite
\
in. thick
(black
in
figure)
separates
it from the
primary,
and it isbuilt
up
of
a score or more
flat
ring-shaped
coils
strung
on
this tube and
separated
from
one
another
by
ebonite discs. The ends of the
secondary
coilare
led
out to the littleterminals
on
the
top.
(3)
Some contrivance
forbreaking
the
primary
current with
great
rapidity.
The commonest contrivance is
a
Spring
Hammer Break. A
vertical
spring
stands
up
from the base-board and holds
a
soft-
iron hammer-head
justopposite
the end of the iron
core.
When
the
core
is
magnetized
it attracts this hammer and in
so
doing
draws the
spring
away
from contact with
a
platinum-tipped
screw
carried
by
a
second
upright
on
the base-board. As this
screw
and
spring
form
part
of the
primary
circuit,
shown as a
564 A HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS
sparks a foot
or two in
length
and used in
Rontgen-ray
work
and in wireless
telegraphy.
In the
induction coils used for
physiological experiments
the
iron
core is
removable,
and also the
secondary
is mounted
on
a
'
sledge
'
and
can be slid
away
from the
primary
coil. This
very
much weakens the
induced current and
permitsadjustment
of the
electricstimulus
given
to the
nerve
under observation.
There is also
a
current induced in the
secondary
at the
'
make
'
of the
primarycurrent,
but the back electro-motive force self-
induced in the
primary
coil
prevents
the current
increasing
rapidly,
i.e.the
rate of
cutting
of lines and
secondary
wire is
comparatively
small and the e.m.f. is seldom sufficient
to cause
a reverse
spark.
The
discharge
from the Induction Coil therefore
consists of
a succession of rushes of small
quantities
of
electricity
at
high
pressure
(30,000
volts
per
cm.
spark)
all in the
same
direction. A
moderatelylarge
coil
averages
perhaps
-02
amp.
at half
a
million volts.
EXAMPLES." CHAPTER LVIII
NOTE. "
Strength
of field due to
longstraight
wire = 2
x
amperes
-r-cm.
distance from wire.
4. What would
happen
if
a
current-carrying
wire
were
dipped
in
iron
filings
?
[L]m.
5. How would
you
investigate
the
magnetic
field at different dis- tances
from
a long
vertical wire
carrying
a
current ? Show in
a figure
the
position
of the
apparatus
used.
[L.]
6. A
long
vertical wire carries
a
descending
current,
and a small
compass
needle is
placed successively
N., S., E.,
and W., at
equal
distances from it. How will the
position
of rest of the needle and its
time of oscillation
vary
at these different
points
?
[L.]
7. Parallel wires
carrying
currents
opposite
ways
are
observed to
repel
each other
:
clearly
connect this action with
Ampere's
'
swim- ming
'
rule.
[L.]
8. What
are
direction and
magnitude
of force
acting
per
centimetre
on a
current-carrying
conductor in
a
magnetic
field ? Illustrate
by
some
current-measuring
instrument.
[M.]
9. Make a
diagram showing
the
magnetic
lines
near a straight
wire
carrying
10
amp.
in a field of
strength
2
perpendicular
to the wire.
In what direction would the wire tend to move
?
[L.]
10. Describe the nature of the
magnetic
forces in the
neighbourhood
of
a
long straight
wire
through
which
a
current is
passing.
Calculate attraction between two
parallel
wires of a metre
length
and
2
cm.
apart
when 1
amp.
is sent
through
each.
[L.]
FIELDS AND CURRENTS 565
11. A
single
turn of wire in the form of a rectangle
15
cm. X
8
cm.
is
suspended
in
a
horizontal field of
strength
2-5. Indicate the forces
acting
on each side of the
rectangle,
and calculate the
couple acting
upon
it when its
plane
makes an
angle
of 45" with the field and 200
amp.
flows in it.
[L.]
12. Describe the use
of Barlow's wheel
as a
dynamo
and
as a motor.
13. Sketch the distribution of currents in
a
large
copper
plate
drawn between the
poles
of
a
horseshoe
magnet.
14. State Lenz's Law of induced currents and
say
exactly
how
you
would
prove
it
experimentally.
[L.]
15. Give an account of the
phenomena
of
electro-magnetic
induc- tion,
describing experiments
to illustrate them. State
Faraday's
Law and Lenz's Law, and
point
out how
they apply
to the
experiments
you
have described.
[L.]
16. A
telegraph
wire
running magnetic
east is blown down. Calcu- late
the
mean voltage
induced in the wire
per
metre
length,supposing
it to fall
freely
from a height
of 5
m.,
and state in which direction the
current will
flgw. [Take
g
1000,
H
-18.] [L.]
17. A
ship
of 39-4-ft. beam sails at 14-4 knots at a
place
where
H = 0-2 and tan
(dip)
" 2. Find the difference of
potential
between
her sides. Will it make
any
difference ifshe is of steel
or
of wood,
copper
sheathed ? How will the
voltage
vary
(a)
if she
suddenly changes
her
course, (b)on a
voyage
from London to the
Cape
?
18. A coil
carrying
a current is mounted so that it
can turn
freely
about
a
horizontal axis. How will it set itself in the Earth's field
when the axis is
(1)
E. and
W., (2)
N. and
S.,(3)
in
any
other horizontal
direction ?
[L.]
19. Show that when a current flows in
a
wire wound in the form
of
a
long straight
solenoid the
magnetic
force inside the solenoid is
uniform.
[L.]
20. A circular coil of wire is rotated about
a
diameter
on a
vertical
axis in a horizontal field. Describe and
explain
the
changes
in current
during one
complete
revolution.
[L.]
21. How could
you
use a
small coil of wire to
explore
the field of
a
tangent galvanometer
coil ?
22. How would
you
find the
Dip by using
a coil of wire and a
galvanometer
?
23. Prove
experimentally
that the flow of
electricitydeveloped
by
induction in
a circuit
depends
upon
the
change
in the number of
lines of
magnetic
force
passing through
the circuit. A vertical
hoop
falls
sideways
to a horizontal
position
on
the
ground.
If it was
originally
(a)
in the
meridian,
(b) perpendicular
to the
meridian,
in which
case
would the induced current be
greater
?
[L.]
24. Describe
any
arrangement by
which a continuous electric
current
may
be
produced by electro-magnetic
induction.
[L.J
25. A
simple
coil of wire with
a cylindrical
iron
core
is rotated about
a
cross-axle between the
poles
of
a
permanent magnet.
Describe
fully
how the electric
pressure
in the coil
changes during
1 revolution.
566
A HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS
26. A N.
pole
is
brought
down to the middle of
a
coil
lying on
the
table. Which
way
is the induced
current,
and how would
you prove
this ?
[L]m.
27. What effect is shown by a galvanometer
connected to
a
hori- zontal
coil in these two
cases :
(a)
vertical
magnet placed half-way
through
coil is
dropped, (b)
horizontal
magnet
at middle of coil is
dropped. [L]m.
28.
Explain
different
ways
in which
a
current
can
be induced in
a
wire, stating its direction.
[M.]
29.
Explain
the
cause
of the flash
on breaking
the circuit of the
field
magnet
of
a dynamo. [M.]
30. Describe
experiments
to show the
storage
of
energy
in the field
of
a
current through a
coil.
31. Describe
an
induction coil
capable
of
giving long sparks, care- fully
pointing
out the
use
of each
part. [L]m.
32. Describe the action of
an
induction coil, and
explain the effect
of
having
a
condenser in the
primary
circuit in
parallel
with the
interrupter.
What effect is
produced on
the discharge
of the
secondary
when the
opposite plates
of
a
condenser
are
connected to the terminals
? [L.]
33.
Explain wrhy a
coin cannot be
spun
in
a strong magnetic
field.
34. A
copper
ring
is
suspended so as
to encircle the
pole
of
a
hori- zontal
electro-magnet.
Show that it will
jump
off when the
magnet
current is
'
made,' will
slowly return to its
place,
and will
jump on
when the
magnet
current is broken.
35. Show that
a
copper
ring
is
repelled
from the
pole
of
an alternating-
current
magnet.
CHAPTER LIX
THE MEASUREMENT OF ELECTRIC CURRENTS
THE
principle
of the
electro-magnetic
method of
measuring
electric currents
has been
explained
in
"
597.
It consists in
measuring
the force
on a
conductor
carrying
the current
across a
known
magnetic
field,or
conversely,
of
measuring
the reaction
on
the
magnet producing
the field. In the first
case,
the force
can
be measured in
grammes
weight,
i.e.
againstgravity,
or
against
the known
strength
of
a
spring;
and in the second
case
also
against
the known
magneticpull
of the earth.
The
gravity
instrument which is in
use
for
determining
the
Ampere absolutely
will be
briefly
described in
"
617
;
the instru- ments
now
about to be described
are
suitable for
measuring
the
relative values of currents and
are
called Galvanometers. If their
scales
are graHua'ted so as
to
read
direcffy
in
Amperes,they
are
called
ampere-meters
or Ammeters.
In
Fig.
304 the force
tending
to rotate the coil is of
course
proportional
to the current
flowing
in it. Instead of
letting
the coil
go
on
rotating,
suppose
that
a
spring
like the
hair-spring
of
a
watch is fastened round the axle. Now
as
the coil turns it
must wind
up
the
spring,
and it does this until the
increasing
elastic resistance
just
balances the
turning
effort due to the
current. We have
put
an
electro-motor to
push against
a
spring
balance,so
to
speak,
and
we
have
produced
a Moving-coil Gal- vanometer,
wherein the rotation of the
coil,as
shown
by
a
pointer
moving
over a
graduated
scale
(40"
or
50"
long)
is
nearly
pro- portional
to the current
flowing
in it.
Moving-coil
instruments have
coils,
perhaps
an
inch
square,
of 100
or
200 turns of
very
thin
copper
wire. The coil
moves on
pivots
in
jewelledbearings,
between the hollo wed-out
poles
of
a
strong
steel
magnet ;
current is led in and out
by extremely
thin
and flexible silver
strips,
and
a
spring
of
phosphor-bronze
controls
the motion. Inside the coil is
a
lump
of soft
iron,
corresponding
567
568 A HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS
in function to the iron of the motor
armature,
but
now more
conveniently
fixed to the
instrument,so as
to relieve the
pivots
of
unnecessary
weight.
Instruments of this
description
form the
highest
class of commercial ammeters
(and voltmeters)
for the
measurement of direct
current.
They
are
usually
very
sensitive
instruments and take but
a
small fraction of the
current,
the
great part
of which
passes
by
them in
an
appropriate
*
shunt,'
"623.
In the still
more
delicate
galvanometersrequired
in the labora- tory
the control isoften
given
not
by
a
spring,
but
by
the
twisting
of the
exceedingly
slender
strip
of
phosphor-bronze(the
finest
wire rolled out
flat)
on
which the coil
hangs,pivots
also
being
dispensed
with. Provided with
mirror,
lamp
^,nd scale
(see
below) they usuallygive
about 1
mm.
deflection for
one one-
thousand-millionth of
an
ampere.
The
greatadvantage
of
moving-coil
instruments istheirfreedom
from external
magnetic
interference,
for the field in the
gap
in
which the coil
moves
is
many
thousand times
stronger
than the
earth's.
"
607
:
A
permanent-magnet
instrument is
evidently
useless
for
Alternating Current,
which
changes
direction
so
rapidly
that
the coil
never
has time to move
either
way.
An instrument with
a
laminated soft-iron
electro-magnet
has
recently
been
introduced,
the
alternating
current flows also in this
magnet
and reverses
its
polarity
in
step
with the reversals in the
coil,so
that
now
the
pointer
is
pushedalways
the
same
way
and reads
as
usual. More
commonly
the
magnet
iron is
dispensed
with
altogether, leaving
the
empty
solenoid to
produce
the
necessary
alternating
field.
"
608
:
In the remarkable
Oscillograph
the
moving
coil has
been reduced to
a
single
narrow
loop
of
tightly
stretched slender
phosphor-bronze strip,
with
a
very
small mirror attached across
its
middle,
and all immersed in oil. This
'
coil' has of
course
an
exceedingly
small inertia and it
can
therefore
respond
very
rapidly
to the
electro-magnetic
forces and the considerable
tension
;
it is able
to
follow oscillations of current
up
to
a
frequency
of
10,000
per
second,
the reflected
spot
of
lighttracing
a
wavy
current
curve on a
rapidlymoving photographicplate.
A recent introduction is the
'
String
Galvanometer.'
It is
Fig.
303 with the
long
narrow
polar
gap
vertical,
and instead of
the
copper
wire
an
exceedingly
fine thread of silvered
quartz
carries the minute current and therefore
sways
across
the
magnetic
MEASUREMENT OF ELECTRIC CURRENTS 569
field. Its motions
are
observed
through
a
microscope
arrange- ment,
magnifying
800
diameters,
which
pierces
the
pole-pieces
of the
electro-magnet.
While not
so
quick
it detects much smaller
currents than the
oscillograph,
and is of
great
value in electro-
physiological experiments.
"
609. Now
we
must turn to the older
patterns
of Galvano- meter,
those in which the coils stand stilland the
magnet
moves.
The
controlling
restraint is here
occasionally providedby gravity
or
by
a
spring,
but far
more
usuallyby
the
(horizontal
component
of
the)
earth's
magnetic
field. As in
"
529 there is
a
compass
needle
pulled
N. and S.
by
the earth and
pushed
E. and W.
(by
the action of the current in the
coil)
;
then the
tangent
of its
deviation is the ratio between the
magnetic
field due to the
current
and the earth's field.
Looking
at
Fig.
297
we can see
how
a
magnet placed
in the
plane
of
an
encircling
coil of wire will be twisted out of that
plane
when
a current flows.
Looking
also at
Fig.
299
we see
that
the
magnetic
field due to a
coil
is,
just
in the
very
middle,
uniform
in
strength
and at
rightangles
to the
plane
of the coil. Accord- ingly
if
we
place
round
a
small
compass
needle
a
large
vertical
coil of wires with its
planemagnetic
N. and S.
we
shall have the
magnetic
forces at
rightanglescontemplated
in
" 529,
and this
arrangement
forms
a Tangent
Galvanometer.
Let
m
be the
strength
of the needle's
pole,practically
at the
centre of the
ring
of radius
r, composed
of
n
turns of wire
carrying
a current C. All
over
the
sphere
of radius
r
surrounding
the
pole
m,
the
magnetic
fieldis
radial,
and of
strengthm/r2("524),
i.e.this
number of unit
magnetic
lines
passes
out of each
square
centi- metre
of it. If the
encircling
belt of
n
turns of
wire,
each 2?rr
cm.
long,
were to
move
1
cm.
at
rightangles
to itself
(as
if
slipping
off the
imaginedsphere)
there would be
m/r2x
2?rm
cuttings
of
lines and wire.
Therefore,
by "
597 the coil is acted
on
by
a
force
in this direction
(say,West)
= Cx
mjr2x27rrn='27rnCm/rdynes,
and of
course an
equal
reduction
on
the
pole
drives it E. The
horizontal
component
H
pulls
the
pole
N. with force Hm
dynes,
therefore
we
have
as
in
Fig.255, "
529, a
deflection D from the
N. such that
~
ZvrnCm/r
27mC
tan D =
"
-^
" " = "
Hm rH
or
C
decamperes=n
" H
tan
D, or
A
amperes
"-
" H tan D.
570 A HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS
Example
1. What current in
amperes
would
cause a
deflection
of
35"
(tan
35" =
-575,
from the tables of natural
tangents)
in
a
tangent
galvanometer having
7 turns of wire
on a
ring
16
cm.
diameter, at
a
place
wshere H = -20 ?
A= 10 x 8 cm. x
-20
X -575 ~
(2
x 3-14
x
7)
= "21
ampere.
With coils of different
shape
and
position
27m/r
ceases
to be
correct,
but there is
always
a
'
galvanometer
constant
'
G
depend- ing
on
the size and
dimensions,
and either
calculable
or found
by
experiment(sending
a
current which is
simultaneously
measured
on a
standard
tangentgalvanometer
near
by),
so
that in
general
C=(H/G)
tan D.
And when
always
used at one
placeH/G
may
conveniently
be
calculated out
as
the
'
reduction
factor,K,'
by
which
one
multi- plies
the
tangent
of the observed deflection and obtains the
current at
once,
C = K tan D.
"
610. It does not
follow,however,
that because there
stands
on
the bench
an
instrument called
a
TangentGalvanometer,
having
a
large
vertical
hoop
of wire with
a
small
magnet
in its
middle,
and because the instrument has been turned round and levelled
until the ends of the
pointer,
stuck
crossways
on
the
needle,
both
read
zero on
the
graduated
arcs over
which
theyswing,
that there- fore
a
single
observation of
a
deflection D will sufficeto determine
a
current
accurately through
the above relation. For the
pointer
may
be neither
straight
nor
at
rightangles
to the
needle,
the
needle
may
not be in the centre of coiland
graduatedcircle,
and
the silk fibre*
by
which it
hangs
is
very
likely
twisted,
and
these
mean
that the two forces
are not
satisfactorily
at
rightangles
to start with.
If,however, a
galvanometer
be freed
as
far
as
possible
from these visible defects and both ends of the
pointer
be read with
a
direct and also with
a reverse
current,
then the
mean
of these four
readings
may
reasonably
be taken
as
D.
Unless
the needle is
quite
small the above
argument begins
to
fail
:
the needle
swings
out into the curved weaker
parts
of the
field in
Fig.
299. Some
tangent galvanometers
have
a
pair
of
large
coils,
rather closer
together
than in
Fig.
300
:
these
produce
a
very
uniform field
near
the
middle,
and
a
longer
compass
needle
is allowable.
When the earth's H at the
place
of observation has been deter- mined
as
in
"
535 and the
average
radius
r
of the coil
can
be
*
A
pivot
is
preferable, provided
it is of
proper
60" conical
shape
and
is
occasionallysharpened
up
with
a
stone.
572
A HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS
fibres of silk
or
fused
silica,
which must be
exceedingly
thin lest
their stiffness
impede
the feeble motions of the short
magnet
of
a
fine
galvanometer, "
109. Lord Kelvin firstmade submarine-
cable
signalling practicable by using
as
pointer
a
weightless
beam
of
light
: a
tiny
concave
mirror attached
to the
needle-system
reflects
a
spot
of
light
on
to
a
scale about
a metre
away
and
is
equivalent
to
a
pointer
2
m.
long,
see
"
362.
Fig.
309
is
a
diagram
of
a
galvanometerembodying
most of
these
features,
the
magnets
are
little
grids
built
up
of
hair-spring ;
aluminium
stem, magnets,
mirror,
and
damping
vane
(to
check
swingingabout)
togetherweigh
a
grain
or
two. The
coils,
about the size of
a
penny,
contain
many
thousands of turns of No. 42
silk-covered
copper
wire. The instrument
can
detect about
a
billionth of
an
ampere.
"
612. The total
Quantity
conveyedby
a
current
past
any
particular point
is of
course
obtained
by
multiplying
the
strength
of the current
by
the
time for which it flows.
The Unit of Measurement of such
Quantities
FIG. 309.
Of
Electricity
as are
dealt with in Current Elec- tricity
is called the Coulomb and it
is the
quantity conveyed by one
Ampere flowing
for
one
second.
The
ordinarylaboratory
way
of
determining
the
quantity
of
electricity
that
passes
in
a
fairlysteady
current is therefore to
take the
mean
of
frequentreadings
of the ammeter and to
multiplyby
the total time in seconds
during
which the current
has been
flowing.
For the ballistic
use
of the
galvanometer
in
measuring
the total
quantitypassing
in
a
sudden
discharge
see
"
600. The
Quantity
"
Hx
periodic
time of oscillation
x
half first
swing
-|-7rG.
"
613
:
In
commerce, electrical-quantity
meters effect this
automatically.
For
instance,
in
one
pattern
the ammeter
pointer
marks a curve
of
heightproportional
to
the
current on
paper
which is moved
alongsteadilyby
clockwork
so
that the
horizontal
length
of the
curve
is
proportional
to time. Then the
area
under the
curve
represents
current
x time,
i.e.
quantity.
We have
seen
in
"
599 that the force
on
the coils
moving
in the
permanent-magnet-field
of
an
electro-motor is
proportional
to the
current.
Suppose
therefore
we
make the motor drive
a
brake
whose frictionalresistance is
alwaysproportional
to the
speed.
MEASUREMENT OF ELECTRIC CURRENTS
578
If the machine is
light
and
never moves
very
fast,so
that the
fractions of force involved in acceleration and deceleration
are
small and
equal,
then
on
the
average,
driving
force
=frictional
resistance
ex
speed
of
rotation,
which is therefore
proportional
to
the
current. And the total number of revolutions recorded
by
a
revolution-counter is
evidently
the continued
product
of
speed
and time of
turning,
and therefore
measures
the
quantity
of
electricity passed.
The suitable brake is
an
electro-magnetic one
;
on
the shaft of the little
motor
is
a
3-in. disc of sheet
copper,
this
passes
between the
poles
of little steel
magnets
and therefore
eddy-currentsproportional
to the
speed
are
induced to flow in
the
copper
disc
:
the electrical resistance these meet
with is
translated into mechanical resistance to the rotation.
Meters of this
description
are
very
largelyemployed
in domestic
supply.
It will be
seen
that
they are,
so to
speak,moving-coilgalvano- meters
in which the elasticresistance that
gives
way
proportionally
to the
current,
and
stops,
is
replacedby
a
plastic
resistance that
continuouslygives
way.
For the electro-chemical
measurement
of
Quantity see
""651,
652.
EXAMPLES." CHAPTER LIX
2. Describe the
moving-coil galvanometer
and mention its
advantages
for
workshop use over
the
moving-magnet
form. How is it used
as an
ammeter for
large
currents ?
[L.]
3. Describe the construction of
some
form of ammeter suitable
for the measurement of
large
currents.
[L.]
4. Describe
(a)
the
suspended-magnet galvanometer, (b)
the
sus- pended-coil
galvanometer.
Which
galvanometer
would
you
prefer
to
employ
where
strong electro-magnets are
occasionally
used,
and
why
?
[L.]
5. Describe the
tangent galvanometer
and
explain
how it
may
be
used to determine currents in
electro-magnetic
units.
[L.]
6. A
tangent galvanometer having one turn of 31-4
cm.
radius
gives
45" with 10
amp.
Calculate the earth's field.
[L.]
7. Point
out the difference between
an ordinary tangent galvano- meter
and a
galvanometer
for the measurement of
extremely
small
currents,
showing
how the latter is made
more
sensitive.
[L.]
CHAPTER LX
RESISTANCE
WAYS of
detecting
the
presence
of a
charge
or
quantity
of
Electricity
have been described in
Chapters
LV, LVI,
LVII.
Electricity
in motion
can
be detected
by
its
magnetic
action,
Chapter
LVIII.
Where such
means, properlyemployed,
detect electrical
activity,
there
'
Electricity
'
is,
and this statement has to serve
instead of
a
definition of what
'
Electricity
'
is,
for that
nobody
knows.
Electricity
travels about
by
processes
somewhat similar to the
conduction,convection,
and radiation of Heat.
(1)Electricity
is conducted
through
metals
(readily,
as
is
heat)
and most other
conducting
solids without
any
detectable motion of matter.
(2)
When it
passes
through conductingliquids
a
perceptible
transference of matter
goes
on,
different chemical substances
accumulate at different
places.
In
gases
too there is detectable
motion of
gaseous
particles. (3)
And there isthe
electro-magnetic
radiation,employed
in wireless
telegraphy,
which
can
set
going
currents
of
electricity
in wires
suspended
from distant
poles.
Each will be considered in turn
:
the
present chapter
deals
only
with conduction of the firstsort.
"
614. As stated in
"591,
a
complete
circuitof
goodconducting
material,preferably
metal,
properly
insulated to
prevent
'
short-
circuiting,'
is almost
indispensable
in Current
Electricity :
when
metallic connection is broken "
'
the circuit
opened
'
" the current
cannot
pass.
Easily
removable metallic connections
are most
commonly
made
by
*
Binding
Screws
'
;
a
brass
screw
projects
from the
block of
metal,
and the
wire,scraped
bare of insulation and
clean,
is
roughly
bent into
a
hook half round the
screw
and is
clamped
down
tightlyby
a
milled brass nut. It is difficultto twist wire
ends
togethertightenough
to
make
a
really
reliable connection
of
574
RESISTANCE 575
negligible
electrical
resistance,
and double-ended
binding
screws
are
used for this
purpose.
Of
Keys
or
Switches for
opening
and
closing
circuit
more
quickly
than
by
screws
there
are
many
varieties,
which the reader
must examine
as
he
uses
them in the
laboratory.
The most reliableis the
Plug Key,
wherein
a
6"
taper
round
plug
of
brass,perhapsJ
in.
diameter,
is
dropped
into the
tapering
hole which
separates
two brass blocks
firmly
fastened to an
ebonite
base-plate.Slight
pressure
and
a
twist to
the
right
fitsthe
plug
in
firmly, burnishing
the contact surfaces and
ensuring
good
contact :
too much force
soon
loosens the blocks from the
base-plate
and
spoils
the
key.
Not
so
reliably
free from
resistance,
but
very
convenient,
is
the switch in which
a
brass lever
moving horizontally
scrapes
with
some
pressure
over
flat brass studs let into the
insulating
base- plate.
The
scrapingkeeps
the
contact
surfaces smooth and
clean,
if
theyget rough
a
little
paraffin
oil should be rubbed
on.
Two-, three-,etc.,
way
keys
have several studs for the lever to
move over.
Or in
plugpattern,
one
long
brass block has
a row
of
separate
blocks beside
it,
from each of these it is
separatedby
a
conical hole and the
plug
can
be
dropped
into
any
hole.
'
Tapping Keys
'
of
springy
brass
strip
should have
platinum
contact
points,
for there is
now no
scraping
to
get
rid of oxidation
film,sure
to form
on
other metals. To
remove
dirt
a
piece
of
paper
should
occasionally
be drawn between the
points, pressedtogether.
In most of the
many
varieties of
Reversing Keys or Com- mutators
in
use
in the
laboratory
the reader will find two movable
parts,permanently
attached to two
binding
screws
of
some sort,
and
temporarily
connectible
by
the motion of the switch to two
fixed
parts.
To lead
a
current either
way
into
a
circuit the
battery
is connected to the
two
moving parts
and the circuit
ends to the two fixed
parts.
