Darcy's Law Basics and More

by
Glenn Brown
Oklahoma State University
Back to Groundwater
- Introduction
- One-Dimensional Flow
Simple Discrete Form
Differential Form
Flow Variables
Darcy Flux
Seepage Velocity
- One Dimensional Flow at an angle to the coordinate axis
- Special 1-D Flows
Horizontal flow
Vertical Flow
Unit Gradient Flow
- Other Measures of the Flow Proportionality
Transmissivity
Permeability
Introduction
Darcy's Law is a generalized relationship for flow in porous media. It shows the
volumetric flow rate is a function of the flow area, elevation, fluid pressure and a
proportionality constant. It may be stated in several different forms depending on the
flow conditions. Since its discovery, it has been found valid for any Newtonian fluid.
Likewise, while it was established under saturated flow conditions, it may be adjusted
to account for unsaturated and multiphase flow. The following outlines its common
forms and assumes water is the working fluid unless otherwise stated.
One-Dimensional Flow
Simple Discrete Form
A one-dimensional flow column is shown in Figure 1.

Figure 1. Simple column.
For a finite 1-D flow, it may be stated as
_____[1]
where,
Q = volumetric flow rate (m
3
/s or ft
3
/s),
A = flow area perpendicular to L (m
2
or ft
2
),
K = hydraulic conductivity (m/s or ft/s),
l = flow path length (m or ft),
h = hydraulic head (m or ft), and
A = denotes the change in h over the path L.
The hydraulic head at a specific point, h is the sum of the pressure head and the
elevation, or
h = (p/ g + z)_____[2a]
h = (p/ + z)_____[2b]
where,
p = water pressure (N/m
2
, lb/ft
2
),
= water density (kg/m
3
),
= water specific weight (lb/ft
3
),
g = acceleration of gravity (m/s
2
or ft/s
2
), and
z = elevation (m or ft).
Equation [2a] is the normal SI form of the equation, while [2b] is the usual form used
with English units. The hydraulic head is the height that water would rise in a
peizometer. Thus, Ah is simply the difference in height of water in peizometers placed
at the inlet and the outlet (Ah = h
in
-h
out
). Substituting [2a] into [1] yields,
[3]
Equation [3] is approximately the form Darcy used to analyze his experimental data.
Note that the flow is not a function of the absolute pressure or the elevation. It is only
a function of the change in hydraulic head.
Differential Form
A more general form of the equation results when the limit of Ah with respect to the
flow direction l, as the flow path L goes to zero. Applying that step to equations [1]
and [3] yields,
_____[4]
The minus signs on the right hand terms reflects that the hydraulic head always
decreases in the direction of flow.
Flow Variables
Darcy Flux
The Darcy flux is defined as,
q = Q /A_____[5]
where q = Darcy flux (m/s or ft/s).
The Darcy flux is the volumetric flow per unit area. Substitution of equation [5] into
[4] yields,
_____[6]
Seepage Velocity
While the Darcy flux has the units of velocity, it is not the velocity of the water in the
pores. The solid matrix takes up some of the flow area. The average pore water
velocity is termed the seepage velocity, v, and is given by
v = Q/A| = q/|_____[7]
where | is the porosity of the porous media. The maximum pore velocity is a function
of the pore geometry and cannot be easily predicted except for simple shaped. In
circular tubes the maximum velocity is twice v.
One Dimensional Flow at an Angle to the Coordinate Axis
Darcy's Law is not a function of the flow direction in a homogeneous material.
However, the gradient of h is calculated along the flow path, l, and the flow area, A is
measured normal to l. Therefore, the geometry of flow must be accounted for if the
flow is measured relative to a different direction. Figure 2 shows the simple column
tilted up.

Figure 2. Flow at an angle to the horizontal.
Assuming a 2-D space,
z = x tan(o)_____[8]
dl = dx / cos(o)_____[9]
dl = dz / sin(o)_____[10]
where,
o = angle to horizontal, and
x = horizontal distance (m or ft).
Substitution of equation [8] and [9] into [4] produces a relation relative to the x
direction.
_____[11]
Simplifying produces,
_____[12]
If the area of flow is measured normal to the x axis, A
x
will be larger than the area
normal to l. The two areas are related by,
A = cos(o)A
x
[13]
Substitution of equation [13] into [12] produces
_____[14]
By similar methods the flow may be expressed relative to the vertical direction by
substitution of equation [10] into [4]
_____[15]
where A
z
is the area of flow normal to the vertical axis.
Special 1-D Flows
Horizontal flow
In horizontal flow, o = 0 and equation [14] reduces to
_____[16]
Vertical Flow
In vertical flow up, sin(o) = 1 and equation [15] reduces to
_____[17]
Unit Gradient Flow
In vertical downward flow, if dp/dz = 0, equation [15] reduces to the unit gradient
form.
Q = A
z
K (down)_____ [18]
Other Measures of the Flow Proportionality
Transmissivity
In saturated groundwater analysis with nearly horizontal flow, it is common practice
to combine the hydraulic conductivity and the thickness of the aquifer, b into a single
variable,
T = bK_____ [19]
where T = transmissivity (m
2
/s, ft
2
/s).
Permeability
When the fluid is other than water at standard conditions, the conductivity is replaced
by the permeability of the media. The two properties are related by,
K = kg / = kg / v_____ [20]
where,
k = permeability, (m
2
or ft
2
),
= fluid absolute viscosity, (N s/m
2
or lb s/ft
2
) and
v = fluid kinematic viscosity, (m
2
/s or ft
2
/s).
Ideally, the permeability of a porous media is the same to different fluids. Thus, you
may predict the flow of one fluid, from the measurement of a second with equation
[20]. However in practice, the solid matrix may swell or sink with different fluids and
produce different values of k. Substitution of equation [20] into [4] yields,
_____[21]
Likewise, substitution into equation [6] produces,
_____[22]