The
two-plugreversingkey
has
four
quadrantal
blocks,
the
battery
is connected to
oppositequad- rants
and the
plugs
are
always
in
opposite
holes.
Mercury-cupKeys
are
made
by boring
half-inch holes into
a
block of wood and half
filling
with
mercury
into which the wires
are
led. Little arches of thick wire
bridge
between whichever
cups
one
wishes to connect. The wire ends should be
scraped
clean and left to
'
amalgamate
'
in
mercury
:
there should be
a
rim round the block to
prevent spilling,
for
mercury
is mis- chievously
corrosive of metal
apparatus.
576 A HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS
"
615. Now however
good
the conductor
may
be,
the
passage
of
a
considerable electric current will
presently
make it
warm.
This is
not a
conversion of
'
Electricity
'
into
'
Heat,'
for
wherever
a
current-measuring
instrument is
put
into the circuit
it will show the
same
current. No
electricity
is lost.
It is
a
production
of heat
by
a
dissipation
of electrical
Energy
:
the electro-motive force
driving
the current
gets
lessened in the
conductor
:
unless e.m.f. is
kept
up
by
power
spent
in the
dynamo
or chemical
activity
in the
battery,
the current
stops,
much
as a
body moving
in
a
viscous fluid
stops
as soon as
the
driving
force
ceases.
Thus
a sort of friction
dogs
the motion of
electricity.
In
metals
(solid
or
liquid)
it is
comparable
to fluid
friction,
for the
slightest
electro-motive force
can
always
cause a
feeble current
;
in other
liquids
and
gases
it is
more
comparable
to solid
friction,
for below
a
certain
starting
pressure
no
current will
move.
In Metals indeed the most careful
experiments
have
proved
that
The current
flowing
in
a
conductor is
exactly proportional
to the
potential
difference
(or
electro-motive
force)
between the ends of
the
conductor, provided
that the conductor is
kept
at
a
constant
temperature.
This is called
Ohm's Law
of electricconduction
through
metals.
The better the conductor the
larger
the
current,
so
that
we can
get
rid of
'
proportional
to
'
by defining
a
conducting
power
or
'
Conductance
'
constant for
a
given
conductor at
a
given
temperature
Current=conductancex electro-motive
force,
though
it is
more
usual to talk about the
resisting
power
or
*
Resistance
'
offered to the
passage
of the current.
This is
evidently
the
reciprocal
of
conductance,
for
halving
the
resisting
power
means
doubling
the
conducting
power,
etc.,
so
that
Current = electro-motive
force
-^-resistance
C=?
CR-E
or
R =
?
K U
"
616. We have
already
defined units of current and electro- motive
force,we
must therefore define the
Unit of Resistance
as
follows
:
"
When unit electro-motive
forceapplied
to
the ends
of
a
conductor
causes
unit current to flow
through,
the conductor
possesses
Unit
Resistance.
RESISTANCE
577
For
practical
purposes,
as
stated in
"
597,
the Volt is the Unit of
Electro-motive Force
and is 100 million
(108)
times the funda- mental
unit there defined.
[Roughlyspeaking,
it is
a
littleless
than the
potential
difference between the metals of the
original
Volta's
cell,
where
copper
and zinc
dip
in salt
water.]
The
Ampere
is the practical
Unit of Current
and
was most
unfortunately
chosen
as one-tenth the fundamental unit of
"
597
(which
is hence the
decampere).
The unit of resistance isthe Ohm.
If 1 volt
applied
to the ends
of
a wire
causes
1
ampere
to flow in
it,
the wire has
a resistance of
1 ohm.
Volts
,
Volts
Then
Amperes
=^y
"
,
Amperes
x
Ohms =
Volts,
Ohms=-r
v
"
The
Ohm, although
a
derived
unit,
has
one
decided
advantage
over
the
ampere
and volt. It is the
property
of
a
portablepiece
of
metal,
and
once
made
up
there is
no
need to
keepturning
cranks
and
things
to
get
it.
Consequently
the electrician'smethods
have
mostly
been devised to lead to measurements in
terms of
resistances,
just
as
the chemist works down to his box of
weights.
"
617
:
In the National
PhysicalLaboratory
stands
a
fine
balance
bearing
coilsof wire which
hang
in the
magnetic
field of
outer
coils, so
that the wire would cut a
very
accurately
calculated
number of
magnetic
lines if it moved 1
cm.
When 7
grm.
has
to be
put
in
one
pan
to
keep
the balance
in
equilibrium
1
ampere
is
flowing
in allits coils.
This current
passes
to the coilsof another
machine,an
elaborate
pattern
of Barlow's
wheel,
wherein
a
very
accurately
calculated
number of the
magnetic
lines due to
coils is cut
by
a
radius of the
wheel
as
it makes
one
revolution. The wheel is driven round at
a
steadyspeed
and
produces
an
e.m.f. between its axle and its
rim=the
accurately
known number of lines cut
per
second.
Say 100,000 lines,
then the Electro - motive force =
100,000
^100,000,000=
-001 volt.
The 1
ampere passes
also
through
a
certain
conductor,
and
by
trial
(seePotentiometer,
"636)
two
points
on
this conductor
are
found between which there is
exactly
the
same
e.m.f.
as
the
wheel
produces.
Then the resistance of the conductor between
them=-001
volt-i-1
ampere=-001
ohm.
"
618 :
From this conductor other
multiples
can
be
prepared
by
easier
processes
("627)
than those
required
to realize the
ampere
and the
volt,
and for convenience the Ohm is realized
as
37
578
A HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS
the resistance of a
certain
long
narrow
conductor of metal.
Not
primarily
of
a
solid wire " for
experience
has shown that
even
the best
wire,
freed
as
far
as
may
be from internal strains
by
annealing,
and
protected
from
oxidation,
alters
minutely
in
resistance from
year
to
year
" but of
a
thread of
liquid
metal,
incapable
of internal strains and
reproducible by anybody
in
pure
metal
:
"
The resistance of
a
uniform thread of
pure mercury
at 0"
C.,
106-3 cm.*
long
and
weighing
144521
grai.
(whichgives
a cross-
section of 1
sq.
mm.)
is 1 Ohm.
This isthe material standard ohm
agreed
upon
internationally.
With
it,or
with the two machines,
Secondary
Standard Resistance
Coils are
compared
at intervals. These coils are
far
more con- venient
for
everyday
use.
They
are
made of
manganin,
an
alloy
of 84
%
copper,
12 man- ganese,
and 4
nickel,
and
are con- structed
as
in
Fig.
310. A short
piece
of wide brass
tubing
is
wrapped
with
silk,
shellac
var- nished,
and baked. A
loop
of
double - silk - covered
manganin
wire,a
little above the
required
resistance,
has its ends hard-
soldered to the stout
copper
ter- minal
bars,
and is then wound
FlG- 31"-
double
on
the
cylinder, thickly
varnished with
shellac,
and heated to 140" C. for
eight
hours
or
more
by sending
a
considerable
current
through
it.
This drives off all
moisture,so
that there is
no
risk of current
leaking
from
one turn to its
neighbour,
and also anneals the
wire,
which
was
'
hard
'
from the
wire-drawing
and
winding.
The
annealing
lowers the resistance 2
or 3
%
and thereafter the coil
remains
practically unchanged
for
years
:
without itthe resistance
crawls
down
rapidly
as
the coil
ages.
The coil is
connected,
through
mercury cups
in which its thick
copper
terminals
rest,
with
an
apparatus
of the
principle
to be
described in
"
627,
and is
adjusted
to
equality
with
a
primary
standard
by shortening
one
end of the
wire,
or
by shuntingpart
of
it with
a
thin branch wire
("622).
*
The
originalarbitrary
unit
was
aim. thread 1
sq.
mm.
section
;
the
attempt
to retain
something
like this led to the decimation of the
unit of current.
580 A HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS
"
620. The resistance between the
opposite
faces of
a 1-cm.
cube of
a
material is called its
Specific
Resistance or
Resistivity.
The
reciprocal
of
Resistivity
is
Conductivity,
which
might
also be
defined,as
in
Heat, as
the
Quantity
of
electricity (incoulombs)
that
passes
in 1
sec.
from
one
face to the
opposite
of
a
1-cm. cube
when 1 volt
potential
difference is maintained between the faces.
Some Resistivities
are :
"
RESISTANCE
581
Notice that the increase of resistance
per
cent
per
"C. of the
pure
metals is
very
near
the -37
% expansibility
of
gases.
Indeed
the
resistivity
of
any very pure
metal is found to be
proportional
to the Absolute
temperature,
at
any
rate from 100" A.
up
to near
its
meltingpoint.
The
temperature
change
for
alloys
is much
less.
Hard
graphite
conducts rather better than hard
carbon,
a
pencil
streak
on
ground glass
is sometimes used as a high
resistance.
The resistivitiesof
insulating
materials in III have
nothing
of
the definiteness of those of metals.
They
often diminish con- siderably
as
the
voltage
is
increased,
and
very
rapidly
as
the
temperature
rises.
"
621. Relation of Resistance to size of conductor.
Putting
2
or 3 1-cm. cubes side
by
side
gives
2 or 3 times
the
opportunity
for
current to flow. So that
a
conductor
of
cross-section A
sq.
cm.
and
length
1
cm.
would have a con- ductance
A times that of
a
single
1-cm. cube.
Its Conductance =
conductivity
X
A
or
reciprocally, Resistance=resistivity-^A.
Putting,
however,2,
3, etc.,
1-cm. cubes
'
end
on,' so
that the
current must
flow
through
them in
succession, evidently
doubles,
trebles,etc.,
the resistance in its
path,
i.e. the resistance
of
a
column of L 1-cm. cubes=Lx
resistivity.
Taking
these two
together,
For
a conductor A
sq.
cm. cross-sectional
area
and L
cm. long
the
Resistance =
^
x resistivity ;
and
inverting everything,
Conductance
=A/Lx conductivity.
Example
1. Calculate the resistance of 1
yard (91-5 cm.)
of No. 22
copper
wire
(diameter
-71
mm.).
R
=
0L*!
- x -000001 65- -0385 ohm.
7TX(4X-071)-
Ex. 2.
Calculate the resistance of an
'
accumulator
'
in which two
plates
15
cm.
square
are
separated by
-8
cm.
of
sulphuric
acid.
'*
"
15X15
x
-14 = -0005 ohm.
582 A HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS
"
622.
Carrying
the
argument
further"
The Resistance
of
a
number
of
conductors
through
which the
current must
pass
in succession
or
'
in series
'
is the
sum
of their
resistances
R^rfvh'jH- e . a
[NOTE.
" This does not
necessarily apply
to classes II and III
above.]
The conductance of
a
number of conductors
by
any
of which
current
can flow from P to
Q
is the
sum
of the individual
con- ductances,
just
as
the
traffic-carrying capacity
of all the roads
from
one
place
to another is the
sum
of their individual
carrying
capacities.
or
writing
conductance
as
the
reciprocal
of
resistance,
Thus the Resistance
of
any
number
of
FIG. 311. conductors 'in
multiple
arc' or
'
in
parallel,'
Fig.311,
has to be found
by
first
taking
the
reciprocals
of their
individual
resistances, adding
these
reciprocals together,
and then
taking
the
reciprocal
of this.
The Currents in the various branches
are
proportional
to their
Conductances
(i.e. inverselyas
their
resistances),
and are
the
fractions
Cj/C,c2/C,etc.,
of the total current
flowing.
Ex. 3.
Three wires of resistances
2, 4,
and 6 ohms are
joined
in
parallel
and
together carry
110
amp.
Find their
joint
resistance
and the current in each wire.
-
R~2"4"'6 12
.*.
R =
1I11-
ohm
Current in 2
ohms^^
X
110
amp.
= 60
amp.
T*
5
x
HO
amp.
= 30
"
0
=1xllOamp.
=
i ".;
Ex. 4. A coil intended for
a 5-ohm standard is found when tested
to have
a resistance 5-033 ohms
;
what fine wire must be
put
in
parallel
with it
(as
a
'
shunt
')
to reduce the
joint
resistance to 5 ohms ?
1/5=1/5-033 + 1/0;
or
-2--19868 =
l/z.
/. iE=l/-Q0132
= 760 ohms.
RESISTANCE 583
"623.
Shunts. The
arrangement
of conductors in
parallel
is often made
use
of to
get
a
definite small fraction of
a current,
so
that
a
galvanometer
or ammeter suitable for
measuring
small currents
may
also be available for
large
currents.
The
galvanometer
has its terminals connected
togetherby
a
wire
of resistance less than that of its
own
coils
;
most
of the current
arriving
at A flows
past
the
galvanometerthrough
the shunt to
B,
and
only
a
fraction traverses the coils and actuates
the instru- ment.
Thus,
ifthe shunt has
-J-th
the
galvanometer
resistance,
its
conductance is 9 times that of the
galvanometer,
their
joint
con- ductance
is 10
times,
therefore
-"
of the current
goes
through
the
shunt and
onlyJ^
through
the
galvanometer.
If the shunt
="1g-
galvanometer,only
-01
passes
to
galvanometer,
etc.
The best
type
of commercial ammeter
nowadays
is a
sensitive
moving-coilgalvanometer,
shunted with removable
wires,
strips,
or bars,
of
manganin
or
copper.
For
instance,an
ammeter in
use
by
the writer is
really
a
very
sensitivemicro-ammeter
(-0001
amp.
moves
it 100
divisions)
and its
moving
coil has
a
resistance of
60 ohms. When its terminals
are
connected
by
an
8-in.
piece
of
thick
copper
wire,
of -003
ohm,
it
requires
2
amp.
to deflect
it 100
divisions,
and when shunted
by
a
copper
strap
of -0003
ohm it reads 20
amp.
for the 100 divisions.
Ex. 5. What shunts are
necessary
to reduce the sensitiveness of
a
500-ohm
galvanometer
to
",",
and
TV
?
[L]m.
The first has resistance
l/(3-l)
of
galvanometer,
for then its con- ductance
=2/1 galvanometer's
and it takes 2
parts
of current while
galvanometer
takes 1.
The second has resistance 1
(5-1)
of
galvanometer
and the third
1/(10-1).
Shunts
250, 125,
and 55-5 ohms.
Temporarilyshunting
a
galvanometer
with
a
few inches of thin
wire is
a
precaution
worth
adopting
when far from balance in
bridgeexperiments,
etc.
"624:
The
*
Universal Shunt.' The
foregoing
necessitates
a
set of shunts of resistances calculated for each
particular
instru- ment.
The universal shunt obviates this
;
itis
a
wire of resistance
greater
than the
galvanometer's
and is
permanently
connected
across
its terminals. The current to be measured is
brought,
not to
the terminals
as usual,
but to two
points
on
the wire. If these
are
close
together
most of the current
goes
through
the short
piece
of
wire between
them,
if slid far
apart
most
goes
through
the
gal- vanometer.
If G is the
galvanometer
resistance,
S the whole
shunt,
and
a
584 A HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS
piece
r
is included between the two
supplypoints,
this
gives
two
conductors in
parallel
of
r
and
6-f-S
"
r resistances
;
or
conduc- tances
and therefore currents in the inverse
ratio,as G-j-S" r : r.
That
is,
the
galvanometergets r/(G+S-r+r)=r/(G+S),
a
current
proportional
to the resistance between the contact
points;
and
doubling,trebling, etc.,
r doubles,trebles,
etc.,
the current
through
the
galvanometer,
whatever
G-f-S
may happen
to be.
METHODS
OP
COMPARING RESISTANCES
The
comparison
of resistances with
one
another isan
important
electrical
operation.
Some methods follow
:
"
"
625.
Replacement method. A voltaic
battery
and the
unknown resistance
are
wired in serieswith
any
sort of
galvano- meter
which will then
give
a
conveniently large
deflection. The
unknown resistance is removed from the
circuit, a
resistance box
put
into its
place,
and resistances
unplugged
till
exactly
the
same
deflection is obtained.
The unknown = total of known coils
unplugged.
"
626. A circuitis made
up
as
in
Fig.
312 of
a
constant voltaic
battery,
the unknown
resistance,
a
resistance
box,
and
a
galvano- meter
the relative values of
whose scale divisions
are known,
(e.g.
a
tangentgalvanometer
for
which current "x
tangent
of de- flection).
Let E be the electro- motive
force of the
battery,
b its
resistance,w
resistance of
wires,
g
resistance of
galvanometer,
X
the unknown. First
get
a
reading
of current C with all
plugs
in
box,
then
by
Ohm's law
FIG. 312.
Then
unplug
coilsin the box to
a
total R tillthe
galvanometer
reading
shows the current
is halved.
Then E =
-|C(6+w+^+X+R).
Now 6 of
an accumulator,w
of thick
wires,
and
g
of
an ammeter
for currents
up
to 1
amp.,
are
negligibly
small,
therefore
nearly
X=R. If not small,
b-\-w~\-g
must be known beforehand.
NOTE. " A voltaic
battery
offers,
like all
conductors,a
resistance
to the
passage
of
a
current,
even though
it itselfhas set that
RESISTANCE 585
current
going.
This
*
Internal Resistance
'
of a
battery
isfound
by
a
slight
variation of the above method. X
now
has to be
a
known
resistance,
then
R=X-j-B-fw+9r gives
B
=
R" X
approx.,
and
since in the
experiment
it is
permissible
to make X=0
(i.e. joining
up
battery
and
galvanometer
without
any
other
resistance),
then
B=R.
NOTE. " There is
no
actual need to
just
halve the
current,
it
may
be reduced to
say p/q
its value. The littleextra calculation
involved
easily
leads to
Ex. 6.
Battery
of resistance 5 ohm deflects
tangent galvanometer
of 3 ohms to 45". What additional resistance reduces deflection to
30"?
[M.j
Tan 45" = 1
;
tan 30" =
;
i.e. halves the current.
Equating
these
8C:=(8 + x = 8 ohms.
"
627. The Wheatstone
Bridge
is
an
arrangement
which enables
resistances to be
very
accurately compared.
Then if
one
of them
is known in
ohms,
the actual
value of the other is this multi- plied
by
their ratio.
In
Fig.
313
a
battery
circuit
.
divides at A and
rejoins
at B.
A is at
a
higherpotential
than B.
C isat
an intermediate
potential,
evidently
there must be
some
point
D discoverable in the other
branch which is at
the
same
intermediate
potential
as
C. D
is tried for and found when
a
sensitive
galvanometer
in the
bridging
wire CD shows
no deviation,
for if there
were
any
potential
difference between C and D it would
surely
drive
a
current
through
CD.
Let the resistance of
AC=r, CB=z,
AD=p, DE=q.
Let
cx
be the
current
along
ACB and
c2
that
along
ADB.
Applying
Ohm's law E = CR to allfour sections in
turn,
we have,
when
no
current flows in CD
:
"
Potential Difference between A and
C=Cjr
"
C
"
E=CIX
A
"
D=c2p
D B=c
FIG. 313.
586 A HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS
But differencebetween A and C=that between A and
D,
since
C and D
are at same
potential.
/. cr=c" or
p/r=c2/ci
or
q/x=c2/c1
or
q
x
and
CjX=c2
.-.?="
r x
hence
x=qr/p
NOTE. "
Corresponding
to the
easy
algebraic interchange
in the
formula is the electrical fact that
battery
and
galvanometer
can
be
interchanged
in the
Bridge
without
affecting
the
measure- ments.
"
628. In the Metre
Bridge
arrangement, Fig.
314,
of
the
Wheatstone
conductors,
ADB is
a
straight strong
wire of resist- ance
metal stretched
along
a
scale. The wire is
quite
uniform,
the resistance of
every
cm.
of it
isthe
same,
hence
Resistance
p
: resistance
q
=length
of wire AD
:
remaininglength
DB.
FIG. 314.
The
corner
points
A, C,
B
are
represented by
thick
straps
of
copper
of
no
appreciable
resistance
and
provided
with stout
binding
screws.
A known resistance
R is connected into the
gap
AC
by
short
stout
clean
wires,
the unknown X is
similarly
connected into the
gap
CB. Then
a
sliding
contact-maker
is
moved
along
the wire till
a
point
is found where the delicate
galvanometer
in the
long
wire CD is not deflected at all from
its rest
position.
Then
resistance
X_ length
p
of stretched wire AD
resistance R~~
length
q
of stretched
wire DB
588 A HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS
and the delicate
galvanometer
to C and D
throughanother,
the
wires shown dotted
being
contained inside the box.
In
use,
after
seeing
that all the
plugs
fit
snugly,
10
ohms is
unplugged
each side of D
so
that
p=q.
One ohm is
unplugged
in
AC,
the
batterykey
held
down,
and
a
quicktap
on
galvano- meter
key
shows
a
deflection towards the
left,
say.
1000 is
un- plugged
in AC and
a
quicktap
sends
galvanometer
to
right.
Making
r
10
only,
stillto
right,
r=5 to
left,
6 to
left,
7 to
left,
8 to
right.
X
:
1"=p
:
q.
.'.
X between 7 and 8 ohms.
In AD
unplug
100 and
plug
in
10,
p
:
q=lQ
:
1.
Try
R=75,
to
left,76 to
left,77 to
right.
.'.
X between 7-6
and
7-7.
In AD
unplug
1000 and
plug
in the
100,
make
R=760,
to
left,
765 to
right,
761 feeble
left,762,
763
doubtful,
764 feeble
right.
Therefore 7-625 is the nearest value.
The reader will
see
that the
P.O. Box
can not
only
measure
single
ohms
by
lOOths,
but also resistances
up
to
100x10,000
= 1
megohm,
with the
same
average accuracy
of 1 in 500.
Turning-lever patterns
of P.O. Box
are
made in which
p
and
q
are levers for studs of
10, 100,1000,
and R
a
4-face set
of 10
each,
l's10',100's1000S.
See
""614,
619.
The
binding
screws are
usually
marked
G,
G for
galvanometer
attachment
;
B,
B
or C,
Z for
battery(copper,
zinc);
X,
X
or
L,
E for unknown
(line, earth).
As mentioned
above,
battery
and
galvanometer
can
be
interchanged
and sometimes this is
actually
desirable.
Instead of
a
galvanometer
a
telephone
can be
used,
but then
an
intermittent current must be
supplied.
One
battery
wire is
wound round
a
file
along
which the other is
scraped
:
balance
to faintest sound in
telephone.
Liquid resistances,
e.g.
batteries,are
measurable
by using
alternating
current
supplied
from
a
littlemedical induction
coil,
and
getting
silence in
a
telephone.
"
630. Ammeter and Voltmeter. A
good practical
way
of
measuring
resistance
(accurate
to
perhaps
1
%
with
good
instru- ments)
is
by
the
use
of Ammeter and Voltmeter.
The Ammeter
is connected in series with the resistance and the current
A
flowingthrough
both is observed. The Voltmeter is connected
as a
shunt
across
the ends of the resistance and the Volts V
between the ends of R observed.
(A jumps
up
a trifle,
but this
is the extra current
actuating
the Voltmeter and must
be dis- regarded.)
Then R ohms=V volts^-A
amperes.
RESISTANCE 589
In this
way
it is
easy
to measure a
resistance such
as
that of
a
glowlamp
connected to the mains and
actuallyworking.
And
by
usinga
spiral
of iron wire and
heating
it in
a
flame the rise of R
with
temperature
is
strikingly
shown
by
the fall in current.
The
very
high
resistances
of
insulators"
e.g.
that between the
wire
core
of 2 miles of cable and the water
in the tank
containing
the
cable,or
between water inside and outside
an
inverted tele- graph
insulator " are
measured
by
this
same method,
using
a
battery
of several hundred
cells,
totalling
a
known 1000 volts
or
more,
and
using
as
ammeter a
delicate
reflecting galvanometer
the value of whose scale
readings
has been
previously
measured.*
The resistance of
an
insulating
sheet is measured
by laying
it
on
a
pool
of
mercury
and
pouring
a
smaller
pool
on
its
upper
surface
with
a
rim of
paraffin
wax.
The wires
are
led into the
pools.
In insulation resistances it is essentialto record also the
applied
voltage,
the time it has been
kepton,
and the
temperature.
The
results enable
an
observer of
experience
to
judge
whether the
insulation will be
adequate
for the
purpose
in
hand,
but it is
no
use
calculating
from them
by
Ohm's law.
EXAMPLES." CHAPTER LX
7.
Explain
how resistance of
a
wire
depends
on length
and section.
Compare
that of 60
cm.
copper
wire 1 mm.
diam. with 100 cm.
mercury
thread 1-5 mm. diam.,
resistivities 1
:
60.
[Ab.]
8. A box contains 3 coils of 3 ohms. each. What different resistances
can
be obtained
by coupling
up any
or
all of these in various
ways
?
9. What
length
of
manganin
wire 0-253 mm. diam.,
resistivity
45,
must be shunted
across 1-03 ohm to reduce it to 1 ohm ?
10. A cell of 2 volts and
"
ohm has its terminals
joined by
wires of
1 and 5 ohms
(a)
in
series,(b)
in
parallel.
Find currents in both
cases.
11. A
battery
of 2-1 volts in series with
a
tangent galvanometer
and 200 ohms
gives
a
deflection of 45"
;
by putting
an
additional 300
ohms in the circuit the deflection is reduced to 30". Find the reduction
factor of the
galvanometer. [L.]
*
Usually by sending
current from a
standard 1-02- volt cell
through
it and a
megohm,
and
observing
deflection.
590
A HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS
12. How would
you
determine the coefficient of increase of resistance
of
a
conductor with
temperature between,
say,
0" and 200" C. ? What
is the change
for
pure
metals ? Show
generally
the
change
of current
from the instant of
switching
on (a) a
carbon filament
lamp, (b)"a
metallic filament lamp. [L.]
13. How does the electrical resistance of
a
metallic conductor
vary
with
change
of
temperature
? Why
does this render unreliable
measurements of low
temperatures by a platinum
resistance ther- mometer
?
[L]m.
14. State Ohm's
law, and
explain some
method of
verifying
it
experimentally.
Deduce the
theory
of Wheatstone's
bridge. [L.]
15.
Explain
Wheatstone's
bridge,
and show that there is
no
current
through
the
galvanometer
when the resistances in the
arms
of the
bridge satisfy
the condition
T1/r2=T3/r. [L]m.
16. How would
you
measure
the resistance of
an
electric
lamp (1)
at the
temperature
of the
room,
(2)
when
glowing
?
[L.]
CHAPTER
LXI
ELECTRO-MOTIVE FORCE
As has been stated in
Chapter
LVI,
Difference of Electric Potential
plays
the
same
part
in Current
Electricity
as
does difference of
Temperature
in the conduction of
Heat, or
difference of level
in the flow of water. The
electricity
flows from the
place
of
higher
to that of lower
potential ;
Difference of Potential
may
be
regarded
as
the
driving
force,
and is
usually
alluded to as
Electro- motive
Force.
"
631.
The unit in terms of which this is measured in Current
Electricity,
the
Volt,
has been defined in
"
597 as
beingproduced
in
a
conductor
which is
cutting
a
hundred million unit
magnetic
lines
per
second. This definitionrather
suggests
a
hasty
scramble
after
an
elusive unit.
Nevertheless,
there is at least
one
testing
outfit
on
the market in which this
cutting
of lines is made to
furnish the standard electro-motive force
required;
it is
a
small
magneto
machine which turned
by
hand at a
fair
speed
furnishes
a
self-regulated
e.m.f. of 600 volts
quitesteady enough
for
insulation
testing.
But
("630)
the
testing
of
insulating
materials
admittedly
calls for
no
very
high
accuracy,
and
a
far
more
elaborate mechanism would be
required
to
satisfy
the demands
of even
ordinary
electrical work for
a
steady
pressure.
Fortunately
it is found that
very
steady
and reliable electro- motive
forces arise
during
certain Chemical
Actions,
to be dealt
with in
Chapter
LXIII,
and
nowadays
the Volt is realized in
almost
as
portable
and
handy
a
form
as
the Ohm. The
potential
difference between the terminals of the little
'
standard cadmium
cell
'
to be described in
"
663 is 1-0183 volt at 15"
C.,
with
a
very
trifling
correction for
change
of
temperature. Although
the Ohm
and the
Ampere
have been chosen
by
a
majority
at
a
recent
congress
as
the International
Units,
owing
to
a
lingering
doubt
as
to the
perfectpurification
of
one
of the constituent chemicals
in this
cell,
yet
the Ohm Coil and the Cadmium Cell
are
the
workaday
standards in
a
good
many
laboratories,
Ohm's
law,
591
592 A HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS
Volts
=
Amperes
X Ohms,
affording
the
connecting
link. The
Daniell and other cells
are
usable
as
rougher
standards. It makes
not the least difference what size
a
cell
happens
to
be, so
long
as
the
same
chemical substances
are
present
at the
same con- centration
and
temperature
:
the electro-motive force
on
'
open
circuit
'
(i.e.
when
ready
to send
a
current but not
actuallydoing
so)
is the
same
whether the cell be made
up
in
a
thimble
or
in
a
bucket.
METHODS
OF
COMPARING
THE
ELECTRO-MOTIVE FORCES
OF VOLTAIC
CELLS, ETC.
"
632. Electro-motive forces
are
differences of
potential,
therefore the
Electrometers mentioned in
"
588 of Electro-statics
are
available for
comparing
them.
They must,
however,
be of
particularly
sensitive
construction,
for the volt is
only
^"
of the
electro-staticunit of
potential.
The
common
gold-leafelectroscope,
for
instance,
does not
respond
to the touch of the wire from
a
voltaic
cell,
but the
following
contrivance enables it to do
so,
and forms
an
interesting
connecting
link between current
electricity
and electro-statics.
An
electrophorus
with
a
particularly
flat
plate
stands
on
another
flat
plate
of metal whose surface is well varnished
with shellac
;
these form a condenser with
a
very
thin dielectricand therefore
of
largecapacity.
The
two
metal discs
are
connected
momen- tarily
to the wires from the voltaic celland receive thence
charges
of
-f-
and "
electricity.
The
electrophorus
is
lifted,
thus
greatly
diminishing
the
capacity
of the condenser and
raising
its
charge
to a
potential quitehighenough
to actuate the
gold-leaf
electro- scope.
"
633.
Applying
Ohm's
law,
that Electro-motive force=
Current
X Resistance,we can see
that
(1)
To
keep
the current constant the
3 1
1 i
~
i
resistance in
a
circuit must
be
proportional
to the e.m.f
. acting,
Or
(2)
in
a
circuit of constant resistance
the current
will be
proportional
to
the e.m.f.
A circuit is made
up
as
in
Fig.
316 with
battery(voltaiccell)B, galvanometer
G,
FIG. 316.
resistance box
R,
and
a
plugkey
K.
The circuitis made and resistance
r
is
unplugged
in R until the
ELECTRO-MOTIVE FORCE 593
galvanometer
stands at
some
convenientlylargereading
g.
B
is removed and
replacedby
the other
battery
B',
then
(1)
The resistance is altered to the r' which is found to cause
precisely
the same
reading
of the
galvanometer.
Then e.m.f. of
B/e.m.f.
of
B'=r/r'.
Or else
(2)r
is left unaltered and the
new
readingg'
of the
galvanometer
isobserved. Then if
c
and c'are
the relative values
of
current
represented by
g
and
g'(e.g.
for
a
tangentgalvanometer
c/c'=tan0/tang'}
we have
e.m.f. of
B/e.m.f.
of
B'=c/c'.
The reader of
" 626,
in which is described
an
experimentonly
too
apt
to be confused with the
presentone,
will
perceive
a
possible
defect in this method of
comparingbattery
electro-motive forces.
For the
two batteries
may
not have the
same
internal
resistances,
and in
any
case
if these
are
comparable
with
r
and r' the ratio
given
above becomes
only
a
roughapproximation.
e.g.
r
for an
'
accumulator
'
was 10
ohms,
r' for a
Leclanche was
5
ohms,
hence e.m.f.'s
apparently
as 2:1. But with
a more
sensitive
galvanometer
r was 1000 ohms and r' 700
ohms,
e.m.f .'s
as 2:14. The
discrepancy
was
due to the Leclanche
having
an
internal resistance of 2 ohms while that of the accumulator was
insignificant,
this made the actual ratio of resistances in circuit
in the first
case 10
: 7,
while in the second case 1000
:
702 does not
differ
appreciably
from the
accepted
1000
:
700.
"
634. A
way
of
avoiding
this
difficulty
is to
keep
both bat- teries
in circuit
always.
At first
they
are
connected
properly
in
series
(i.e.
circuitto
zinc,
carbon to zinc of
second,
second carbon
to
circuit).
Then
E+E'=cr.
Subsequently one
cell is
disconnected,
turned
round,
and
put
back, so that
they
are now joined
in
opposition (carbon
to carbon,
zincs to
circuit),
thenE" E'=cr' orelse=c'r.
Adding
these two
equations,
and then
subtracting
them, gives
E
r+r' c+c'
zr,= "
orelse=
,
E
r"r c"c
This
*
Sum and
Difference
Method
'
seems to find favour with
examiners,
but it is
open
to the
very grave
objection
that few
voltaic cells submit to
having
a current
driven
through
them
backwards without
increasing
in e.m.f. to
oppose
it.
594 A HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS
"
635.
Undoubtedly
the best
plan
is
to
swamp
variations in
battery
resistance
by using
a
galvanometer
with which is incor- porated
a
high
constant resistance. This combination forms
a
Voltmeter,
it is method
(2)
above in
portable
form.
A rather elaborate voltmeter in
use
by
the writer consists of
a
micro-ammeter
(as
in
"606)
of 60 ohms shunted
by
1-2 ohms
;
in
series with this combination is
a
manganin
coil of 999 ohms
enclosed in the
same
box. Thus 1 volt
applied
to
the instrument's
terminals drives -001
amp.
through
the
resistance,
|-"
of this
passes
through
the shunt and
J^,
i.e. -000020
amp.,
through
the actual
galvanometer.
The
graduations
20,40,60,80,
100
microamperes
have therefore
been relabelled
1, 2, 3, 4,
5 Volts,
and the instrument reads
pretty
exactly
the electro-motive force of
any
ordinary
voltaic
cell to which its terminals
may
be wired. And it is
immediately
made available for
voltages
above 5
by putting
in series with it
an appropriate
number of thousands of ohms
;
e.g.
for maximum
range
20 volts
put
3000 ohms in
series,
20 volts sends the
same
current
through
the total 4000 ohms
as
5
through
the
1000,
and
the
graduations
are now
to be read
4, 12, 16,
20 volts.
Thus
a
Voltmeter is
a
high-resistance galvanometer
with
a
scale
graduated
to
read volts
pressure
between the terminals
instead of the
magnitude
in
amperes
of the current
passing
through,just
as a
spring
balance
employed
for
weighingparcels
might
be
graduated
to read cost of
postage
instead of
weight
in
pounds
avoirdupois.
NOTE. " The
place
of an
Ammeter is in the main circuit
;
a
Voltmeter is
placed
as a
shunt
across
the two
points
of the main
circuitbetween which the e.m.f. is
required.
"
636.
The best of voltmeters has its
limitations,
however.
The
exceptionally high
resistance voltmeter
just
described would
read
only
-6 volt if connected to a
standard 1-018 volt cadmium
cell. For the cell has
an
internal resistance of about 600 ohms
and demands a
far
more perfect
method of
comparing
electro- motive
forces than those described above. Such a
method is
afforded
by
the Potentiometer.
The Potentiometer in its
simplest
form, Fig.
317,
consists of a
long
thin wire of resistance
metal,
stretched beside
a
scale of
equalparts.
An
accumulator,
which is
a
particularly
constant
sort
of voltaic
cell,
maintains
a
steady
current
through
the wire.
A
point
on
the wire
near
the end connected to
the
-f-
terminal
596 A HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS
and
any
number of cells
being
tested in
turn,
their
e.m.f.'s
are
proportional
to
the distances
required
on
the wire to balance them.
Since
no
current flows in
cell,
connecting
wires,or
galvanometer
when the desired
position
of balance is
attained,
therefore their
resistances
are
wholly
without influence
on
the result. The
standard cell of 600 ohms
can
be
accuratelycompared
with
a
dry
cell of half
an ohm,
the
leading
wires
may
be miles in
length,
the
galvanometer
may
be the first sensitive instrument that
comes
to
hand.
"
637
:
For
compactness
the
longpotentiometer
wire
may
be
lapped
to and fro
on a board,
but that is
a
poor arrangement.
A better
plan
isthat
adopted
in the
Crompton
and other
potentio- meters,
now
in
widespread
use
in commercial work
;
nine tenths
of the wire
are
wound into littleresistance
coils,
only
the
remaining
tenth is stretched
along
the scale. Contact A is made
on one
of
the studs
separating
the coils
(see" 619),
B is
on
the wire
;
there
is
no
disadvantage
in
this,
it islike
using
a foot rule with
only
the
last inch subdivided.
In these instruments the main current is
adjustedby
an
external variable resistance until
a
reading
1018 balances the
standard
cell,
they
then read
straightaway
in millivolts
(-001
volts)
without
any
rule of three.
In the
laboratory
two resistance boxes in series sometimes
constitute the
potentiometer
'
wire.' Their total resistance is
keptalways
10,000 ohms,
the
driving
accumulator is
kept
on
the
extreme
ends,
the branch circuit
containing
cell,
galvanometer,
and
tappingkey
is connected to the terminals of the first box
only,
resistance is
unplugged
in
one
box and
an
equal
amount
plugged
in the other till balance is
obtained;
then e.m.f.'s of
successive
test cells are
directly
as
balance values of resistance
in first box.
"
638
:
Further
uses
of the Potentiometer. The e.m.f. to be
measured need not
necessarily
be due
to a
voltaic
cell,
it
may
be
that between the ends of
a
conductor
through
which
a current is
flowing,
and this
enormously
increases the usefulness of the
potentiometer.
For
suppose
we
want to measure an
E.M.F.
greater
than the
2 volts
or so
which the
driving
accumulator maintains between
the ends of the
wire,
say
the
pressure
somewhere in
a
nominal
120- volt
lightingsystem.
Connect across
the mains
a 10,000-
ohm
resistance,
select two
points
on
this 100 ohms
apart,
the fall
ELECTRO-MOTIVE FORCE 597
of
potential
between them is
only
1
%
of the whole
drop,
lead
wires from these
points
to
the
potentiometer
and
measure
their
1-2 volts in terms of the standard cell.
Or if
a
large
Current
is
to
be
measured,
it is sent
through
a
standard low
resistance,
say
700
amp.
through a
broad
plate
of
manganin
of -001 ohm resistance. The fall of
potential
between
the ends of this will be -001 of that
over
1
ohm,
i.e.
by
Ohm's
law -001x700= -7 volt
;
wires
are
brought
from the ends of this
low resistance
up
to the
potentiometer,
and the standard cell
supplants
the ammeter
in the measurement
of
current.
The Potentiometer finds further
employment
in the accurate
comparison
of
Resistances,
and
competes successfully
with the
Wheatstone
bridge.
A current is sent
through
the two
resistances
in
series,
and wires from the ends of first
one,
then the
other,
are brought
to
the
potentiometer
;
the ratio of the
readings
obtained is that of the
potentialdrops,
and that is the ratio of
the
two resistances. The resistances
may
be
very
much smaller
than
can
be dealt with
by
the Wheatstone
bridge.
EXAMPLES." CHAPTER LXI
1. How would
you
show deflection of the
compass
needle
by
the
current from
a
Wimshurst and
diverge
the leaves of
an electroscope
by a
voltaic cell ?
[L]m.
2. Two cells
are joined
in series and
give
-044
amp.
through a
resistance. One
being now
reversed
they give
-013
amp.
If
one
has
e.m.f. 1-08 volt calculate that of the
greater. [L]m.
3. What
are
the essential features of
an ammeter and of
a
volt- meter
? How is each connected to the circuit to be tested ?
[L.]
4. Describe
some
form of
potentiometer,
and show how it
may
be
arranged
to
compare
a
small electro-motive force such as
that of
a
thermo-couple
with the electro-motive force of
a
standard cell.
[L.]
5.
Explain
how
you
would calibrate
a low-range
voltmeter
by
means
of
a
potentiometer. [L.]
6. How would
you
use
the
potentiometer
to
measure a large
current
or a high voltage
?
[L.]
CHAPTER LXII
ENERGY AND THERMAL EFFECTS OF CURRENT
THE
great utility
of
Electricity
lies in the
power
it
gives
us
of
doing
work at a
distance. That
is,an electric current carries
Energy.
"
639. It
was
explained
in
"
572 that
to raise
a
Quantity
of
Electricity through
a
Difference of Potential involved the
doing
of
an amount of work
equal
to the
product
of
charge
and
potential
difference. In that
paragraph
the unit of electrical
quantity
was
the electro-staticunit denned in
" 569,
and the unit of
potential
was
such that their
product
was one
erg
of
energy.
Now,
in
Current
Electricity, although
very
different-sized units
are
employed,
the fundamental
relation,
Quantity of electricity
X potential difference,
i.e.
quantity
X
electro-motive
force=Energy,
of
course
stillholds. The
primary
unit of
quantity
is that carried
by
the
decampere
in
one second,
and to raise this
through
the
small unit
potential
difference also denned in
"
597 demands the
expenditure
of
one
erg
of
energy.
[For
if
a
wire carries 1
decamp,
across a
fieldof such
strength
that ifthe wire moved 1
cm.
sideways
it would cut 1 unit
magnetic
line,a
force of 1
dyne
is
acting
upon
itand therefore 1
dynex
1
cm.
=
1
erg
of work would be done in the motion.
Conversely,
if
a
wire moved 1
cm.
and
cut 1 line in 1
sec.,
unit e.m.f. would
be induced in
it,
and ifit
required
1
dyneX
1
cm.
of work to cause
the
motion,
it is
a
logicalnecessity
that 1
decamp,
has been
made to flow in the wire for the
1 sec.
by
this unit electro-motive
force.]
The
practical
unit of
quantity,
the
coulomb,
carried
by
one
ampere
flowing
for
one second,
is
one-tenth,
and the volt is
one
hundred million times the
corresponding primaryelectro-magnetic
unit
;
their
product
is therefore ten million
ergs,
the
Joule
of
"
23.
To drive
one
Coulomb
ofelectricity against
a
potential difference
of
one
Volt
requires
one
Joule
of
work to
be done.
598
THERMAL EFFECTS OF CURRENT
599
Conversely,
when
an
electro-motive
forceamounting
to
one
Volt
between
point
P and
pointQ
in
a
circuit has driven
one
Coulomb
ofelectricity from
P to
Q
one
Joule
of
work has been done.
Whether
any
of this electricalwork has been converted into
useful mechanical work
or
whether it has all been
dissipated
in
heat
depends
on
the nature of the circuit between P and
Q.
An electro-motor in
PQ
could
giveus
most of this
as
mechanical
energy,
a mere
resistance wire converts it at
once
into heat
with
perhaps
a
little
light.
"
640.
To
measure
the
expenditure
of electrical
energy
we
adopt
the
arrangement
of
Fig.
318.
The Ammeter A
measures
the
current
through
PQ,
the watch T
measures
the duration of the current
in
seconds,
AT is the number of
coulombs. The Voltmeter V
applied
from time to time
as a shunt
over
the
points
P
Q measures
the electro- motive
force
or
potential
difference
between
them,
in Volts
;
VAT Joules f work have been
expended
in
PQ,
whether it be
motor,
resistance wire,*lamp, electrolytic
cell,or
whatnot.
Of
course
there is in
practice
a
wide choice of
quantity-
and
pressure-measuring
instruments.
In
experiments
of
high
accuracy
most observers
nowadays
would
probablyemploy
a
'
silver
voltameter,' "
652. for
coulombs,
and
a
potentiometer
and standard cadmium cellfor volts.
Or,
taking
the commonest instance of
all,
the
quantity
of
electricity entering
your
house is measured on
the
spot by
a
meter such
as was
described in
"
613,
the
pressure
is measured at
the Electric
Supply
Station
by
a voltmeter,a
littlelossof
pressure
in the mains is allowed
for,
and
you
are
charged
for the
(coulombs
X volts)
you
'
consume.'
"
641. Your
quarterlyaccount,
however,
contains
no
mention
of either of these
things,
but is reckoned on
the number of
'
Board
of Trade Units
'
(B.T.Units,or simply,Units)
at
a
few
pence
each.
When
you
inquire
of the
engineer
what these
may
be
you
hear
that
they
are
'
Kilowatt-hours.'
*
Recollect that 4*2
joules
of work
are equivalent
to 1 calorie of
heat.
600 A HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS
The Watt is the unit of Power
adopted
in electrical
measure- ments,
i.e. the unit rate of
doing
work. A
power
of
one
Watt
does
one
Joule of work
per
second.
Watts
X
seconds = Joules.
One
horse-power
= 746 watts
;
one
kilowatt = 1000 watts
= about
1^ h.p.
That
is,
the B.T.Unit is the
amount of work done
by
a
li-h.p.engineworking
for
an hour,
and it= 1000
X
joule/second
X
3600
seconds
=3,600,000 joules.
Also Watts = Volts
X
Amperes.
Multiplying together
the
readings
of voltmeter and ammeter in
Fig.
318
gives
the
power
in watts in the circuitat that moment.*
Instruments called Wattmeters
are
sometimes
employed,they
effect this
multiplication automatically.
Their construction is
that of the iron-less
alternating-current
instruments of
"
607
;
the main current
flows in the fixed coil and
produces
a
field
proportional
to
itself
;
the shunt
current,
which is
proportional
to
the
voltage,
traverses
the
moving
coil,
the force
on
which is
therefore
proportional
to
amp
eresx volts,
i.e.to watts.
Thus the Power is the
product
of Volts and
Amperes,
a
large
current at
a
low
voltage
carries
no more
power
than
a
quite
small
current at a high voltage;
1
amp.
from
a
2-volt accumulator
runs a
bicyclelamp,J
amp.
on a
250-volt
supply
runs a
50-c.p.
lamp ;
373
amp.
at 2 volts would be
necessary
to drive the
1-h.p.
motor
that
1J
amp.
drives at 600
volts,
""$" amp.
at
12,000
volts
or
-j^amp.
at the
quitepracticable
60,000
volts.
"
642. Heat produced
in
a
resistance. In the
particular
case
of
PQ.
beingsimply
a
resistance of
some sort
obeying
Ohm's law
we can
find another
expression
for the
energy
expended
in
it,now
in the form of Heat
(incl. light).
For volts=
amperes
x
ohms
.'. Energy
VAT=ARAT=A2RT
joules
which
expresses
Joule's Law that The
dissipation of
energy
as heat
in a
resistance is
proportional
to the
resistance,
the
time,
and the
square
of
the current.
Watts
=
(amperes)
2
X
ohms
Joules
=
(amperes)
2
X
ohms
X
seconds
and since 4-2
joules=lcalorie, " 187,
Heat
produced,
in calories=
(amperes)2
x
ohmsx seconds
H-4
-2.
*
And
dividing
volts
by amperes
gives
the Resistance of
PQ,
"
630.
THERMAL EFFECTS OF CURRENT 601
To test this law
experimentally
an
open
coil of eureka wire
(the
resistance of which does not
appreciablychange
with
temperature)
is
wound,
and its resistance measured. It is im- mersed
in
paraffin
oil in
a calorimeter,
the total
water-equivalent
of which is
known,
and the current from
a
strong battery
of
several cells is sent
through
for
a
definite time. The
cur- rent
is
regulatedby adjustable
resistance and measured
by
an
ammeter.
"
643.
Heating
can
be localized in
a
circuit
by introducing
short
pieces
of
high
resistance,
and this local
heating
is made the
greatestpossible
use
of in
everydayapplications
of
electricity.
'
Hot-wire
'
Ammeters and Voltmeters
are
actuated
by
the
expansion
of
a
fine wire which is heated
by
the current to be
measured,
either continuous
or
alternating.
The wire
sags,
a
thread attached to its middle and wound round the axle of the
pointer
is
pulled
back
by
a
spring,
and the
pointer
moves over
the
scale.
Resistances of coiled iron wire
or ribbon,
used for
regulating
considerable currents
(e.g.
for
startingmotors)
have
to
be well
ventilated. On the other
hand,
electric
car-
and
room-heaters,
ovens,
flat-irons,
warming-pans,
kettles,
saucepans,
etc.
etc.,
are
designed
to make the best
use
of the heat
generated
in
wires,
strips,
or
films of resistance metal
usually
embedded in
insulating
enamel and
formingpart
of their walls.
The
surgeon's
electric
cautery
and the tobacconist's
cigar-
lighter
alike consist of
a
short
piece
of thin
platinum
wire heated
to white-heat
by
the current from
a
few cells.
The electric incandescent
lamp
was at firstalso
a
fine
platinum
wire,
enclosed in
a vacuous
glass
bulb. The
platinum
wire
was
soon
supersededby
a
carbonized
vegetable
fibre which withstood
a
highertemperature
and
being
of
higher
resistance enabled
more
economical
voltages
to be used
(see below). Nowadays
the
carbon filament is obtained
by carbonizing
a
squirted
thread of
chemicallyprepared
cellulose and then
precipitating
a
glossy
coating
of
graphite
on
it
by heating
it to redness in
a
hydro- carbon
vapour.
The
vacuum
in the bulb is made
a
very
good
one.
Carbon filaments
are now
largelysupersededby
exceed- ingly
fine threads of the metals tantalum
or
tungsten ;
the
latter
especially
endures
a
much
highertemperature
than
can
the carbon
thread,
and is therefore
a
three times
more
efficient
lightgiver("501).
602 A HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS
Incandescent
lamps
as
bought
are
marked
to take
(A)
amperes
and
give(C)candle-power
at
voltage(V)
of the mains. This
means
that
striking
a
balance between cost of
power
and cost of renewals
the best
economy
will be obtained
by using
that
particular
voltage.
The
power
consumption,
in
'
Watts
per
candle
'
VA/C,
is too
great
at lower
voltages,
for the
lamp
may
then
carry
quite
half
the current and be
only
dull red hot
;
it diminishes
rapidly
as
the
voltage
is
increased,
but the lifeof the
lamp
shortens faster. The
candle-power
of
a
carbon
lamp
is
proportional
to
nearly
the sixth
power
of the
voltage,
but the metal
filament,
whose resistance
rises with
temperature
instead of
decreasing,
is less
affected;
a
tungsten lamp
will stand double
voltage
for
a
minute
or
two
with
apparent impunity
while the carbon
lamp
has become the
blackened remnant of
a
glorious
firework.
Lamps
are
alwaysarranged
in
parallel
between the mains and
the
highestcandle-powerlamps
have the lowest resistances
;
for
V
beingconstant,
A is
inversely
as R,
halving
R doubles
A,
the
heat
production
A2R is doubled. Or
simply,
A is
proportional
to the
conductance,
and
so
therefore isVA the
power
consumed.
The
hightemperature
necessary
for efficient
luminosity("500)
and
consequently
the intense radiation
("496)
means
that much
energy
must be
dissipated
per square
millimetre of
radiating
surface.
The
same
resistance is offered
by
a
wire -06
mm.
diam.
and 4
m.
long
and
by
a
wire -03
mm.
and 1
m.
long,
but the former
has 8 times the
radiating
surface and will
hardlyglow
with
a
current that raises the latter to the brilliance of the
tungsten
lamp.
This is
a
230-volt
32-c.p.lamp ;
it is the finest filament
the
lamp-makers
had succeeded in
producing
in 1911.
Suppose
they attempt
a
16
c.
p.
-lamp
at the
same
voltage
:
it is
no use
shortening
the
filament,
for that reduces its
resistance,
A2R
increases and
so
do
temperature
and
candle-power
:
it is
no use
lengthening
the
filament,
for that diminishes A2R and
temperature
and isruinous to
efficiency.
That is
why
the
more
resistantcarbon
stillholds its
own
in
high-voltage lamps
of small
candle-power.
The Electric Furnace is
a
troughpacked
at start with
a
poorly
conducting
mixture of
coke,
ore,
etc. Several hundred volts is
applied
between carbon blocks at the
ends,
current
starts,
warms
the
mass
and increases its conductance
;
VA
rapidly
increases,
and
partlyby
pure
resistance,
partlyby
arc formation,
the whole
contents are
presentlyboiling
somewhere between 2000" and
3500" C. Such furnaces
are
coming
into commercial
use
in steel-
604 A HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS
it is
only
an
insignificant
addition to 5500 volts" lessthan 1
%
"
only
40
x
20=800 watts = about 1
h.p.
is
now
wasted in the mains.