Determination of the laws of water flow through sand.
I now approach the account of the experiments I made in Dijon with Mr. Charles
Ritter, Engineer, to determine the laws of the water flow through sands. The
experiments were repeated by Mr. Baumgarten, Head Engineer.
The apparatus employed pl. 24, fig. 3, consists of a vertical column 2.50 m in height,
formed from a portion of conduit 0.35 m interior diameter, and closed at each of its
ends by a bolted plate.
In the interior and 0.20 m above the bottom, is a horizontal partition with an open
screen, intended to support the sand, which divides the column into two chambers.
This partition is formed by the superposition upwards on a iron grid with prismatic
bars of 0.007 m, a cylindrical grizzly of 0.005 m, and finally a metal cloth with a
mesh of 0.002 m. The spacing of the bars of each grid is equal to their thickness, and
the two grids are positioned so that their bars are perpendicular to one another.
The higher chamber of the column receives water by a pipe connected to the hospital
water supply, and whose tap makes it possible to moderate the flow at will. The lower
chamber opens by a tap on a gauging basin, 1 meter on a side.
The pressure at the two ends of the column is indicated by mercury U-tube
manometers. Finally, each of the chambers is provided with an air tap, which is
essential for filling the apparatus.
The experiments were made with siliceous sand of the Saone, composed as follows:
0.58 sand passing a screen of 0.77 mm
0.13 1.10 mm
0.12 2.00 mm
0.17 small gravel, remains of shells, etc
It has approximately 38/100 void.
The sand was placed and pack in the column, which beforehand had been filled with
water, so that the sand filter voids contained no air, and the height of sand was
measured at the end of each series of experiments, after that the passage of water had
suitably pack it.
Each experiment consisted of establishing in the higher chamber of the column, by the
operation of the supply tap, a given pressure. Then, when by two observations one had
ensured oneself that the flow had become appreciably uniform, one noted the flow in
the filter during a certain time and one concluded the medium flow per minute from it.
For weak heads, the almost complete lack of motion of the mercury in the manometer
made it possible to measure to the millimeter, representative of 26.2 mm of water.
When one operated under strong pressures, the supply tap was almost entirely opened,
and then the manometer, in spite of the diaphram that it was provided, had continuous
oscillations. Nevertheless, the strong oscillation were random, and one could
appreciate, except for 5 mm, the average height of mercury, i.e. know the water
pressure within 1.30 m.
All these manometer oscillation were due to water hammer produced by the play of
the many public facuets in the hospital, where the experimental apparatus was placed.
All pressures have be report relative to the level of lower face of the filter, and no
account has been taken of friction in the higher part of the column, which is obviously
negligible.
The table of the experiments, like their chart, show that the flow of each filter grows
proportionally with the head.



Table of the experiments made in Dijon October 29 and 30, and November 2,
1855.
Experiment
Number

Duration
min
Mean Flow
l/min
Mean
Pressure
m
Ratio of
volumes
and
pressure
OBSERVATIONS
1
st
Series, with a thickness of sand of 0.58 m
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
25
20
15
18
17
17
11
15
13
10
3.60
7.65
12.00
14.28
15.20
21.80
23.41
24.50
27.80
29.40
1.11
2.36
4.00
4.90
5.02
7.63
8.13
8.58
9.86
10.89
3.25
3.24
3.00
2.91
3.03
2.86
2.88
2.85
2.82
2.70
Sand was not washed

( The manometer
column
( had weak movements
)

| Very strong
oscillations.
)
Strong
manometer )oscillations.
2
nd
Series, with a thickness of sand of 1.14 m
1
2
3
4
5
6
30
21
26
18
10
24
2.66
4.28
6.26
8.60
8.90
10.40
2.60
4.70
7.71
10.34
10.75
12.34
1.01
0.91
0.81
0.83
0.83
0.84
Sand not washed.


| Very strong
oscillations.
)
3
rd
Series, with a thickness of sand of 1.71m
1
2
3
4
31
20
17
20
2.13
3.90
7.25
8.55
2.57
5.09
9.46
12.35
0.83
0.77
0.76
0.69
washed sand
Very strong
oscillations.
)
4
th
Series, with a thickness of sand of 1.70 m
1