Thus the
economy
of transmission
improves
about
proportionally
to the
voltage.Long-distance
transmissions
are
working
at
120,000 volts,
but
now
the
engineer
is confronted with the
new
and serious
difficulty
that at these
pressures
electricity begins
to
leak into the air around his overhead line.
"
645. The
heating
effect above described isthe
same
whatever
the direction of the
current,
it is the result of the Motional
drag
that
we
call electricalresistance. In fact the resistance in ohms
might
be defined
as
the
dissipation
of
energy
in
joules
per
second
when 1
amp.
is
passingthrough
the conductor.
There
are
other
effects,
to
which the title
Thermo-Electric
is
usually
reserved,
which
are reversible, depending
on
the direction
of the
current,
and
are not at all of the nature of
a
frictional
drag,
for
they
may
produce
active electro-motive force.
Peltier discovered in 1834 that when
a current was
sent
through
the
junction
of two different
metals,
there
was a
local
heating
quite
distinctfrom the Joule
heating,
for it did not
depend
on
the
cross-section of the
conductor,
but
only
on
the
current,
to which
it
was
directly proportional (not
to
C2).
And
further,
when
the
current
was reversed,
there
was a local
cooling
in
place
of
the
heating.
In the first
case
the current
evidently
has to
leave
a
proportion
of its
energy
at the
place
where it enters
the second metal,
in
the second case
heat-energy
is returned to
the current at the
place
where it returns to the firstmetal. It is
as
if there
were a
very
small difference of
potential
between the metals
:
the
current has to climb
against
this and lose electric
energy
in the
one
case,
in the other it is assisted
by
it.
It is therefore to be
expected
that if
we
kept
on
supplying
heat
from without to the
junction
from which the current
abstracts
heat,
and if
we
arranged
to take
away
the heat it evolves at
the
other
junction,
we
mightkeep
a
current
goingby
this
means
alone.
And this tallieswith Seebeck's
experimentaldiscovery
in 1821
that if in
a circuit
composed
of two
different metals
one
of the
junctions
is heated and the other
kept
cold an
electriccurrent is
caused to flow round the circuit.
This thermo-electric current is
usually
very
small,
but
by
reducing
the resistance of the circuit it
may
become
pretty
large.
An old demonstration
apparatus
consisted of
a
flat horizontal
bar of bismuth a
few inches
long,
with
a
fairlylargecompass
THERMAL EFFECTS OF CURRENT
605
needle
pivoted
on
its middle. A stout
copper
strap
arched
over
the needle and had its ends soldered to those of the bismuth bar.
When
one soldering
was
heated
by
a
match the
compass
needle
deflected
showing
the circulation of
a current which
went from
bismuth to
copper
at the
'
hot
junction.'
Or
a
piece
of ice
on one
end
produced
a
current from
copper
to bismuth at the
*
cold
junction.'
In
an
ordinary
circuit thermo-
junctions
can
easily
be made
by putting
in
a
length
of iron wire with its ends twisted
or
soldered to
the
copper
wire,one can
be
kept
in
boiling
water,
and then
inserting
different resistances the feeble
current will
be found
inverselyproportional
to
them,
i.e. it is
a constant
Electro-motive Force that is
beingproduced
in the circuit.
This thermo-electro-motive force
depends
on
the metals in
contact. Of
common
metals bismuth and
type-metal(lead
containing antimony)
are
most
effective,
ifthe
junctions
are
at 0"
and 100" C.
theyproduce
an
e.m.f. of about -01 volt.
Copper
and
iron
give
about
"
as much,
copper
and eureka -0037 volt. Between
copper
and
lead, solder,
mercury,
and
platinum
the thermo-
electro-motive force is
very
small
;
between
copper,
phosphor-
bronze,
and
manganin
it is
practically
nil. At the hot
junction
the current flows from bismuth
or
eureka to
copper
or
lead.
The e.m.f. is not
simply proportional
to the difference of
temperature
of the
junctions,
the connection between them is
parabolic,
the e.m.f.
may
be likened to the
height
above the
ground
of
a
thrown stone and the difference of
temperature
to
the horizontal distance it has travelled.
Immediately
after
leaving
the hand the stone's
path
is
nearlystraight,
its rise is
proportional
to its distance.
Many pairs
of metals
never
get
beyond
this
condition,
their thermo-electro-motive force is
practically proportional
to
the difference in
temperature.
Such
are
bismuth and lead until
they
melt,
copper
and eureka to 800" C.
Later the stone
ceases
to rise
;
copper-irons
at 0" and 137" attain
a
maximum e.m.f.
Ultimately
the stone falls to the
starting
level and
quickly
passes
below
it,
if
possible
"
heating
the
copper-ironjunction
above 275"
reverses
the current and sends it from iron to
copper.
This is
easily
shown
by attaching
iron and
copper
wires to
an
ordinary
sensitive
galvanometer,twisting
their ends
together
and
heating
them with
a
match
;
the needle
swingsgently
to the
left,
returns to
zero,
and
swings
wide to the
right.
Thermo-electric
junctions
are now
extensively
used
as
ther-
606 A HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS
mometers and
pyrometers ;
copper
and eureka
up
to
800",
platinum
and
platinum-rhodiumalloy
up
to 1600" C. All that is
necessary
is
a
couple
of thin wires welded
together
at their
points
and enclosed in
a
littletube
sheath,
insulated flexible
leads,
and
a
sensitive voltmeter
graduatedby
trial and calculation
to read
temperatures
direct.
The thermo-electric contrivances
employed
in
studying
radia- tion
have been described in
"
495.
The
experimentFig.
319 illustrates both the Peltier and See-
beck effects."
To both ends of two steel
knittingpins
are
soldered
copper
wires,
the
pins
are
laid side
by
side
separated
by
thin silk and
wrapped
up
together.
The
wires from
one
pin
go
to
a
reflecting galvano- meter,
those from the other to a
battery
which sends
a
few
amperes
through.
The
'
Joule effect
'
warms
the whole
pinuniformly,
the
'
Peltier effect
'
warms one
end and tends
to cool the
other,
heat
passes
through
the
FIG. 319.
sjik at Different
rates at the
two ends,
the
junctions
on
the first
pin
are
warmed to different
temperatures
and
a
feeble current
soon
begins
to
show in the
galvanometer.
A third small thermo-electric action is the
'
Thomson effect.'
Electricity
and heat both
flowing
in
a
metal bar interfere with
each other to a
slight
extent.
In
copper
and most metals elec- tricity
flowing
from
a
hot
part
to a
cold assists the flow of
heat,
but in iron it retards the flow and
exaggerates
differences of
temperature.
EXAMPLES." CHAPTER LXII
1.
Distinguish clearly
between
quantity
of
electricity
and
quantity
of electrical
energy.
What current transmits 1000
horse-power
at 500
volts,
and what fall of volts will
occur
in the -01
ohm mains ?
[L.]
2. A metal
cylinder
is
kept spinning
with uniform
angular velocity
w'
between the
poles
of
an electro-magnet,
the axis of rotation
being
perpendicular
to the
magnetic
force
(H).
Show that the work
per
second
required
to maintain the rotation is
proportional
to H2w'2.
[L.]
3. How would
you
find the watts
per
candle
requiredby
an
incan- descent
electric
lamp
?
[L.]
THERMAL EFFECTS OF CURRENT 607
4. A carbon-filament
glow lamp
carries -3
amp.
at 200 volts and
gives
16
candle-power,
a tantalum
lamp
carries -3
amp.
at 100 volts
and
gives
21
candle-power,
a Nernst
lamp
carries -25
amp.
at 240 volts
and
gives
32
candle-power. Compare
the
working
efficiencies of these
three
lamps. [L]m.
5. Prove
theoretically
that amount of heat
produced by
a cur- rent
is
proportional
to
(1) square
of the
current, (2)
resistance
through
which the current
passes,
(3)
time.
[L.]
6. Describe
a
frictional and an
electrical method for
measuring
Joule's
Equivalent,explaining
how to calculate out.
[M.]
7. How can
you
concentrate the heat
production
into
a
small
portion
of the circuit ?
[L]m.
8. State laws of
production
of heat in electrical circuit. How
prove
them ?
Compare
calories
produced
per
second in A of 20 ohms
with 30 volts over ends,
and in B of 30 ohms
carrying
15
amp.
[M.]
9. State Joule's law of
heating by
an
electric
current,
and deduce
it from the
principles
of
energy.
An incandescent
lamp
receives
" amp.
from
a
dynamo.
If the
voltage
between the
dynamo
terminals is 111
and between the
lamp
terminals 110,
find rate of
consumption
of
energy
(1)
in
lamp, (2)
in leads.
[L.]
10. If two wires
are
in
parallel
prove
that more
heat is
developed
in
the thicker wire. Consider the filaments of
lamps
of different
c.p.
[L]m.
11. Two wires of the same material,
but of different
lengths
and
diameters, are
joined
in
parallel
and connected to a
battery
so
that
they are
heated to
a
high temperature.
What must be the relation
between the
lengths
and diameters in order that the two wires
may
have the same
temperature
?
[L.]
12. State Joule's law for heat
produced
in a
circuit and
explain
its
connection with Ohm's law. Three
equal
conductors are
put
in a circuit
carrying
a fixed current
(a)
in series,(b)
in
parallel,
compare
heat
produced. [Ab.]
13. How would
you prove
experimentally
that the heat
produced
in
a wire is
proportional
to the
square
of the current.
Explain
how to
determine the resistance of a wire in
electro-magnetic
units with the
aid of
a standard ammeter.
[L.]
14. A
batterysupplies
250 incandescent
lamps
in
parallel,
resistance
of each 300 ohms. If
voltage
between the
lamp
terminals is
120,
but
rises to 122 when 100
lamps
are
switched off
,
calculate internal resist- ance
of
battery plus
leads. Also find watts absorbed
by
each
lamp
in the first case.
[L.]
15. If
a
14-c.p.lamp
uses
4-2 watts
per
candle,
in how
long
will it
heat a litre of water 10" C. ?
[L]m.
16. A
copper
wire -02 cm.
diam.
carrying
1
amp.
reaches a
steady
temperature
100" C. If its
resistivity
is 2-1 x
10-" and J = 4-2xl07,
calculate the
Emissivity
of
a
copper
surface at 100".
17. On
passing
1
amp.
through
a
platinum wire,
its
temperature
rises 10" C. above
surrounding objects,
which
are at 0" C.
Assuming
rata of loss of heat
proportional
to difference of
temperature,
calculate
608
A HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS
temperature
of wire when 2
amp.
is
passed. Temperature
coefficient of
resistance of wire 0-004. [L.]
18.
Lamps aggregating
1 ohm resistance
are supplied through
leads
of 0-02 ohm from
a source
at 51 volts. The voltage
is
subsequently
raised to 250 and the lamps replaced by high- voltage lamps consuming
the
same
total
energy.
Calculate the
saving
per
thousand hours at
fourpence
per
kilowatt hour. [L.]
19.
Why are
high potential
currents usually employed
in trans- mitting
electrical
energy
to
a
distance ? Explain
the
use
of trans- formers
in such
cases,
and
point
out the
sources
of waste
of
energy.
[L.]
20.
Explain a thermopile
and how to
use
it to find the quantities
of
heat emitted
by
two hot bodies. [L.]
CHAPTER LXIII
THE PASSAGE OF ELECTRICITY THROUGH
LIQUIDS
"
646. When
an
electric current
passes
through
a
liquid
(notbeing
a molten
metal),
chemical
changes
are
observable at
the
places
where it
enters and leaves the
liquid.
These
changes
began
to be studied
just
over a
century
ago.
In 1800 Carlisleand
Nicholson
decomposed
water into
oxygen
and
hydrogen,
in 1801
Wollaston
deposited
copper
and silver
on
baser metals and laid
the foundation of the art of
electro-plating,
in 1807
Davy
decomposed
moist caustic soda and
potash
and discovered
the metals sodium and
potassium. Subsequently
the
subject
was taken
up
by Faraday
and he introduced various
terms now
employed
in it. The chemical
decomposition
he called
Electrolysis
(Auorw,
A
vao",
unloose),
the
conducting
substance the electro- lyte,
the
platesleading
the current
in and out are
the
electrodes
(6805,
a
threshold),
the
enteringplate
the anode
("va,up),
the
leaving plate
the cathode
(Kara,
down
from).
"
647. The
commonly accepted
Ionic
Theory
affords the
easiest
explanation
of most of the observed facts of
Electrolysis
and
may
as
well be introduced at once.
"
In
a
solution that
can conduct
electricity
some
of the molecules
of dissolved substance
are
alreadysplit
into constituent
'
radicles/
e.g.
HC1 into H and
01,
CuS04
into Cu and
S04, Na2S04
into
Na, Na,
S04,
etc.
Support
is lent to this view
by
the
nearly
doubled
or
trebled osmotic
pressure,
boiling-point
rise,or
freezing-
pointdepression
observed with
conducting
solutions
(cf.Chapter
XXIX).
That
these half-molecules do not
immediately
act
on
the solvent water as
would be
expected(e.g.
Na to form
NaHO and
hydrogen)
is
explainedby
their
carryingcharges
of
electricity
which in
some
way
prevent
chemical action" in all
probability
chemical action is
an
electric
process.
Characteristi- cally
hydrogen
and the metals
carry
-}-charges,
and
-01,
-S04,
-Fe(CN)6,etc.,
"
charges.
39
609
610 A HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS
When
charged
electrodes
are
dipped
into the
liquid
the
oppo- sitely
charged
radicles" Ions
(wanderers, 'rjtov, going)
"
very
slowly
travel to them and
give
up
their
charges;
the
negatively
charged
anion
going
up
to the
higherpotential
anode,
the
posi- tively
charged
cation
going
down stream to the cathode. Thus
the electric current
passes
through
the
liquidby
a
sort of
con- vection,
but the
liquid
itselfdoes not
move, only
the free ions in it.
Having given
up
their
charges
to anode and cathode the ions
are now
in the usual condition of free chemical
substances,or
rather in the
'
nascent
'
state,
and
produce
a
variety
of effects
according
as
they
are
chemicallyincapable
or
capable
of attack- ing
the materials in the
liquid
or
the electrodes."
"
648.
Examples
of
Electrolysiswith
no secondary
actions.
For the
experiments
which follow the wires from
a
battery
of
two or more
strong
voltaic cells should be twisted round the
ends of two
pieces
of
arc-lamp
carbon,
the lower ends of which will
serve as
unalterable electrodes.
Dipping
the electrodes into a beaker of
strong hydrochloric
acid,
streams of fine
gas-bubbles
arise from each.
Collecting
the
gases
in inverted tubes in the usual
way,
the
gas
from the cathode
is
light
and inflammable
hydrogen,
the colour and odour of the
+
anode
gas
are
those of chlorine
;
HC1 has
split
into ions H and Cl
which have
given
up
their
charges
to the " and
-f
electrodes
respectively
and become free
gases.
Dipping
the electrodes into
a crucible of fused lithium chloride
the
choking
smell of chlorine arises and the cathode when
withdrawn shows little
shiningglobules
of metallic lithium
;
LiCl^Li+Cl.
Aluminium is
commerciallyproducedby similarly electrolysing
aluminium
hydroxide
dissolved in melted aluminium
fluoride,
aluminium
appears
at the
cathode, steam and
oxygen
rise from
the anode.
2A1(HO)3=2A1+3H20+30.
"
649. Examples
of
electrolysisaccompanied by secondary
actions on the
liquid.
With less concentrated
hydrochloric
acid the anode
gas
is less
in
quantity
and less
coloured,
and after
standing
some
time
over
water leaves
an
insoluble residue
answering
to the usual test
for
oxygen
;
the
'
nascent
'
chlorine has attacked the solvent
water to re-form acid and drive out
oxygen.
612 A HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS
"650. Examples of
electrolysisaccompanied by secondary
action
on
the electrodes.
In
electrolysing hydrochloricacid,
using pieces
of
platinum
foil
as electrodes,
the chlorine at the anode
not
only
attacks
water to set free
oxygen,
but also dissolves the anode to form the
orange
solution of
PtCl4.2HCl.
In
electrolysing
copper
sulphate
between
copper
plates,
pure
copper
is
depositedas
before
on
the
cathode,
but
now the
'
sul-
phions
'
at the anode almost
exclusively
attack
copper
instead
of
water,
the anode loses
weight
as
fast
as
the cathode
gains;
or
rather
faster,
because the
impurities
in itsmetal also fall
away.
This
electro-deposited layer
of
copper
is used in almost all
good
Electro-Plating
as a foundation for
subsequentlayers
of
nickel,
silver,or
gold.
In
Electro-Typing
the
medal,
engraved
wood- block,
etc.,
is first brushed
over
with
a
thin
conducting
coat of
blacklead and is made the
cathode,
deposition
takes
place
on
this
and is continued to
a
considerable thickness. Model and mould
are
separated,
and ifmuch
printing
isto be done from the
copper
block
a
thin hard film of iron is
now
deposited
on
itsface from
an
iron-
sulphate
bath.
Copper
for electrical
purposes
is
usually
refined
electrolytically,
as
the
impurities
of the anode
ingot,
whether
they
fall
away
or
dissolve in the
liquid,
do not
get deposited
on
the
cathode. The latter is sometimes
a
largerevolvingcylinder,
and
the
deposit
on
it is
kept
uniform and free from
liquid
inclusions
by
the action of mechanical burnishers
;
when thick
enough
it is
marked
by
a
cutting
wheel and torn off
as a
rough
square
wire
requiring
but little
subsequentwire-drawing.
Silver
plating
is done in
a
bath of
a
so-called double
cyanide
of
potassium
and
silver,more
accuratelypotassium argenti-
cyanideKAgCy2.
This
splits
into cation K and anion
AgCy2.
At the cathode the
potassium
atom attacks the solution
thus,
K+KAgCy2=2KCy+Ag
and
by
this action the silver is
deposited
in
a smooth
layer
(whereasdirectlydeposited
from silver-nitrate
solution it is in
separate granularcrystals).
At the anode the
AgCy2
attacks
the
ever-present
excess
of
potassiumcyanide
and the silver anode
plate
itself,
and re-forms the
argenti-cyanide :
"
AgCy2+2KCy+Ag=2KAgCy2.
Gilding
is
similarly
done from a
gold-cyanide
bath.
ELECTRICITY THROUGH
LIQUIDS
613
"
651.
Faraday
enunciated the
quantitative
Laws of Electro- lysis.
Having
firstsatisfied himself that the current
was
the
same
all round the
circuit,
he discovered and stated "
Law I. The amount
of
chemical action
takingplace
in
one
and
the
same
electrolyte,
as
measured
by
the
mass
of
some
particular
constituent set
free,
is
proportional
to the
quantityof electricity
passefa ffarmigh^
measured
elecjtfo^wwneti"dlii
\as
in
" 612].
This is to be
provedby comparing
the
weights
of
copper,
for
instance,
deposited
on
the cathode when the ammeter
reads
1
amp.
for 60 min.
or
3
amp.
for 20
min.,
they
should be the
same
;
or
by comparing
the volumes of
hydrogen
or
oxygen
given
off from dilute acid
by
different currents. On this law is
based the
use
of the Voltameters described below for
measuring
the total
quantity
of
electricity
carried
throughby
any
current,
however variable.
The
mass
of
a
substance set
freeby
one
coulomb
ofelectricity
is
called the Electro-Chemical
Equivalent
of the substance.
That of
hydrogen
is -00001035
grm.,
of silver -001118
grm.,
of
copper
from blue
copper
sulphate
-000328
grm.
Law II. The
mass
of
an
element set
freeby
the
passage
of
a
given
quantityof electricity
is
proportional
to its chemical
Combining
Weight
in the
compound beingelectrolysed.
To
investigate this,
voltameters
(seebelow)containing
solutions
of dilute acid
or alkali,
of
copper
sulphate,
ferrous
sulphate,
ferric
chloride,
silver
nitrate,
gold cyanide,platinum
chloride,
etc.,
are
connected in series and
a
current
passed,necessarily conveying
the
same
quantity
of
electricity through
each.
Calculating
the
weights
of the volumes of
hydrogen
and
oxygen
collected,
and
weighing
the various cathode
deposits, they
will be found in the
ratio,
hydrogen1,
oxygen
8,
copper
31-5,
iron from
green
sulphate
28,
iron from
yellow
solution
18-3,
silver
108,gold66,platinum
49,
etc. These
are
the
same
proportionalweights
that
ordinary
chemical
analysis
shows
capable
of
combining
with
or of
replacing
unit
weight
of
hydrogen.
Notice at
once
the
completely
different
meanings
of Electro- chemical
equivalent
and Chemical
combining weight (sometimes
called
chemical
equivalent weight}.
But notice also their
pro- portionality.
Notice
further,
their
possible
variation,
in the
case
of
some substances,
between
different classes of
compounds ;
iron would be
deposited
with
greater
economy
of current
from
green
saltsthan from
yellow
:
the chemist knows how to
explain
614 A HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS
this
on
the Atomic
Theory,
but be careful not to confuse the
CombiningWeight
disclosed
by analysis
with the Atomic
Weight
derived
by
the
subsequent application
of
theory(thoughprobably
you
will
nowadaysactually
recollectthe latterand
get
the former
by dividing by
the
valency).
"
652. The utilizationof
Faraday's
firstlaw of
electrolysis
for
the measurement of
quantities
of
electricity
proves
extremely
convenient in
practice.
The
electrolytic
cellsused for the
purpose
are
called
Voltameters,or
sometimes
Coulometers,
and
many
varietiesof them have been devised.
The oldest
pattern
of Gas Voltameter resembles
Fig.
320
;
there
are
two electrodes of
platinum
foilimmersed in weak sul- phuric
acid,
the
leading
wires
are
covered with
waterproof
insula-
FIG. 320. FIG. 321. FIG. 322. FIG. 323.
tion.
Rising
above each is
a
glass
tube
graduated
in cubic
centimetres
;
the
hydrogenrising
into the cathode tube and the
oxygen
into the anode tube
displace
the
liquid
with which both
are
filledat first. Another
pattern,
easy
to refill,
is shown in
Fig.
321,
in iteither
hydrogen
or
oxygen
can
be collected
according
to direction of
current,hydrogenpreferably
because the volume
of
oxygen
is
apt
to be
unduly
diminished
by
its
greatersolubility
in water and
by
its
partial
ozonization.
The
Mixed-gas
Voltameter,
Fig.
322,
is
a small
jarprovided
with
an
air-tight bung
and
leading
tube and
containing
caustic-
soda solution in which
dip
two
large
electrodes of sheet nickel.
The action
can
be
represented
"
2H20+
/
Na
I
HO
\
H2off+2NaHO"-\Na
HOJ -"
HgO-fOofi
The nickel
plates
are
not
attacked,
and the
oxygen
is free from
ELECTRICITY THROUGH
LIQUIDS
615
ozone.
The mixed
gases
are collected in
a
graduated
tube
over
water
; they
are
of course
explosive.
An instance of the Calculation
necessary
with
gas
voltameters
has been
given
in
"
205. It remains
only
to
point
out that since
1 coulomb liberates the electro-chemical
equivalent
-00001035
grm.
of
hydrogen,
the
weight
-00541
grin,
there calculated
indicates the
passage
of
-00541/-00001035=
522-5 coulombs.
(If
this
were collected in 240
sec.
during
which the current
was
keptsteadyby galvanometer,
that would indicate
522-5/240
=2-18
amp.,
etc.)
[NOTE.
"
Roughly
1 coulomb
produces
-*-
c.c.
of
hydrogen.]
The
mixed-gas
voltameter is
occasionally
used
as a
house
meter for electric
supply
;
instead of
catching
the
gases
the fall
of level in
a
graduated
tube
as
the water is
electrolysed
away
is
used
as the
measure
of
quantity.
The
Copper Voltameter,
Fig.
323,
consists of
a
small tank of
fairlystrong
blue solution of
copper
sulphateslightly
acidified
with
sulphuric
acid
;
in it
dip
a
couple
of anode
plates
of sheet
copper
and between them
a
thin removable cathode
plate.
The
latter is
scoured,rinsed,dried,
and
weighed
at the
start,
and
rinsed,dried,
and
weighed
at the
finish,
the
grammes
gain
in
weight
divided
by
-000328 = coulombs
passed.
The
copper
voltameter is
very
largely
used for commercial
testing
purposes,
it has the
objection
that the acid
liquid
attacks the
newly
de- posited
copper
to a
minute extent
depending
on
temperature,
concentration,
time and
area
of
contact,
but tabulated correction
for this is
easily
made and the results
can
be relied
upon
to
" %.
In
a
'
prepayment
meter
'
the insertion of
a
coin enabled a
definite
length
of thin
copper
sheet to be unrolled
so as to
dip
into the
liquid
where
as
anode it
was
gradually
eaten
away.
The
Wright
house meter
electrolyses
mercurous
- nitrate
solution between
a
pool
of
mercury
and
a
metal
thimble,
the
mercury
globulesdrop
from the thimble into
a
graduated
tube
whence
they periodically siphon
over
into
a
second
wider
graduated
tube. The whole is
hermetically
sealed and is reset
for
use
by inverting
itfor
a
moment,
when the
mercury
runs
back
into the
pool.
The Silver Voltameter is the most accurate that
we
possess,
being
reliableunder
prescribed
conditions to
one
part
in
10,000.
A
platinum
bowl cleaned with nitric
acid,
dried and
weighed,
holds about
an ounce
of
a
10 to 20
%
neutral solution of silver
nitrate,
in which is
suspendedhorizontally
an
anode of
pure
silver
616 A HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS
plate
the size of
a
half-crown. The anode is
wrapped
in filter-
paper
to
prevent
any
specks
of
a black
powder
which
usually
appears
on
it from
falling
into the bowl. The silver is
deposited
in streaks of little
granules
on
the
platinum
and is well rinsed
with
warm
distilled water before
drying
and
weighing
the bowl.
"001118
grin,
of silver is taken in international
practice
as
the
deposit
for 1 coulomb.
A
way,
that will
appeal
to the
chemist,
of
measuring
small
quantities,
is to
electrolyse potassium
iodide between
platinum
electrodes and titrate the iodine with
thiosulphate.
Figs.322,
323
represent
the
arrangement
of
an
experiment
on
Law
II,
for
comparing
the electro-chemical
equivalents
of
hydro- gen
and
copper,
and
so
determining
the latter's
combining
weight.
The reader will
easily
see that
1/-00001035=96,600
coulombs
deposit
the
combiningweight
in
grammes
of
any
substance.
"
653.
Electrolytic
Polarization.
In the
gas
voltameter we start
with
a
couple
of
plates
of
platinum
immersed in weak acid. As
soon as
electrolysis begins
one
of these
platesgets
covered with
oxygen
and the other with
hydrogen,
and
we
have
now
virtually
a
plate
of
oxygen
and
a
plate
of
hydrogendipping
in the
liquid,
both of them in
a
very
active chemical
condition,
e.g.
the
oxygen
is
probablyendeavouring
to
oxidize
H20
into
H202.
Now if
chemical action is electrical in character it is
surelyprobable
that
very
different electro-motive forces
may
arise
locally
at these
two
plates
and either assist
or
impede
the
passage
of current
through
the cell
(togetherthey
will
impede
it
or we
might get
a
perpetualmotion).
And this is
actiAlly
found to be the
case,
a
1-1-volt Daniell cell is
quite
unable to drive
a current
through
a
water voltameter
;
no
gas appears
on
the
electrodes,
but
we
know
the
power
platinum
possesses
of
occluding
gases,
and the merest
traces
of them suffice to
polarize
the
electrolytic
cell. Even
a
2-volt accumulator
can
scarcely produce
a
visible
bubble,
whereas
with two accumulators in series the
decomposition
goes
on
merrily.
This back electro-motive force of
Electrolytic
Polarization
is
easily
observed
directly ; by
a
two-way
switch the
battery
is
thrown out of the voltameter circuit and
a
galvanometerput
in,
a
strong
deflection
lasting
several seconds is obtained while the
polarizing
gases pass
back into the solution
as
charged
ions
again;
with
largeplates
there is
no
difficulty
in
ringing
an
electricbell.
ELECTRICITY THROUGH
LIQUIDS
617
"
654. The
Capillary
Electrometer affords an
instance of
polarization put
to
practical
use.
In
a
simplepattern,
Fig.
324,
a
slightly slopingcapillary
tube
joins
two littlereservoirs. That at the lower
end is
partly
filledwith
mercury
which
also rises
up
the
capillary,
but not to
the full
level,
for it is held down as
in
"
252
by
the surface tension in the
meniscus
separating
it from the weak
-plG
sulphuric
acid in the rest of the tube
and second reservoir. At the bottom of this latter is
a
broad
pool
of
mercury
;
wires are
connected to both lots of
mercury.
When
a
fraction of a
volt is
applied
between these
wires,so as
to tend to drive
a current in the
capillary
from acid to
mercury,
the meniscus surface of
course
polarizes
and
stops
it. But the
polarization
increases the
surface
tension and drives the
mercury
farther down the
capillary
tube,
past
-a
scale which
can
be
gradu- ated
either
by preliminary
trials with known fractions of a
volt
or
by
calculation from the known
parabolic
relation between
potential
difference and tension at
a
mercury-acid
surface.
Thus the instrument is
a
sensitive electrometer
or
voltmeter
for
anything
below -9 volt,
unlike
a
voltmeter it takes
no
current,
unlike
a
quadrant
electrometer it is
easy
to
make and
manage,
and it finds much favour in
physiological
work. At
higher
voltageshydrogen
bubbles form.
"
655.
A
curiouslyexaggerated
sort of
polarization
occurs
with aluminium electrodes and is utilized for
'
rectifying
'
alternating current,
i.e.
stopping
out the back flow and trans- mitting
only
the direct rushes of
current,
so
that accumulators
may
be
charged,
etc.
The
Rectifier is
simply
a
lead
plate
and an
aluminium rod in
a
jar
of
1%
sodium
phosphate
solution
;
when
the aluminium is cathode the 1 volt back e.m.f
.
of
hydrogen
upon
itis
easily overcome
by
the 20 to 100 volts in the
mains,
but when
reversed current makes it anode it is
instantly overspreadby
a
non-conducting
oxide
film,
of
exceeding
thinness,
but
quite
capable
of
preventing
current
being
driven
back, even
by
100 volts.
"
656.
Suppose
that
we
could accumulate much
larger
quan- tities
of
oxygen
and
hydrogen
on
the
plates
of
our
electrolytic
cell,
the
polarization
e.m.f. would drive
a
current for
us
for
quite
a
useful
length
of time.
Something
towards this
may
be done
by
coating
the electrodes with
platinum
black,
which has
a
great
618 A HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS
power
of
occluding
gases,
but
nothing
of
practical
value. To
store
adequatequantities
we
shall have
to
get
them into
some
easilydecomposed
chemical
combinations,
liquid
or
solid. Now
the monoxide of lead is
a
substance
very
readily
reducible to
metallic lead
by
the action of
hydrogen,
and
quiteeasily
oxi-
dizable to
higher
oxides
(red
lead and brown
peroxide).
And lead
is
only
too
ready
to re-form its
monoxide,
while the
peroxide
is
a
very
active
oxidizing agent
used in
safety
matches
:
here then is
the
very
material for
our
purpose.
The
Accumulator or Storage Battery
has two
(or
two sets
of)
plates
which,
whatever substances the maker chose
to
employ
in
their
manufacture, are
after the
preliminaryelectrolysis
of
sulphuric
acid
(sp.
gr.
1-2)
between
them,
composed
the
one
of
porous
lead and the other of
porous
lead
peroxide.
When these
are
joinedby
a
wire
circuit,current flows from the brown
per- oxide
'
positive
'
platethrough
the wire to the
grey
lead
'
negative
'
plate,
for in the
liquid
the
following
process
is
takingplace
"
grey
Pb"-S04
=PbS04
H9
-"
0 iPbO brown
+H2S04=PbS04-fH20
with the ultimate result that both the
plates
have all their active
surfaces converted into
sulphate
of lead while the acid becomes
diluted to
sp.
gr.
1-18. Chemical action and current now cease
of
course
;
the accumulator has been
discharged.
It is
recharged
by againelectrolysing
the acid
by
a
current driven
through
in the
opposite
direction,so as
to
carry
hydrogen
ions to
the
grey
plate
and reduce it
to lead and
oxidizing
ions to the other
plate
to
reconvert it into
peroxide
thus "
Pb
.... ._ "._ .
+2H80=PbOa+2H2S04
while the acid
regains
its
'
full
charge
'
gravity
1-2.
"
657. The earliest accumulators
were laboriously
'
formed
'
up
from two sheets of lead
by charging,discharging,
and
re
chargingoppositely,
over
and
over again,
so as
to corrode th"
surfaces
deeply
and
get
a
fair amount of
porous
active substance
Some
positive plates
of
lead,
cast with multitudes of
narrow
and
deep
grooves
to
increase the
surface,are
still
'
formed
'
in this
way,
but most
positive plates
are
constructed
by packing
a
paste
made from red lead and nitric acid into the meshes of
a
leaden
grid,
while
negativeplates
are
packed
with lead
powder;
the
i
620 A HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS
loose end
quickly
across
the other terminal "
a
snappy
sputtering
spark
means
all is
well,
reject
a
weak
sparker.
Strike
quick,
or
you
will burn
your
fingers
and
may
damage
the
battery,
for
an
accumulator's internal resistance is
very
small and hence
on
short-circuit it sends a current so
large
as
to
speedily
ruin the
plates.
I write this with
some
feeling,
and left-handed
; lately
an accumulator's failure broke
my
arm
;
on
subsequent
test it
satisfiedthe
voltmeter,
but its
spark
was
feeble.
The Edison accumulator has
a
negativeplatepacked
with
spongy
iron and
a
positive
of
electrolytic peroxide
of
nickel,
the
electrolyte
is caustic-soda solution. Its e.m.f. is
only
1-5 volt
per
watt-hour,
it is
scarcelylighter
than
a
lead
battery,
but is
said to withstand
rougher
treatment.
"
658.
Primary
Batteries
produce
currents as soon as
they
are
put together,
without
any
previous
'
charging
with
electricity.'
The earliest
was
the invention of Volta
(whence primary
batteries
are
often called Voltaic
Cells)
about 1796
;
it consisted
of
a
plate
of zinc and
a
plate
of
copper
dipping
in salt water
or
weak acid. The zinc
dissolves,
tiny
bubbles of
hydrogen
overspread
the
copper,
and
a
charm
compass
shows the
passage
of
a current from
copper
to zinc
along
a
wire
joining
them outside
the
liquid.
The action
may
be described in this
way
:
" Both the metals
tend to send out
positivelycharged
ions of themselves " to
evaporate
so
to
speak
into the
liquid
"
up
to a
definite
'
solution
pressure,'
like
a saturated
vapour pressure ;
this
tendency
is
by
far the
greater
with the zinc. The
numerous
zinc ions meet
and
combine with the
negative
'
sulphions
'
or
'
chlor-ions
'
of the
acid
employed
;
the
now
superabundantpositive
H ions
give
the
liquid
a
positivecharge
which drives back all
copper
ions
and then
many
give
up
their
-j-charges
to the
copper
electrode
and form
gas
on
its surface.
But this accumulation of
hydrogen
polarizes
the
electrode,
the
hydrogen soon
competing
as
keenly
for the
oxidizingnegative
ions
as
does the
zinc,
the current
stops,
and the
simple
voltaic cell
has
no
practical
value.
The
hydrogen
must be
got
rid of somehow
; merelyscrubbing
the
copper
with
a
wire brush has
some effect,
better
was
Smee's
device of
covering
its surface with the absorbent
platinum
black
;
but voltaic cells
were not
really
a success
until chemical means
were
employed
to
remove
the
hydrogen.
ELECTRICITY THROUGH
LIQUIDS
621
"
659. Daniell surrounded the
copper
with
a
blue solution
of its
own
sulphate,kept
from
mixing
with the weak
sulphuric
acid round the zinc
by
means
of
a
'
porous
pot.'
The
hydrogen
ions
diffusing through
the
pot
on
their
way
to the
copper
cathode
attack the
sulphate
and
displace
its
copper
ions,
and these
give
up
their
charges
and
are
deposited
as
metal
on
the cathode. Here
is
a
zinc-copper
cell that
never
gets
choked with
hydrogen
Zinc,Zn-"S04 H2-"S04
Cu
-"
Copper,
-fl Zn
lnHaS01.orZnSOir
|
POROUS POT
-,
The Daniell Cell
may
have
a
variety
of
forms,
the
porous
pot
may
be
a round
or
flat vessel of
unglazed
earthenware, or a
canvas
bag,
the zinc
may
be inside
(Fig.325,
left)
or
out,according
/""
Cho"oCKe"
-
l\"avlt?
'
Patte"s
(Fig.
325,right)
the
pot
is
dispensed
with,
the
copper
plate
lies
at the
bottom of
a
deep
dish under
a
layer
of blue
copper
sulphatecrystals,
three
or
four inches
depth
of weak
sulphuric
acid is
poured
on
and the
zinc
plate
is
supportedhorizontally
near
the surface
;
the
great
slow- ness
of
liquid
diffusion
("259)
pre- vents
the
copper
solution from
reaching
and
seriously
con- taminating
the zinc for weeks
;
if the cell
may
have to be
moved about it
can
be half rilled with sand.
Whenever zinc is to be used in acid it must firstbe
'
amal- gamated
'
by rubbing
it
over
with
mercury
under weak
sulphuric
acid. For
common
zinc
rapidly
dissolves to
waste,
but zinc
amalgam,
like
pure
zinc,
does not dissolve in weak acid until
an
electric current is
permitted
to
pass
from it to the acid
by closing
the circuit of the voltaic cell.
The Daniell cell
may,
however,
be set
up
with
unamalgamated
zinc in
zinc-sulphate
solution and works
perfectly
well.
FIG. 325.
Zinc,
Zn"S04
Cu
-"
copper,
-f-
an
action that stultifiesthe
popular
assertion that
'
the zinc
naturally
dissolves in acid and
so
drives the
cell,'
and necessitates
a
fuller
explanation
on
the lines
given
above.
Evidently
this cell
is
reversible, a
current forced in at the
copper
would
gradually
622 A HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS
FIG. 326.
remove
the
depositedcopper
and
redeposit
the dissolved
zinc,
but the zinc comes
down in incoherent
crystals
and makes the
cell
impracticable
as an
accumulator.*
The Daniell
produces
a
steady
electro-motive force of 1-07 to
1-10
volt,according
to concentrations of
solutions,
its internal
resistance
even
with a
very porous
pot
is seldom lessthan
an ohm,
consequently
it
givessteady
currents of no
great
power.
It
was
formerlylargelyemployed
in
telegraphic
work,
but
requires
too
frequent
attention.
"0
"
660. In the
Bunsen
battery,Fig.326,
the
hydrogen
ions from
amalgamated
zinc
in weak
sulphuric
acid
are
destroyedby
strong
nitric acid inside
a
porous
pot
con- taining
the carbon cathode
or
'
positive
plate
'
from which the
current
passes
out
into circuit. Lower oxides of
nitrogen
result,
turning
the nitric acid bluish
green
and
presentlycoming
off in brown fumes destructive alike of metal and
mucous
membrane.
The Bunsen cell's electro-motive force
nearly
reaches 2
volts,
nitric acid is
a
ten times better conductor than
copper-sulphate
solution,
consequently
its internal resistance is low
;
Bunsen
batteries
can
therefore send
large
currents and
work
very
hard,
but
they
must be
kept
outdoors,
and be taken to
pieces
as soon as
finished
with, or
the nitric acid will diffuse
through
and
destroy
the zinc.
"
661. Chromic acid does not have such an
instantaneously
destructive effect
on
amalgamated
zinc
as
does
nitric,
it is therefore
permissible
to
dispense
with the
porous
partitions,
in the Chromic-
acid
or
Bichromate
Battery,
Fig.
327,
in which
a
plate
of
amalgamated
zinc and twin
plates
of
carbon
dip
in
a
solution of
sulphuric
acid 15
%
and chromic
acid,or more
usually
bichromate of
potash,
about 10
%.
Here the
hydrogen
ions reduce the bi- chromate
to a
salt of chromium
6H+K2Cr207-f5H2S04=2KHS04+Cr2(S04)3+7H20
*
With
potassium cyanide
in
place
of
copper
sulphate
the cell
naturally
works backwards with e.m.f. about -5
volt,
the
copper
dissolving
to colourless
cupricyanide
in which it is anionic.
+W"
FIG. 327.
ELECTRICITY THROUGH
LIQUIDS
623
blackening
the
wine-red
liquid
and
ultimatelyturning
it
green,
when it must be renewed.
The bichromate cell
produces
at
best
nearly
2
volts,
itsinternal
resistance is low and it
can
work
very
hard,
but the
bichromate
in the
narrow
spaces
between the
plates
is
soon
used
up
and the
cell
polarizes
unless shaken
up.
Though
in this
respect
inferior
to the
Bunsen,
it is
frequentlypreferred
for its freedom
from
fumes and
ease
of
management ;
all that is
necessary
in
laying
the
cell
by
is to withdraw the zinc from the
solution,either
by
a
sliding
rod or as
in
some
portablehand-lampsby turning
the
sealed cell
upside
down.
In the recent
Benko
pattern
fresh
liquid constantly
oozes
through
the carbons under
slight pressure
;
a
steady
50
amp.
isobtainable.
The Bleek-Love
battery
uses a
zinc
cylinder
in
caustic soda in
a
porous
pot,surrounding
which is
a
moulded
carbon
cylinder
in
a
strong
mixture of
sulphuric
acid,
sodium
bichromate,
and
common
salt,
smellingobjectionably
of chlorine. The
whole volt e.m.f.
between the soda
(HO
ions)
and acid
(H ions)gives
it the
high
total of 2-7 volts.
"
662. The Leclanche'
Battery
stands
always ready
to
yield
moderate currents of short
duration,
and
requires
attention
only
once a
year
or so to
replace
water lost
by evaporation
and to
put
in
a
pinch
of fresh sal-ammoniac
;
hence it excels for electric
bells,
telegraphs,
and
telephones.
The
containing jar
is
usually
square,
to stand
close,
and of
glass
so that the
liquid
level
can
be
seen
;
the zinc is
a
plain
rod,
and the
solution is
a saturated
one
of ammonium chloride
(sal-ammoniac)
which has
no
action what- ever
on
zinc until the circuitis closed.
Then it attacks the zinc to form zinc
chloride
(which crystallizes
as
the
double chloride of zinc and
am- monium),
sets free ammonia
(which
remains in solution and
can
be smelt
if the
liquid
is
warmed),
and
produces
the
hydrogen
ions. These are oxidized
by
the solid
depolarizer,
black oxide
of
manganese,
which,
in
granules
mixed with
carbon,
is either
packed
round the carbon
positive
plate
in
a
porous
pot (Fig.
328, left),
or
is
strapped
on
to it
in baked
blocks,or
is
incorporated
in the hollow
positive cylinder
of baked carbon itself.
Zn+4NH4Cl=ZnCl2.2NH4Cl+2NH3+2H
FIG. 328.
624 A HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS
The black
Mn02 gets partially
reduced to a
mixture of lower
oxides. It is
a
rather slow
oxidizingagent
and this unfits the
Leclanche for
sending
strong
currents.
The electro-motive force of the Leclanche is 145 volts. The
internal resistance of the
pint
size with
porous
pot
is about
an
ohm,
and this size will
very
steadily
maintain the -2
amp.
for
a
bell,
but fails when
larger
currents are demanded.
So-called
Dry
Cells
are
Leclanches in
disguise.
Their outer
case
of zinc
(Fig.328, right)
contains
a thick
cream
of sal-ammoniac
solution and
paper-pulp
or
plaster, surrounding
the carbon
plate
baked in
a
lump
of carbon and
Mn02
;
the cell is sealed off with
melted brimstone and
pitch. Large dry
cellsof
good
make will
maintain 3
or
4
amp.,
but
cheap dry
cells
are not
particularly
trustworthy.
"663.
The Standard Cell. The Daniell cell
was
formerly
employed
as a
Standard of Electro-motive
Force,
with saturated
sulphate
solutions at 64" F. and
pure
metals its e.m.f. is 1-094 volt.
But it must
always
be fresh set
up,
lest the
copper
sulphate
diffuse and contaminate the
zinc,
and its e.m.f.
depends
to
some
extent on
temperature (though
less than most
cells')
because the
sulphates
are more
soluble in
warmer water.
The modern
Standard Cadmium Cell
n
uses
cadmium in
place
of zinc and
mer- cury
instead of
copper,
pairs
of
closely
related metals but
possessing
useful dis-
solrc.
similarities. The
mercurous
sulphate
forms
a
plaster-like plug
above the
mer-
CdS04
cury
in
Fig.329,
it is
nearlyinsoluble,
but if
any
does diffuse
over
and reach
the cadmium it
can do
no harm,
for
FIG. 329.
the cadmium is
already
mixed with
mercury
into
an
amalgam.
Cadmium
sulphate
is
no more
soluble hot than
cold,
the solution
filling
the cell remains of invariable
strength,
and the e.m.f. is
very
nearly
1-0183 volt at
any
temperature.
The cellmade
up
and sealed in
an
H tube
can
be sent
by post
without
derangement.
Its internal resistance is about 650
ohms,
consequently
it is useless
except
with the
potentiometer.
If
permitted
to send
more than -0001
amp.
it
polarizes,
but
recovers
in
a
few minutes.
ELECTRICITY THROUGH
LIQUIDS
625
"
664. We have two
remainingquestions
to consider
:
what
is
the
source
of the electro-motive force and the
energy
of
a voltaic
cell,
and how
can we
obtain the best
output
of
energy
from
a
battery
of cells?
The old
view,
that the e.m.f.
arose
at
the actual contact of the
two metals
(say,
where the
copper
wire
coming
from
a
copper
plate
was
fastened to
the
zinc),
was
apparentlysupportedby
the
experimental
use
of a
copper
electrophorus
and
a
zinc
plate
in
the
experiment
of
"
632
;
when these were
separated
after contact
the
electroscope opened,
without
any
extraneous
charging
what- ever,
and this
happened
even
in
vacuo.
But
we saw
in
"
645 that
a contact
e.m.f. between metals exists indeed but is
extremely
small,
the merest fraction of that of
a
voltaic cell. And
we
know
nowadays
that
mere
pumping
does not
remove
the film of
moisture and air condensed
on
surfaces. The
experiment
has
been tried of
putting
iron and
platinumplates
in
a
vessel of hard
glass,exhausting
the
air,
and while red-hot
washing
out
over
and
over
again
with
hydrogen(to
which both metals
are
quite
permeable
when
hot);
and this
treatment
effectually destroyed
the -37 volt
contact-potential-difference usuallyexisting
between
iron and
platinum.
It is
now
accepted
that the e.m.f. of the cell
arisesat the
metal-liquid
contacts and
partly
at the
liquid-liquid
contact in
a
two-fluid cell.
The
energy
comes
mainly
from the heat of solution of the zinc
in the
acid,
and the Electro-motive Force of
a
cell
can sometimes
be calculated thus
:
"
1 chemical
combiningweight
in
grammes
(32J)
of zinc dissolves
to
form
zinc-sulphate
solution with the evolution of
54,230
calories.
The removal of 1
combiningweight
in
grammes
of
oxygen
from nitricacid to form nitrous acid is found to
require
9150
calories.
In voltaic cellsthe
energy appears
as
electrical
energy
instead
of
heat,
96,600
coulombs
cause
the
deposition
or
solution of
1
combiningweight
in
grammes,
"
651. Hence the
output
of this
quantity
of
electricity
from
a
Bunsen cell is
accompaniedby
(54,230
-
9150) X
4-2 =
45,080X
4-2 = 189,000
joules
of
energy,
or 1-96
joules
per
coulomb. And since
joules=
coulombs
X
volts
("639),
therefore 1-96 is the
voltage
of the Bunsen cell.
Those varieties of cell whose e.m.f.'s
are
much affected
by
temperature
grow
hotter
or
colder
duringaction,
and
require
40
626
A HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS
a
difficult
thermo-dynamic
correction to the
foregoing simple
calculation.
"
665. The
problem
of
how best to
arrange
a
number of
voltaic cells
so as to drive the
greatest
current
through
a
given
circuit"
cautery,
coil,bell,
telegraph,
etc." involves
some
know- ledge
of
the relative values of the resistance of the external
circuit and the internal resistance of the cells" that resistance
which the current meets
with
as
it
crosses
the
layer
of
liquid
(andperhaps
the
porous
partition)
between the
plates.
The
larger
the
plates,provided
their distance
apart
is not
increased,
the less this internal
resistance,
hence
large
cells
are
capable
of
giving
a
greater
current
on
short circuit than small
ones,
and of
course
of
maintaining
it,
because there is
a
larger
supply
of active materials in the
big
cell.But for
a
high
resistance,
e.g.
a telegraph
circuit,
small cells do
just
as
well
as
large,
for
their e.m.f. is
just
as
great
and their few ohms extra
internal
resistance is
insignificant compared
with the total.
A
battery
of cells all
of
the
same sort connected
'
in parallel,'
i.e.
with alltheir carbons wired
together
and to
one
wire of the circuit
and all their zincs wired
together
and to the other end of the
circuit
(Fig.
330, P),
is
simply
an
imitation of one
big
cell. Its
e.m.f. is that of
a
single
cell,
its internal resistance is that of all
the individuals in
parallel,
calculated
precisely
as
in
" 622,
e.g.
ifthe N cellsare
all the
same
size it is
1/N
that of a
single
one.
This is
evidently
the
arrangement
to
adopt
when the external
resistance is smaller than that of
a cell,
for otherwise the
greater
part
of the e.m.f. would be exhausted in
getting
the current
through
the
battery
itself.
When the external circuit'sre-
sistance exceeds
a cell's,
the e.m.f.
of
a
single
cell
may
be
inadequate
to drive the
requisite
current.
Then cells must be connected
J
j
I I
1
1
I
j
'
in series,5
i.e.circuit to zincof
first,
Q
I
I
~j
I I
~
carbon of first to zinc of
second,
carbons to
zincs all
through,
last
FIG. 330. carbon to circuit
(Fig.
330, S).
The
joint
e.m.f. is the
sum
of all
the
cells,
the
joint
resistance is the
sum
of the individual resist- ances.
This is the
only
way
in which cellsof odd sorts can
safely
be- connected
up.
When
'
in series
'
the whole current
passes
through
each
cell,
628 A HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS
13.
Explain
the construction and mode of action of
any
one form
of
secondary battery.
What
are
the
advantages
of
secondary
batteries
as compared
with
primary
batteries ?
[L.]
14. Describe the
parts
of
a
storage
cell
or accumulator, and state
the
changes
that occur in them
during
the
process
of
charging
and
discharging. Why
is it
important
that the
voltage
of the cell should
not be allowed to fall below 1-9 ?
[L]m.
15. Three Daniell cells in series
are
used to
charge
an accumulator.
Find the
weight
of
copper
deposited
while 1
grm.
of PbO is
converted into
PbO2. Equivalent weights
:
copper,
31-8
;
lead, 103-5
;
oxygen,
8.
[L.]
16. What is meant
by
the internal resistance of
a
voltaic cell ?
How would
you
measure it,
and what difficulties
are met with ?
[L.]
17. When two batteries, A and
B, are joined
in turn to
a galvano- meter,
A
gives
the
greater
current
;
but when another
galvanometer
is
employed
B
gives
the
greater
current.
Explain. [L.]
18. What determines the maximum current obtainable from
a cell ?
Find out all
you
can
about
a
cell which sends
"
amp.
through a
wire
of 1-8
ohms,
and
"
amp.
through
a
wire of 2-9
ohms,
connected
directly
to the
poles
of the cell.
[L.]
19. Four cells,each of 2 volts and 0-5
ohm, are connected in two
groups
of two cells
each,
in
'
series-parallel.'
Calculate the current
the
battery
will maintain
through a
coil of wire with
a
resistance of
0-7 ohm.
[L.]
20. A Daniell cell has e.m.f
.
1-07
volts,
resistance 2 ohms. Its ends
are
connected
by
3 and 4 ohms in
parallel.
If electro-chemical
equivalent
of
copper
is
0-000328,
find
weight deposited per
hour. Also find
heat
developed
per
hour in cell and each wire.
[L]m.
21. A
battery
of 12 cells each of internal resistance 2 ohms is to
give
maximum current
through a
cautery
of 4 ohms. What
arrange- ments
of cells will
give
maximum
current,
and which
consumes
less
zinc ?
[L]m.
22.
Compare
the
quantities
of heat
developed
in
a
Grove cell for
each
gramme
of zinc consumed when the
poles
of the cell
are
(1)
connected
by
50
ohms, (2)
short circuited,
resistance of cell
being
1-5 ohms.