2
3
20


20
20
5.25


7.00
10.30
6.98


9.95
13.93
0.75


0.70
0.74
Sand washed, with a grain
size a little coarser than the
proceeding.
Low oscillations
because of the partial
blockage of the
manometer opening.
For the filters operated, the flow per square meter-second, (Q) is related very roughly
to the load, (P) by the following relations:
1
st
series Q = 0.493 P 3
rd
- Q = 0.126 P
2
nd
- Q = 0.145 P 4
th
-

Q = 0.123 P
By calling I, the load proportional per meter thickness of the filter, these formulas
change into the following,
1
st
series Q = 0.286 I 3
rd
- Q = 0.216 I
2
nd
- Q = 0.165 I 4
th ---
Q = 0.332 I
The differences between the values of coefficient Q/I results from the sand employed
not being constantly homogeneous. For the 2
nd
series, it had not been washed; for the
3
rd
, it was washed; and for the 4
th
, it was very well washed and a little larger in grain
size.
It thus appears that for sand of comparable nature, one can conclude that output
volume is proportional to the head and inversely related to the thickness of the layer
traversed.
In the preceding experiments, the pressure under the filter was always equal to that of
the atmosphere. It is interesting to research if the law of proportionality that one came
to recognize between the volume output and the heads that produce them, still remains
when the pressure under the filter is larger or smaller than the atmospheric pressure.
Such was the goal of the new experiments operated February 17 and 18, 1856 under
the care of Mr. Ritter.
These experiments are reported in the following summary table. Column 4 gives the
pressures on the filter; column 5 gives pressures under the filter sometimes larger and
sometimes smaller than the weight P of the atmosphere, column 6 presents the
differences of the pressures, and finally column 7 indicates the ratios of output volume
to the differences of the pressures existing above and below the filter. The thickness
of the sand crossed was equal to 1.10 m.
ExperimentNumber Duration
min
Mean
Flow
Mean Pressure Pressure
Difference
Ration
of
volume
and
pressure
Observations
Above
the filter
Under the filter
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

min l/min m m m

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
15
15
10
10
20
16
15
15
20
20
20
20
18.8
18.3
18.0
17.4
18.1
14.9
12.1
9.8
7.9
8.65
4.5
4.15
P+9.48
P+12.88
P+9.80
P+12.87
P+12.80
P+8.86
P+12.84
P+6.71
P+12.81
P+5.58
P+2.98
P+12.86
P-3.60
P 0
P-2.78
P+0.46PP+0.49
P-0.83
P+4.40
P 0
P+7.03
P 0
P 0
P+9.88
13.08
12.88
12.58
12.41
12.35
9.69
8.44
6.71
5.78
5.58
2.98
2.98
1.44
1.42
1.43
1.40
1.47
1.54
1.43
1.46
1.37
1.55
1.51
1.39
Strong oscillations
in the high-pressure
manometer.
"
"
Weak
Enough weak
Almost null
Very strong
Very weak
Very strong
Almost null
"
Very strong
One has already
explained the
cause of these
oscillations.

The constant ratios of the 7th column testifies to the truth of the already stated law. It
will be noticed however that the pressures above and below the filter include very
extended limits. Indeed, under the filter, the pressure varied from P + 9.88 to P -3.60,
and above the filter from P + 12.88 to P + 2.98.
Thus, by calling e the thickness of the sand, s its surface area, P the atmospheric
pressure, and h the height of water above this layer, (one will have P + h for the
pressure the higher end is subjected to, P + h
o
is the pressure withstood by the lower
surface), k is a coefficient dependent on the permeability of the layer, and q is the
output volume, one has
q = k s/e[h + e + h
o
] which is reduced to q = k s/e (h +e)
when h
o
= 0, or when the pressure under the filter is equal to the atmospheric pressure.
It is easy to determine the law for the decrease height of water h on the filter. Indeed,
if dh is the amount this height drops during a time dt, its speed of lowering will be -
dh/dt and the above equation gives for this speed the expression
q/s = v = k/e (h+e)
One will thus have - dh/dt = k/e (h+e), where dh/(h+e) = - k/e dt,
and ln (h+e) = C - k/e t
If the value h
o
corresponds with time t
o
and h at an unspecified time t, it follows that
ln(h +e) = ln(h
o
+e) - k(t-t
o
)/e (1)
If one now replaces h+e and h
o
+e by qe/sk and q
o
e/sk, it follows that
ln(q) = ln(q
o
) - k(t-t
o
)/e (2)
and the two equations (1) and (2) give, either the law of lowering height on the filter,
or the law of variation of the volumes output as from time t
o
.
If k and e were unknown, it is seen that one would need two preliminary experiments
to make the second unknown ratio k/e disappear.
Plate 24, Figure 3: Apparatus intended to determine the law of the water flow through
sand.