[L.]
23. Five cells each of 1-8 volts and -2 ohm are
in series.
Through
what
external resistance will
they
send 1
amp.
and what is then the
p.d.
at the
battery
terminals ?
[M.]
24. Two
wires, one
of 5 ohms and
one
of
15, are
joined
in
parallel
to the terminals of
a
cell of electro-motive force 2-1 volts and internal
resistance -45 ohm. Calculate total current
given
out
by
cell and
potential
difference between its terminals.
[L]m.
25. Two batteries of 10 and 8
volts,
and internal resistance
3"
and
2 ohms
respectively,
are
in
parallel,
and their
poles
are joined by
14
ohms resistance. Find current
through
each.
26.
+ poles
of 2 cells
are
joined by
thick wire A and the
negative
poles
B and C
by a
5-ohm wire. Find
p.d.'s
between A and B,
B and
C,
C and
A,
if cells are
1-5
volts, -75 ohm,
and 2
volts,
-5 ohm.
[L]m.
CHAPTER LXIV
THE PASSAGE OF ELECTRICITY THROUGH
GASES
THOSE
making
frictional electrical
experiments
learn that air
is
a most reliable non-conductor until
they put
too
great
an
electrical
stress
upon
it" as
by holding
a
charged
knob at
high
potential
within too short
a
distance of the knuckle at
zero
potential
" and that then it
suddenly
'
breaks down
'
and conducts
away
the
charge through
an
electric
spark.
This
disruptive
discharge, though
so
easily
obtainable,
is
really
very
complex,
and
we must first
study
a
much
quieter
transmission of
electricity
through
air
or
other
gases.
"
666 :
Suppose
that
we
contrive to
put
a
great
electricalstress
on
the air in such
a
way
as to
give
no
opportunity
for
sparks.
Look at the
pointed
end of the oval conductor in
Fig.
286
;
the
lines
are
crowded
together,showing
an
intense electric field.
Roughly,
one can
think of the end
as
the
sphere
of
"
574
;
the
potential
this
produced
was
inversely
as
the radius from its centre.
Let
a
sharpneedle-point
with
a
hemispherical
end
perhaps
-001
cm.
radius be attached to
a
conductor
at,
say,
50 e.s.
units of
potential.
At radius -01
cm.
around the
point
the
potential
is
roughly
one-
tenth of
this,a
drop
of 45 units in -009
cm.,
at
the
average
rate of
5000
e.s.
units
(1,500,000volts)
per
cm.,
a
fieldof electro-static
strength
5000,
and this is
more
than the air
can
sustain. Fix
a
needle
on
the
prime
conductor of
an
electrical machine and
turn the
handle,
electricity
makes
a
quiet
or
slightlyhissing
escape ;
there is
no
spark,
but in the dark
a
tiny
bluish
glow
is
seen
at the
point.
Now
(1)
any
insulated
conductor,
e.g.
an
electroscope
cap,
held
near
the
point,gets
a
charge[remember
the
use
of
sharp-pointed
combs to collect
charge
from the
plates
in electrical
machines,
" 568]. Evidently
the air is
conveyingelectricity.
(2)
A candle flame held
near is blown aside
by
a
wind from
629
630 A HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS
the
discharging point.
And the reaction between
point
and wind
is sometimes illustrated
by
a little
'
Barker's mill
'
of four wires
radiating
from
a
cap
mounted
on a
pivot
on
the conductor
;
their
sharp
ends
are
bent
tangentially
forward. The mill is driven
round backward
by
the
repulsion
between the wires and the
electrified air driven
away
from their
points.
From these it would
appear
that the transmission of
electricity
through
a
gas
is
an
actual
convection of
charged particles,
analogous
to
the motion of the ions in
electrolysis,
but much
faster in the
more
mobile medium.
"
667 :
In
an
electrolyte,
however,
there is evidence that the
production
of
charged
ions is
a
spontaneous
process
(as
is their
recombination into neutral
molecules).
In
a
gas
the ions
are
not
spontaneously produced,they
have to be manufactured
somehow,
some
drastic treatment of the
gas
is
necessary
to enable it to
conduct
(and
then it
soon
loses its
conductivity as
the ions
spon- taneously
recombine). Again
in
gases,
unlike
electrolytes, -j-
and
" ions
are
formed
independently
of chemical nature.
Some treatments that
can
ionize
a
gas
and
so
give
it
conducting
power
are :
"
(1)
The
presence
of a
very
intense electric
field, already
referred
to.
(2)
Chemical
action,
especially
combustion.
Freshly
manu- factured
hydrogen
is
transiently
conductive. A flame is
a
good
conductor,
swept
over an electrified
plate
it
removes
the
charge
forthwith
: a
little
leydenjar
held in the hot fumes
just
above
the flame is
soon
discharged.Meteorologists
use a
long
wire
with
a
bit of
spirit-soaked
tow
burning
on
the
top
and
an
electro- scope
at the lower end
;
electric
chargepresent
in the air
passes
in
through
the
flame,
and the
electroscope
leaves
open
out to
show the
potential
of the
atmosphere
around the flame.
(3)
Solids heated to incandescence ionize the air
near them,
and
will lose sometimes
a
-f-"
sometimes
a "
charge,depending
on
the nature of the solid and its
temperature.
(4)
Ultra-violet
lightshining
on some
oxidizdble metals enables
them to lose
a
negativecharge.
A clean zinc
plate
is laid on a
chargedelectroscope
cap
;
close above the
plate
is
an
earthed
wire
gauze.
An
arc
lamp
shines
on
the
platethrough glass
without effect
:
removing
the
glass
which
stopped
the ultra- violet
the leaves
collapse
if
they
were "
charged,
not
if
+
.
ELECTRICITY THROUGH GASES
631
The alkali metals are
sensitive lower in the
spectrum,
even
to
red
light.
(5)Rontgen
rays
passingthrough
a
gas
ionize it. Their
presence
puts
a
stop
to all frictional electrical
experiments.
(6)
Radium and other radio-active materials ionize
gases.
An
old uranium salt
powdered
and
spread
on an
electroscope
cap
enables the
charge
to
leak
away
to
an earthed
plate
held
just
above
: a mere
trace of modern
more
active
preparations collapses
the leaves
quickly.
C. V.
Boys
showed that the
leakage
from
a
chargedbody
supported
on a short rod of fused silica
was
little
more
than from
one on a
long
fine fibre of it
;
that therefore the
support
was
not
always
to
blame for
leakage,
but that air itself
was not a
perfect
insulator. It is
now
known that it is the
traces of radio- active
material in
earth, bricks, etc.,
that account
for this
extremely
feeble continuous ionization.
"
668
:
The current
through an
ionized
gas.
When
Rontgen
rays,
for
instance,are
passing
athwart the air
space
between two
small metal
plates
which are
connected to
a
charged
condenser
and attached
electrometer,a
discharging
current
immediately
flows
across.
As the
voltage
between the
plates
is raised
(by
having
used
more
and
more
cells to
charge
the
condenser)
the
current
increases,
but not
proportionally (as
Ohm's law would
require).
In
fact,
after
a
certain
limiting potential
difference
has been reached
(never
more
than
J
VOLTAGE PER CM. '30.000
FIG. 331.
1000 volts
per
cm.
of air
gap)
the
current does not increase at
all,
and
iscalled
a saturation
current,Fig.
331.
And
now
if the air
gap
is
length- ened
and the
voltage
per
centimetre
lengthkept
the
same,
the saturation
current increases almost
proportionally
to
the
quantity
of air
between the
plates
and
exposed
to
the
ionizing
influence.
A
satisfactory explanation
is that the
-f-
and " ions
as soon as
formed
begin
to
move
towards the " and
-f plates
with
speeds
about
proportional
to the forces
acting
on them,
i.e.
to.
the
field,
the
'
volts
per
centimetre.' In weak fields the motion is slow
and the
majorityget
time to
spontaneously
recombine
into
neutral
molecules,
hence
only
a
few
give
up
their
charges
to
the
plates
and the current is small.
Strong
fields
drag
the ions out so
fast that few
get
the chance of
recombining;
since the total
632 A HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS
production
of ions
dependson
the external
ionizing
influence it
is
pretty
obvious that
a
still
stronger
fieldwill
gather
no more
ions
;
the current
is
'
saturated.'
The
larger
the
space
the
more ions,
hence the
greater
the
maximum current obtainable.
In another
experiment
a
very strong
fieldis
put
on
at a
definite
interval after the
ionizing
rays
have been
cut
off,
and the total
discharge
obtained is measured
on an electrometer. Its diminu- tion
with increase of interval enables the
rate at which the ions
have been
naturallyrecombining
into neutral molecules to
be
calculated.
The sudden increase of current shown
near
30,000
volts
per
cm.
is
explainedby (1)
above
;
fields of this
strengthactually produce
abundant ions and
sparking
soon ensues.
"
669. To return to the electric
spark.
Between the
mile-long
lightning
flash,
the
sparks
that Franklin drew from the lower end
of the wet
string
that tethered his kite in the rain
cloud,
and the
sparks
of electrical
machines,
induction
coils,
etc.,
there is
no
distinction other than that of size. Their
'
crackly
'
sinuous
shape
is familiar to all. Short
sparks,
however, are
straighter,
and when
one
examines
a
small
spark
under the
microscope
one
finds it
by
no means a
uniform streak of
light.
It
happens
that
a
much
more convenient
way
of
magnifying
the
structure
of the small
spark
is to reduce the
pressure
of the
gas.
The
apparatus
may
be a
long
wide
tube,
Fig.
332,
with
plates
and wires of aluminium
inside,
brought
out
by platinum
wires
through
the
glass
to connections with
a
Wimshurst machine
or an
induction coil. The tube is sealed
on
to a
mercury pump.
Going
to the
logical
extreme and
using
the best
vacuum
attainable
(far
from
perfect), discharge
willnot
pass
at
all.
"
670.
Admitting
a
very
minute trace of
air,
there
appears
a
fluorescent
green
patch
on
the
glassdirectlyopposite
the
negative
terminal
or
cathode. If obstacles are
enclosed in the
tube their shadows are
thrown in the
patch
of
light,
and make
it
plain
that
rays
of
some sort
are
streaming
out
from the cathode
in
straight
lines. These are
the Cathode
Rays.
The stream
pays
no
attention to
the
anode,
which
may
be
anywhere
in the tube.
If the cathode istowards one's leftand the N.
pole
of
a
magnet
is
pushed
up
to the front of the tube the
lightpatch
on
the
right
moves
downwards
;
the
straight
stream of cathode
rays,
crossing
ELECTRICITY THROUGH GASES
633
the
magnetic
lines at
rightangles,
has
curved,
and in the
opposite
way
to that in which
a
wire
carrying
a
current would have
moved,
i.e.it behaves
as a flexibleconductor
carryingnegative
electricity.
That the
rays
do
carry
negativeelectricity
has been
proved
by screening
them down to a narrow
stream
throughperforated
plugs(as
in
Fig.333)
and then
deflecting
the
bright
fluorescent
spot
into
a
metal
cup
inside the tube connected to an
electroscope
outside. The
electroscope
moves when,
and
onlywhen,
the
spot
touches the
cup.
That
they
carry
a
great
deal of
energy
is shown in the
very
high
vacuum tubes,
Fig.
335,
used for
producing
Rontgen
rays.
In them the
concave
cathode focusses its
discharge
on
to
an
'
anticathode
'
plate
of
platinum
or tantalum,
and will make itred-
hot and
even
melt
a
hole if the
plate
is
too thin. The
Rontgen
rays
start from this focussed
spot
on
the
anticathode.
The cathode
rays
do not
escape
from the tube.
FIG. 332.
FIG. 333.
FIG. 334. FIG. 335.
"
671
:
Electrons.
The mechanical force exerted
per
centimetre
lengthon a current-
carrying
conductor =
magnetic
field
X
current
("595). Assuming
the cathode
rays
to be
composed
of
flyingparticles
" electrons "
carrying
a
negativecharge,
the
'
current
'
that each
one
represents
=its
charge
ex
its
speed
v [think
of the
'
current
'
of water that
a
bucket
passed
from hand to hand towards
a
fireis
equivalent to].
Hence the force
deflecting
each electron
as
it
crosses a
magnetic
field
=Hev,
this makes it take
a
curved
path
of radius
r
and is
equal
and
opposite
to the
centrifugal
force
mvz/r("35).
~H_cv=mvz/r,
therefore ratio of
charge
to momentum of
electron,
e/wv
=
l/Hr,
and
r
is
easilycomputed
from the observed dis- placement
of the
green
spot
excited
by
the
rays
where
they
strike
a
fluorescent screen
at the end of the
tube
Fig.333,
after
passing
across
the
magnetic
fieldof the coilhh.
634 A HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS
Side
plates// can
be
put
into the
tube,
and
a
strong
electric
field F maintained between
them,
tending
to
drag
the electrons
towards the
+ plate
with
a
force Fe and
so deflect the stream
upwards.
The
magnetic
field H is
adjusted
tillits
down-bending
action
just
compensates
this,
then Fe=Hev
or
This
speed
is found to be between
10,000
and
30,000
km.
per
sec.
And from the
two
equations, e/mv=l/~H.r
and
v=F/H,
e__ F^
m~~HV
and this ratio of
charge
to mass
of the electron is found to be
180,000,000,
in
coulombs/grammes.
The
charge
e on an
electron in the cathode
rays
has not been
measured,
but the evidence
goes
to show that the mode of
pro- duction
of ions in
a
gas
by
the
passage
of
Rcintgen
rays,
etc.,
is
that
a
single
electron,or
sometimes
two,
is torn from
one
atom
and enters
another,
leaving
the former
as a
-f-
ion and
making
the
latter
a " ion.
If
a
moist dust-free
gas
is ionized and
suddenly
cooled
by
expansion,
so as to become about 4 times
supersaturated,
the
water
condenses
on
the
negative
ions
present
and
they
fall
as a
miniature shower of rain. The total
weight
of the shower is
calculable from the volume
(perhaps
1
litre), etc.,
of the
expansion
chamber
;
the size of individual
drops
is calculated from their
rate of fall
through
the
gas,
hence the number of
drops
is known.
The total
charge
carried down is found
by receiving
the shower
on an
insulated
plate
connected to an
electrometer
;
hence the
charge
per
drop
is
known,
and in all
probability
this is the
electronic
chargee,
e=l -6Xl0~19 coulombs
and since
e/m=l-Sx 108,.'. m
the electronic mass=9x
10~28grm.,
which is about
y-gVo"
"f ^ne estimated
mass
of the
hydrogen
atom.
The electron is
at
present
the indivisible unit
charge
of
electricity.
"
672. At these low
pressures
there is
no
luminosity
in the
gas,
only
a
thin
glow enveloping
the
cathode,
and the distant fluor- escence
on
the
glass,
green
or
blue
according
to the latter's
chemical
composition.
NOTE. " The cathode
can
be forced to
emit also
atomic, or
larger, fragments
of itself.
Glass,
wax,
lace,etc.,
can
be coated
636 A HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS
become
so
hot that this auto-combustion is
continuous,
and flame
being
a
good
conductor the
noisy
rattle of
brightsparks
dies down
into
a
quieterwriggling
line.
The
potential
difference
required
to
producesparks
in air at
atmospheric
pressure
is about 100
e.s.
units=
30,000
volts
per
cm.
length
of
spark
between knobs 2
cm. diameter,
and it is
roughlyproportional
to the air
pressure.
"
674
:
The Arc.
In
"
667
(3)
it
was
stated that incandescent solids ionized the
gas
near
them. For
instance,a
hot lime cathode will
discharge
electrons at a
tenth
or
less of the minimum
voltage(about450)
necessary
to work
a vacuum
tube with
a
cold cathode.
Now when
a
circuit
carrying
a
few
amperes
is
broken,
the small
points
last in contact are sure to be heated
strongly,
for
they
represent
a
high
resistance
interposed
in the
path
of
a current
which self-induction
keeps flowing
on
for the moment. Both
points
will therefore
probably
ionize the air between
them,
and the
current
will
pass
in
a
glowing
stream
across
the
gap.
If current
X
voltage,
i.e.the
power
in
circuit,
is
small,
the heated
points
will
be
minute,
and conduction back into the
masses
of metal will
soon
cool them
;
and if in addition the air
gap
widens
quickly,
the
*
spark
at break
'
is
soon
quenched.
But if there is
adequate
power,
with
more
than
a
certain minimum
voltage(5
to
50,
according
to
material),
and ifthe
gap
is
kept
small,
the
discharge
continues
as
the electric
arc.
The
typical
carbon
arc
isformed between two rods of
gas
carbon
in
a
circuit of about 60 volts. The
points
are
originally
in contact
but
are
pulled
1
in.
or more
apart directly
after the current is
turned on.*
The heated
negative
carbon
(cathode)
is
regarded
as
emitting
a
blast of electrons which strike the
positive
carbon and
keep
it
brilliantly
incandescent,
and it in turn sends forth
+ charged
particles, atoms,
of the
gas
close to it.
[That
the hot cathode is
responsible
for the initiation of the
arc
is illustrated
by
the
re- kindling
of
an arc
in
a 500-
volt
circuit,
after
a
second's extinction,
without the need of
touching
the hot carbons
togetheragain.]
*
This is done
automatically.
The current
passing
round
a
small
solenoid draws in
an
iron
core
linked to
a
clutch
on
the carbon rod.
As the carbons burn
away
and the arc lengthens
the
voltage
between
the carbons
increases,
and increases the small
current^through
another
solenoid,
of fine
wire,
placed
as a
shunt
across
the
arc
;
this
presently
releases the clutch and lets the carbons
drop
closer.
ELECTRICITY THROUGH GASES 637
The
-f-
carbon wears
away
rather
rapidly, presenting
a concave
crater to
the
pointed
" carbon. The crater is filledwith the
vapour
of
boiling
carbon,
for the
temperature
of the
arc
is the
boilingpoint
of the carbon 4000" A.
:
greater
current makes
a
larger
but not
hotter crater.
It is the
hightemperature
of this
boilingpoint
that makes the carbon
arc so
much
more
luminous
than
arcs
between volatile metal
poles.
The carbon
vapour
gradually
drifts out of the
arc
and
burns,
so
that the carbons waste
away
(the-{-
twice
as
fast
as
the "
,
hence it is made
thicker).
Excess of current
causes hissing,
the
flame
creeping
out round the sides of the carbons and
burning
them
away
badly.
Enclosed in
a
small oval
nearlyair-tight
globe
of translucent
porcelain
the carbons last
as
much
as
100
hours,quite
ten times as
long
as
usual.
A current of 1
or 2
amp.
maintains a
diminutive
arc
between
carbons of
slate-pencil
size,
10 to 15
amp.
runs a street
lamp
of 1000
c.p.,
100
amp.
and more
is used in
search-lights
and
lighthouses.
A wire resistance coilis
alwaysput
in serieswith the
arc,
or
else the current istoo unstable. Thousands of
amperes
are
used in electricfurnaces.
High voltages
maintain
longer
arcs.
Of late the
arc
itselfhas been made
long
and
very
luminous
(instead
of
short,bluish,
and
scarcelyvisible) by impregnating
the carbons with salts of
sodium, calcium, etc.,
which distilout
and
provide
abundance of
very
easily
ionized
vapours
(see
"" 415, 502).
The
mercury
arc
takes
place
in a tube,
in
mercury vapour
only,
between two small
pools
of
mercury.
The cathodal
pool
has to be
heated
locally
to start the
discharge;
this is effected
by running
a stream of
mercury
across
and
breaking
it. The
blue-green
arc
of intense
luminosity(""415,502)
flames
through
the
tube,
which
usuallykeeps
below 300" C.
"
675
:
Globe
lightning.
There
are
many
records of the
descent,
during
thunderstorms,
of balls of firefrom
a
few inches to
a couple
of feet in
diameter,
and of the destruction
they
have
wrought
to
thingsthey happened
to touch in their
wanderings,
as they
drifted about in the
air,
gradually dwindling.
The silent
discharge
from
pin-points, sharpedges,etc.,
ozonizes
the air
strongly,
and is in commercial
use
for that
purpose
:
it has
recently
been
suggested
that the
fiery
ball is
a
volume of
ozone
which has been formed in the thunder cloud
and,
being
half
638 A HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS
as
dense
again
as air,
has sunk to the
ground.
The unstable
ozone
03
is
steadily returning
into
oxygen,
and
shining
with the ionic
glow. Coming
into contact with
any
easily
oxidizable material
the
decomposition
would be
accelerated,
and itis calculated
that
a
ball
a
foot in diameter could work
at
the rate of
many
hundred
horse-power
for
a second,
i.e.would
explode
with
some
power.
"
676.
Radio-activity.
This most recent and remarkable
development
of
our
subject
may
be said to have
begun
with the
discoveryby Becquerel
that
a
piece
of
pitch-blende,
the mineral
from which the salts of the metal uranium
are
prepared,
could
strongly
affect
a
photographic plate
when laid
upon
it in the dark.
Unlike fluorescent substances the
pitch-blende required
no
pre- vious
treatment
whatever,
and
further,
the action took
place
even
through
black
paper
or
thin aluminium. The whole of this
power
concentrated in the uranium oxide when this was
extracted
from the mineral
; any
uranium salts
prepared
a
few
years ago
show it
readily.
It
was soon
found also that the air close
by
became ionized and
conducting, just
as
if traversed
by Rontgen
rays.
If
a
little
powdered
uranium nitrate is
spread
on
the
plate
of
a
charged
electroscope
and
a
metal
plate
connected to earth is held half an
inch above
it,
the leaves
steadily collapse.
Further chemical treatment
proved
that the
power
was
really
the
property
of
an
unknown chemical element
present
in small
traces. This element M. and Mme.
Curie,
by
a
long
and
pains- taking
process
of
concentration,
.
succeeded in
separating,
as a
bromide,
and named it Radium.
How this
substance,
not unlike barium bromide in
appearance
and
general
chemical
character,
is self-luminous
in the
dark, can
excite
more
brilliant
luminosity
in
powdered
zinc-blende,
affects
photographicplates
even
through
thick metal
screens, discharges
electroscopes instantly,
has
a
speedy
destructive action
on
the
skin and
tissues,
keeps
itself
warm
by
the
spontaneous
production
of heat
at
the
rate of 100 calories
per gramme per
hour " allthese
things
are
well known to
everybody,thoughperhaps
it isthe
high
price,
necessitated in
part by
the
long
labour of
concentrating
a
substance
present
in such minute
traces,
that has most
impressed
the
public.
"
677. It is
now
believed that in radium and a
number of other
radio-active elements "
polonium,
actinium, thorium,*
etc." we
*
A thoria
gas
mantle
separated
from
a plate by
thin
paper
or
aluminium,
and all
clamped together,
will
photograph
itself in a
month.
ELECTRICITY THROUGH GASES 639
are
witnessingstages
in the transmutation " the Evolution "
of the Chemical
Elements, an
evolution for the
most
part
proceed- ing
with unthinkable slowness
through
countless
rcons,
but
here
accelerated into
centuries,or even
seconds. For from the solid
radium bromide there
can
be
pumped
a
heavy
gas
"
c
radium
emanation
'
" at
a
rate which shows that half the metal radium
would have become converted into this
new
chemical substance
in about 1400
years.
And the
brightluminosity
of this
gaseous
emanation dies
away
to half in
3| days,
as
the
gas
forms
a new
substance,a
solid
deposit
on
the walls of the tube
;
and this
solid
deposit
has been traced
through
half
a
dozen
more
trans- formations.
It is
suggested
that the
heavy
chemical atom is a
complex
system
of electrons in orbital
motion,
that in
course
of
time,
by
the
loss of
energy
in
some
unknown
way,
this motion is slowed down
to the
point
of
instability,
that
thereupon
an
atomic convulsion
ensues
and results sometimes in the
expulsion
of electrons
either
singly
or
in small stable atomic
groups,
that the residue
forms
a new
groupingusuallycapable
of
persisting
a
long
time,
but that in radium and its
successors we
have lit
upon
a
series
of
groupings
so
unstable that
they persistonly
a
few
centuries,
or
days,
or
seconds.
"
678. The atomic
rearrangement
causes
the
emission of what
are
called
alpha,
beta,
and
gamma rays.
The distinctive characters
of
these
are best illustrated
by
an
experiment
on the lines of
Fig.
336. On a narrow
strip
of
photographicplate
stands
a
diminutive lead
cannon
loaded with
a
speck
of radium bromide
;
2
or 3
cm. above is
a
second
photographicplate.
Thick lead absorbs almost all the
rays
striking
it,
consequently
it is
only
those
ejected
in the direc- tion
of the muzzle that
come
under observation. FIG. 336.
The littlecontrivance is
placed
between the
pole-
pieces
of
an
electro-magnet
so
that it stands
in
a
magnetic
field the lines of which
go
down
perpendicularly
to the
plane
of
the
paper.
Without the
magnetic
field,
development
of the
plates
after a
short
exposure
shows
a
black
spot
in the direct line of fire
at
C.
With
a
strong
field there
appear
in addition
blackenings
at
A and B. If
a
piece
of thin mica
or
paper
were
laid
on
the
muzzle,
or
if the
upper
plate
were more
than 5-5
cm.
away
in
air,
spot
A
640 A HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS
is
missing.
If
a
thicker
plate lay over
the
muzzle,
spot
B is
weakened.
A is therefore caused
by a
stream which is deflected like
a
current
as
it
crosses
the
magnetic
field. It is
a
stream of
positively
charged a particles,
its
very
slight
deviation shows that the
electro-magnetic
force makes but little difference to their
momen- tum,
they are heavy particles travelling
fast. That
they are
separate
particles
is
proved by
the distinct flash of
light as
each
strikes
a
zinc-blende
screen
under the
microscope,
and
by
the
scattered black dots visible under
high magnification on a photo- graphic
plate
which has been
exposed
to them.
Subsequent
research has shown that
they are
atoms
of helium
(At.
Wt.
4),
their
speed
is about
20,000
km.
per
sec. They are stopped entirely
by
any
solid*
except
the thinnest films of
glass or
mica, they can
traverse
only
5-5
cm.
of
air,
but
they
make that air
highly con- ductive,
each
producing
110,000
ions in its short
flight.
The
sharp curling over
the
opposite
way
to
produce spot
B
is
evidently
that of
a
stream of
negatively charged particles
possessing comparatively
little momentum.
These
ft particles
must
be smaller than the
a
particles,
for with far less momentum
they
penetrate some
thickness of solid.
They
must
be
travelling
faster than cathode
electrons,
for the latter cannot
penetrate
the
glass
of their tube.
They are
electrons
travelling
at
100,000
km.
per sec.,
several times faster than the
average
cathode
particle.
The
y
radiation
causing spot
C cannot
be deviated and is
capable
of
penetrating
several inches of metal. Since it is the
impact
of cathode electrons
on a
solid obstacle that
originates
the
undeviable and
penetrative Rontgen
rays,
it is believed to be
the
impact
of the swifter
/? particleson
the bromide
crystals
lying
in their track that
gives
rise to the
7
radiation,
so
like
Rontgen
rays
of
exaggerated
'
hardness.*
*
Probably
it is their
stoppage by
the radio-active material itself
that
causes
its evolution of heat.
CHAPTER LXV
ELECTRIC SIGNALLING
TO A DISTANCE
THE chief
use,
besides those hitherto
mentioned, to which
electricity*
is
put,
is the old-established
one
of
signalling
to
a
distance.
"
679
:
The first successful Electric
Telegraph was a
form of
'
needle
'
instrument. An installationof these
nowadays
consists
of
(a)
a
battery
of Leclanche
or
Daniell cells
supplying
about
1 volt
per
mile of line
;
(b)
a
sendingkey
which is
some
pattern
of
quickly
worked
reversing key ;
(c)
the familiar insulated line of
galvanized
iron
or
copper
wire
;
(d)
the
receiver,a
rough
sort of
galvanometer,
with
a
vertical
magnet closely
surrounded
by
a
pair
of coils. The
magnet
is
weighted
to
keep
it vertical when at
rest,
and its horizontal axle
projects through
the dial of the instrument
and bears the
'
needle.' Two little
cylinders
of thin
steel,
like
penholder
ends,are
usually
fixed
on
the dial
;
struck
by
the needle
in its movements to
right
and left
they
tinkle in different
keys,
and
save
watching
the needle
; (e)
the earth
return,
the current
being
turned adrift from
a
buried metal
plate
to find its
way
back
to the sender
or
to
mingle
with,
and be neutralized
by,
other
stray
earth currents.
The Morse
apparatus
has
a simple
key
which the sender
depressessharply
or more
steadily,
and sends currents to
line for
about
*
sec. or
|
sec.
The receiver is
a
spring
bar
holding
an
armature
just
over an
electro-magnet.
The bar
moves
noisily
between the
tips
of two
screws so
that
a
couple
of
taps signalize
the start and
stop
of current. In
a
recording
instrument the bar
has
a
long
tail
bearing
an
ink- wheel which
presses
against
a
runningtape
of
paper
and converts the short and
long
currents
into
'
dots and dashes.'
The Wheatstone recorder has
lightermoving parts
and iron-
less coils and is worked
very
rapidly
from
an
automatic trans- mitter
through
which
a
previouslypunched tape
is
running
at
400 words
per
minute.
41 641
642 A HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS
On
long
lines the
joint
effects of
leakage
and
capacity
enfeeble
the currents
so
much that
they
can
work
only
miniature instru- ments,
called
relays.
The
relay
then makes and breaks the
current from
a
local
battery
to actuate the
sounder,etc.,
or on
very
long
lines to
pass
on to the next
relay
200 miles
or so
ahead.
With
long
submarine cables still
more
sensitive instruments
must be
employed.
The
superintendent
of the first Atlantic
cable,
impressedby
its
length,
used induction coils and trans- formed
up
his
sending
pressure
above
10,000
volts. That the cable
spoke
for six weeks
was
hightestimony
to the excellence of its
gutta-perchacovering.
The next cable
was
worked
by
William
Thomson,
Lord
Kelvin,
with
a
Daniell cell and "he mirror
'
speaking
'
galvanometer
he invented for the
purpose.
His
siphon
recorder,now
in
use on
all
cables,
is
a
largemoving-coil
galvanometer
with
a
capillary pointerthrough
which ink
oozes
on to a
runningtape
:
frictionbetween
pen
and
paper
is avoided
by keeping
the
tape trembling,
so
that the record is
really
a
string
of fine
dots,
waving ^
in.
right
or
left
according
to the current
received.
"
680 : Duplexing a
line makes it
possible
to send
messages
both
ways
at
once
and doubles its
earningcapacity.
One
way
of
effecting
it is to wind each
receiving
instrument with two
equal
coils. The sender's current divides and
passes
opposite
ways
through
his
own instrument,
half then
passes
out to line and
round
a
coil of B's instrument and the other half
passes
through
a
rheostat and back to
battery
:
the sender
keeps
the rheostat
adjusted
so
that the halves
are
equal,
and then his
own
instru- ment
does not
respond,
while B's does. But if
B,
simulta
neouslypressing
his
key,
connects his
battery
to
line,
he chokes
the line and both
'
line
'
coils
against
A's
current,
and both
instruments now
respond
to the currents
through
the
'
rheostat
'
coils,
just
as
if current had
come
by
line to both.
"
681.
In the
'microphone
transmitter' of the
Telephone
the
sound waves set into vibration
a
thin
plate,apparently
made of
hard
compressed
carbon and
graphite;
5
mm.
behind this is
a
fixed
plate,
and between them is
a
heap
of
grains
of
very
hard
carbon.
Encircling
this black
glittering
sand is
a
wall of soft
felt,
and
dispersed
among
it
are some
studs of felt which hinder it
from
'
packing,'
see
Fig.
337
(front
view
on left).
The
slightest
compression
of this
granular
mass
by
the
vibratingdiaphragm
reduces its resistance and
so
alters the
current,
from
a
couple
of
644 A HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS
which the current has
to
expend
energy
in
overcoming.
This
energy
is restored to the short rush of current
as
it dies
away,
for
the
returning
lines cut back
through
the circuit and
now
produce
a
direct e.m.f. which forces the
current to continue until it has
charged
the
jaroppositely.
The
jar
will
discharge
back,
and
so
on,
and
a
swinging
to and fro of
electricity
will
go
on, just
as
water
will oscillate in
a
bath
or a U-tube
into which
more
has been
poured
at
one
end. The resistance of the circuit
ultimately
subdues the
oscillation,
just
as
fluid friction
brings
the water to
rest.
The
periodic
time of oscillation
can
be shown to be
2?rX
^/(capacity
of
jar
x
inductance of
circuit),
both measured in
electro-magnetic
units.
The
spark
of
a
jar
to a
short
discharging
wire is
a
single
flash,
but when the
discharging
circuit is
a
bulky
coil of stout
thickly
insulated wire
a
photograph
of the
spark
taken with
a
rapidly
moving
lens shows it to consist of
a score or more flashes,an
oscillatory discharge
with
a
period
of
perhaps
-00005
sec.
Large
jars
and coilswill
even
produce
a
sparkoscillating slowlyenough
to be heard
as a
short dull musical
note.
If
an
inductance coil
and
large
condenser in series
are
connected
as a
shunt
across an
arc
lamp
the
arc
likewise oscillates and
'
sings
'
drearily.
"
683
: Electro-magnetic
Waves.
Suppose
electric
charges
are
oscillating
in the
conductor,
Fig.
339.
As
two
opposite
chargesseparate
and
move
off
to
charge
the ends
oppositely,
lines of electric force
spread
out
between them. And the
move- ment
of
-f-electricity
downwards
and - -
upwards
is of
course
equivalent
to a
double current
flowing
down,
and sends forth
circular lines of
magnetic
force.
Thus at
any
external
point
there
will be
an
electric force in the
plane
of the wire
(the
feathered
arrows)
and
a
magnetic
force at
rightangles
to it
(the
broad
arrows).
V
FIG. 339.
ELECTRIC SIGNALLING 645
During
the return
swing
this
electro-magnetic system
is
gradu- ally
withdrawn and
replacedby
a
reversed
system.
But if the
oscillations become
very
rapid
there
conies
about
a
remarkable
change.
Suppose
a
piston
is
being
worked
up
and down in
an
open
cylinder.
The air
near
by
moves
to and
fro,
its motion is not
perceptible
ten feet
away.
But let the
piston
move a
few hundred
short strokes
a second,
and
strong
sound
waves are
'
radiated out
'
and
can
affect the
ear or
other detectors at
long
distances.
Similarly,
when the electric oscillations become
very
rapid
the
electro-magnetic
lines
no
longerquietly
return to the wire
to be
replacedby
a
reversed
system,
but
are
driven out
and
away
at
great speed
as
successive
waves,
each
wave
bearing
in its front
an
electric force
parallel
to the conductor and
a
magnetic
force at
rightangles
to it,
and in its back
equal
reversed forces. Each
pair
of
oscillating chargesoriginates,
per
wave,
a
pair
of closed
loops
of electric
force,
formed
as
in
Fig.
339
by
the
crossing
of the
line of force
joining
them when the
charges
rush
past
each
other,
and the
subsequentbreakingapart
at the knot.
"
684. The
apparatus
of
Fig.
340
is
employed
to
produce
electro-magnetic
oscillations of
highfrequency.
Current is
sent
from
a
battery
B
through
a
key
K and
a
vibrating
break of
some
FIG. 340. FIG. 341.
646 A HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS
sort into
an
induction coil C which at
every
'
break
'
overcharges
the inner
coatings
1 1 of
two
leydenjars.They discharge through
the short
spark
gap
shown. This circuit II has
very
littleself-
inductance and the
spark
is
a
single
short
discharge
:
various
means,
such
as
burnishing
the
knobs,
and
enclosing
them in
an
atmosphere
of
coal-gas,
are
employed
to increase its
abruptness.
The
charging
of 1 1 with
+
and " involves the
charging
of the
outer
coatings
J J with " and
-\-charges,
which travel round
through
P, a
coil of
two or
three wide turns of stout
copper
wire.
After the
spark
the
charges
on
J J
are
left in the circuit
JPJ,
which
possesses
capacity
in J J and small self-inductance in coil P
;
consequentlythey
oscillate to and fro in
an
alternating
current
of
high frequencythrough
P.
"
685. The
Lodge ignition
for
gas
engines
is
a
littlemodification
of the above
;
it has
a
sparkingplug
connected
as a
shunt
across
the
greaterpart
of coil P. The
comparatively
slow
charging
of
J J
brings
current round
through
P,
but the sudden
discharge
jumps
the
plug
in
a
blazingoscillatory spark,
it
being
easier for it
to do this than to force its
way
all round P
against
the back
e.m.f. which is
always
called into existence
by
a
sudden
attempt
to establish the
largemagnetic-line system
of
an
inductive circuit.
The
'
high-frequency
'
apparatus
of the medical electrician
is the above with the addition of
a
prolongation
R of the coil
P,
usually
a
winding
of
a
few dozen turns of bare wire
on a
varnished
wooden
post perhaps
20
cm.
diam. and 50
cm.
high.
This
long
coil
'
resounds
'
electrically
to the oscillation in
P, just
like
a
resonance
pipe
to
a whistle,
and
high-frequencydischarges
of
varyingintensity
can
be drawn from different
parts
of
it,
throughheavily
insulated
leads,
to
suitable electrodes. In
some
patterns
R is
separate
from P and then functions
as
does
Q,
below.
"
686
:
For
Wireless-Telegraph
purposes
another coil
Q
of
a
few
open
turns is
placed
coaxial
with
P, so
that P and
Q
form
primary
and
secondary
coils of
an
ironless
transformer,"
603.
One end of
Q
is connected to
an
earth
plate,
the other
runs
up
to
the
'
aerial
'
of several
highly
insulated wires stretched from mast to mast.
This extensive
system
"
Aerial,
coil
Q,
earth "
possesses
about
the
same
capacity
and inductance
as
circuitJPJ. These circuits
are
therefore
'
in tune
'
and the oscillations
in P
readily
induce
similar oscillations in the
wider-spreadsystem,
and it
gives
off
longelectro-magnetic
waves
into
space,
each
containingpairs
of
ELECTRIC SIGNALLING 647
half-loops
of electric
force,
their cut ends
travelling
on
the
surface of earth and
sea
(suggested by
the broken
line,
Fig.339).
When these
come across a
similar
'
aerial
'
system
an
electric line
finds itself
meeting
an
insulated wire in two
places,
and forthwith
contracts and
disappears, drawing together+
and "
charges
at its
ends,
i.e.
causing
a
small current to flow in the receiver's
coil
Q',
shown
edge-on
in
Fig.
341.
This induces
a
similar small current
in
P',
which the receiver
has switched
on
to
a
circuit
containing
a coherer,
F. This instru- ment
consists of
some sort of
'
loose
contact,'so
bad that the
J
volt derived from
a
local
battery
sends no
current
through
it.
There
are
many
forms,
that shown consists of
a
heap
of 2
or
3
cubic
millimetres of fine silver and nickel
filings lying
between
metal
plugs
in
a
sealed tube.
Immediately
the feeble but
high-pressure
oscillation-current
traverses the bad contacts of the
filing heap,etc.,
this
begins
to
conduct
quiteeasily,
and the
battery
sends
a
sudden current
largeenough
to make
an
audible
signal
in
a
telephone
T.
'
De-
coherence
'
after the
waves
have
passed
is effected
by
a
quick
tap
from
an
automatic hammer
on
the
filing
tube. Thus the
receiver's
telephone
murmurs as
long
as
the sender
keeps
his
coil in action
by holding
down his Morse
key,
and the
message
is
spelled
out in dots and dashes.
"
687
:
The
same
principle
is
being
worked out in connection
with the
more
rapid
succession of
signals
which
go
to build
up
vocal
sounds,
but there is also another
quite
distinct
variety
of
wireless
telephony.
A thin
smear
of the element
selenium,
spread
on a
surface
so as to
join
the
edges
of metal
electrodes,
possesses
a
fairlyhigh
resistance which is
greatly
diminished
during
its
exposure
to
light.
In
a
photophonic
transmitter
a
strong
beam of
light
is reflected from
a
thin silvered
diaphragm
to the distant
receiver,
where
a
lens concentrates it
on
the
selenium
'
cell
'
which is in circuit with
a
battery
and
telephone
receiver. The vibrations of the transmitter
diaphragm
when
spoken to,
scatter the beam and
so
alter the
brightness
of
illumination of the
selenium,
this varies the current
and the
telephonereproducesspeech.
There
are
obvious
limitations,
and
no
great
distance has been reached.
The selenium cell is in
use
in the transmitter and receiver
of
a
successful
telectrograph,
for
sendingpictures
over a
tele- graph
wire,
and both
principles
have been
employed
in
a
'
wireless
telectrograph.'
648 A HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS
"
688 : Relation between electro-static and
electro-magnetic
units.
The reader has found two
completely
different
sets of definitions
of electrical
units,
the Electro-static units of
Chapter
LVI which
start with the unit
quantityrepelling
unit
quantity
1
cm.
distant
with
a
force of 1
dyne,
and the other the
Electro-magnetic
units
of
Chapters
LVIII, LIX,
where the unit
quantity
is that carried
past
in 1
sec.
by
a current whose conductor
experiences
a
force
of 1
dyne
per
cm.
length
as
it
crosses
unit
magnetic
field. The
latter
quantity
is
enormouslygreater
than the former. Both
systems originate quitenaturally,
and it is worth while
inquiring
how
many
electro-staticunit
charges
go
to make
up
the electro- magnetic
unit
(thedeca-coulomb).
The measurement is made
experimentallyby
the
use
of
a
parallel -plate
air
condenser,
"
580,
of calculable electro-static
capacityS/47r".
This is
charged
from
a
battery
n
(say50)
times
a
second and
as
frequentlydischargedthrough
a
differential
galvanometer,
in which this outflow is balanced
against
the
current sent from the
same
batterythrough
a
known
high
resistance R. Then
[Electro-static] ($/4t7tt)XnX voltage
of
battery
=
voltage/R[Electro-magnetic]
T"Q
or
-7
- electro-staticunits of
quantity
=1
electro-magnetic
4-Trt
unit.
The number
proves
to be
3xl010,
thirty
thousand
million,
and hence the Coulomb is three thousand million electro-static
units of
charge.
Now the
question
can
be
put
in another
way,
and the
answer
reveals that this value is
no mere
accident of
numbers,
but has
a
physicalmeaning
of the
greatest
interest. Instead of
asking
how
vast
a
horde of electro-static units must be driven
past
a
given
point
in
a second,
give
a
single
unit
a
centimetre
length
of circuit
all to itself"
say
a
ring
1
cm.
circumference " and
give
it the
task of
imitating
1-cm.
length
of unit
(electro-magnetic)
current "
of
producing
the
same
magnetic
effect
as
1
decamp, flowing
round the
ring.
How fast must it
move ?
Evidently
it must
pass
a
givenpoint
3xl010 times
per
sec.,
consequently
its
speed
must be 3x
1010
cm.
per
sec.
The
perfectly
natural
way
in which this number has arisen
suggests
that this
actually
is the
speed
of free movement of
an
ELECTRIC SIGNALLING
(ill)
electric
charm'
'" ;l
conductor.
Now each
charge
has its lines
of electric
force,
and the attached ends of these must
keep
pace
with it
; any
standing
out
perpendicularly
to
the conductor must
therefore
move perpendicularly
to themselves at this
same
speed.
The lines of
Fig.
339 as
theyspread
are
moving
at
rightangles
to themselves at
this
speed
:
it is the
speed of
travel
of
an
Electro-magnetic
Wave.
Turn to
" 481,
it is the
speedofLight.
"
689 :
The
length
in centimetres
of
an electro-magnetic
wave
can
be shown to be
27T\/IJC
where L is the self-inductance of the
circuit
radiating
it,
denned
as
in
"604 (the
number
of unit
magnetic
lines linked with the circuit when 1
decamp,
flows in
it)
and C is the
capacity
of the
circuit,
measured
as
in
"
578.
The
length
of the
waves
employed
in wireless
telegraphy
is
I
to 1 km. For
experiments
in
rooms
shorter
waves are
produced
by
the much
simpleroscillating
circuit
with which Hertz
first realized
the theoretical
predictions
of Maxwell. It
con- sists
of
a
couple
of zinc
plates
in the
same
vertical
plane
with
a
horizontal brass rod
joining
them,
except
for
a
small
spark
gap
in its middle. The
plates
are
charged by
induc- tion
coil,
to
the ends of which
they
are
directly
wired,
and
they discharge
across
the
gap
in
an
oscillatory spark.
A
pair
of
plates
1 ft. diam. would have
a
capacity
somewhere
about
5,
and 1
J
ft.of
J-in.straight
rod a
self-inductance about
600,
hence
an
oscillatorof these dimensions radiates
waves
about
27T\/600x
5
= 350 cm.
long.
As detector
(resonator)
one
would
use a
yard
of
wire,
held
parallel
to the
oscillator,
and
interrupted
in the
middle
by
a
very
minute
spark
gap
or
by
a
coherer. Shorter
waves are
obtained from
an
oscillator which is
merely
a
brass
knob,
the
opposite
sides of which receive
-f-
and "
charges
throughsparks
from smaller
knobs,
and
on
which these
charges
then oscillate
[cf.
the
oscillating drops
of
" 253].
These
waves
have been
diffracted, reflected, focussed,
refracted
.
in
prisms
of brimstone
or
pitch,
shown to be
polarized,
etc.
; they
thus
possess
the
general
characters of
light
waves
of
exaggerated
size.
Waves
only
-3 cm.
long
have been obtained from
oscillating
circuits which
were
short lines of silver
on
glass.
'
Heat
'
waves -03
cm.
long
have
lately
been detected
(see"503)
by
the
energy
theybring
to the bolometer
: no one
doubts that
these
waves
of
'
dark heat
'
travel at the
same speed
as
light.
Light
is
nowadays regarded
as
the
electro-magnetic
radiation
650 A HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS
from
charges(electrons)
oscillating
in
an atom of the luminous
substance
:
the small dimensions have shortened the
waves
to
"0008-0004 cm.
Rontgen
radiation has been
experimentally
found to travel at
the
same
speed
as
light.
It starts from the anticathode of dense
metal in which it is believed that the electrons
flying
from the
cathode
(" 670)
are
very
abruptlystopped.
This is
a
much
more
violent
change
of
velocity
than
occurs
among
the
vibrating
electrons of the
atom,
and the radiation consists of electro- magnetic
pulses
much shorter than
light
waves.
These sudden
pulses
can
therefore
sweep
over
atoms and be
gone
without
setting
the contained electrons into
sympathetic
vibration
;
the
latter therefore cannot affect their
speed
:
Rontgen
rays
suffer
no
refraction.
"
690.
Electricity
in Medicine.
With
Gilbert,
the
physician
of
Colchester,
the science of Fric-
tional
Electricity began
:
to
Galvani,
the anatomist of
Bologna,
must be credited the first discoveries in the
quieter
realm of
Current
Electricity.
In 1791 he
published
the results of his
studies in
a
Commentarius de viribus Electricitatisin Motu Mus-
culari,
and it is
only appropriate
that
a
branch of electro- therapeutics
should stillbe
distinguished
as Galvanism,
while
the work of Volta of
Pavia,
developingalongphysical
lines"
showing
e.g.
that salt water
was as
effective
as
living
tissue" is
commemorated in the title of Voltaic
Electricity applied
to the
whole science of
currents
producedby
chemical
means.
The armament
of the Galvanist consists of
a
battery
of several
small
cells"
dry
cells
nowadays"
of which
any
number
can
be
brought
into
use
by
a
'
collector
'
switch
so as
to
yieldsteady
electro-motive forces from 10 to 70
volts. There is
a
variable
resistance
or
'
rheostat
'
in circuit and the leads terminate in
electrodes"
pads
and
plates
of
metal,
moist
leather,
sponge,
etc. "
which
are
applied
to the
patient's
skin. A
steady
current of about
1
milliampere
(-001amp.)
per sq.
cm. soon
produces
local
tingling
and
burning
sensations,
with
a
reddening,
due to increased
vascularity,
of the skin. With
a
small electrode and
heavy
current
(15
to 250
milliamperes),
destruction of the tissues
ensues.
If in
Electrolysisa
negative
needle is
plunged
in
(as
for
the removal of
hair)
while the
positive
electrode is
a
large
surface
plate,
the tissue round the needle breaks down into
a
frothy
alkaline
liquid;
if it is at the
positive
electrode that the
652 A HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS
dependable
source
is found in the
arc,
or
in
strong
coil
sparks
between iron
points,
and the radiation from these
(filtered
if
necessary
from its heat
by passing through water)
when
con- centrated
by
quartz
lenses and
compressors
is
an
established
remedy
for
some
cutaneous
diseases. The
silica-glass
mercury
vapour
lamp gives
out
a
flood of ultra-violet and is
coming
into
use as a
convenient and
powerful
sterilizer for water
:
ten
seconds'
stirring
within
ten centimetres of the
lamp
is
ample.
The
(3
and
y
radiations from radio-active materials
coagulate
and kill morbid tissue
through
which
they
pass,
and
as they are
easy
of
application
and
highly penetrative
much is
hoped
for from
their
use.
ANSWERS
CHAPTER
II,
pp.
12-H
2.
m.p.h. x
44-704.
3. 37 X 1-152 =
42-7,
i.e. knots to
m.p.h.
add about 1 in 7.
4. Knots
x 51-43.
5. 20-4
sec.
and 30-6 sec.
The easiest
way
of
finding
your
speed
in the train.
6. 32-2.
9. 9
sec.
10. 110 ft.
12. 10
cm./sec.2.
15, 25, 35,
45
cm./sec.
13. 105 ft.
/sec.2
17. 1 ft.
/sec.2
6-2 tons wt. = 6-l
x
109
dynes.
18. 2-24
x
108
dynes
= -228 ton \vt, 33 ft.
20. 1011
dynes.
22.
(i)-7xl09dynes.
23. 83-3
cm./sec.
24. 3480
cm./sec.
27. 3-75
x
109
dynes
= about
3| tons.
CHAPTER
III,
p.
21
2. From food-reserves of
body,
to be
spent
in
acquiringgravitational
potential
energy,
and in friction. Gets hot for
physiological
reasons.
5. 18
: 1,
-4.
Absurdly strong man, nearly f h.p.
6. 2-1
h.p.
7. 10-5
m.p.h.
10.
1-12,
-4.
11. 80 Ib.
wt.,
1-625 ft.
/sec.
CHAPTER
IV,
p.
26
1. 985-5
cm./sec.2
6. 32
".
2. 30 ft.
/sec.
2-
7. 32.
5. 70
cm./sec.
8. 61 and 62
grm.
CHAPTER
V,
p.
32
1.
Super-elevation
of outer rail interferes to
some extent.
3. 99-4
cm. = 39-14
in.,
seconds
pendulum.
4. 1-1075
sec.
653
654 A HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS
5.
1,973,000 dynes,
about 4 times the
weight.
6. 313
cm.
/see.
7. 3-385
dynes.
8. -588
dyne.
9. About 100 m.
per
sec.
10.
23,660.
11.
17"
tons
per sq.
cm., practicallybreaking
strain of hardest steel.
CHAPTER
VI,
p.
46
16. i W. 17. 8 Ib. in
string,
5 Ib.
on
wall.
CHAPTER
VII,
p.
54
1. 1-804 x
1010
grm.
cm.2 units.
2. -243 xlO10.
3.
J
x
(2-047Xl010)x(27rx240~60)2
= 6-44
x 1012
ergs
=
86" h.p.
for 10
sec.
5. 2000x60x981
ergs
=
"I(2S-8-^3)2.
6.
They
are
equal ; rollinghoop
has twice the
energy
of
one
slid
along ground.
7.
Speeds equal ; "
54.
8. 1-57
sec.
;
1-64
sec.
9. 337, 334-2
[neglecting
breadths
333-3],
4-2.
10. As
v (337 + 554) : v/337,
16-25
sec.
12. Machine
going
North rotor
points
W.,
falling
to E.
gives a rotor
pointing
N.
.'. resultant rotor
points
W.
by N.,
i.e. wheel
slews round towards East.
CHAPTER
VIII,
p.
65
1. 101 Ib.
per sq.
in.=total 9. 179
grm.
/cm.2
forced area of valve. 10. 40
oz.
2. 155 Ib. 12. 312 Ib.
4. 1615 ft. 13. 10
m.
5. 1033
; 1,016,000. 14.
432,000
ft. Ib.
6. 113-3
m.
CHAPTER
X,
pp.
78,
79
1. 0-74.
3. 8-02.
5. Bx5-5 = 6xl3-6
+ (B-6)x 1-46;
6/B =
l/3.
6. 80
grm.
transferred.
7. 1-2 tons.
8. As 8:
11,
64 and 88
c,c.
9. 1-08
cm.,
20
cm.
11.
Sp.
gr.
liq.(x"z)l(x"y),
sol.
xj(x
"
y). Density
w times as
much.
12. Sol. 2-40,
liq.
-81.
13.
12/15
= -80.
14.
" oz.
15. 30
cu.
in.
16. Bxl-4 =
(B +
5
in.)
X 1-2;
30 in.
17. 1-54.
18. 2-1.
ANSWERS 655
CHAPTER
XI,
p.
84
1. 28: 1.
2. 3-7
:
1.
3. P must be in
dynes,
1414
cm.
/sec.
4. 1085
cm./sec.,
195-3 litres.
5. About 1,200,000
dynes
or 1-2
kg.
G.
(1-57x3000)
grm.
x
3000
dynes
= 14
kg.
CHAPTER
XII,
p.
94
3.
200,000
and
1,200,000
7. 1 in.
kg./cm.2.
8. 28- 15 in.
4. 50
grm.,
=49,000.
10. 1-20 ft.
5. 0-17 in. below
top.
11. 7
ft.,10,500 lb.,
367
cu.
ft.
6. 40 ft. 5 in. 12. 500 m.
per
sec.
CHAPTER
XIV,
p.
112
6. 801-085.
7.
Quartz
loses in air
-0450,
platinum
-0056
grm.
/. put
39-5
mg.
with
quartz
when
testing.
CHAPTER
XV,
pp.
129,
130
4. 43
tons.
14. -00001.
15.
6Jin.
16. Increases -0045 c.c.
17. 0-918
c.c.
20. 26 in.
21. As in Ex. 8 calculate increased
area
;
then
mercury
must
increase its own total
height
twice
4/3
X
42
X -000012 in. How
much will do this ? 8-4 in.
22. -0165 in.
23. 4-4 tons.
24. -000825.
27. -0001815.
30. -00366.
31. 15-5".
33.
d0/(l" at)
"
d0/(l"at').
Viscous forces.
CHAPTER
XVI,
p.
145
9. -0358cm.
10. 258-6" C.
12. 122"
F.,
-40" F.
; 13J"
C.,
-17-78" C.
13. See
especially
under Radiation.
15. 8-13 atmos.
16.
31,200.
17. 14-22 litres.
18.
R=-25,
Ab Zero- -270" C.
;
1330" C
19. 775
c.c.
20. 21.55.
656 A HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS
CHAPTER
XVII,
p.
151
6. 45-2".
7. 5-5
grm.
of water.
8. 13-6.
10. 31-7".
11. -203.
12. -034.
13. 1 hour.
14. 1-2.
15. 1-85 tons.
16. 900"
17. 0-3.
CHAPTER
XVIII,
pp.
157,
158
9. 80 cals.
per grm.
10. 79-53.
11. 625
grm.
12. 10".
13. 10".
14.
146,800
cals.
per
hour.
15.
940,000 tons.
16. -1-45".
17. 9-15 cm.
18. 529 cals.
per grm.
19. 5 Ib.
20. 2420 and 5345 tons.
21. 87
kg.
22. 1-63
grm.
23. 19
grm.
24. 11-1
grm.
25.
727,000
cals.
26. 91-33,
sp.
ht. not
required.
27. 57-5
kg.
28. 116-7
kg.
29.
344kg.
6. V:S = 34: 53.
7. -0002.
8. 825 cals.
9. 134".
CHAPTER
XX,
pp.
170,
171
10. 7i million cals.
11.
-0"003.
12. 8
grm.
13. -000217.
CHAPTER XXI,
pp.
2. 4-23
joules
per
calorie. 13.
3. 39-3".
6. 40-0",
40-1". 14.
7.
91,600 cm.
/sec.
15.
8. 28,400
cm./sec.
16.
9. 87" F.
17.
10.
3| grains.
18.
11. 4-18
x
107
ergs.
19.
12. One-twentieth
degree
C.
174,
175
7J
km.
per
sec. (most
are
3 to
6 times
as
fast).
15 ft.-tons.
1
oz.
"243.
141b.
"092.
"00147,
contractor
quite
con- tent,
-0000275.
CHAPTER
XXIII,
p.
206
2. Consult the tables.
4. Double the
partialpressure
of the air. 65-5
cm.
5.
Figs.
83,
102.
6. 2-37 atmos.
7. -987 lit.
14. 0-2875
grm.
15. 0-248
grm.
3. 73-73
cm.
4. Use
Fig.
83.
CHAPTER XXV,
p.
216
Doubled.
ANSWERS
657
5.
7/760
of
9/14-4
of
mass
of 1
cu. m.
air at 20". 7
grm.
7.
Improbable,
because
so much moisture
forming
mist between
42" and 32" and
checking
radiation. If
dew-point
below 32"
frost
probable.
8.
-20,
arid.
CHAPTER
XXVIII,
p.
240
2. 1-03 cm. 6. 3
cm.
; 2"
m.
3.
Tju^inr
atmo. 7. -12cm.
CHAPTER
XXIX,
p.
255
5. 94-5 cm.
mercury.
CHAPTER
XXXIV,
p.
295
3.
llOOft./sec.
4.
324m./sec.
CHAPTER
XXXV,
p.
304
2. 109.
3.
-01n=l(n +
10/3),
333
min./sec.
10. 270
puffs
per
sec.,
see
Chapter
xxxvi.
CHAPTER
XXXVI,
pp.
317,
318
1. Time reduced. 9. 192.
3. A. 10. 3-5.
5. 666 or 1332,
e" or e". 11. 4-1 : 1.
6. Nil
(unless
fork sounds trace 12. 1-13:1.
of
octave) :
-
: nil : re-
13. 258.
sounds : nil. 15. 1012
dynes/cm.2.
CHAPTER
XXXVII, p.'
330
6.
S/10, S/8.
CHAPTER
XXXVIII,
p.
338
8. 10 in. from smaller between the
lamps
;
and 58 in.
beyond
smaller.
9. 60" from
perpendicular.
CHAPTER
XXXIX,
pp.
351,
352
18.
1-734; 35J".
19. 46".
CHAPTER
XL,
p.
370
2.
7"
in.
3.
/
=
20/34
ft.
;
6 =
20/33
ft.
4.
20/21
ft.= 11-43 in.
9. Identical with
curve
for distances from focus in
mirrors, and
obtainable
similarly.
10. 12 in.
concave.
11. Concave 17-4 in. or convex
13-2 in. focus.
42
658
A HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS
12. 12-7 in. from
object.
13. -2
or
-8m.
14. 2-41 in.
16. 1-33.
18. 1-1 in.
19. 6-6-in. radius.
IJin.
or
3 in.
CHAPTER
XLI,
p.
377
5. One
upright
virtual
apparently J
diam. below
surface,
other
inverted real
actually$
diam. in front of back surface.
6. Both become
larger
and come forward. No.
7. 6 ft. No real
image.
8. 4-3 ft.
10.
25
cm.
12. 30 cm.
13.
Compare
Fig.
178 viii,
1-538.
CHAPTER
XLIII,
p.
385
1.
43
cm.
3. A distance
beyond
the second lens
(a)
3 in.,
(b)
2-73 in.,
(c)zero,
(d) infinity.
CHAPTER
XLV,
p.
407
1. The farther
edge.
CHAPTER XL
VI,
pp.
415,
416
5. 6 in. concave.
6.
25 cm. concave or
"4
Diopters.
7. 9-6 in. concave
;
18 in.
convex.
8. " 5D
;
20 cm.
and
infinity.
11. "200
cm.,
8-5
cm.
;
-123.
12. If
very
near surface,
cf.
"
368.
CHAPTER XL
VII,
p.
438
1. 1-6 in. from lens.
2. 64-3 in.
square.
450 : 1.
5.
Drawn out.
9.
4"
and H in.
12. A
convex
lens at whose
principal
focal distance is
a concave
mirror the centre of curvature of which is at the
optical
centre
of the lens. See
Fig.
229. In
use as a
reflex
rear-lighton
bicycles.
CHAPTER
XLIX,
p.
451
1. Does not. 5. 3xl010
cm.
/sec.
4. 300,000 km./sec.
6.
315,000,000
m./sec.
CHAPTER
LIII,
p.
497
7. 1 =
10,
fc= 20. 21. 2-78-l-02
+
-207 = l-967
19. 0-98.
dyne.
20. -0075
dyne.
22. 62-6 units.
23. 0-1437
dyne.
660 A HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS
CHAPTER
LXI,
p.
597
1. Use sensitive
galvanometer
;
and
"
632.
2. 1-98 volts.
5. Work voltmeter
by a battery
and
adjustable
resistance and
bring
a
pair
of wires from its terminals
up
to the
potentiometer.
CHAPTER
LXII,
pp.
606-608
1. 1492
amps.,
14-92 volts.
3.
By voltmeter, ammeter,
and
photometer.
4. 1:2-6: 2.
8. 1
:
150.
9. 55
watts,
-5 watt.
11. Diameter
:
square
of
length = constant.
12. 9
:
1.
14.
A! =
120-^300/250, A2 = 122^-300/150
;
A!(B + 300/250)
= A2
(B + 300/150). /.
B
= -0515 ohm. 48 watts.
15. 12 min.
16.
A2R/J
per
cm. = l
x -021-^(7rX4-2),
hence
per sq.
cm.
-025 cal.
per
sec.
17. As 1-04R
:
10"
: : 4(1 + -0040R : t",
45-5".
18. Losses in mains 50 watts and 2 watts
(Note " wires
unchanged)
;
16
shillings.
CHAPTER
LXIII,
pp.
627,
628
1.
(b)
Non-conductor.
4. 50 hours.
6. -04 volt
high.
15. -285x3 = -856
grm.
17. B and second
galvanometer
very
different in resistance from A
and first.
18.
E/(R+l-8)
=
l/3, E/(R + 2-9)
=
l/4. .'.
E =
M
volt, R'Jnternal
= 1-5 ohm.
19. E
= 2x2,
R =
"(2x-5),
3-3
amp.
20. Total R =
2+l/("+i),
E
= l-07.
/.
-284
amp.
which
deposits
"335
grm.
-2842x 2x 3600
-f-
4-2
=
138 calories in cell. 50-5
in 4
ohms,
68 in 3 ohms.
21. In two series of six
each,
voltage = 6V,
resistance in cct. = (2x6-1-2) +
4.
In three series of four
each,
voltage = 4V,
resistance in cct. = (2x4^3) +
4.
Latter
consumes only f as
much zinc.
22. As
voltages dissipated
in
cell,
viz.
1-5/51-5
:
1 = -029
: 1.
23. 8
ohms,
8 volts.
24. 0-5
amp.,
2-1
" -5
x '45=1-875 volts.
25. No current
through
8-volt
battery,
i
amp.
elsewhere.
26. AB
1-56,
BC
0-40,
CA -1-96 volts.
INDEX
(TO PAGES)
Aberrations of mirrors and
lenses,
401
Acceleration,
6
Accumulators, 618
Activity
and
reactivity,
10
Air
pumps,
62
Altitude and
temperature,
218
Amagat,
92
Ammeters,
567
Ampere, the,
577
Ampere's rule,
546
Amplitude,
257
Aneroid,
69
Angle,
measurement of,
105
Animal
calorimetry,
156,
163
Anode and cathode, 609
Anomalous
dispersion,
394
Anticyclones,
224
Aperture
in
optical
instruments,
439
Apparatus
of
precision,
95
Approximations
useful in calcu- lation,
112
Arc, electric,636
Archimedes,
principleof,
73
Area,
measurement
of,
104
Astigmatic beams,
403
"
eye,
413
Astronomical
masses,
25
Atmolysis,
243
Atomic
heat,
151
Atwood's
machine,
22
Balance,
108
" ratio of
arms,
109
"
rider, 109
"
sensitiveness, 109
"
wheel,
compensated,
119
Balancing
columns of
fluid,
75
Barker's
mill,
83
Barlow's
wheel, etc.,
547
Barometer, 67
"
heights by,
71
"
temperature
correction,
126
Batteries,
electric or voltaic,
620
Beats, 296,
299
Black
body,
465
Blue
sky,
398
Boiling,
193
Bolometer,
464
Bourdon
gauge,
70
Boyle's law,
90
Brownian
motion,
246
B.T.Unit, 599
Bulk
modulus,
86
Calorescence, 395
Calorie,
146
Calorimeter,
148
"
ice,
and
steam,
155
Camera
lenses,
420
"
lucida,
431
Capillarity,
231
Catadioptriclantern,
418
Cathetometer, 104
Cathode
rays,
632
Caustics,
401
Cautery, 601,
651
Centimetre -
gramme
- second
sys- tem,
2
Centre of
gravity,
or
mass,
36
Centrifugalforce,
28
Charles's
law,
127
Chladni's
figures,
320
Chromatic
aberration,
404
Chronograph,
107, 298
Clocks, 106
Coherer,
647
Colloids and
crystalloids,
245
Colour, 386,
392
Comparator,
117
Compound bar,
119
661.
662 A HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS
Compound
harmonic
motion,
258
Compressibility,
86
Conduction, 162,
165
Conductivities, thermal,
170
"
electrical,580
Conservation of
energy,
18
Constraints, 95
Convection, 162,
164
Cooling,
Newton's
law,
159
Coronse, 397
Coulomb, the,
572
Couples,
47
Critical
state,
201
Cryophorus,
199
Curvature,
104
Curve,
movement
in,
27
Cyclones,
222
Damping,
264
Decampere,
553
Density,73,
110
" of
gases,
81,
111
" of
vapour,
188
Depressions,
222
Dew,
218
Diagonal scale,
101
Dialysis,
245
Diamagnetism,
479
Diathermancy,
461
Diffraction,
275
"
colours,
397
"
grating,277, 388,
446
Diffusion,
241
Diffusivity,
242
Dilatometers,
121
Diopters,
359
Dispersion,optical,
404
Dissipation
of
energy,
18
Doppler'sprinciple,285, 328,
391
Double
refraction,
453
Dust,
atmospheric,
217,
398
"
tube,
303
Dynamo,
558
Dynamometers,
20
Dyne,
8
Ear,
323
Earth inductor,
556
Ebullition,
186
Echo, 288, 290
Effect of
pressure
on
melting, 179,
181
Effusion,
81
Ejectors,
83
Elasticity,
85
" of
gases,
90
Electric
arc,
636
-
field,
527
"
furnace,
602
" incandescent
lamps,
601
" lines of
force,
515
"
shielding,
516
Electrical
capacity,
534
"
condensers,
534
energy
of,
539
"
machines,
523
"
oscillations,643
"
potential,
529
"
supply,high
pressure,
603
" surface
density,
532
"
units, practical,
577
Electricity,
frictional,
510
"
meters, 572,
615
Electro -chemical
equivalents,
613
Electrolysis,
609
"
medical,
650
Electro-magnet,
555
Electrometers, 512, 540, 592
Electrometer, capillary,
617
Electro-motive
force,
591
standard
cell,
624
Electro-motor,
555
Electrons, 633
Electrophorus,
521
Electro-plating,etc.,
612
Electro-statics,
510
Emissivity,
161
Emulsions,
246
Energy,
conservation
of,
18
"
dissipation
of,
18
"
kinetic,
15
"
potential,
17
" of
charged condenser,
539
" of electric current,
598
" of
liquidsurface,
235
" of
vibration,
261
" of
waves,
271
Equilibrium,
32
"
stable, etc.,"~?5
Equivalent
lens,
382
Erg,
16
Evaporation,
162,
186
" and
boiling,
193
"
cooling
effect
of, 198
Expansibilities,
linear,
116
Expansibility,
absolute,
124
INDEX
cpansibility.apparent,
121
-of
liquids,
120
Expansion,
thermal,
113
" area
and
volume,
120
" of
solids,
114
" of
gases,
127
"
compensating
contrivances,
119
Extensibility,
86
Eye,
408,
443
"
astigmatic,
413
Eye-pieces,
425
Falling-plate experiment,
22
Faradism,
651
Fibres,
237
Filter-pump,
83
Flames,
sensitive and mano-
metric,
301
Fluids,
laws
of,
56
" in
motion,
78
Fluorescence,
395
Focal
lines,
403
Foot-pound,
16
Force,
8
"
muscular,
12
Franklinization,
651
Freedom, degrees of,
95
Freezing mixtures,
183
Frequency,
257
Friction, solid,
9
" coefficient
of,
10
-
fluid,
228
Fractional
electricity,
510
Fuses,
603
Fusion,
177
Galvanism, medical,
650
Galvanometers,
567
Gas
equation,
144
"
thermometer,
constant
pres- sure,
129
"
volume,
141
Gases,
expansion of,
127
"
liquefaction
of,
207
Geometrical
optics,
358
Glaciers,.
182
Globe
lightning,
637
Gravitation,
22
" law of
universal,
24
" Newtonian constant of,
24
Gravity,
22
Greenhouse,
471
Gyroscope,
53
Halo, 400
Hardness, !M)
Hare's
apparatus,
75
Harmonic
motion, simple,
L'.'u
"
compound,
258
Harmonics,
311
Heart,
work done
by,
64
Heat of
combustion, etc.,
156
"
latent,
152
"
specific,
147
" unit of
quantity,
146
Heating, electrical,
598
High-frequency apparatus,
646,
651
Hoar-frost,
218
Hooke's
law,
85
Human
body,
heat loss
of,
163
Humidity,
212
Hydraulic
press,
57
"
ram,
61
Hydrometers,
77
Hydrostatic balance,
76
Hygrometry,
212
Ice,
180
Images, brightness
of, 439
Impact
and
impulse,
11,
16
Inclined
plane,
43
" and
roller,
23
Induction
coil,
562
"
electric,
513
"
electro-magnetic,
544
"
magnetic,
477
" self and
mutual,
561
Inertia,
7
" moments of,
47
Injectors,
83
Interference,
273
"
colours,
396
"
tube,
300
Intrinsic brilliance,
469
Ionic
theory,
609
lonization of
gases,
630
Iron,
183
Isothermals,
202
Isotonic solutions,
247
Jet
pump,
83
"
reaction,
83
Joule, 16,
598
Joule's
equivalent,
172
"
law,
600
664 A HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS
Kater's
pendulum,
24,
50
Kilowatt, 19
Kinetic
energy,
15
"
theory,12,
92
liquid- vapour,
204
"
gas
viscosity,
230
Lamps,
efficiencies of,
469
Lantern,
optical,
421
Latent heat,
152
Laws of
motion, Newtonian, 7,
8,
10
Lens
combinations,
381
" focal
power,
359
" in
water,
382
"
magnifying
power
of,
423
"
opticalcentre,
356
"
problems,
366
"
telephoto,
436
Lenses,
353
"
achromatic,
405
"
echelon,
417
"
pocket,
424
"
principal
planes,
383
"
thick,
383
"
thin,
354
" and mirrors, practicalmethods,
378
Lenz's
law,
552
Levers,
37
Leyden jars,
536
Light, speed
of travel of,
448
Lighthouses,
418
Lissajous'figures,
261,
297
Lubrication, 100,
228
Machines,
42
Magic
lantern,
421
Magnetic
adhesion,
489
"
compass,
508
" declination, 499,
503
"
dip,
500,
502
-
fields,
486
"
comparison
of,
490
"
induction,
477
" lines of
force,
484
"
moment,
492
"
permeability,
479, 489
"
pole strengths,
486
"
shielding,
476
"
susceptibility,
489
Magnetism,
474
" of
Earth,
499
Magnetism
of iron
ships,
506
Magnetization, intensity
of,
489
Magnetizing methods,
478
Magnets, molecular,
483
Magnification,
365
Magnifying power
of
lens,
423
" of
telescope,
427
of
microscope,
431
"
normal,
440
Manometers,
66
Manometric
flame,
302
Mass,
measurement of,
108
Mechanical
equivalent
of
heat,
172
Medical
electricity,
650
Melde's
experiment,
313
Meltingpoint,
176
" and
pressure,
179,
181
Membranes, semi-permeable,
248
"
vibrating,
322
Meteorology,
217
Metre
bridge,
586
Metric and
Englishmeasures,
3
Micrometer
screw,
102
Microphone,
642
Microscope, compound,
430
" fine
adjustment,
98
"
micrometer,
433
" numerical
aperture,
432,
444
"
simple,
422
"
substage
illuminators,
419
"
ultra-,
398
"
ultra-violet,
445
Mirage,
347
Mirror
problems,
375
Mirrors, inclined,
342
"
parallel,
342
"
plane,
341
"
spherical,
371
Moduli of
elasticity,
86,
93
Moment of
a magnet,
492
Moments, principle
of,
35
" of
inertia,
47
Momentum,
6
Monochord,
315
Motion, circular,
27
" linear of
particle,
4
" three
kinds,
4
Nicol
prism,
453
Night glasses,
440
Nodes and antinodes,
284
Ohm,
577
INDEX 665
im's
law,
576
Opera glasses,
435
Ophthalmoscope,
436
Optical
instruments,
4 1 7
"
aperture
in,
439
"
lever,
340
Optometer,
410
Oscillations,
257
"
electric,
643
"
forced,
262
Osmosis,
245
Osmotic
pressure,
246
Overtones,
311
Parabolic
mirrors, 402, 417,
419
Peltier and Seebeck
effects,
604
Pendulum,
23
"
conical,
29
"
simple,
30
"
compound,
49
"
Borda's, 50
" Kater's
reversible,24,
50
"
compensated,
119
Period,
257
Periodic
motion,
256
Personal
equation,
107
Phase,
257
Phosphorescence,
395
Photometers,
337
Pipes,
308
Pitch, 228, 289, 296,
300
Planetarytemperatures,
472
Polarimeters,
457
Polarization of
light,
452
"
electrolytic,
616
Pole-findingpaper,
611
Polygon
of
vectors,
4
Porous-plug experiment,
207
Post-office
box,
587
Potential
energy,
17
"
electric,529
Potentiometer, 594
Power,
18
Pressure of
fluid,56
" of
vapour,
188
Prism,
deviation in
thin,
281
"
direct-vision,406
" minimum
deviation,
348
"
spectroscopes,
387
"
resolving
power
of,
445
Pulleys,
43
Pumps,
61
"
jet,
83
Pumps, Sprengel vacuum,
82
" work done
by,
63
Pyrometers, 119, 467,
468
Quantity
of
electricity,
572
" of
heat,
147
Radiation, 162,
458
"
pressure,
472
"
selective,469
" Stefan's
law,
465
"
theory
of
exchanges,
459
" Wien's
law,
468
Radiometer,
464
Radio-activity,
638,
652
Rainbows, 398
Recoil,
16
Rectifier,
electrolytic,
617
Reeds,
309
Reflection,
laws
of, 280,
339
" at
sphericalsurfaces,
371
"
total,281,
349
Refraction,
atmospheric,
347
" at
sphericalsurfaces,
409
" laws
of, 281,
344
Refractive
indices,
345
Refrigeratingmachinery,
210
Regelation,
181
Resistance
boxes,
579
"
coils,
578
"
comparisons,
584
"
insulation,
589
" internal of
battery,
585
Resistivities,
table
of,
580
Resolving
power,
441
Resonance, 263,
305
" in
a medium,
282
-
tube, 291, 307
Rigidity,
87
Roller
on incline,
23
Rontgen
rays,
633,
651
Rotation,
47
Rotors,
51
Saturated
vapour pressure,
191
Saturation current,
631
Screw
gauge,
103
Searchlights,
417
Sensitive
flame,
301
Sextant,
340
Shunts,
583
B
Simple
harmonic
motion, 30,
256
Sinusoidal
current,
651
666 A HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS
Siphons,
59
Solutions, boilingpoints
of,
252
"
freezingpoints
of,
253
"
vapour pressures
of,
251
Sonometer,
315
Sound, speed of,
289
Spark, electric,
635
Specificgravity,
73
"
heat,
147
" inductive
capacity,
537
Spectacles,
411
Spectra,
386
Spectroscope,
387,
445
Spectrum,
extent of, 391,
467
"
top,
415
Spherical aberration,
402
"
mirrors,
371
Spheroidal
state,
186
Spherometer,
103
Spinning tops,
52
Sprengel
pump,
82
Stars,
441
Statics,
32
Steam
engine, etc.,
199
Stress-strain
diagram,
88
Strings,
313
Stroboscope,
299
Sublimation,
187
Sunlight
power,
471
Supersaturated solutions,
178
"
vapour,
197
Surface
tension,
231
Syren,
299
Table of
approximations
in cal- culation,
112
" conductivities for
heat,
170
"
electricity,
580
"
difiusivities,
242
" elastic
constants,
93
electro-chemical
equiva- lents,
613
"
expansibilities by
heat,
115
" isotonic or isosmotic solu- tions,
247
"
magnetic permeabilities,
479
-
feeble,480
" metric and
English equiva- lents,
3
moments of
inertia,
48
" musical
ratios,
326
"
pendulum
corrections,
30
" radiation
(Fig.242),
468
Table of
optical
refractive indices,
345
"
resistivities,
580
" saturated
vapour pressure
(Fig.83),
191
"
specific
inductive
capaci- ties,
537
spectra (Fig.185),
389
" thermal data for solids and
liquids,
185
gases,
211
viscosities
(Fig.
98),
226
" wet and
dry
bulb
hygro- meter
(Fig.94),
215
Telegraphs,
641
Telephone,
642
Telescopes,
426
"
terrestrial,
433
Temperature,
131
"
absolute,
143
"
scales, 133,
139
Tension in
revolving
rim,
31
Thermo-electricity,
604
Thermopile,
463
Thermometers,
133
"
differential,
463
"
gas,
129,
141
"
platinum,
587
Thomson effect,
606
Tide
machine,
260
Time,
measurement of,
105
Tonometer,
300
Torque,
47
Tourmaline,
453
Transformer,
560
Turbines,
83
Twisting,
100
Ultra-microscope,
398
Ultra-violet
microscope,
445
"
radiation, 391, 467,
651
Undercooling,
177
Unilens,
436
Units,
electro-static
and electro- magnetic,
648
Van der
Waals,
93
Van't Hoff's
law,
249
Vaporization,
186
Vapour density,
188
"
pressure,
188
" saturated,
190
"
supersaturated,
197
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